UMVERSfTY OF
OIS LIBRARY
WA-CHAMPMGH
OKSTAn;<S
*w.
j&*4
The person charging this material is re-
sponsible for its return to the library from
which it was withdrawn on or before the
Latest Date stamped below.
Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books are reasons
for disciplinary action and may result in dismissal from
the University.
To renew call Telephone Center, 333-8400
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN
mnl
J L161— O-1096
AN
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF
GARDENING;
COMPRISING THE
THEORY AND PRACTICE
HORTICULTURE, FLORICULTURE,
ARBORICULTURE,
AND
LANDSCAPE-GARDENING,
INCLUDING
ail tit latest Jmpro&ementg ;
A GENERAL HISTORY OF GARDENING IN ALL COUNTRIES;
AND A STATISTICAL VIEW OF ITS PRESENT STATE,
WITH SUGGESTIONS FOR ITS FUTURE PROGRESS, IN THE
BRITISH ISLES.
By J. C. LOUDON, F.L.S. H.S. &c.
ILLUSTRATED WITH
MANY HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD BY BRANSTON.
jftfrt) GBtiitiom
LONDON:
PRINTED FOR
LONGMAN, &EES, ORME, BROWN, AND GREEN,
PATERNOSTER-ROW.
1827.
London :
Printed by A. & R. Spottiswoode,
New-Strcet-Square.
n
lo30.3
I 827
PREFACE.
The term Encyclopaedia, applied to a single art, is meant to convey
the idea of as complete a treatise on that art as can be composed at
the time of its publication. No art has been more extended in its
objects, or improved in its practices within the last fifty years than
Gardening. During that period numerous books have been written
in various departments of the subject ; but in no work has the whole
Art of Gardening been included. The only books which have any
pretensions to completeness are the Gardener's Dictionaries : but
though some of these are copious on the culture of plants, and
others, in botanical description ; yet in none is the subject of design,
taste, and the arrangement of gardens, adequately treated of; and
scarcely any thing is contained in these books, either on the History
or Statistics of Gardening. In the voluminous edition of Miller's Dic-
tionary, by Professor Martyn, though the title announces " the addi-
tion of all the modern improvements of landscape-gardening," there is
not an article bearing that title throughout the work ; nor a single
quotation or abridgement from the writings of Wheatley, G. Mason,
Price, Repton, or any modern author, on the art of laying out
grounds.
The Encyclopaedia of Gardening now submitted to the public
treats of every branch of the Art, and includes every modern im-
provement to the present year.
Though this work, like every other of the kind, can only be consi-
dered as a compilation from books, yet, on various subjects, especially
in what relates to Gardening History and Statistics, it was found ad-
visable to correspond with a number of persons both at home and
abroad. The favours of these Correspondents are here thankfully
acknowledged; and their farther assistance, as well as that of every
Reader willing to correct an error or supply a deficiency, is earnestly
entreated, in order to render any future edition of the work as per-
fect as possible.
Besides modern books, it became necessary to consult some com-
paratively ancient and scarce works only to be met with in par-
ticular collections. Our respectful acknowledgments are, on this
A 2
IV
PREFACE.
account, due to the Council and Secretary of the Linnaean Society ;
to the Council and Secretary of the Horticultural Society ; to Robert
Brown, Esq. the possessor of the Banksian library ; and to William
Forsyth, Esq., whose collection of British works on Gardening is more
than usually complete.
It remains only to mention, as a key to this work, that to save
room, the prenoms and other additions to names of persons are not
inserted ; only contracted titles of the books referred to are given ;
and the names of gardens or country residences are mentioned, with-
out, in many cases, designating their local situation. By turning to
the General Index, the names of persons will be found, with the
addition of their prenoms and other titles, where known, at length ;
and there the abridged titles of books are also given complete, and
the names of residences, accompanied by that of the county or
country in which they are situated. The botanical nomenclature
which has been followed is that of Sweet's Hortus Suburbanus Lon*
dinensis, with only one or two exceptions ; the reasons for which are
given where they occur. The systematic names of insects, or other
animals, or of minerals, are generally those of Linnaeus : some ex-
ceptions are also noted. In various parts of the work etymological
and other explanations will be found, which, to one class of readers,
may be unnecessary. But it is to be considered that we address
ourselves to Practical Gardeners as well as to the Patrons of Gar-
dening ; and our opinion is, that to enlighten, and generally to raise
the intellectual character of the former, will ultimately be found the-
most efficient mode of improving them in their profession, and thus
rendering them more truly valuable to the latter.
By referring to the Kalendarial Index, those parts of this work
which treat of Garden Culture and Management may be consulted
monthly, as the operations require to be performed ; and by recourse
to the General Index, the whole may be consulted in detached por-
tions, as in a Dictionary of Gardening.
Although this second edition forms a less bulky volume than the
first, yet it contains considerably more printed matter ; besides above
a hundred new engravings. These important additions we have been
enabled to make by printing all those parts of the work which may be
considered as of secondary importance, in a smaller type than that of
the general text.
J. C. L.
Bayswater, April 8, 1824.
CONTENTS.
PART I.
GARDENING CONSIDERED IN RESPECT TO ITS ORIGIN, PROGRESS, AND PRESENT
STATE AMONG DIFFERENT NATIONS, GOVERNMENTS, AND CLIMATES.
BOOK I.
HISTORY OF GARDENING AMONG ANCIENT
AND MODERN NATIONS.
Chap. I. Page
Of the Origin and Progress of Gardening in the
earliest ages of Antiquity, or from the 10th
century before the vulgar sera to the found-
ation of the Roman Empire - - 3
I. Of the fabulous Gardens of Antiquity - ib.
II. Jewish Gardens. B.C. 1500. - - 4
III. Phaeacian Gardens. B.C. 900. - - ib.
IV. Babylonian or Assyrian Gardens. B.C.
2000. - - - - 5
V. Persian Gardens. B. C. 500. - - 6
VI. Grecian Gardens. B. C. 300. - - ib.
VII. Gardening in the ages of Antiquity, as
to Fruits, Culinary Productions, and
Flowers - - 7
Chap. II.
Chronological History of Gardening, from the
time of the Roman Kings, in the sixth cen-
tury B. C. to the Decline and Fall of the
Empire in the fifth century of our sera - 9
I. Roman Gardening as an Art of Design and
Taste - ... ib.
II. Roman Gardening considered as to the Cul-
ture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament 13
III. Roman Gardening in respect to its Pro-
ducts for the Kitchen and the Dessert ib.
IV. Roman Gardening considered in respect
to the Propagation and Planting of Tim-
ber-trees and Hedges - - - 14
V. Roman Gardening as a Science, and as to
the Authors it produced - - 15
Chap. III.
Chronological History of Gardening, in conti-
nental Europe from the Time of the Romans
to the present Day, or from A. D. 500 to A. D.
1833. - . . -
I. Of the Revival, Progress, and present State
of Gardening in Italy
1. Italian Gardening, in respect to Design
and Taste
2. Italian Gardening in respect to the Cul-
ture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament
5. Italian Gardening in respect to its Products
for the Kitchen and the Dessert
4. Italian Gardening, in respect to the plant-
ing of Timber-trees and Hedges
5. Italian Gardening, as empirically practised
6. Italian Gardening, as a Science, and as to
the Authors it has produced
II. Of the Revival, Progress, and present State
of Gardening in Holland and Flanders -
1. Dutch Gardening, as an Art of Design and
Taste -
2. Dutch Gardening, in respect to the Cul-
. ture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament
3. Dutch Gardening in respect to the Cul-
ture of Fruits and Culinary Vegetables -
16
ft
- ib.
'21
'J I
25
- ib.
26
ib.
Page
4. Dutch Gardening, in respect to the plant
ing of Timber-trees and Hedges
5. Dutch Gardening, as empirically practised
6. Dutch Gardening, as a Science, and in re-
spect to the Authors it has produced
III. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of
Gardening in France
1. French Gardening, as an Art of Design
and Taste
2. French Gardening, in respect to the Cul
ture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament
3. French Gardening, in respect to its horti-
cultural Productions
4. French Gardening, in respect to the plant-
ing of Timber-trees and Hedges
5. French Gardening, as empirically prac-
tised ...
6. French Gardening, as a Science, and as to
the Authors it has produced
IV. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of
Gardening in Germany
1. German Gardening, as an Art of Design
and Taste
2. German Gardening, in respect to the Cul
ture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament
3. German Gardening, in respect to horticul-
tural Productions
4. German Gardening, as to planting Timber-
trees and Hedges -
5. German Gardening, as empirically prac-
tised ....
6. German Gardening, as a Science, and as to
the Authors it has produced
V. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of
Gardening in Switzerland
VI. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of
Gardening in Sweden and Norway
VII. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of
Gardening in Russia
1. Russian Gardening, as an Art of Design
and Taste -
2. Russian Gardening, in respect to the Cul-
ture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament
3. Russian Gardening, in respect to its horti-
cultural Productions
4. Russian Gardening, in respect to the Cul-
ture of Timber-trees and Hedges
5. Russian Gardening, as empirically prac-
tised - . .
6. Russian Gardening, as a Science, and as
to the Authors it has produced - 61
VIII. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State
of Gardening in Poland - - ib.
IX. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of
Gardening in Spain and Portugal - 63
1. Spanish Gardening, as an Art of Design
and Taste - - - 64
2. Spanish and Portuguese Gardening, in ro-
spect to the Culture of Flowers and
Plants of Ornament - - 65
3. Spanish and Portuguese Gardening, in re-
spect to its horticultural Productions and
Planting - - - 66
X. Of the Rise, Progress, and present state of
Gardening in European Turkey - ib.
A 3
31
S<2
33
- ib.
39
40
4J
- ib.
- ib.
47
4fl
60
59
BO
ib.
VI
CONTENTS.
Chap. IV. Page
Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of
Gardening in the British Isles
I. British Gardening, as an Art of Design and
Taste -
1. Gardening in England, as an Art of De
sign and Taste
2. Gardening in Scotland, as an Art of Design
and Taste -
3. Gardening in Ireland, as an Art of Design
and Taste -
II. British Gardening, in respect to the Cul-
ture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament
1. Gardening in England, in respect to the
Culture of Flowers and the Establishment
of Botanic Gardens
2. Gardening in Scotland, in respect to the
Culture of Flowers and the Establish-
ment of Botanic Gardens
3. Gardening in Ireland, in respect to Flori-
culture and Botanv -
III. British Gardening, in respect to its horti-
cultural Productions -
1. Gardening in England, in respect to its
horticultural Productions
2. Gardening in Scotland, in respect to its
horticultural Productions
3. Gardening in Ireland, in respect to its hor-
ticultural Productions
IV. British Gardening, in respect to the plant-
ing of Timber-trees and Hedges
1. Gardening in England, in respect to the
planting of Timber-trees and Hedges -
2. Gardening in Scotland, in respect to the
planting of Timber-trees and Hedges -
3. Gardening in Ireland, in respect to the
planting of Timber-trees and Hedges -
V. British Gardening, as empirically practised
VI. British Gardening, as a Science, and as to
the Authors it has produced
. 68
69
- ib.
- 80
82
83
- 84
Chap. V.
Page
- ib.
yi
- 92
- ib.
ib.
- 93
- 96
Of the present State of Gardening in Ultra-
European Countries - - - 97
I. Syrian, Persian, Indian, and African Gar-
dens of modern Times - - 98
II. Chinese Gardening - - 101
HI. Gardeuing in Anglo-North America, or
the United States and British Provinces 104
IV. Gardening in Spanish North America, or
Mexico - - - 106
V. Gardening in South America - - 107
VI. Gardening in the British Colonies, and in
other Foreign Settlements of European
Nations - - - ib.
BOOK II.
GARDENING CONSIDERED AS TO ITS PRO-
GRESS AND PRESENT STATE UNDER DIF-
FERENT POLITICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAI
CIRCUMSTANCES.
Chap. I. Page
Gardening as affected by different Forms of
Government, Religions, and States of Society 110
I. Gardening as aflected by different Forms of
Government and Religions - - 111
II. Gardening as affected by different States of
Society ... ib.
Chap. II.
Gardening as affected by different Climates,
- Habits of Life, and Manners - - 112
I. Influence of Climate, in respect to Fruits,
culinary Plants, Flowers, Timber-trees,
and horticultural Skill - - 113
II. Influence of Climate and Manners on Gar-
dening, as an Art of Design and Taste - 114
III. Of the Climate and Circumstances of Bri-
tain, in respect to Gardening - - 118
PAUT II.
GARDENING CONSIDERED AS A SCIENCE.
BOOK I.
THE STUDY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
Chap. I. Page
Origin, Progress, and present State of the Study
of Plants - - " lM
Chap. II.
Glossology, or the Names of the Parts of Plants 122
Chap. III.
Phytography, or the Nomenclature and De-
scription of Plants
I. Names of Classes and Orders
II. Names of Genera -
III. Names of Species
IV. Names of Varieties and Subvaneties
V. Descriptions of Plants
VI. Of forming and preserving Herbanans
VII. Of Methods of Study ...
123
ib.
ib.
124
125
126
127
128
Chap. IV.
Taxonomy, or the Classifications of Plants - ib-
I. The Hortus Britannicus arranged according
to the Linnaean System - - laO
II. The Hortus Britannicus arranged according
to the Jussieuean System - -133
Chap. V.
Vegetable Organology, or the external Struc-
ture of Plants
I. Perfect Plants
1. Conservative Organs
2. Conservative Appendages
3. Reproductive Organs
4. Reproductive Appendages
II. Imperfect Plants
1. Filices, Equisitacese, and Lycopodineae -
2. Musci -
3. Hepaticae
4. Algae and Lichenae
5. Fungi
138
ib.
ib.
ib.
139
ib.
140
ib.
ib.
141
ib.
142
Chap. VI. Page
Vegetable Anatomy, or the internal Structure
of Plants - - - 142
I. Decomposite Organs - - ib.
II. Composite Organs - - - 144
III. Elementary or Vascular Organs - 146
Chap. VII.
Vegetable Chemistry, or primary Principles of
Plants - - - - 147
I. Compound Products - - ib.
II. Simple Products ... 157
Chap. VIII.
Functions of Vegetables - . lib.
I. Germination of the Seed - . 158
II. Food of the vegetating Plant - .160
III. Process of Vegetable Nutrition - - 165
IV. Process of Vegetable Developement - 172
V. Anomalies of Vegetable Developement - 177
VI. Of the Sexuality of Vegetables - .181
VII. Impregnation of the Seed - . 182
VIII. Changes consequent upon Impregnation 183
IX. The propagation of the Species . -184
X. Causes limiting the Propagation of the Spe-
cies .... 186
XI. Evidence and Character of Vegetable Vi-
tality - - - 187
Chap. IX.
Vegetable Pathology, or the Diseases and Casu-
alties of Vegetable Life - - 191
I. Wounds and Accidents - - ib.
II. Diseases - - - 192
III. Natural Decay - - - 195
Chap. X.
Vegetable Geography and History, or the Dis-
tribution of Vegetables relatively to the Earth
and to Man ... 196
I. Geographical Distribution of Vegetables - 197
II. Phvsical Distribution of Vegetables - ib.
III. Civil Causes affecting the Distribution of
Plants - - - 202
CONTENTS.
Vll
Page
IV. Characteristic or Picturesque Distribution
of Vegetables ... 203
V. Systematic Distribution of Vegetables . 205
VI. Economical Distribution of Vegetables -206
VII. Arithmetical Distribution of Vegetables - ib.
VIII. Distribution of the British Flora, indige-
nous and exotic - - ib.
Chap. XI.
Origin of Culture, as derived from the Study of
Vegetables - - * - 214
BOOK II.
OP THE NATURAL AGENTS OF VEGETABLE
GROWTH AND CULTURE.
Chap. I.
Of Earths and Soils
I. Of the Geological Structure of the Globe and
the Formation of Earths and Soils
I I. Classification and Nomenclature of Soils -
III. Of discovering the Qualities of Soils
1. Of discovering the Qualities of Soils by
means of the Plants which grow on
them -
2. Of discovering the Qualities of Soils by
chemical Analysis - -
3. Of discovering the Qualities of a Soil
mechanically and empirically
IV. Of the Uses of the Soil to Vegetables
V. Of the Improvement of Soils
- 217
ib.
219
221
ib.
ib.
- 222
223
226
ib.
1. Pulverisation
. 2. Of the Improvement of Soils by Compres-
sion - - - -228
3. Of the Improvement of Soils by Aeration
or Fallowing ... ib.
4. Alteration of the constituent Parts of Soils 229
5. Changing the Condition of Lands, in re-
spect to Water - - - 231
6. Changing the Condition of Lands, in re-
spect to Atmospherical Influence - 232
7. Rotation of Crops - - 233
Chap. II.
Of Manures - - - 234
I. Of Manures of Animal and Vegetable Origin 235
1. The Theory of the Operation of Manures
of Animal and Vegetable Origin - ib.
2. Of the different Species of Manures of
Animal and Vegetable Origin - 236
3. Of the fermenting, preserving, and apply-
ing of Manures of Animal and Vegetable
Origin - - - 241
II. Of Manures of Mineral Origin - -243
1. Theory of the Operation of Mineral Ma-
nures ■ - - - ib.
2. Of the different Species of Mineral Ma-
nures ... 244
Chap. III.
Of the Agency of Heat, Light, Electricity,
and Water, in Vegetable Culture
I. Of Heat and Light
II. Of Electricity
III. Of Water
249
. ib.
. 253
- ib.
Chap. IV.
Of the Agency of the Atmosphere in Vegeta-
tion - - - - 254
I. Of the Elements of the Atmosphere - - ib.
II. Ofthe Means of prognosticating the Weather 264
III. Of the Climate of Britain - -266
BOOK III.
MECHANICAL AGENTS EMPLOYED IN GAR-
DENING.
Chap. I.
Implements of Gardening
I. Tools
II. Instruments
1 Instruments of Operation
2. Instruments of Direction
3. Instruments of Designation
III. Utensils
1. Utensils of Preparation and Deportation
Page
2. Utensils of Culture - - - 283
3. Utensils of Protection - - 286
4. Utensils for entrapping Vermin - 287
IV. Machines - - - ib.
1. Machines of Labor - - 288
2. Machines for Vermin, and Defence against
the enemies of Gardens - - 292
3. Meteorological Machines - - 293
V. Various Articles used in Gardening Oper-
ations .... 295
1. Articles of Adaptation - - ib.
2. Articles of Manufacture - - 297
3. Articles of Preparation - - ib.
Chap. II.
Structures used in Gardening - - 298
I. Temporary or Moveable Structures - ib.
1. Structures Portable, or entirely Moveable ib.
2. Structures partly Moveable - - 300
II. Fixed Structures - - - 303
III. Permanent Horticultural Structures -310
1. Ofthe Principles of Design in Hot-houses 311
2. Forms of Hot-house Roofs - - 314
3. Details of the Construction of Rcofs, or
318
. 319
- 322
. 323
- 326
- 328
- 329
III.
1.
- 269
- ib.
II.
- 272
1.
- ib.
2.
- 278
3.
. 280
4.
- 282
5.
- ib.
6
the glazed part of Hot-houses
4. Glazing of Hot-house Roofs
5. Walls and Sheds of Hot-houses
6. Furnaces and Flues
7. Steam Boilers and Tubes
8. Trellises
9. Paths, Pits, Stages, Shelves, Doors, &c. -
10. Details for Water, Wind, and Renewal of
Air - - -331
IV. Mushroom-houses - - 3o2
V. Cold Plant-habitations - - 334
Chap. III.
Edifices used in Gardening - - ib.
I. Economical Buildings ... ib.
II. Anomalous Buildings - - 339
1. Of the Ice-house and its Management - ib.
2. Of the Apiary and the Management of
Bees - - - 341
3. Of the Aviary, and of Menageries, Pisci-
naries, &c. ... 346
Decorative Buildings - - 348
Useful Decorative Buildings - - ib.
2. Convenient Decorations - - 355
3. Characteristic Decorations - - 360
Chap. IV.
Of the Improvement of the Mechanical Agents
of Gardening - - - - 361
BOOK IV.
OF THE OPERATIONS OF GARDENING.
Chap. I.
Operations of Gardening, in which Strength is
chiefly required in the Operator - - 363
I. Mechanical Operation's common to all Arts
of Manual Labor - - ib.
II. Garden-labors on the Soil - - 364
III. Garden-labors with Plants - -367
Chap. II.
Operations of Gardening in which Skill is more .
required than Strength ... 369
I. Of transferring Designs from Ground to
Paper or Memory - - - ib.
II. Of transferring Designs from Paper or
Memory to Ground - - 373
1. Transferring Figures and Designs to plane
Surfaces - - - - - ib.
2. Tranferring Figures and Designs to irregu-
lar Surfaces .... 375
3. Of the Arrangement of Quantities -377
III. Of carrying Designs into Execution - 37S
Chap. III.
Scientific Processes and Operations - - 384
1. Preparation of fermenting Substances for
Hot-beds, Manures, and Composts
II. Operations of Propagation
' Propagation by natural Methods
Propagation by Layering
Propagation by Inarching
Propagation by Grafting
Propagation by Budding
Propagation by Cuttings
ib.
387
ib.
388
390
391
397
399
vin
CONTENTS.
Page
III. Operations of Rearing and Culture - 401
1. Sowing, Planting, and Watering - ib.
2. Transplanting - - - 402
a Pruning - - - 406
4. Training - - - 411
5. Blanching - - 415
IV. Operations for inducing a State of Fruit-
fulness in barren and unblossoming Trees
and Plants - - - ib.
V. Operations for retarding or accelerating
Vegetation - 418
1. Operations for retarding Vegetation - ib.
2. Operations for accelerating Vegetation - 419
VI. Operations to imitate warm Climates - 423
VII. Operations of Protection from Atmospher-
ical Injuries ... 424
VIII. Operations relative to Vermin, Diseases,
and other Casualties of Plants and
Gardens - - - 426
Page
1. Of the Kinds of Vermin most injurious
to Gardens - - - 426
2. Operations for subduing Vermin - 436
3. Operations relative to Diseases and other
Casualties ... 437
IX. Operations of Gathering, Preserving, and
Keeping - - - 4-38
Chap. IV.
Operations relative to the final Products de-
sired of Gardens, and Garden-scenery - 443
I. Of the Vegetable Products desired of Gar-
dens - - - 444
II. Of the Superintendence and Management
of Gardens - - - 445
III. Of the Beauty and Order of Garden-
scenery - - - - 451
PART III.
GARDENING AS PRACTISED IN BRITAIN.
BOOK I.
HORTICULTURE.
Chap. I.
The Formation of a Kitchen-garden
I. Situation
II. Exposure and Aspect
III. Extent
IV. Shelter and Shade
V. Soil
VI. Water
VII. Form
VIII. Walls
IX. Ring-fence and Slip
Page
- ^55
- ib.
- 456
- 457
- 458
- 460
- 463
- 464
- 465
- 472
X. Placing the Culinary Hot-houses and
Melonry - - - - ib.
XI. Laying out the Area - • -473
Chap. II.
Of the Distribution of Ffuit-trees in a Kitchen-
garden ----- 476
I. Of the Selection and Arrangement of Wall
Fruit-trees - - - - 477
II. Of the Selection and Arrangement of
Espaliers and Dwarf-standards - - 479
III. Of tall Standard Fruit-trees in a Kitchen-
garden . - - - 480
IV. Fruit-shrubs - - - - 481
Chap. III.
Of the Formation and Planting of an Orchard,
subsidiary to the Kitchen-garden - - 482
Chap. IV.
Of the general Cultivation and Management
of a Kitchen-garden
I. Culture and Management of the Soil
II. Manure -
III. Cropping -
IV. Thinning - - -
V. Pruning and Training
VI. Weeding, Stirring the Soil, Protecting,
Supporting, and Shading
VII. Watering -
VIII. Vermin, Insects, Diseases, and Accidents
IX. Gathering and Preserving Vegetables and
Fruits, and sending them to a Distance
X. Miscellaneous Operations of Culture and
Management
485
ib.
486
487
489
490
493
ib.
494
495
- ib.
Chap. V.
Of the general Management of Orchards - 496
1. General Culture - - - J£
TI. Pruning Orchard-trees - - - 49/
III. Of gathering and storing Orchard-fruits - 499
IV. Of packing Orchard and other Fruits for
Carriage ... - 501
Chap. VI.
Construction of the Culinary Forcing Struc-
tures and Hot-houses - - - 502
Page
I. Of the Construction of the Pinery - -502
II. Of the Construction of the Vinery - 506
III. Construction of the Peach-house -508
IV. Construction of the Cherry-house and Fig-
house - - - 510
V. Of Constructing Hot-houses in Ranges' - ib.
VI. Construction of Culinary Pits, Frames, and
Mushroom-houses - . ib.
VII. Details in the Construction of Culinary
Hot-houses - 512
Chap. VII.
Of the general Culture of Forcing Structures
and Culinary Hot-houses
I. Culture of the Pinery
1. Varieties of the Pine and General Mode of
Culture -
2. Soil
3. Artificial Heat -
4. Propagation of the Pine-apple
5. Of rearing the Pine-apple in the Nursing
Department - - -
6. Succession Department
7. Fruiting Department
8. General Directions common to the Three
Departments of Pine-apple Culture
9. Compendium of a Course of Culture
10. Recent Improvements in the Culture of
the Pine-apple
II. Of the Culture of the Vinerv
1. Of the General Culture of the Grape in
Vineries
2. Of particular Modes of cultivating the
Grape, adapted to particular Situations
3. Of Gathering and Keeping forced Grapes
4. Of the Insects and Diseases attendant on
forced or Hot-house Grapes
III. Culture of the Peach-house
IV. Of the Culture of the Cherry-house
V. Of the Culture of the Fig-house
VI. Of the Culture and Forcing of the Cucum-
ber -
VII. Of the Culture of the Melon
VIII. Forcing the Strawberry in Hot-houses,
Pits, and Hot-beds - -
IX. Forcing Asparagus in Pits and Hot-beds
X. Forcing Kidneybeans -*
XI. Forcing Potatoes
XII. Forcing Peas - - -
XIII. Forcing Salads, Pot-herbs, &c.
XIV. Culture of the Mushroom
513
514
ib.
ib.
515
516
517
521
525
531
537
538
541
- ib.
555
556
557
558
563
566
569
580
588
590
592
593
595
596
ib.
Chap. VIII.
Horticultural Catalogue. — Hardy Herbaceous
Culinary Vegetables
The Cabbage Tribe
White Cabbage
Red Cabbage
Savoy
Brussels Sprouts
Borecole
Cauliflower
7. Broccoli
606
- 607
- ib.
- 610
- ib.
- 611
- A.
- 611!
- H14
CONTENTS.
IX
Page
8. Of Insects which infest the Cabbage
Tribe 617
II. Leguminous Plants
- 618
1. Pea
- ib.
2. Garden-bean
- 620
3. Kidneybean
- 621
III. Esculent Roots
623
1. Potatoe
- ib.
2. Jerusalem Artichoke
- 628
3. Turnip ...
- ib.
4. Carrot ...
- 630
5. Parsnep ...
- 631
li. Red Beet
- 632
7. Skirret ...
- ib.
8. Scorzonera, or Viper's Grass
- 633
9. Salsify, or Purple Goat's Beard
- ib.
10. Radish
- 634
IV. Spinaceous Plants
- 635
1. Spinage ...
- ib.
2. White Beet
- 636
3. Orache, or Mountain Spinage
- 637
4. Wild Spinage
- ib.
5. New Zealand Spinage
- ib.
6. Sorrel ....
- 638
7. Herb-patience, or Patience-Dock
- 639
V. Alliaceous Plants
- ib.
1. Onion ...
- ib,
2. Leek - -
- 641
3. Chive
- 642
4. Garlic -
- ib.
5. Shallot ....
- ib.
6. Rocambole - -
- 643
VI. Asparaginous Plants
- ib.
1. Asparagus - -
- ib.
2. Sea- kale - - -
- 648
3. Artichoke -
- 650
4. Cardoon, or Chardoon
- 651
5. Rampion -
- 652
6. Hop . ...
- ib.
7. Alisander, or Alexanders
. 653
8. Bladder-Campion
- ib.
9. Thistle
. ib.
VII. Acetarious Plants
- 654
1. Lettuce -
- ib.
2. Endive
- 655
3. Succory, or Wild Endive
. 656
4. Dandetion - - -
- 657
5. Celery -
- ib.
6. Mustard ....
- 660
7. Rape
- ib.
8. Corn-Salad, or Lamb-Lettuce
- ib.
9. Garden- Cress ...
- 661
10. American Cress
- ib.
11. Winter Cress
- 662
12. Water-Cress
- ib.
13. Brook-lime
. 663
14. Garden.rocket
- ib.
15. Scurvy-grass ...
- ib.
lb". Burnet ...
. ib.
17. Wood-Sorrel
• 664
18. Small Salads
- ib.
VIII. Pot-herbs and Garnishings
- ib.
1. Parsley -
- ib.
2. Purslane
- 665
3. Tarragon
- ib.
4. Fennel
. ib.
5. Dill
- 666
6. Chervil
- ib.
7. Horse-radish
- ib.
8. Indian Cress, or Nasturtium
- 667
9. Marigold, or Pot-marigold
- 668
10. Borage
- ib.
IX. Sweet Herbs
. ib.
1. Thyme
. ib.
2. Sage
- 669
3. Clary
- ib.
4. Mint
- 670
5. Marjoram
- ib.
6. Savory
- 671
7. Basil
- ib.
8. Rosemary
- 672
9. Lavender
- ib.
10. Tansy
- ib.
11. Costmary, or Alecost
- 673
X. Plants used in Tarts, Confectionary,
and
Domestic Medicine
- ib
1. Rhubarb
- ib.
2. Pompion and Gourd
- 674
3. Angelica
- 676
4. Anise
- ib.
5. Coriander
- ib.
6. Caraway
- ib.
7. Rue
- 677
Page
- 677
- ib.
8. Hyssop
9. Chamomile
10. Elecampane
11. Licorice
12. Wormwood
13. Blessed Thistle
14. Balm
XI. Plants used as Preserves and Pickles
l.\ Love- Apple
2. Egg- Plant
3. ' Capsicum
4. Samphire, three Species of different Orders
and Genera - . - ib.
XII. Edible Wild Plants, neglected, or not in
Cultivation ... 681
1. Greens and Pot-herbs from Wild Plants - ib
2. Roots of Wild Plants edible
3. Leguminous Wild Plants edible
4. Salads from Wild Plants
5. Substitutes for Chinese Teas from Wild
Plants - ...
6. Wild Plants applied to various Domestic-
Purposes ...
7. Poisonous Native Plants to be avoided in
searching for edible Wild Plants . 684
XIII. Foreign hardy herbaceous Culinary Ve-
getables, little used as such in Britain . 684
- 678
- ib.
- ib.
. ib.
- 679
- ib.
- ib.
- 680
682
683
ib.
- ib.
ib.
XIV. Edible Fungi
1. Cultivated Mushroom
2. Morel
3. Truffle, or Subterraneous
XV. Edible Fuci
Puff-ball
- 685
- ib.
- 686
- ib.
- ib.
Chap. IX.
Horticultural Catalogue. — Hardy Fruit-trees,
Shrubs, and Plants
I. Kernel-Fruits -
1. Apple
2. Pear .
3. Quince - - . .
4. Medlar ...
5. True-Service - . .
II. Stone- Fruits - . .
1. Peach . .
2. Nectarine - . .
3. Apricot - . .
4. Almond - _ . .
5. Plum ... .
6. Cherry -
III. Berries -
1. Black, or Garden Mulberry
2. Barberry -
3. Elder ...
4. Gooseberry ....
5. Black Currant ...
6. Red Currant ...
7. Raspberry - . . .
8. Cranberry - . . .
9. Strawberry
IV. Nuts . . ...
1. Walnut . .
2. Chestnut .
3. Filbert
V. Native, or neglected Fruits, deserving Cul
tivation
687
688
ib.
703
710
ib.
711
ib.
ib.
718
719
721
722
725
728
ib.
730
731
ib.
735
736
737
738
739
742
ib.
743
744
- 745
Chap. X.
Horticultural Catalogue. — Exotic Fruits . 746
I. Exotic Fruits in general Cultivation - 747
1. Pine-apple . _ ##
2. Grape- Vine . . . 748
f ' Sg, ■ * " - 75y
4. Melon .... 753
5. Cucumber - . . 764
II. Exotic Fruits, well known, but neglected
as such . . . 765
1. Orange Tribe - - . - ib.
2. Pomegranate . . . 777
3. Olive --.. ib.
4. Indian Fig, or Prickly Pear . . 778
III. Exotic Fruits little known, some of which
merit Cultivation for their Excellence
or Rarity ... 779
IV. Exotic Esculents, not hitherto cultivated
as such - . . 785
Chap. XI.
Horticultural Productions which may be ex-
pected from a first-rate Kitchen-garden ma-
naged in the best Style - . 787
I. January - #t
CONTENTS.
Tage
II. February
.
- 787
III. March
.
- ib.
IV. April
_
- 788
V. May
.
- ib.
VI. June
...
. ib.
VII July
" A -
- ib.
VIII. August
"
- ib.
IX. September
-
- ib.
X. October
.
- ib.
XI. November
. .
- 789
XII. December
BOOK II.
FLORICULTURE.
- ib.
Chap. I.
Of the Formation of the Flower-garden \ - 789
Chap. II.
Of Planting the Flower-garden - - 797
Chap. III.
Of Forming the Shrubbery - - 802
Chap. IV. ;
Of Planting the Shrubbery - - - 804
Chap. V.
Of the Hot-houses used in Ornamental Horti-
culture ... 811
Chap. VI.
Of the General Culture and Management of the
Flower-garden and Shrubbery - - 820
Chap. VII.
General Culture and Management of the Orna-
mental or Botanic Hot-houses - - 824
Chap. VIII.
Floricultural Catalogue. — Herbaceous Plants 828
I. Florists', or Select Flowers - - ib.
1. Hyacinth - - - 828
2. Tulip - - - 831
3. Ranunculus - - 834
4. Anemone ... 836
5. Crocus - - - 838
6. Narcissus - - - 839
7. Iris - - -840
8. Fritillary - - - 841
9. Lily ... - 842
• 10. Amaryllidese - - ib.
11. lxiae and Gladioli - - 843
12. Tuberose - - - ib.
13. Pjeohy - - - 844
14. Dahlia - . - ib.
15. Auricula - - - 846
16. Primula, or Primrose Family - 853
17. Carnation - - - 855
18. Pink - - -880
19. Double Rocket . - 861
20. Cardinal Flower - . 862
21. Pyramidal Bellflower - - 863
22. Chrysanthemum - ib.
23. Hydrangea - - - 864
24. Balsam - - -865
25. Mignonette - - - 866
II. Border-Flowers ... n,.
1. Species and Varieties of Perennial fi-
brous, ramose, tuberous, and creepingj
rooted Herbaceous Border Flowers, ar-
ranged as to their Time of Flowering,
Height, and Color - - 867
2. Species and Varieties of bulbous-rooted
Border- Flowers - - 874
3. Species and Varieties of Biennial Border-
Flowers - - - 877
4. Species and Varieties of Hardy Annual j
Border-Flowers. - - 878
5. Species and Varieties of Half-hardy
Annual Border-Flowers - - 881
III. Flowers for particular Purposes - ib.
1. Flowers which reach from five to seven
feet in height, for covering naked Walls,
or other upright Deformities, and for
shutting out distant Objects which it is
desirable to exclude - - 882
2. Flowers for concealing Defects on hori-
zontal Surfaces : as naked sub- barren
Spots, unsightly Banks, &c. - - ib.
3. Flowers which will grow under the Shade
and Drip of Trees
4. Flowers for ornamenting Pieces of Water,
or planting Aquariums
5. Flowers for ornamenting Rocks, or Ag-
gregations of Stones, Flints, Scoriae
formed in imitation of Rocky Surfaces,
&c. -
6. Evergreen-leaved Flowers, or such as are
adapted for preserving an Appearance
of Vegetation on Beds and Borders
during the Winter Months
7. Flowers for Edgings to Beds or Borders -
8. Highly odoriferous Flowers
9. Other selections of Flowers
10. Botanical and other Assemblages of
Plants. — Dial- Plants, Parasites, Ferns
and Mosses, Alpines, and a Selection
for a small Garden
Chap. IX.
Page
882
ib.
884
Chap. X.
Ornamental Shrubs ...
I. Select Shrubs
1. Rose ...
2. Select American and other Peat-Earth
Shrubs, viz. of Magnoliaceae, Mag.
\. nolia; of Rhodoraceee, Rhodendron,
Azalea, Kalmia ; of the genera Cistus,
Arbutus, Vaccinium, Andromeda,
Erica, Daphne, and various others
II. General Catalogue of Shrubs
1. Deciduous Shrubs, arranged as to their
Time of Flowering, Height, and Color
of the Flower - -
2. Evergreen Shrubs
3. Climbing and Twining Shrubs
III. Selections of Shrubs for particular Pur-
poses ...
1. Shrubs for concealing vertical and hori-
zontal Deformities
2. Shrubs of rapid and bulky Growth
3. Shrubs which thrive under the Shade and
Drip of Trees -
4. Shrubs for planting by the Sides of Pieces
of Water, or in Marshy Grounds, and
among Rocks
5. Shrubs for forming Edgings and Hedges
in Gardens ...
6. Shrubs whose Flowers or Leaves have vo-
latile Odors, and diffuse them in the
surrounding Air
7. Shrubs ornamental by their Fruit as well
as Flowers ...
8. Selections of Shrubs for botanical or
economical Purposes, parasitic Trees,
and Shrubs for a small Shrubbery
;chap. xi.
Frame Exotics
I. Frame Woody Plants
II. Frame Succulents
III. Frame Herbaceous Plants
IV. Frame Bulbs
V. Frame Biennials ...
VI. Frame Annuals - -
Chap. XII.
Green-house Plants ...
I. Select Green-house Plants
1. Geranium - - - - \
2. Exotic Heaths .-
3. Camellia
4. Various Genera which may be considered
as select Green-house Plants, showy,
fragrant, and of easy culture
II. Woody Green-house Plants
III. Climbing Green-house Plants
IV. Succulent Green-house Plants
V. Bulbous Green-house Plants
VI. Herbaceous and stemless Green-house
Plants - - -
VII. Of Selections of Green-house Plants for
particular Purposes
885
ib.
ib.
ib.
887
Catalogue of Hardy Trees, with showy Flowers
I. Deciduous Trees with showy Flowers - 888
II. Evergreen Trees - - - 889
Chap. XIII.
Drv-stovc Plants
ih.
ib.
ib.
893
895
ib.
898
900
901
ib.
ib.
ib.
902
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
903
ib.
904
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
905
ib.
' ib.
806
909
911
ib.
917
91 S
ib.
919
919
ib
CONTENTS.
I. Woody Dry-stove Plants
II. Climbing Dry-stove Plants
III. Succulent Dry-stove Plants
IV. Bulbous Dry-stove Plants ...
V. Herbaceous Dry-stove Plants
Chap. XIV.
Hot-house, or Bark-stove Plants
I. Woody Bark-stove Plants
II. Climbing Bark-stove Plants
III. Bulbous-rooted Bark-stove Plants
IV. Perennial Herbaceous Bark-stove;Plants -
V. Annual Herbaceous Bark-stove Plants
VI. Aquatic Stove Plants
VII. Scitaminous, or Reedy Stove Plants
VIII. Selections of Bark-stove Plants for par-
ticular Purposes
IX. Selection of Dry and Bark-stove Plants,
for such as have only one Hot-house to
contain them
Chap. XV.
Monthly Catalogue of the leading Productions
of Ornamental Horticulture
BOOK III.
ARBORICULTURE, OR PLANTING.
Chap. I.
Of the Uses of Trees and Plantations, and the
Profits attending their Culture
I. Of the Uses of Trees individually, as Objects
of Consumption -
II. Of the Uses of Trees collectively as Plant-
ations - ...
III. Of the Profits of Planting
Page
- 920
- ib.
■ ib.
■ ib.
. 921
ib.
ib.
928
Jb.
ib.
929
ib.
930
ib.
- 933
ib,
935
ib.
937
940
Chap. II.
Of the different kinds of Trees and Plantations ib.
I. Of the Classification of Trees relatively to
their use and effect in Landscape - ib.
II. Of the Classification of Plantations, or
Assemblages of Trees - - 942
Chap. III.
Of the Formation of Plantations, in which
Utility is the principal Object - - 943
Chap. IV.
On forming Plantations, in which Ornament
or Effect is the leading Consideration - 950
Chap. V.
Of the Culture and Management of Plantations 958
Chap. VI.
Of appropriating the Products of Trees, pre-
paring them for Use or Sale, and estimating
their Value - - - 967
Chap. VII.
Of the Formation of a Nursery-Garden for the
Propagation and Rearing of Trees and
Shrubs - - - 973
Chap. VIII.
Of the Culture and Management of a Nursery
for Trees and Shrubs - - 974
Page
I. Coniferous Trees and Shrubs, their Seeds,
Sowing, and Rearing - - 975
II. Trees and Shrubs bearing Nuts, Acorns,
Masts, Keys, &c. their Sowing and
Rearing - ... 977
III. Trees and Shrubs with berried Stones,
their Sowing and Rearing - - 978
IV. Trees and Shrubs bearing Berries and
Capsules with small Seeds - - 979
V. Trees and Shrubs bearing leguminous
Seeds, their Sowing and Rearing - ib.
VI. Trees and Shrubs bearing small soft Seeds,
their Sowing and Rearing - - 980
VII. Culture common to all the Classes of
Tree-seeds ... ib.
VIII. Of propagating Trees by Layers, Cut-
tings, Suckers, Grafting, &c. - - 981
Chap. IX.
Arboricultural Catalogue - - 982
I. Resinous or Coniferous Trees - - 983
II. Hard-wooded non-resinous Trees - 987
III. Soft-wooded Trees - - 992
BOOK IV.
LANDSCAPE-GARDENING.
Chap. I.
Of the Principles of Landscape-Gardening - 995
I. Of the Beauties of Landscape-Gardening,
as an inventive and mixed Art, and of the
Principles of their Production - - 996
II. Of the Beauties of Landscape-Gardening,
considered as an imitative Art, and of
the Principles of their Production - 998
Chap. II.
Of the Materials of Landscape-Gardening
I. Of operating on Ground
1002
ib.
1005
1009
1013
1014
II. Of operating with Wood
III. Of operating with Water
IV. Rocks
V. Buildings -
VI. Of the Accidental Accompaniments to
the Materials of Landscape - - 1016
Chap. III.
Of the Union of the Materials of Landscape-
Gardening, in forming the constituent Parts
of a Country- Residence - -1018
Chap. IV.
Of the Union of the constituent Scenes in
forming Gardens or Residences of particular
Characters : and of laying out Public Gar-
dens - - - 10£1
I. On laying out Private Gardens, or Resi-
dences - - 1022
II. Public Gardens - - 1028
1. Public Gardens for Recreation - ib.
2. Public Gardens of Instruction - 1030
3. Commercial Gardens - - 1033
Chap, V.
Of the Practitioners of Landscape-Gardening 1036
I. Of the Study of the given Situations and
Circumstances, and the Formation of a
Plan of Improvement - - 1037
II. Of carrying a Plan into Execution - 1038
FART IV.
STATISTICS OF BRITISH GARDENING.
BOOK I.
OF THE PRESENT STATE OF GARDENING IN
J THE BRITISH ISLES.
Chap. I. Pa§e
Of the different Conditions of Men engaged in
the Practice or Pursuit of Gardening - 1040
I. Of Operators, or Serving Gardeners - „ to.
Page
II. Tradesmen-Gardeners - 1041
III. Garden Counselors, Artists, or Professors 104S
IV. Patrons of Gardening - ib.
Chap. II.
Of the different Kinds of Gardens in Britain,
relatively to the different Classes of
Society, and the different Species of
Gardeners - 1043
I. Private British Gardens - • - ib.
Xll
CONTENTS.
II. Commercial Gardens
III. Public Gardens
Page
• 1052
• 1057
Chap. III.
Topographical Survey of the British Isles
in respect to Gardening - - 1060
I. Gardens and Country- Residences of Eng-
land 1061
II. Wales ... . 1084
III. Scotland ... . 1086
IV Ireland '1093
Chap. IV.
I. Of the Literature of Gardening - -1097
1. British Works on Gardening - - 1099
II. Of the Literature of Gardening in Foreign
Countries ... 1115
1. Works on Gardening published in France,
exclusive of Translations - - ib.
2. Works on Gardening published in Ger-
many, including Denmark and Swit-
zerland, exclusive of Translations - 1122
3. Works on Gardening published in Italy,
exclusive of Translations - - 1128
4. Works on Gardening originated and
published in Holland, exclusive of
Translations - - - 1129
5. Works on Gardening, published in Sweden,
Norway, and Iceland, exclusive of
Translations ... ib.
6. Works on Gardening, published in Po-
land and Russia - - 1131
7. Works on Gardening, published in Por-
tugal and Spain - ib.
8. Works on Gardening, published in North
America - ib.
Page
Chap. V.
Of the Professional Police, and Public Laws
relative to Gardeners and Gardening - 1131
BOOK II.
OF THE FUTURE PROGRESS OF GARDENING
IN BRITAIN.
Chap. I. Page
Of the Improvement of the Taste of the
Patrons of Gardening ... 1133
Chap. II.
Of the Education of Gardeners - "- 1135
I. On the degree of Knowledge which may be
attained by Practical Men, and on the ge-
neral Powers of the human Mind, as to
Attainments ... ib.
II. Of the Professional Education of Gar-
deners - - 1136
III. Of the Intellectual Education which a
Gardener may give himself, independ-
ently of acquiring his Profession - 1138
IV. Moral, Religious, and Physical Education
of Gardeners ... 1141
V. Of Economical Education, or the general
Conduct and Economy of a Gardener's
Life - - - 1143
KALENDARIAL INDEX
GENERAL INDEX
1147
1165
ENCYCLOPAEDIA
OF
GARDENING.
THE earth, Herder observes, Is a star among other stars, and man, an improving
animal acclimated in every zone of its diversified surface. The great mass of this
star is composed of inorganic matters called minerals, from the decomposing surface of
which proceed fixed organic bodies called vegetables, and moving organic bodies called
animals. Minerals are said to grow, or undergo change only ; vegetables to grow and
live; and animals to grow, live, and move. Life and growth imply nourishment;
and primitively, vegetables seem to have lived on minerals ; and animals, with some
exceptions, on vegetables. Man, supereminent, lives on both ; and, in consequence
of his faculty of improving himself and other beings, has contrived means of increasing
the number, and ameliorating the quality of those he prefers. This constitutes the
eliief business of private life in the country, and includes the occupations of housewifery,
or domestic economy, agriculture, and gardening.
Gardening, the branch to which we here confine ourselves, as compared with agri-
culture, is the cultivation of a limited spot, by manual labor, for culinary and orna-
mental products ; but relative to the present improved state of the art, may be defined
the formation and culture, by manual labor, of a scene more or less extended, for
various purposes of utility, ornament and recreation.
Thus gardening, like most other arts, has had its origin in the supply of a primitive
want ; and, as wants became desires, and desires increased, and became more luxurious
and refined, its objects and its province became extended ; till from an enclosure of a few
square yards, containing, as Lord Walpole has said, u a gooseberry-bush and a cab-
bage," such as may be seen before the door of a hut on the borders of a common, it has
expanded to a park of several miles in circuit, its boundaries lost in forest scenery,
a palace bosomed in wood near its centre ; the intermediate space varied by artificial
lakes or rivers, plantations, pleasure-grounds, flower-gardens, hot-houses, orchards, and
potageries : — producing for the table of the owner and his guests, the fruits, flowers,
and culinary vegetables, of every climate of the world ! — displaying the finest verdant
landscapes to invite him to exercise and recreation, by gliding over velvet turf, or po-
lished gravel walks, sheltered, shady, or open in near scenes; or with horses and chariots
along rides and drives " of various view" in distant ones.
From such a variety of products and objects, and so extended a scene of operations,
have arisen the different branches of gardening as an art ; and from the general use
of gardens, and of their products by all ranks, have originated their various kinds, and
the different forms which this art has assumed as a trade or business of life. Gardening
is practised for private use and enjoyment, in cottage, villa, and mansion gardens ; —
for public recreation, in umbrageous and verdant promenades, parks, and other scenes,
in and near to large towns; — for public instruction, in botanic and experimental
gardens ; — for public example, in national or royal gardens ; — and for the purpose of
commerce, in market, orchard, seed, physic, florists', and nursery gardens.
To aid in what relates to designing and laying out gardens, artists or professors have
arisen ; and the performance of the operative part is the only source of living of a nu-
merous class of serving gardeners , who acquire their art by the regular routine of ap-
prenticeship, and probationary labor for some years as journeymen.
B "
The products of the kitchen-garden form important articles of human food for all
ranks of society ; and furnish the chief luxuries of the tables of the rich, and a main
support of the families of the poor. One of the first objects of a colonist on arriving
at a new settlement is to plant a garden, as at once a proof of possession, and a pledge
of immediate enjoyment ; and indeed the history of the civilisation of mankind bears
evidence, that there are few benefits which a cultivated people can bestow on savage
tribes, greater than that of distributing among them the seeds of good fruits and oler-
aceous herbs, and teaching them their culture.
The pleasure attending the pursuit of gardening is conducive to health and repose
of mind ; and a taste for the enjoyment of gardens is so natural to man, as almost to be
universal. Our first most endearing and most sacred associations, Mrs. Holland ob-
serves, are connected with gardens ; our most simple and most refined perceptions of
beauty are combined with them ; and the very condition of our being compels us to the
cares, and rewards us with the pleasures attached to them. Gardening has been the
inclination of kings and the choice of philosophers, Sir William Temple has observed ;
and the Prince de Ligne, after sixty years' experience, affirms, that the love of gardens is
the only passion which augments with age : " Je voudrois," he says, " ^chauffer tout
l'univers de mon g6ut pour les jardins. II me semble qu'il est impossible, qu'un me-
diant puisse l'avoir. II n'est point de vertus que je ne suppose a celui qui aime a
parler et a faire des jardins. Peres de famille, inspirez la jardinomanie a vos enfans."
{Memoires et Lettres, torn, i.)
That which makes the cares of gardening more necessary, or at least more excusable,
the former author adds, is, that all men eat fruit that can get it ; so that the choice is
only, whether one will eat good or ill ; and for all things produced in a garden, whether
of salads or fruits, a poor man will eat better that has one of his own, than a rich man
that has none.
To add to the value and extend the variety of garden productions, new vegetables
have been introduced from every quarter of the globe ; to diffuse instruction on the sub-
ject, numerous books have been written, societies have been established, and premiums
held out for rewarding individual merit ; and where professorships of rural economy
exist, gardening may be said to form a part of public instruction.
A varied and voluminous mass of knowledge has thus accumulated on the subject
of o-ardening, which must be more or less necessary for every one who would practise
the art with success, or understand when it is well practised for him by others. To
combine as far as practicable the whole of this knowledge, and arrange it in a syste-
matic form, adapted both for study and reference, is the object of the present work.
The sources from which we have selected, are the modern British authors of decided
reputation and merit ; sometimes recurring to ancient or continental authors, and occa-
sionally, though rarely, to our own observation and experience ; — observation in all
the departments of gardening, chiefly in Britain, but partly also on the Continent ; and
experience during nearly twenty years' practice as an architect of gardens.
With this purpose in view, Gardening is here considered, in
Part Book
I. As to its origin, progress, and C 1. Among the different nations of the world.
present state, £ 2. Under different political and geographical circumstances.
C 1. The study of the vegetable kingdom.
TI . f , , J 2. The study of the natural agents of vegetable growth and culture.
1 1 . As a science lounaec on - < 3 The gtudy of the mechanical agents employed in gardening.
C 4. The study of the operations of'gardening.
rl. The practice of horticulture.
,TT . . • j^j^ j 2. The practice of floriculture.
III. As an art, comprehending j 3 The £ractjce of arboriculture.
C 4. The practice of landscape gardening.
,„ „. ^ .. „ . • Tj^t„:„ f 1. As to its present state.
IV. Statistically in Britain - [ 2 Ag tQ itg &ture progress>
A Kalendarial Index to those parts of the work which treat of culture and manage-
ment, points out the operations as they are to be performed in the order of time and of
the season : and
A General Index explains the technical terms of gardening ; gives an outline of the
culture of every genus of plants, native or introduced in British gardens ; and presents
an analysis of the whole work in alphabetical order.
PART I.
GARDENING CONSIDERED IN RESPECT TO ITS ORIGIN, PRO-
GRESS, AND PRESENT STATE AMONG DIFFERENT NATIONS,
GOVERNMENTS, AND CLIMATES.
1. The history of gardening may be considered chronologically, or in connection with
that of the different nations who have successively flourished in different parts of the
world ; politically, as influenced by the different forms of government which have pre-
vailed ; and geographically, as affected by the different climates and natural situations of
the globe. The first kind of history is useful as showing what has been done ; and what
is the relative situation of different countries as to gardens and gardening ; and the
political and geographical history of this art affords interesting matter of instruction as
to its past and future progress.
BOOK I.
HISTORY OF GARDENING AMONG ANCIENT AND MODERN NATIONS.
2. The chronological history of gardening may be divided into three periods ; the ages
of antiquity, commencing with the earliest accounts and terminating with the foundation
of the Roman empire ; the ancient ages, including the rise and fall of the Roman empire ;
and the modern tunes, continued from thence to the present day.
Chap. I.
Of the Origin and Progress of Gardening in the earliest ages of Antiquity, or from the
10th century before the vulgar cera to the foundation of the Roman Empire.
3. All ancient history begins with fable and tradition ; no authentic relation can reach
farther back than the organisation of the people who followed the last grand revolution
sustained by our globe. Every thing which pretends to go farther must be fabulous,
and it is only the primeval arts of war and husbandry which can by any means go so far.
The traditions collected by Herodotus, Diodorus, Hesiod, and some other authors, when
freed from the mythological and mysterious terms in which they are enveloped, seem to
carry us back to that general deluge, or derangement of the surface strata of our globe,
of which all countries, as well as most traditions, bear evidence. As to gardening, these
traditions, like all rude histories, touch chiefly on particulars calculated to excite
wonder or surprise in ignorant or rude minds, and accordingly the earliest notices of
gardens are confined to fabulous creations of fancy, or the alleged productions of princes
and warriors. To the first may be referred the gardens of Paradise and the Hesperides ;
and to the others the gardens of the Jews, Babylonians, Persians, and Greeks.
Sect. I. Of the fabulous Gardens of Antiquity.
4. The fabulous gardens of antiquity are connected with the religions of those times.
These religions have been arranged by philosophers {De Paw's Dissert.) in three divisions ;
Barbarism, Scytkism, and Helenism. To the latter belong the Hebrew, Greek, and
Mahomedan species. Each of these has its system of creation, its heaven and its hell,
and, what chiefly concerns us, each system has its garden. The garden of the Jewish
mythology is for the use of man ; that of the Grecian polytheism is appropriated to the
Gods ; and the Mahomedan paradise is the reward held out to the good in a future
state.
5. Gan-cden, or the Jewish Paradise, is supposed to have been situated in Persia,
though the inhabitants of Ceylon say it was placed in their country, and according to the
Rev. Dr. Buchanan (Researches in India, Sec), still point out Adam's bridge and Abel's
tomb. Its description may be considered as exhibiting the ideas of a poet, whose object
was to bring together every sort of excellence of which he deemed a garden susceptible ;
and it is remarkable that in so remote an age (B. C. 1600) his picture should display so
much of general nature. Of great extent, watered by a river, and abounding in timber
and woodiness, paradise seems to have borne some resemblance to a park and pleasure-
grounds in the modern taste; to which indeed its amplified picture by Milton has been
thought bv "Walpole and others to have given rise. When Adam began to transgress in
B 2
4 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Tart I.
the garden he wars turned out to till the ground, and paradise was afterwards guarded By
a miraculous sword, which turned every way to meet trespassers. (See Genesis ii. 3. ;
Bishop Huel on the Situation of Paradise, 1691, 12mo. ; Burnet's Theory of the Earth,
book ii. chap. 2. ; Sicklers Geschiclde der obst cultur, &c. 1801. 1 Band.)
6. The gardens of Hesperides were situated in Africa, near Mount Atlas, or, accord-
ing to some, near Cyrenaica. They are described by Scylax, a geographer of the sixth
century, B. C, as lying in a place eighteen fathoms deep, steep on all sides, and two
stadia in diameter, covered with trees of various kinds, planted very close together, and
interwoven with one another. Among the fruit-trees were golden apples (supposed to be
oranges), pomegranates, mulberries, vines, olives, almonds, and walnuts ; and the orna-
mental trees included the arbutus, myrtle, bay, ivy, and wild olive. This garden con-
tained the golden apples which Juno gave to Jupiter on the day of their nuptials. They
were occupied by three celebrated nymphs, daughters of Hesperus, and guarded by a
dreadful dragon which never slept. Hercules carried off the apples by stratagem, but
they were afterwards returned by Minerva. What finally became of the nymphs of the
warden, or of the apples, we are as ignorant as we are of the fate of paradise, or the tree
" in the midst thereof," which contained the forbidden fruit, and of which, as Lord
Walpole observes, " not a slip or a sucker has been left behind."
7. The promised garden of Mahomet, or the heaven of his religion, is said to abound
in umbrageous groves, fountains, and Houri, or black-eyed girls : and the enjoyments,
which in such scenes on earth last but for a moment, are to be there prolonged for a
thousand years.
8. Dr. Sicklers opinion of these gardens is, that Eden and Hesperides allude to, or are
derived from, one original tradition. Paradise, he considers as a sort of figurative
description of the finest district of Persia ; and he traces various resemblances between
the apples of Eve and of Juno; the dragon which never slept, and the flaming sword
which turned every way. Some very learned and curious speculations on this subject are
to be found in the introduction to his Geschichte der obst cultur. With respect to the
paradise of Mahomet, it is but of modern date, and may probably have been suggested
by the gardens described in "Solomon's Song," and other poems ; though some allege
that the rural coffee-houses which abound in the suburbs of Constantinople gave the first
idea to the prophet.
Sect. II. Jewish Gardens. B. C. 1500.
9. King Solomon's garden is the principal one on record ; though many others belong-
ing both to Jewish princes and subjects are mentioned in the Bible. Solomon was at
once a botanist, a man of learning, of pleasure, and a king. The area of his garden
was quadrangular, and surrounded by a high wall ; it contained a variety of plants,
curious as objects of natural history, as the hyssop, (a moss, as Hasselquist thinks,)
" which springeth out of the wall ;" odoriferous and showy flowers, as the rose, and the
lily of the valley, the calamus, camphire, spikenard, saffron, and cinnamon ; timber-trees,
as the cedar, the pine, and the fir ; and the richest fruits, as the fig, grape, apple, palm,
and pomegranate. (Curtii Sprengel Historia Rei herbaria:, lib. i. c. 1 .) It contained water
in wells, and in living streams, and, agreeably to eastern practices, aviaries and a seraglio.
The seraglio Parkhurst supposes was at once a temple of worship and of pleasure, and he
quotes the words of Ezekiel (xiii. 20.) in their literal translation : "lam against, saith
the Lord, your luxurious cushions, wherewith ye ensnare souls in the flower-gardens."
Ashue or Venus was the deity who was worshipped by a company of naked females : Dr.
Brown (Antiq. of the Jews,) describes the mode of worship ; and concludes by lamenting
that depravity in man, which converts the beauties of nature into instruments of sin.
The situation of Solomon's garden was in all probability near to the palace, as were those
of his successors, Ahasuerus and Ahab. (Esther vii. 8.)
10. We know little of the horticulture of the Jews; but like that of the eastern nations
in general, it was probably then as it still is in Canaan, directed to the growing of
cooling fruits, to allay thirst and moderate heat ; aromatic herbs to give a tone to the
stomach, and wine to refresh and invigorate the spirits. Hence, while their agricultural
produce was wheat, barley, rye, millet, vetches, lentils, and. beans, their gardens produced
cucumbers, melons, gourds, onions, garlic, anise, cummin, coriander, mustard, and various
spices. Their vineyards were sometimes extensive : Solomon had one at Baalhamon
which he let out at 1000 pieces of silver per annum. (Cant. viii. 11, 12.)
Sect. III. Phceacian Gardens. B. C. 900.
1 1 . The garden of Alcinous, the Phaeacian king, was situated in an island of that
name, by some considered Corfu, in the Ionian sea, and by others, and with more reason,
an Asiatic island. It is minutely described by Homer in the Odyssey, and may be
compared to the garden of an ordinary farm-house in point of extent and form ; but in
respect to the variety of fruits, vegetables, and flowers cultivated, was far inferior. It
Book I. GARDENS OF ANTIQUITY. 5
embraced the front of the palace ; contained something less than four acres, surrounded
by a hedge, (the first, as Harte remarks, which we read of in history,) and interspersed
with three or four sorts of fruit-trees, some beds of culinary vegetables, and some borders
of flowers ; it contained two fountains or wells, the one for the use of the garden, and the
other for the palace.
12. The gardens of Laertes, described in the same work, appear to have been similar to
the above in character and extent, use being more studied than beauty ; and vicinity to the
house or palace, for the immediate access of the queen or housewife, being a greater
desideratum than extent, variety of products, or prolonged recreation.
13. The reality of the existence of these gardens is very doubtful. They are by many
ranked with those of Adonis ( Virg. Georg. ii. 87.), Paradise, Hesperides ( Virg. Mn.
iv. 484.), and Venus {Ali Beys Travels, vol. i.), and considered with them as mere
creations of the fancy. Sir \V. Temple is of opinion that the principal gardens of Ionia
may have had some resemblance to those described by Homer, as lying in the barren
island of Phasacia ; but that the particular instance stated as belonging to Alcinous is
wholly poetical. {Temple's Works. Essay on Gardens.) Gouget rejects altogether the
idea of Phseacia being an European isle, and considers the Pha;acians as a Greek colony
in one of the islands of Asia. (Origine de Loix, &c. torn. iii. 174.)
Sect. IV. Babylonian or Assyrian Gardens. B. C. 2000.
14. The gardens of Cyrus at Babylon (Plin. xix. 4.), or of the kings of Assyria,
or, according to Bryant (Anal, of Ancient Mythology, vol. iii. p. 100.), of the chiefs of
the ancient people called Semarim, were distinguished by their romantic situations, great
extent, and diversity of uses and products, and were reckoned in their days among the
wonders of the world.
15. The form of these gardens was square, and, according to Diodorus and Strabo, each
side was four hundred feet in length, so that the area of the base was nearly four acres.
They were made to rise with terraces constructed in a curious manner above one another,
in the form of steps, somewhat like those of the Isola Bella in the Lago Maggiore in Italy,
and supported by stone pillars to the height of more than three hundred feet, gradually
diminishing upwards till the area of the superior surface, which was flat, was reduced
considerably below that of the base. This building was constructed by vast stone beams
placed on p'illars of stone, (arches not being then invented,) which were again covered
with reeds, cemented with bitumen, and next were laid a double row of bricks united
by cement. Over these were laid plates of lead, which effectually prevented the moisture
from penetrating downwards. Above all was laid a coat of earth, of depth sufficient for
plants to grow in it, and the trees here planted were of various kinds, and were ranged
in rows on the side of the ascent, as well as on the top, so that at a distance it appeared
as an immense pyramid covered with wood. The situation of this extraordinary effort
was adjoining or upon the river Euphrates, from which water was supplied by machinery
for the fountains and other sources for cooling the air and watering the garden. (Dr.
Falconer s Historical View of the Gardens of Antiquity, &c. p. 17.)
1 6. The prospect from these elevated gardens was grand and delightful. From the upper
area was obtained a view not only of the whole city, and the windings of the Euphrates,
which washed the base of the superstructure three hundred feet below ; but of the cul-
tivated environs of the city and surrounding desert, extending as far as the eye could
reach. The different terraces and groves contained fountains, parterres, seats and
banquetting-rooms, and combined the minute beauties of flowers and foliage, with
masses of shade and extensive prospects ; — the retirement of the grove in the midst of
civic mirth and din ; — and all the splendor and luxury of eastern magnificence in art,
with the simple pleasures of verdant and beautiful nature. " This surprising and la-
borious experiment," G. Mason observes, " was a strain of complaisance in King
Nebuchadnezzar to his Median queen, who could never be reconciled to the flat and
naked appearance of the province of Babylon, but frequently regretted each rising hill
and scattered forest she had formerly delighted in, with all the charms they had presented
to her youthful imagination. The King, who thought nothing impossible for Ids power
to execute, nothing to be unattempted for the gratification of his beloved consort, de-
termined to raise woods and terraces even within the precincts of the city, equal to those
by which her native country was diversified." (Essay on Design, &c. p. 9.)
17. An elevated situation seems in these countries to have been an essential re-
quisite to a royal garden ; probably because the air in such regions is more cool and
salubrious, — the security from hostile attack of any sort more certain, — and the
prospect always sublime. " When Semiramis came to Chanon, a city of Media," ob-
serves Diodorus Siculus- (lib. ii. cap. IS.), "she discovered on an elevated plain, a
rock of stupendous height, and of considerable extent. Here she formed another para-
dise, exceeding large, enclosing a rock in the midst of it, on which she erected sumptuous
buildings for pleasure, commanding a view both of the plantations and the encampment.
B 3 )
6 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
Id. The existence f these gardens, however, is very problematical. Bryant {Ancient
Mythology) gives his reasons lor disbelieving the very existence of Queen Semiramis, who.
Dr. Sickler says, was not a queen, but a (beysclddferinn) concubine. Bryant acknowledges,
however, that paradises of great extent, and placed in elevated situations, were with great
probability ascribed to the ancient people called Semarim. Quintus Curtius (lib. xv.
cap. 5.) calls these gardens " fabulous wonders of the Greeks:" and Herodotus, who
describes Babylon, is silent as to their existence. Many consider their description as
representing a hill cut into terraces, and planted : and some modern travellers have fan-
cied that they could discover traces of such a work. The value of such conjectures is
left to be estimated by the antiquarian ; we consider the description of this Babylonian
garden as worth preserving for its grandeur and suitableness to the country and climate.
Sect. V. Persian Gardens. B. C. 500.
19. The Persian Kiyigs were very fond of gardens, which, Xenophon says, were
cultivated for the sake of beauty as well as fruit. " Wherever the Persian king,
Cyrus, resides, or whatever place he visits in his dominions, he takes care that the
Paradises, shall be filled with every thing, both beautiful and useful, the soil can
produce." (Xen. Memorab. lib. v. p. 829.) The younger Cyrus was found by Ly-
sander, as Plutarch informs us, in his garden or paradise at Sardis, and on its being
praised by the Spartan general, he avowed that he had conceived, disposed and adjusted
the whole himself, and planted a considerable number of trees with liis own hands.
Cyrus had another paradise at Celenae, which was very extensive, and abounded in wild
beasts ; and we are informed that the same prince " there mustered the Grecian forces
to the number of thirteen thousand." (De Cyri Exped. lib. i.)
20. A paradise in the Island of Panchcea, near the coast of Arabia, is described by
Diodorus Siculus, as having been in a flourishing state in the time of Alexander's
immediate successors, or about B. C. 300. It belonged to a temple of Jupiter ;Try-
philius, and had a copious fountain, which burst at once into a river, was cased with
stone near half a mile, and was afterwards used for irrigation. It had the usual accom-
paniments of groves, fruit-trees, thickets, and flowers.
21. The grove of Orontes in Syria, is mentioned by Strabo (lib. xvi.) as being in his
time nine miles in circumference. It is described by Gibbon as " composed of laurels
and cypress, which formed in the most sultry summers a cool and impenetrable shade.
A thousand streams of the purest water issuing from every hill preserved the verdure of
the earth, and the temperature of the air ; the senses were gratified with harmonious
sounds, and aromatic odours ; and the peaceful grove was consecrated to health and joy,
to luxury and love." (Decline and Fall of the Roniaii Empire, chap. xiii.J
22. In Persian gardens of a more limited description, according to Pliny and other Ro-
man authors, the trees were arranged in straight lines and regular figures ; and the margins
of the walks covered with tufts of roses, violets, and other odoriferous flowering plants.
Among the trees, the terebinthinate sorts, the oriental plane, and, what may appear to
us remarkable, the narrow-leaved elm, (now called English, but originally, as Dr.
Walker and others consider, from the Holy Land), held conspicuous places. Buildings
for repose, banqueting, voluptuous love; fountains for cooling the air, aviaries for
choice birds, and towers for the sake of distant prospect, were introduced in the best
examples.
Sect. VI. Grecian Gardens. B. C. 300.
23. The Greeks copied the gardening of the Persians, as they did their manners and
architecture, as far as the difference of climate and state of society would admit.
Xenophon, a Greek philosopher of the fourth century before Christ, admired the gardens
of the Persian prince Cyrus, at Sardis ; and Diogenes Laertius informs us that Epicurus
delighted in the pleasures of the garden, and made choice of one as the spot where he
taught his philosophy. Plato also lays the scene of his dialogue of beauty on the
umbrageous banks of the river Ilissus. In the first eclogue of Theocritus, the scene
is laid under the shade of a pine-tree, and the beauty of Helen is compared to that of a
cypress in a garden. It would appear from this and other .circumstances, that the love
of terebinthinate trees, so general in Persia, and the other eastern countries, was also
prevalent in Greece ; and the same flowers (made choice of for their brilliant colors
and odoriferous perfumes) appear to have been common to both countries. Among
these may be enumerated the narcissus, violet, ivy, and rose. (Historical View, &c.
p. 30. etseq.) There are many curious observations on this subject in Stackhouse's edition of
Theophrastus. Lord Bacon, in his Essay on Gardens, and G. Mason, already quoted,
concur in considering gardening as rather a neglected art in Greece, notwithstanding the
progress of the sister art of architecture, which gave rise to the remark of the former,
" that when ages grow to civility and elegancy, men come to build stately sooner than
to garden finely, as if gardening were the greater perfection. "
Book I. GARDENS OF ANTIQUITY. 7
24. The vale of Tempe, however, as described in the third book of ./Elian's vari-
ous history, and the public gardens of Athens according to Plutarch, prove that their phi-
losophers and great men were alive to the beauties of verdant scenery. The acadenuis
or public garden of Athens, Plutarch informs us, was originally a rough uncultivated
spot, till planted by the general Cimon, who conveyed streams of water to it, and laid it
out in shady groves, with gymnasia, or places of exercise, and philosophic walks.
Among the trees were the olive, plane, and elm ; and the two last sorts had attained to
such extraordinary size, that at the siege of Athens by Sylla, in the war with Mithridates,
they were selected to be cut down, to supply warlike engines. In the account of these
gardens by Pausanias we learn, that they were highly elegant, and decorated with temples,
altars, tombs, statues, monuments, and towers ; that among the tombs were those of
Pirithous, Theseus, (Edipus, and Adrastes; and at the entrance was the first altar
dedicated to love.
25. The passages of the Greek writers which relate to gardens have been amply illustrated
by the learned German antiquarian Ba^ttinger (Racemazionen zur Gurtenkiuist dcr
Alten) ; on which it may be remarked, that the qualities chiefly enlarged on are, shade,
coolness, freshness, breezes, fragrance, and repose — effects of gardening which are felt
and relished at an earlier period of human civilisation than picturesque beauty, or other
poetical and comparatively artificial associations with external scenery ; for though
gardening as a merely useful art may claim priority to every other, yet as an art of
imagination, it is one of the last which has been brought to perfection. In fact, its
existence as such an art, depends on the previous existence of pastoral poetry and
mental cultivation ; for what is nature to an uncultivated mind ?
Sect. VII. Gardening in the ages of Antiquity, as to Fruits, Culinary Productions, and
Flowers.
26*. The first vegetable production which attracted man's attention as an article of food,
is supposed to have been the fruit of some tree ; and the idea of removing such a tree to a
spot, and enclosing and cultivating it near his habitation, is thought to be abundantly
natural to man, and to have first given rise to gardens. All the writers of antiquity agree
in putting the fig at the head of the fruit-trees that were first cultivated. The vine is the
next in order, the fruit of which serves not only for food, like that of the fig, but also for
drink. Noah the Jewish Bacchus, and Osiris the Bacchus of the Egyptians and Greeks,
are alike placed in the very first age of the postdiluvian world. The almond and pome-
granate were early cultivated in Canaan (Gen. xliii. 5. 11. and Ahttnb. xx. 5.), and it
appears by the complaints of the Israelites in the wilderness, that the fig, grape, pomegra-
nate, and melon, were known in Egypt from time immemorial.
27. The first herbage made use of by man, would be the most succulent leaves or stalks
which the surface around him afforded ; of these every country has some plants which are
succulent even in a wild state, as the chenopodea;. Sea cale, and asparagus, were known to
the Greeks from the earliest ages, and still abound in Greece, the former on the sandy plains,
and the latter on the sea shores. One of the laws of Solon prohibits women from eating
crambe in child-bed. Of the green seeds of herbage plants, the bean and other legu-
minoseae were evidently the first in use, and it is singular that Pythagoras should have
forbidden the use of beans to his pupils because they were so much of the nature of flesh ;
or, in the language of modern chemistry, because they contained so much vegeto-animal
matter.
28. The first roots, or rootlike jmrts of jilants made use of, must have been some of the
surface bulbs, as the onion, (Numb. xi. 5.) and the edible crocus (C aureus, Fl. Graze) of
Syria. Underground bulbs and tubers, as the orchis, potatoe, and earthnut, would be
next discovered : and ramose roots, as those of the lucerne in Persia, and arracacha (I/igus-
l ten m sp. ?) in Mexico, would be eagerly gnawed wherever they could be got at. Bulbs of
culture, as the turnip, would be of much later discovery, and must at first have been found
only in temperate climates.
29. The use of plants for preternatural, religious, funereal, medical, and 'scientific pur-
poses, like every other use, is of the remotest antiquity. Rachel demanded from her
sister the mandrakes (Mandragora officinalis, \V.) (Jig. 1. from the Flora Grceca), whose
roots are thought to resemble the human form, which Reuben had brought from the fields ;
impressed, as she no doubt was, witli the idea of the efficacy of that plant against sterility.
Bundles of flowers covered the tables of the Greeks, and were worn during repasts, be-
cause the plants, of which they consisted, were supposed to possess the virtue of preserving
the wearer from the fumes of wine, of refreshing the thinking faculty, preserving the
purity of ideas, and the gaiety of the spirits. Altars were strewed with flowers both
by Jews and Greeks ; they were placed on high places, and under trees, as old clothes
are still sacrificed on the trunks of the Platanus in Georgia and Persia. God appeared
to Moses in a bush. Jacob was embalmed, in all probability, with aromatic herbs.
B 4
8
HISTORY OF GARDENING.
Part (.
Aristotle's materia medica was chiefly plants.
Solomon wrote on botany as a philosopher, and
appears to have cultivated a general collection,
independently of his plants of ornament.
30. Flowers, as decorations, must have been
very soon vised on account of their brilliant colors
and smell. The Greeks, Theophrastus informs
us, (Hist. Plant, lib. vi. c. 5.) cultivated roses,
gilly-flowers, violets, narcissi, and the iris ; and
we read in Aristophanes (Acharn. v. 212.), that
a market for flowers was held at Athens, where
the baskets were very quickly disposed of. From
the writings of other authors, we learn that a con-
tinual use was made of flowers throughout all
Greece. Not only were they then, as now, the
ornament of beauty, and of the altars of the gods,
but youth crowned themselves with them in the
fetes : priests in religious ceremonies ; and guests
in convivial meetings. Garlands of flowers were
suspended from the gates in times of rejoicing ;
and, what is still more remarkable, and more
remote from our manners, the philosophers them-
selves wore crowns of flowers, and the warriors
ornamented their foreheads with them in days of
triumph. These customs existed in every part
of the East. There were at Athens, as after-
wards at Rome, florists, whose business it was to
weave crowns (coronarice) and wreaths of flowers.
Some of these crowns and garlands were of one species of flower ; others of different
species ; or of branches of peculiar plants, relating to some symbolical or mythological
idea. Hence the term, coronaria; , was applied to such -plants as were consecrated to those
uses, and of which some were cultivated, and others gathered in the fields ; but the name
was applied to all such as were distinguished by the beauty or fragrance of their flowers.
(Curt. Spreng. Hist. R. Herb. lib. i. & ii. ; Paschalis de Coronis, lib. x. ; Sabina by
Bcetdnner, in N. Mon. Mag. Jan. and Feb. 1819. ; Theophrastus by Stackhouse, &c.)
31. ^The first implement ttsed in cultivating the soil, all antiquarians agree, must have been
of the pick kind. A medal of the greatest antiquity, dug up in the island of Syracuse,
contained the impression of such an implement (jig. 2. a). Some of the oldest Egyptian
hieroglyphics have similar representations '(b) ; and Eckeberg has figured what may be
considered as the primitive spade of China (c). In the beginning of the sixteenth cen-
tury, when Peru was discovered by the Spaniards, the gardeners of that country had no
other spade than a pointed stick, of which the more industrious made use of two at a time.
(d) The Chinese implement bears the highest marks of civilisation, since it has a hilt or
cross handle, and a tread for the foot ; and consequently supposes the use of shoes or
sandals by the operator, and an erect position of his body. The Roman spade (ligo),
those of Italy (zappa), and of France (beche), are either flattened or two-clawed picks,
which are worked entirely by the arms, and keep the operator constantly bent almost to
the ground; or long-handled wooden spatulae also worked solely by the arms, but with
the body in a more erect position. Both kinds equally suppose a bare-footed operator,
like the Grecian and Peruvian gardeners, and those of France and Italy at the present day.
Book I. GARDENS OF THE ROMANS. 9
32. It is said that the browsing of a goat gave the first idea ofjrruning the vine, as chance,
which had set fire to a rose-tree, according to Acosta (Histoire Nat. des hides), gave
the first idea of pruning the rose. Theophrastus informs us that fire was applied to the
rose-trees in Greece to enrich them, and that without that precaution they would bear no
flowers.
33. The origin of the art of grafting has been very unsatisfactorily accounted for by
Pliny and Lucretius. The crossing, rubbing, and subsequent growing together of
two branches of a crowded tree or thicket, are more likely to have originated the
idea ; but when this was first noticed, and how grafting came to be used for the
amelioration of fruits, will probably ever remain a secret. Macrobius, a Roman author
of the fifth century, according to the taste of his time, says, Saturn taught the art to the
inhabitants of Latium. It does not appear to have been known to the Persians, or the
Greeks, in the time of Homer, or Hesiod ; nor, according to Chardin, is it known to the
Persians at this day. Grafting was not known in China till very lately ; it was shown
to a few gardeners by the Missionaries, as it was to the natives of Peru and South
America, by the Spaniards. Some, however, infer from a passage in Manlius, that
it may have been mentioned in some of Hesiod's writings, which are lost.
34. The culture of fruits and culinary plants must have been preceded by a considerable
degree of civilisation. Moses gave some useful directions to his people on the culture of the
vine and olive. For the first three years, they are not to be allowed to ripen any fruit ; the
produce of the fourth year is for the Lord or his priests ; and it is not till the fifth year
that it may be eaten by the planter. This must have contributed materially to their
strength and establishment in the soil. The fruit-trees in the gardens of Alcinous were
planted in quincunx ; there were hedges for shelter and security, and the pot-herbs and
flowers were planted in beds ; the whole so contrived as to be irrigated. Melons in Persia
were manured with pigeon's dung, as they are to this day in that country. After being
sown, the melon tribe produce a bulk of food sooner than any other plant ; hence
the value of this plant in seasons of scarcity, and the high price of doves' dung during
the famine in Samaria (2 Kings, vi. 25.), when a cab, not quite three pints of corn mea-
sure, cost five pieces of silver.
Chap. IL
Chronological History of Gardening, from the time of (lie Roman Xi?igs, in the sixth century
B. C., to the Decline and Fall of the Empire in the fifth century of our cera.
35. Gardening among the Bo?nans we shall consider, 1. As an art of design or taste :
2. In respect to the culture of flowers and plants of ornament : 3. As to its products
for the kitchen and the dessert : 4. As to the propagation of timber-trees and hedges : . and
5. As a science, and as to the authors it has produced. In general it will be found
that the Romans copied their gardening from the Greeks, as the latter did from the
Persians, and that gardening like every other art extended with civilisation from east to
west.
Sect. I. Roman Gardening as an Art of Design and Taste.
36. The first mention of a garden in the Roman History is that of Tarquinius Super-
bus, B. C. 534, by Livy and Dionysius Halicarnassus. From what they state, it can
only be gathered that it was adjoining to the royal palace, and abounded with flowers,
chiefly roses and poppies. The next in the order of time are those of Lucullus, situated
near Baia?, in the bay of Naples. They were of a magnificence and expense rivalling
that of the eastern monarchs ; and procured to this general, the epithet of the Roman
Xerxes. They consisted of vast edifices projecting into the sea ; of immense artificial
elevations ; of plains formed where mountains formerly stood ; and of vast pieces of
water, which it was the fashion of that time to dignify with the pompous titles of Nilus
and Euripus. Lucullus had made several expeditions to the eastern part of Asia, and
it is probable, he had there contracted a taste for this sort of magnificence. Varro
ridicules these works for their amazing sumptuosity ; and Cicero makes his friend Atticus
hold cheap those magnificent waters, in comparison with the natural stream of the river
Fibrenus, where a small island accidentally divided it. [De Legibus, lib. ii. ) Lucullus,
however, had the merit of introducing the cherry, the peach, and the apricot from the
East, a benefit which still remains to mankind. (Plutarch in vita Lucidli ; Sallust ; and
Varro de Re Rustica.)
37. Of the gardens of the Augustan age of Virgil and Horace, generally thought to be
that in which taste and elegance were eminently conspicuous, we know but little. In a
garden described by the former poet in his Gcorgics (lib. iv. 121.), he places only
10 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
chicory, cucumbers, ivy, acanthus, myrtle, narcissus, and roses. — Doth Vfa-gil and Pro-
pertius mention the culture of the pine-tree as beloved by Pan, the tutelar deity of
gardens ; and that the shade of the plane, from the thickness of its foliage, was particu-
larly agreeable, and well adapted for convivial meetings. The myrtle and the bay they
describe as in high esteem for their odor ; and to such a degree of nicety had they
arrived in this particular, that the composition or mixture of odoriferous trees became a
point of study ; and those trees were planted adjoining each other, whose odors assimi-
lated together. Open groves in hot countries are particularly desirable for their shade,
and they seem to have been the only sort of plantation of forest-trees then in use. From
Cicero and the elder Pliny, we learn that the quincunx manner of planting them was
very generally adopted ; and from Martial, that the manner of clipping trees was first
introduced by Cneus Matius, a friend of Augustus. Statues and fountains, according to
Propertius, came into vogue about the same time, some of them casting out water in the
way of jets-cVeau, to occasion surprise, as was afterwards much practised in Italy in the
dawn of gardening in the sixteenth century.
38. The gardens and pleasure-grounds of Pliny the consul are described at length
in his Letters, and delineations of their ichnography have been published by Felibien
in 1699, and by Castell in 1728. Some things, which could only be supplied by the
imagination, are to be found in both these authors ; but on the whole their plans,
especially those of Castell, may be considered as conveying a tolerably correct idea of
a first-rate Roman villa, as in the Laurentinum, and of an extensive country-residence,
as in the Thuscum.
39. The Villa Laurentinum was a winter residence on the Tiber, between Rome
and the sea ; the situation is near Paterno, seventeen miles from Rome, and is now
called San Lorenzo. The garden was small, and is but slightly described. It was
surrounded by hedges of box, and where that had failed, by rosemary. There were
platforms and terraces ; and figs, vines, and mulberries were the fruit-trees. Pliny
seems to have valued this retreat chiefly from its situation relatively to Rome and the
surrounding country, which no walls, fortresses, or belt of wood, hid from his view. On
this region he expatiates with delight, pointing out all " the beauty of his woods, his rich
meadows covered with cattle, the bay of Ostia, the scattered villas upon its shore, and
the blue distance of the mountains ; his porticoes and seats for different views, and his
favorite little cabinet in which they were all united. So great was Pliny's attention in
this particular, that he not only contrived to see some part of this luxurious landscape
from every room in his house, but even while he was bathing, and when he reposed him-
self! for he tells us of a couch which had one view at the head, another at the feet, and
another at the back." [Preface to Malthas' s Introduction to Girardins Essay, &c. p. 20.)
We may add with Eustace and other modern travellers, that the same general appear-
ance of woods and meadows exists there to this day.
40. Pliny s Thuscum, or Tuscuhin Villa (fg. 3.), now Frascati, was situated in a
natural amphitheatre of the Apennines, whose lofty summits were then, as now, crowned
with forests of oak, and their fertile sides richly covered with corn-fields, vineyards,
copses, and villas. Pliny's description of this retreat, though well known, is of import-
ance, as showing what was esteemed good taste in the gardens and grounds of a highly
accomplished Roman nobleman and philosopher, towards the end of the first century,
under the reign of Trajan, when Rome was still in all her glory, and the mistress of the
world in arts and in arms.
41. A general tour of the Tuscidan Gardens is given by Malthus and Dr. Fal-
coner. Their extent, Malthus thinks, may have been from three to four acres, and
their situation round the house.
Beginning there, the xystus or terrace (5), says the author of the Historical Essay, is described as in
the front of the portico, and near to the house ; from this descended a lawn covered with acanthus or
moss (13), and adorned with figures of animals cut out in box-trees, answering alternately to one another.
This lawn was again surrounded by a walk enclosed with tonsil evergreens sheared into a variety of forms.
Beyond this was a place of exercise (2), of a circular form, ornamented in the middle with box-trees
sheared as before into numberless different figures, together with a plantation of shrubs kept low by clip-
ping. The whole was fenced in by a wall covered by box rising in different ranges to the top.
Proceeding from another quarter of the house, there was a small space of ground, shaded by four
plane-trees (7), with a fountain in the centre, which, overflowing a marble basin, watered the trees and
the verdure beneath them. Opposite to another part of the building was a plantation of trees, in form of
a hippodrome (6), formed of box and plane trees alternately planted, and connected together by ivy. Be-
hind these were placed bay-trees, and the ends of the hippodrome, which were semicircular, were formed
of cypress (8). The internal walks were bordered with rose-trees, and were in a winding direction, which
however terminated in a straight path, which again branched into a variety of others, separated from one
another by box-hedges ; and these, to the great satisfaction of the owner, were sheared into a variety of
shapes and letters (10), some expressing the name of the master, others that of the artificer, while here and
there small obelisks were placed, intermixed with fruit-trees.
Further on was another walk, ornamented with trees sheared as above described, at the upper end of
which was an alcove of white marble shaded by vines, and supported by marble pillars, from the seat of
which recess issued several streams of water, intended to appear as if pressed out by the weight of those
which reposed upon it, which water was again received in a basin, that was so contrived as to seem al-
ways full without overflowing. Corresponding to this was a fountain, or jet (Veau, that threw out water
to a considerable height, and which ran off as fast as it was thrown out. An elegant marble summer-
Book I.
GARDENS OF THE ROMANS.
11
house opening into a green enclosure, and furnished with a fountain similar to that last described, fronted
the above. Throughout the walks were scattered marble seats, near to each of which was a little fountain •
and throughout the whole small rills of water were artificially conducted among the walks that served to
entertain the ear with their murmurs as well as to water the garden. {Historical View &c ' n 5A • Plinvs
Epistles, b. v. letter 6. j Felibien, Plans et Descr. ,• CasteU's Villas of the Ancients.) '
42. The details of the Tusculan Villa are thus given by Castell. (Fig. 3.)
( 1 ) Villa, or house.
( 2 ) Gestatio, or place of exercise for chariots.
j 3 ) Ambulatio, or walk surrounding the terraces.
( 4 ) The slope, with the forms of beasts cut in box.
(5) The xystus, or terrace, before the porticus, and on the
sides of the house.
( (> ) The hippodrome, or plain so called, on the north side of
the house.
( 7 ) Plane trees on the straight bounds of the hippodrome.
( 8 ) Cypress trees on the semicircular bounds of the hippo-
drome.
( 9 ) The stibadium and other buildings In the garden.
f 101 Box cut into names and other forms.
(11) The pratulum, or little meadow in the garden.
(12) The imitation of the natural face of some country In the
garden.
(13) The walk, covered with acanthus or moss.
!14) The meadows liefore the gestatio.
15) The tops of the hills, covered with aged trees.
16) The underwood on the declivities ofthe lulls.
17) Vineyards below the underwood.
IS) Corn-fields.
(19) The river Tiber.
20) The temple of Ceres, built by Must!us.
21) The farmery.
22) Vivarium, or park.
(28) Kitchen-garden.
(24) Orchard.
(251 Apiary.
(2G) Cochlearium, or snailery.
27) Glirarlum, or place for dormice.
2K) Osier-ground.
29) Aqueduct.
(Villa* o/ the Ancient; p. 54., and Plate Tkutcam.
43. That the style of Flimfs villas gave the tone to the European taste in gardening up
to the end of the 17th century is sufficiently obvious. It is almost superfluous to remark,
12 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
observes the author of the Historical View, the striking resemblance which Pliny's
gardens bear to the French or Dutch taste. The terraces adjoining to the house ; the
lawn declining from thence ; the little flower-garden, with the fountain in the centre ;
the walks bordered with box, and the trees sheared into whimsical artificial forms ; toge-
ther with the fountains, alcoves, and summer-houses, form a resemblance too striking to
bear dispute. " In an age," observes Lord Walpole, " when architecture displayed all its
grandeur, all its purity, and all its taste ; when arose Vespasian's amphitheatre, the
temple of Peace, Trajan's forum, Domitian's bath, and Adrian's villa, the ruins and
vestiges of which still excite our astonishment and curiosity ; a Roman consul, a polished
emperor's friend, and a man of elegant literature and taste, delighted in what the mob
now scarcely admire in a college-garden. All the ingredients of Pliny's garden corre-
spond exactly with those laid out by London and Wise on Dutch principles ; so that
nothing is wanting but a parterre to make a garden in the reign of Trajan serve for the
description of one in the reign of King William." — The open country round a villa was
managed, as the Roman agricultural writers inform us, in the common field system lately
prevalent in Britain ; there were few or no hedges, or other fences, or rows of trees, but
what was not under forest was in waste, with patches of fallow or corn. Thus it appears
that the country residence of an ancient Roman, not only as to his garden, as Lord Wal-
pole has observed, but even as to the views and prospects from his house, as Eustace
and Malthus hint, bore a very near resemblance to the chateau of a French or German
nobleman in the 18th century, and to not a few in France and Italy at the present day.
The same taste as that displayed by Pliny appears to have prevailed till the fall of the
Roman empire ; and by existing in a faint degree in the gardens of religious houses
during the dark ages, as well as in Pliny's writings, has thus been handed down to
modern times.
44. The progress of gardening among the Romans was much less than that of architecture.
Professor Hirschfield remarks (Theorie des Jardins, torn. i. p. 25.), that as the descriptions
of the ancient Roman authors make us better acquainted with their country-houses than
with their gardens, and as the former appear more readily submitted to certain rules than
the latter, we are apt to bestow on the gardens the reputation which really belongs to the
country-houses, and give the one a value which does not belong to the other. The
different manner in which the ancients speak of country-houses and of gardens, may
lead us to judge which of the two objects had attained the highest degree of perfection.
The descriptions of the first are not only more numerous but more detailed. Gardens are
only mentioned in a general manner ; and the writer rests satisfied with bestowing appro-
bation on their fertility and charms. Every country-house had its gardens in the days
of Pliny ; and it is not too much, taking this circumstance in connection with the re-
marks of Columella, to hazard a conjecture that even the Romans themselves considered
their o-ardens less perfect than their houses. Doubtless the Roman authors, so attentive
to elevate the glory of their age in every thing concerning the fine arts, would have en-
larged more on this subject, if they had been able to produce any thing of importance.
To decide as to the perfection which a nation has attained in one of the arts, by their
perfection in another, is too hazardous a judgment ; the error has been already committed
in regard to the music of the ancients, and must not be repeated in judging of their gardens.
The Romans appear in general to have turned their attention to every thing which
bore the impression of grandeur and magnificence; hence their passion for building
baths, circuses, colonnades, statues, reservoirs, and other objects which strike the eye.
Besides, this taste was more easily satisfied, and more promptly, than a taste for plant-
ations, which required time and patience. In all probability the greater number contented
themselves with the useful products of the soil, and the natural beauty of the views,
bestowing the utmost attention to the selection of an elevated site commanding distant
scenery. Cicero {Be Legg. iii. 15.) informs us that it was in their country-villas that
the Romans chiefly delighted in displaying their magnificence ; and in this respect, the
coincidence in habits between ourselves and that great people is a proud circumstance.
45. The Roman taste in gardens has been condemned as unnatural ; but such criticism
we consider as proceeding from much too limited a view of the subject. Because the
Roman gardens were considered as scenes of art, and treated as such, it does not follow
that the possessors were without a just feeling for natural scenery. Where all around
is nature, artificial scenes even of the most formal description will please, and may be
approved of by the justest taste, from their novelty, contrast, and other associations.
If all England were a scattered forest like ancient Italy, and cultivation were to take
place only in the open glades or plains, where would be the beauty of our parks and
picturesque grounds ? The relative or temporary beauties of art should therefore not be
entirely rejected in our admiration of the more permanent and absolute beauties of nature.
That the ancient Romans admired natural scenery with as great enthusiasm as the
moderns, is evident from the writings of their eminent poets and philosophers ; scarcely
one of whom has not in some part of his works left us the most beautiful descriptions
Book I. GARDENS OF THE ROMANS. 13
of natural scenery, and the most enthusiastic strains of admiration of all that is grand,
pleasing, or romantic in landscape ; and some of them, as Cicero and Juvenal, have
deprecated the efforts of art in attempting to improve nature. " Whoever," says
G. Mason, " would properly estimate the attachment to rural picturesque among the
heathen nations of old, should not confine their researches to the domains of men, hut
extend them to the temples and altars, the caves and fountains dedicated to their deities.
These, with their concomitant groves, Mrere generally favorite objects of visual pleasure,
as well as of veneration." (Essay on Design, p. 24.)
Sect. II. Roman Gardening considered as to the Culture of Flowers and Plants of
Ornament.
46. Floivers were rare in Roman gardens under the kings, and during the first ages of
die republic. But as luxury began to be introduced, and finally prevailed to a great de-
gree, the passion for flowers became so great tfiat it was found necessary to suppress it by
sumptuary laws. The use of crowns of flowers was forbid to such as had not received
the right to use them, either by the eminence of their situation, or by the particular per-
mission of the magistrates. Some acts of rigor towards offenders did not hinder their
laws from being first eluded, and at last forgotten, till that which was originally a distinc-
tion became at last a general ornament. Men the most elevated in dignity did not hesitate
to set up that elegance of dress and of ornament which is repugnant to the idea of a war-
like people ; and Cicero, in his third harangue against Verres, reproaches this proconsul
with having made the tour of Sicily in a litter, seated on roses, having a crown of flowers
on his head, and a garland at his back.
47. The Floralia, or Jlower -feasts, were observed on the last four days of April ; they
were attended with great indecency, but they show that the common people also carried
a taste for flowers to excess. (Pliny, xiii. 29. ; Tertullian. Opera.)
48. The luxury of flowers under Augustus was carried to the extreme of folly. Helio-
gabalus caused his beds, his apartments, and the porticoes of his palace to be strewed with
flowers. Among these, roses were the sort chiefly employed, the taste for that flower
being supposed to be introduced from Egypt, where, as Athenasus informs us, Cleopatra
paid a talent for the roses expended at one supper ; the floor of the apartment in which
the entertainment was given, being strewed with them to the depth of a cubit. This, how-
ever, is nothing to what Suetonius relates of Nero, who spent upwards of four millions of
sesterces, or above thirty thousand pounds, at one supper, on these flowers. From Horace
it appears that roses were cultivated in beds ; and from Martial, who mentions roses out
of season as one of the greatest luxuries of his time, it would appear that it was then the
caprice, as at present, to procure them prematurely, or by retardation. Columella enume-
rates the rose, the lily, the hyacinth, and the gilly-flower, as flowers which may embellish
the kitchen-garden ; and he mentions, in particular, a place set apart for the production
of late rose3. Pliny says, the method by which roses were produced prematurely was,
by watering them with warm water when the bud began to appear. From Seneca and
Martial it appears probable they were also forwarded by means of specularia, like certain
culinary proauctions to be afterwards mentioned.
49- Scientific assemblages of plants, or botanic gardens, appear to have been unknown to
the Romans, who had formed no regular system of nomenclature for the vegetable king-
dom. Pliny informs us that Anthony Castor, one of the first physicians at Rome, had
assembled a number of medical plants in his garden, but they were, in all probability, for
the purposes of his profession. Between 200 and 300 plants are mentioned in Pliny's
History, as used in agriculture, gardens, medicine, for garlands, or other purposes, and
these appear to be all that were known or had names in general use. (Pliny, Nat. Hist.
lib. xii. — xxvi. inclusive.)
Sect. III. Roman Gardening in respect to its Products for the Kitchen and the Dessert.
50. The term Hortus in the laws of the Decemviri, which are supposed to be as old as
the establishment of the Romans as a people, is used to signify both a garden and a
country-house, but afterwards the kitchen-garden was distinguished by the appellation
Hortus Pinguis. Pliny informs us, that a husbandman called a kitchen-garden a second
dessert, or a flitch of bacon, which was always ready to be cut ; or a sal lad, easy to be
cooked and light of digestion, and judged there must be a bad housewife (the garden
being her charge) in that house where the garden was in bad order.
51. The principal fruits introduced to Italy by the Romans, according to Hirschfield
(Theorie des Jardins, vol. i. p. 27.) and Sickler (Geschichte, 1 Rand.), are the fig
from Syria, the citron from Media, the peach from Persia, the pomegranate from Africa,
the apricot from Epirus, apples, pears, and plums from Armenia, and cherries from
Pontus. The rarity and beauty of these trees, he observes (Theorie des Jardins,
vol. i. p. 27.), joined to the delicious taste of their fruits, must have enchanted
the Romans, especially on their first introduction, and rendered ravishing to the sight,
14 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
o-ardens which became insensibly embellished with the many productions which were
poured into them from Greece, Asia, and Africa.
52. The fruits cultivated by the Romans, in the summit of their powSr, are described by
Pliny (lib. xv.), and with the exception of the orange and pine-apple, gooseberry, cur-
rant, and raspberry, include almost all those now in culture in Europe.
Of kernel fruits they had, apples, twenty-two sorts at least : They had round berried and long-berried sorts, one so long that
sweet apples (melimalu) for eating, and others for cooker)'. They it was called dactulides, the grapes being like the fingers on the
had one sort without kernels. Of pears, thev had thirty-six hand. Martial speaks favorably of the hard-skinned grape for
kinds, both summer and winter fruit, melting and hard ; some eating. Of Jigs, they had many sorts, black and white, large
■were called libralia : we have our pound pear. Of quinces, and small ; one as large as a pear, another no larger than an
they had three sorts, one was called chrysomela, from its yellow olive. Of mulberries, they had two kinds of the black sort, a
flesh ; they boiled them with honev, as we make marmalade. larger and smaller. Ptiny speaks also of a mulberry growing
Of services, they had the apple-shaped, the pear-shaped, and a on a briar; but whether this means the raspberry, or the
small kind, probably the same as we gather wild. Of medlars, common brambleberry, does not appear. Strawberries they had,
two sorts, larger and smaller. hut do not appear to have prized : the climate is too warm to
Of stoile fruits, they had peaches, four sorts, including nee- produce this fruit in perfection, unless on the hills,
tarines, apricots, almonds. Of plutns, they had a multiplicity Of nuts they had hazel-nuts and rilberds, winch they roasted;
of sorts black, white, and variegated; one sort was called beech, mast, pistacia, &c. Of malnuts they had soft-shelled
asinia from its cheapness ; another damascena, which had and hard-shelled, as we have. In the golden age, w hen men
much' stone and little flesh : we may conclude it was what we lived upon acorns, the gods lived upon walnuts ; hence the
now call prunes. Of cherries, they had eight kinds, a red one, name Juglans, Jovis Glans. Of chestnuts, they had six sorts,
a black one, a kind so tender as scarcely to bear any carriage, some more easily separated from the skin than others, and one
a hard-fleshed one (durachui), like our Bigarreau, a small one with a red skin ; they roasted them as we do.
-with bitterish flavor (laurea), like our little wild black, also a Of leguminous fruits, the carob bean, ceratonia sUiqua.
dwarf one not exceeding three feet high. Of the olive, several Of resinous or terebinthinate fruits they used the kernels of
sorts# four sorts of pine, including, as is still the case in Tuscany, the
Of 'berries they had grapes. They had a multiplicity of these, seeds of the Scotch pine,
both thick-skinned (duracina) and thin-skinned : one vine Otcucurbitaccmis fruits, they had the gourd, cucumber, and
growing at Rome produced 12 amphorae of juice, 84 gallons. melon, in great variety.
53. The grape and the olive were cultivated as agricultural products with the greatest at-
tention, for which ample instructions are to be found in all the Roman writers on
Geoponics. Some plantations mentioned by Pliny are supposed still to exist, as of olives
at Terni and of vines at Fiesoli. Both these bear marks of the greatest age.
54. The culinary vegetables cultivated by the Romans were chiefly the following :
Of the brassica tribe, several varieties. Cabbages, Columella Of the alliaceous tribe, the onion, and garlick of several sorts.
says were esteemed both bv slaves and kings. Of sallads, endive, lettuce, and chicory, mustard and others.
Of leguminous plants, the pea, bean, and kidney-bean. Of pot and street herbs, parsley, orache, alisanders, dittancter,
Of esculent roots, the turnip, carrot, parsnip, beet, skirret, elecampane, fennel, and chervil, and a variety of others,
and radish Mushrooms, and fuci were used; and bees, snails, dormice,
Of spina'ceous plants, they appear to have had at least sorrel. &c. were cultivated in or near to their kitchen gardens, in ap-
Of as paraginous plants, asparagus. propriate places.
55. The luxury of forcing vegetable productions it would appear had even been at-
tempted by the Romans. Specularia, or plates of the lapis specidaris, we are informed by
Seneca and Pliny, could be split into thin plates, in length not exceeding five feet (a
remarkable circumstance, since few pieces larger than a fifth of these dimensions are now
any where to be met with); and we learn from Columella (lib. xii. cap. 3.), Martial
(lib. viii. 14. & 68.), and Pliny (lib. xix. 23.), that by means of these specularia, Tiberius,
who was fond of cucumbers, had them in his garden throughout the year. They were
o-rown in boxes or baskets of dung and earth, placed under these plates, and removed to
the open air in fine days, and replaced at night. Sir Joseph Banks (Hort. Tr. i. 148.)
conjectures, from the epigrams of Martial referred to, that both grapes and peaches were
forced ; and Daines Barrington supposes that the Romans may not only have had hot-
houses, but hot-walls to forward early productions. Flues, Sir Joseph Banks observes
(Hort. Tr. i. 147), the Romans were well acquainted with ; they did not use open fires in
their apartments, as we do, but in the colder countries at least, they always had flues under
the floors of their apartments. Lysons found the flues, and the fire-place from whence
they received heat, in the Roman villa he has described in Gloucestershire. Similar flues
and fire-places were also found in the extensive villa lately discovered on the Blenheim
estate in Oxfordshire. In Italy the Romans used flues chiefly for baths or sudatories,
and in some of these which we have seen in the disinterred Greek city of Pompeii, the
walls round the apartment are flued, or hollow, for the circulation of hot air and smoke.
56. The luxury of ice in cooling liquors was discovered by the Romans at the time
when they began to force fruits. Daines Barrington notices this as a remarkable circum-
stance, and adds, as a singular coincidence, the coeval invention of these arts in England.
Sect. IV. Roman Gardening considered in respect to the Propagation and Planting of
Timber-trees and Hedges.
57. The Romans propagated trees by the methods now in common use in our nurseries.
Fruit-trees were generally grafted and inoculated ; vines, figs, and olives raised by cuttings,
layers, or suckers ; and forest-trees generally propagated by seeds and suckers.
58. Though forest-trees were reared with great care round houses in the city (Hor. Ep*
i. 10. 22.), yet it does not appear clear that they were planted in masses or strips expressly
for useful purposes. They were planted in rows in vineyards on which to train the vine;
and the sorts generally preferred were the poplar and the elm. Natural forests and
copses, then, as now, supplied timber and fuel. Trees which do not stole {arbores ccedute),
were distinguished from such as being cut over spring up again {succisa repullulant) : of
the former class was the larch, which was most in use as timber. Pliny mentions a beam
120 feet long and 2 feet thick.
Book I. GARDENS OF THE ROMANS. 15
59. Willows were cultivated for binding the vines to the trees that supported them ;
for hedges ; and for making baskets ( Virg. G. ii. 4. 36.) : moist ground was preferred for
growing them, Udum salictum.
60. Hedges were of various sorts, but we are not informed what were the plants
grown in those used for defence. They surrounded chiefly vineyards and gardens ; for
agriculture was then, as now, carried on in the common or open field manner.
Sect. V. Roman Gardening as a Science, and as to the Authors it produced.
61. The gardening of the Romans tvas entirely empirical, and carried on with all
the superstitious observations dictated by a religion founded on polytheism. Almost
every operation had its god, who was to be invoked or propitiated on all occasions. " I
will write for your instruction," says Varro to Fundasius, " three books on husbandry,
first invoking the twelve dii consentes." After enumerating the gods which preside over
household matters, and the common field operations, he adds, " adoring Venus as the
patroness of the garden, and ofFering my entreaties to Lympha, because culture is
drought and misery without water. " The elements of agriculture, he says, are the same
as those of the world — water, earth, air, and the sun. Agriculture is a necessary and
great art, and it is a science which teaches what is to be planted and done in every
ground, and what lands yield the greatest profit. It should aim at utility and pleasure,
by producing things profitable and agreeable, &c.
62. Lunar days were observed, and also lucky and unlucky days, as described by
Hesiod. Some things, Varro observes, are to be done in the fields while the moon is
increasing ; others on the contrary when she is decreasing, as the cutting of corn and
underwood. At the change of the moon pull your beans before daylight ; to prevent
rats and mice from preying on a vineyard, prune the vines in the night-time : sow vetches
before the twenty-fifth day of the moon, &c. rt I observe these things," says Agrasius,
(one of fifty authors who Varro says had written on husbandry, but whose writings are
now lost,) " not only in shearing my sheep, but in cutting my hair, for I might become
bald if I did not do this in the wane of the moon."
63. Religion and magic were also called in to the aid of the cultivator. Columella says
that husbandmen who are more religious than ordinary, when they sow turnips, pray
that they may grow both for themselves and for their neighbours. If caterpillars attack
them, Democritus affirms that a woman going with her hair loose, and bare-footed,
three times round each bed will kill them. Women must be rarely admitted where
cucumbers or gourds are planted, for commonly green things languish and are checked
in their growth by their handling of them.
64. Of vegetable physiology they seem to have been very ignorant. It was a doctrine
held by Virgil, Columella, and Pliny, that any scion may be grafted on any stock ; and
that the scion partaking of the nature of the stock, had its fruit changed in flavor accord-
ingly. Pliny mentions the effect of grafting the vine on the elm, and of drawing a vine
shoot through the trunk of a chestnut ; but modern experience proves that no faith is to be
given to such doctrines, even though some of these authors affirm to have seen what
they describe.
65. Equivocal generation was believed in. Some barren trees and shrubs, as the
poplar, willow, osier, and broom, were thought to grow spontaneously ; others by
fortuitous seeds, as the chestnut and oak ; some from the roots of other sorts of trees, as
the cherry, elm, bay, &c. Notwithstanding the ignorance and inaccuracy which their
statements betray, the Romans were aware of all our common, and some of our uncom-
mon practices : they propagated plants as we do ; pruned and thinned, watered, forced,
and retarded fruits and blossoms, and even made incisions and ringed trees to induce
fruitfulness.
66. There is no Roman author exclusively on gardening, but the subject is treated, more
or less, by Cato, Varro, Virgil, Pliny, and Columella.
Cato and Varro lived, the former B. C. 150, and the latter B. C. 28 : both wrote treatises on rural affairs,
Be Re Rustica ; but, excepting what relates to the vine and the fig, have little on the subject of gardens.
Virgil's (icorgics appeared in the century preceding the commencement of our a?ra. Virgil was born in
Mantua about B. C. 70 ; but lived much at Rome and Naples. He appears to have taken most of his
ideas from Cato and Varro.
Pliny's Natural History was written in the first century of our aera. Pliny was born at or near Rome,
and lived much at court. The twelfth to the twenty-sixth book inclusive are chiefly on husbandry, gardens,
trees, and medical plants.
The Rural (Economy of Columella is in twelve books, of which the eleventh, on Gardening, is in verse.
He was born at Gadcs, now Cadiz, in Spain, but passed most of his time in Italy.
16
HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
Chap. III.
Clironological History of Gardening, in continental Europe from the Time of the Romans
to the present Day, or from A. D. 500 to A. D. 1823.
67. The decline of the Roman Empire commenced with the reign of the emperors.
The ages, Hirschfield observes, which followed the fall of the republic, the violence
committed by several of the emperors, the invasion of the barbarians, and the ferocity
introduced by the troubles of the times, extinguished a taste for a country life, in pro-
portion as they destroyed the means of enjoying it. So many injuries falling on the
best provinces of the Roman empire, one after another, soon destroyed the country-
houses and gardens. Barbarism triumphed over man and the arts, arms again became
the rei<nuno' occupation, superstition allied itself to warlike inclinations, and spread
over Europe a manner of thinking far removed from the noble simplicity of nature.
The mixture of so many different nations in Italy did not a little contribute to corrupt
the taste ; the possessions of the nobles remaining without defence, were soon pillaged
and razed, and the earth was only cultivated from necessity. Soon afterwards the first
countries were considered those where one convent raised itself beside another. Archi-
tecture was only employed in chapels and churches, or on warlike forts and castles.
From the establishment of the ecclesiastical government of the Popes in the eighth to the
end of the twelfth century, the monks were almost the only class in Europe who occu-
pied themselves in agriculture ; many of these, carried away by their zeal, fled from the
corruption of the age, and striving to overcome their passions, or indulge their gloomy
humor, or, as Herder observes, to substitute one passion for another, retired into
solitary deserts, unhealthy valleys, forests, and mountains ; there they labored with
their own hands, and rendered fertile, lands till then barren from neglect, or in a state of
natural rudeness.
68. Thus the arts of culture were preserved by tlie monks during the dark ages. The
sovereigns, in procuring pardon of their sins by bestowing on the monks extensive tracts
of country and slaves, recompensed their activity as rural improvers. The monks
of St. Basil and St. Benedict, Harte informs us, rendered many tracts fertile in Italy,
Spain, and the south of France, which had lain neglected ever since the first incursions of
the Goths and Saracens. Others were equally active in Britain in ameliorating the soil.
Walker (Essays) informs us that even in the remote island of Iona, an extensive estab-
lishment of monks was formed in the sixth century, and that the remains of a corn-mill
and mill-dam built by them still exist ; and indeed it is not too much to affirm, that
without the architectural and rural labors of this class of men, many provinces of Europe
which at present nourish thousands of inhabitants would have remained deserts or
marshes, the resorts only of wild beasts, and the seminaries of disease ; and architecture
and gardening, as arts of design, instead of being very generally diffused, would have
been lost to the greater part of Europe.
69. At length the dawn of light appeared with the art of printing, Luther, and Hen. VIII.
Commerce began to flourish in Italy and Holland, arts of peace began to prevail, and
the European part of what was formerly the Roman empire gradually assumed these
political divisions which it for the greater part still retains. We shall take a cursory
view of the progress of gardening in each of these states, from the dark ages to the present
day.
Sect. I. Of the Revival, Progress, and present State of Gardening in Italy.
70. The blessings of peace and of commerce, the remains of ancient grandeur still
existing, and the liberty which some cities had acquired through the generosity and splen-
dor of some popes and princes, united with other causes in the revival of the arts in Italy
rather than in any other countiy.
Subsect. 1. Italian Gardening, in respect to Design and Taste.
71. The earliest notice of Italian gardening is in the work of Pierre de Crescent, a
senator of Bologna. He composed in the beginning of the fourteenth century a work
on agriculture, which he dedicated to Charles II. king of Naples and Sicily. In the
eighth book of this work the author treats of gardens of pleasure. These he divides
into three classes ; those of persons of small fortune : those of persons in easy circum-
stances ; and those of princes and kings. He teaches the mode of constructing
and ornamenting each ; and of the royal gardens observes, that they ought to have
a menagerie and an aviary ; the latter placed among thickets, arbors, and vines. Each
of the three classes ought to be decorated with turf, shrubs, and aromatic flowers.
72. Gardening, with the other arts, was revived and patronised by the Medici family in the
beginning of the sixteenth century, and the most celebrated gardens of these times, as
Roscoe informs us, were those of Lorenzo de Medici, and of the wealthy Bernard Ru-
Book I. GARDENING IN ITALY. 17
cellal. They were in the geometric and architectural taste of those of Pliny, and served
as models or precedents for other famous gardens which succeeded them till within the
last sixty years, when, as Eustace observes, a mixture of the modern or natural-like
manner was generally admitted.
73. The taste for distributing statues and urns in gardens is said to have been revived
about the beginning of the sixteenth century by Cardinal D'Este, from the accidental
circumstance of his having formed a villa on the site of that of the emperor Adrian,
near Rome, where finding a number of antiquities, he distributed them over the newly
arranged surface. This mode was soon imitated by Francis I. of France, and afterwards
by the other countries of Europe. Gardens of plants in pots and vases, began to be
introduced about the same time, and were used to decorate apartments, balconies, and
roofs of houses as at present.
74. About the end of the sixteenth century, the celebrated Montaigne travelled in Italy,
and has left us some accounts of the principal gardens of that age. He chiefly enlarges
on their curious hydraulic devices, for which the garden of the Cardinal de Ferrara at
Tivoli was remarkable. (Jour, en Ital. torn, ii.)
75. About the beginning of the seventeenth century, L* Adamo, a poem, was written and
published at Milan in 1617, by G. B. Andreini, a Florentine. The prints, Warton
observes, (Essay on Pope,) that are to represent paradise are full of dipt hedges, square
parterres, straight walks, trees uniformly lopt, regular knots and carpets of flowers, groves
nodding at groves, marble fountains, and water-works. This may be considered as a poetic
assemblage of the component parts of a fine Italian garden in the seventeenth century.
76. After the middle of the seventeenth century, the celebrated Evelyn, the author of
Sylva, visited Italy, and has described a number of its principal gardens.
At Genoa he saw the palace of Hieronymo del Negro, " on the terrace or hilly garden, there is a grove of
stately trees, among which are sheep, shepherds, and wild beasts, cut very artificially in a grey stone ;
fountains, rocks, and fish-ponds. Casting your eyes one way, you would imagine yourself in a wilder-
ness and silent country ; sideways, in the heart of a great city."
At and near Florence, he says, there are more than a thousand palaces, and country-houses of note.
He particularises those of Boboli at the ducal residence (now the palace Pitti), in the town, which still
exist and are kept in tolerable order.
In and near Home, he mentions those of the Borghese family, and of Cardinal Aldobrandini at Frascati,
" surpassing, in my opinion, the most delicious places I ever beheld for its situation, elegance, plentiful
waters, groves, ascents, and prospects." He admires several hydraulic conceits, some of which still exist,
and also that " of a copper ball, supported by a jet of air issuing from the floor, and continually
dancing about."
At Tivoli he visited the palace and gardens of Este, which are mentioned with similar encomiums.
Of the palaces and gardens of Lombardy, he observes, " No disgrace in this country to be some gener-
ations in finishing their palaces, that, without exhausting themselves by a vast expence at once, they may
at last erect a sumptuous pile." " An Italian nobleman," Forsyth remarks, " will live on a crown a day,
but spend millions for the benefit of posterity, and the ornament of his country."
At Vilmarini, near Vicenza, he found an orangery, " eleven score paces long, full of fruit and blossoms.
In the centre of the garden, a magnificent wire cupola, supported by slender brick piers, and richly covered
with ivy. — A most inextricable labyrinth." {Memoirs by Bray, vol. i. 75—207.)
77. In the beginning of the eighteenth century Italy was visited by Volkman, a German
traveller, whom Hirschfield considers as deserving credit, and a good judge. He repre-
sents the Italian gardens as inferior to those of France in point of superb alleys, lofty dipt
hedges, and cabinets of verdure ; but, he adds, that they please the greater part of tra-
vellers from the north of Europe, more than the French gardens, from the greater variety
of plants which they contain, and their almost perpetual luxuriance and verdure.
Among the fine gardens, he includes those of Venerie, Stupigni, and Vigne de la Reine,
near Turin, which do not appear to have been visited by Evelyn. The beauties of most
of the gardens near Rome, he considers as depending more on their situations, distant
views, classic remains and associations, luxuriant vegetation, and fine climate, than on
their design, which, he says, exhibits " all the puerilities of the French taste, without its
formal grandeur." (Nachrichten von Italien, 1 ster band.)
78. About the middle of the eighteenth century the English style of gardening began to
attract attention in Italy, though partly from the general stagnation of mind, and partly
from the abundance of natural beauty already existing, it has never made much progress
in that country. " Unfortunately," observes Eustace (Tour, i. 426.), a traveller abun-
dantly partial to Italy, " the modern Romans, like the continental nations in general, are
not partial to country residence. They may enjoy the description or commend the
representation of rural scenes and occupations in books and pictures ; but they feel not
the beauties of nature, and cannot relish the calm, the solitary charms of a country life,"
The Italians in general, he elsewhere adds (i. 98.), have very little taste in furnishing a
house, or in laying out grounds to advantage. — Notwithstanding these remarks, and the
known paucity of specimens of landscape gardening in Italy, an Italian author of
eminence, Professor Malacarne of Padua, has lately claimed for Charles Imanuel, first
Duke of Savoy, the honor of having invented and first displayed an English garden or
park in the neighbourhood of Turin ; and which park he proves by a letter of Tasso,
that poet wished to immortalise " as much as he could," in the well-known stanza of his
Jerusalem, which Chaucer copied, and which Warton and Eustace suggest as more
C
HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
likely to have given the first idea of an English garden, than Milton's description of
Paradise. (New Mon. Mag. for July 1820.; Pindemonte su i Giardini Inglese, Verona,
1817.)
79. Of the present state of gardening in Italy, as an art of design, we shall submit a
slight sketch, partly from writers of the present century, and partly from our own inspec-
tion in 1819. The grand object of an Italian nobleman is to produce a huge pile of
architecture, externally splendid, and to collect a gallery of pictures and statues. The
furnishing of this pile for domestic use, or even the internal finishing of great part of it,
he cares little about ; and the park or gardens are inferior objects of attention. The
Romans, when at the highest point of power, seem to have had exactly the same taste, as
may be gathered from their writings, and seen in the existing ruins of the Villa Adriana,
near Tivoli, and many others.
80. Near Turin, the palace and gardens of Venerie still exist, but are only remarkable
for extent, and for an old orangery nearly six hundred feet in length. The surface of the
park is irregular, and the trees distributed in avenues, alleys, and geometrical figures ;
the grounds of some of the numerous white villas near the city are romantic, and
command extensive prospects ; but very few aspire to the character of fine gardens.
81. At Genoa the best garden is that of Sig. di Negro, situated within the city. It
is elevated, irregular, and singularly varied ; rich in views of the town, the sea, and the
mountains ; abounds in fruits, botanical riches, shady and open walks, turrets, and
caves. There is one large cave in which dinner-parties are frequently given by the pro-
prietor ; and once a year, we believe on his birth-day, this grotto is decorated with
some hundreds of religious puppets in gilt dresses, accompanied with pictures of saints,
sculls, crucifixes, relics, tapers, and lamps. This forms a part of the gardener's business,
who preserves these paraphernalia through the rest of the year in a sort of museum.
We mention the circumstance as characteristic of the Italian taste for spectacle, so different
from that of the English. The gardens of Hipolito Durazo, and of Grimaldi, are
more extensive, but less select than those of S. di Negro. Like them they are singularly
varied in surface, and rich in marine views. The whole coast from Savonna to Genoa,
and from Genoa to Nervi, is naturally very irregular, and abounds in beautiful gardens,
abundantly stocked with orange trees, partly in pots, and in the warmest situations trained
against walls, or planted as standards. We visited many of these gardens, and the only
general fault seemed to be the want of order and keeping ; properties which are essential
to the full effect of every style in every country.
82. The gardens of Lombardy are the most luxuriant in vegetation, not only in Italy,
but perhaps in Europe. The climate is not so favorable for the perfection of the grape
and the orange as that cf Naples, nor for the production of large turnips and succulent
cabbages as that of Holland ; but it possesses a medium of temperature and humidity
between the two climates which is perhaps favorable to a greater number of vegetable
productions, than any one climate on the face of our globe. There are few princely
gardens in this kingdom, but many of moderate size well stocked with trees and plants
of ornament, and sometimes neatly kept.
The gardens of the Brenta still retain marks of their ancient celebrity.
The extent and beauty of those of the kola Bella {fig A.), have been greatly exaggerated by Eustace,
and other travellers. The justest description appears to us to be that of Wilson. " Nothing,' he says,
" can be so noble as the conversion of a barren rock, without an inch of earth on its surface, into a
paradise of fertility and luxury. This rock, in 1640, produced nothing but mosses and lichens, when
Vitaliano Boromeo conceived the idea of turning it into a garden of fruits and flowers. For this purpose,
he brought earth from the banks of the lake, and built ten terraces on arches, one above the other, to the
top of the island on which the palace is posted. This labor has produced a most singular pyramid of
exotics and other plants, which make a fine show, and constitute the chief ornament of this miracle of
artificial beauty. The orange and lemon trees are in great luxuriance, and the grove of laurels (L. nobilis)
is hardly to be equalled any where in Europe ; two of them in particular are said to be the largest
known in existence." ( Wilson's Tours, vol. iii. p. 449.)
At Monza, the royal residence, near Milan, is the finest garden scenery in Italy. The park contains
upwards of 3000 acres, of a gently varied fertile surface. It is chiefly laid out in the regular style ; but
contains also an English garden of considerable extent and beauty. It is well watered, and the walks are
not so numerous as to disturb the unity and repose of the scenes. The culinary, flower, botanic, and
Book I. GARDENING IN ITALY. 19
fruit gardens, orangeries, and hot-houses, are all good, and as well managed as the penuriousness of the
present vice-king will admit. Very fine avenues lead from this residence to Milan. The whole was begun
in Beauhamois' time, under the direction of Sig. Villaresi, one of the most scientific gardeners in Italy,
and is still managed under his direction, but with greatly diminished resources.
There are various gardens pointed out to strangers as English, veramente Jnglese, near Milan, and also
at Verona, Vicenza, Brescia, Porta, &c. ; and Buonaparte caused a small public garden to be made in
Venice. " In many of the villas on the lake of Corao," Wilson observes, " it is most delightful to behold
the lofty crags frowning over the highly cultivated gardens, with hot-houses of exotic plants, neat terraces,
and ornamental summer-houses, subduing the natural wildness of the situation." Most of those which
we visited were too much ornamented, and too full of walks, seats, arbors, and other ornaments, for that
repose and simplicity which, according to our ideas, is essential to an English garden. Art, in most of
these gardens, is as much avowed as in the French style ; whereas, in the true English garden, though art
is employed, yet it is not avowed and ostentatiously displayed ; on the contrary, the grand object is to fol-
low the directions of the Italians themselves, and study that the art " che tuttofa, nullo si scopre."
83. At Florence, the ducal gardens of Boboli are the most remarkable. They oc-
cupy two sides of a conical hill, and part of a bottom, and consist of three parts ; a
botanic and exotic garden close to the palace Pitti and the celebrated museum ; a kitchen-
garden, near the hill top ; and, a geometric garden which occupies the greater part of
the hill. The scene abounds in almost every ingredient of the style in which it is
laid out. The ground being very steep, almost all the walks slope considerably ; but a
few, conducted horizontally, are level, and serve, if the expression be admissible, as rest-
ing walks. There are abundance of seats, arbors, vases, planted with agaves and
orange-trees ; and a prospect tower on the summit, from which, as well as from many
other points, are obtained fine views of Florence and the environs. In the lower part or
bottom is a handsome basin of water, with an island and fountains in the centre, verged
with a marble parapet ornamented with vases of orange-trees, and surrounded by
shorn hedges and statues. On the whole, nothing has been spared to render these gardens
complete of their kind, and the effect is perhaps as perfect as the situation, from its irre-
gularity and steepness, admits of. The public promenade to the Cassino, deserves notice
as among the best in Italy. It consists of shady avenues, extending for several miles on
a flat surface near the Arno, varied by occasional views of villas and distant scenery.
The trees are chiefly elms and chestnuts. There are numerous private gardens round
Florence, but none of them remarkable. The fortuitous scenery of Vallombrosa and
other romantic situations, are the grand attractions for strangers. On mount Fiesole
and thence to Bologna, are some country-seats with lodges, and winding approaches,
which, considering the arid soil, are highly beautiful, and come the nearest to those
of England of any in the warmer regions of Italy. The Tuscans, Sigismondi ob-
serves (Agr. Tosc), are the more to be condemned for having neglected gardening, since
their countryman, Proposto Lastri, has rendered De Lille's poem in Italian in a style
equal to the original. But the gens a leur aise, and the nobles, he says, have no love of
rural nature, and only come into the country after vintage to shoot for a few days, and
indulge in feasting. They come in large parties with their ladies, and in a few weeks
expend what they have been niggardly laying aside during the rest of the year. He men-
tions the Chevalier Forti at Chiari, and Sig. Falconcini at Ceretto, as having delightful
gardens ; adding that the country-seats of the Luquois are in the best taste of any in Italy.
84. The villas of Rome, Forsyth observes, are to this day the " ocelli Italice." Their
cassinos generally stand to advantage in the park, light, gay, airy, and fanciful. In the
ancient villas the buildings were low, lax, diffused, and detached. In the modern, they
are more compact, more commodious, and rise into several stories. In both, the gardens
betray the same taste for the unnatural, the same symmetry of plan, architectural groves,
devices cut in box, and tricks performed by the hydraulic organ. [Rem. on Italy, 173.)
A few cardinals, he elsewhere observes, created all the great villas of Rome. Their riches,
their taste, their learning, their leisure, their frugality, — all conspired in this single
object. While the eminent founder was squandering thousands on a statue, he would
allot but one crown for his own dinner. He had no children, no stud, no dogs to keep ; he
built indeed for his own pleasure, or for the admiration of others ; but he embellished
his country, he promoted the resort of rich foreigners, and he afforded them a high intel-
lectual treat for a few pauls, which never entered into his pocket. This taste generally
descends to his heirs, who mark their little reigns by successive additions to the stock.
How seldom are great fortunes spent so elegantly in England ! How many are absorbed
in the table, the field, or the turf ! Expenses which centre and end in the rich egotist
himself ! What English villa is open like the Borghese, as a common drive to the whole
metropolis? {Rem. on Italy, 216.)
The Villa Borghese is the most noted in the neighbourhood of Rome. It has a variety of surface
formed by two hills and a dell, and a variety of embellishments, cassinos, temples, grottoes, aviaries,
modern ruins, sculptured fountains, a crowd of statues, a lake, an aqueduct, a circus ; but it wants the
more beautiful variety of an English garden ; for here you must walk in right lines, and turn, at right
angles, fatigued with the monotony of eternal ilex. {Remarks, &c. 216.) Eustace says these gardens are
laid out with some regard both for the new and the old system, because winding walks are to be found
intersecting the long alleys. This is true ; but the whole is so frittered down by roads, walks, paths, and
alleys, and so studded with statues and objects of art, as to want that repose, simplicity, and massive
appearance, essential, at least, to an Englishman's idea of an English garden. Simplicity, however, is
a beauty less relished among the nations of the continent than in this country, and lessrelished by the
Italians than by any other continental nation.
C 2
20 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
The Villa Panfili displays the most architectural gardens of any about Rome. Here, as Forsyth ob-
serves, laurel porticoes of ilex, green scutcheons, and dipt coronets, are seen vegetating over half an acre;
theatres of jets d'eau, geometrical terraces, built rocks, and measured cascades.
A number of other villas might be enumerated ; but as far as respects gardens, the description, if faithful,
might be tiresome and monotonous. Even Eustace allows, that " howsoever Italian gardens may differ in
extent and magnificence, their principal features are nearly the same ; the same with regard to artificial
as well as natural graces. Some ancient remains are to be found in all, and several in most of them. They
are all adorned with the same evergreens, and present, upon a greater or less scale, the same Italian and
ancient scenery. They are in general much neglected, but for that reason the more ruraL" (Classical
Tour, vol. i. chap. 18.)
85. At Frascati, Belvidere, a villa of Prince Borghese, commands most glorious pros-
pects, and is itself a fine object, from the scenic effect of its front and approaches. Be-
hind the palace is an aquatic stream, which flows from Mount Algid us, dashes pre-
cipitately down a succession of terraces, and is tormented below into a variety of tricks.
The whole court seems alive at the turning of a cock. Water attacks you on every side ;
it is squirted in your face from invisible holes; it darts up in a constellation of jets d'eau ;
it returns in misty showers, which present against the sun a beautiful Iris. Water is made
to blow the trumpet of a centaur, and the pipe of a cyclops ; water plays two organs ;
makes the birds warble, and the muses tune their reeds ; sets Pegasus neighing, and all
Parnassus on music. " I remark," says Forsyth, " this magnificent toy as a speci-
men of Italian hydraulics. Its sole object is to surprise strangers, for all the pleasure
that its repetitions can impart to the owners is but a faint reflection from the pleasure of
others."
86. At Naples the gardens possess the same general character as those of Rome, though,
with the exception of Caserta, they are less magnificent.
The royal gardens at Portici are chiefly walled cultivated enclosures, abounding in oranges, figs, and
grapes, with straight alleys and wooded quarters entirely for shade. There is one small department, of a
few perches, devoted to the English taste ; but it is too small to give any idea of that style. There is also
a spot called La Favorita, in which, says Starke (Letters, ii. 125.), the present king has placed swings
and wooden horses, or hurly-burlies, (such as are to be seen at our fairs), for his own particular amusement,
and that of his nobility. The approach to this garden is through the palace court, great part of which is
occupied as a barrack by troops. The filth and stench of this court is incredible; and yet it is overlooked
by the windows of the king's dining-room, who sat down to dinner, on his return from the chace, as we
passed through the palace on the 2d of August, 1819. We know no scene to which it could be compared,
but that of the courtof some of the large Russian inns in the suburbs of Petersburgh.
The gardens of Prince Leopold at Villa Franca almost adjoin those of the king. They are less extensive,
but kept in much better order by a very intelligent German. The orange-groves and trellises in both
gardens are particularly fine ; and in that of Prince Leopold, there is a tolerable collection of plants.
There is in Naples a royal garden, in the geometric style, combining botany and some specimens of the
English manner, which is now enlarging, and his the advantage of an elevated situation and fine marine
views.
The Chiaja is a public garden on the quay, used as a promenade. The outline is a parallelogram, the
area arranged in three alleys, with intermediate winding walks, fountains, rock-works, basins, statues,
parterres with and without turf, and oranges, flowers, &c. in pots. It is surrounded by a parapet sur-
mounted by an iron fence, and contains cassinos for gambling, cafes, baths, taverns, &c. The view to the
bay, and the breezes thence arising, are delightful. It is justly reckoned one of the finest walking prome-
nades in Italy.
Extensive gardens of pots and boxes are common on the roofs of the palaces, and other houses in Naples.
Viewed from the streets they have a singular effect, and from their beauty and fragrance, from the fresh
breezes in these elevated regions, and the comparative absence of that stench with which the lower atmo-
sphere of Naples is almost continually charged, they are very agreeable to the possessors.
87. Tlie royal residence of Caserta is about seventeen miles from Naples. The palace,
in which, as Forsyth observes, the late king sought grandeur from every dimension, is
situated in an immense plain, and is a quadrangle, the front of which is upwards of seven
hundred feet long. It was begun in 1752, roofed in 1757, but is not yet, and probably
never will be finished. The park extends from the palace to a range of mountains at two
miles distance, some of which it includes. It may be said to consist of four parts ; open
pasture, almost without trees, near the palace ; woody scenery, or thick groves and copses,
partly near to, but chiefly at a considerable distance from, the palace ; mountainous scenery
devoted to game and the chace, at the extreme distance ; and an English garden on one
side, skirting the mountains. There are besides, St. Lucio a large village, a silk-manu-
factory, a farm, &c. ; all of which are described by different tourists ; minutely by Vasi,
in his Guide to Naples and its Environs, — and plans of the whole are given by L. Van-
vitelli, in his Disegni del Reale Palazzo di Caserta.
The cascade and canal of Caserta constitute its most remarkable feature, and that which renders this
park, in our opinion, the most extraordinary in Europe. The water is begun to be collected above thirty
miles' distance among the mountains, and after being conducted to a valley about five miles from Caserta,
is carried over it by an aqueduct consisting of three tiers of arches, nearly two hundred feet high, and
two thousand feet long. The volume of water is four feet wide by three and a half feet deep, and moves,
as near as we could estimate, at the rate of one foot in two seconds. Arrived at the back of the mountain
Gazzano, a tunnel is cut through it, and the stream bursting from a cave about halfway between the base
and the summit, forms a cascade of fifty feet directly in front of the palace. The waters are now in a large
basin, from which, under ground, tunnels and pipes proceed on two sides, for the purposes of supplying
the lakes or rivers in the English garden, the fish-ponds, various jets d'eau, and for irrigation to maintain
the verdure of the turf. From the centre of this basin proceeds a series of alternate canals and cascades of
uniform breadth, and in a direct line down the slope of the hill, and along the plain to within a furlong or
little more of the palace. Here it terminates abruptly, the waters being conveyed away under ground for
other purposes. The effect of this series of canals and cascades, viewed from the garden-front of the palace,
or from the middle entrance-arch, through that " long obscure portico or arcade which pierces the whole
depth of the quadrangle, and acts like the tube of a telescope to the waters," is that of one continued sheet
Book I.
GARDENING IN ITALY.
21
of smooth or stagnant water resting on a slope ; or of a fountain which had suddenly burst forth and
threatened to inundate the plain ; but for this idea the course of the water is too tame, tranquil, and regu-
lar, and it looks more like some artificial imitation of water than water itself. In short the effect is still
more unnatural than it is extraordinary ; for though jets and fountains are also unnatural, yet they pre-
sent nothing repugnant to our ideas of the nature of things ; but a body of water seemingly reposing on a
slope, and accommodating itself to the inclination of the surface, is a sight at variance with the laws of
gravity. Unquestionably the cascade at the extremity is a grand object of itself; but the other cascades
are so trifling, and so numerous, as in perspective, and viewed at a distance, to produce this strange effect
of continuity of surface. As a proof that our opinion is correct we refer to the views of Caserta, which are
got up by the Neapolitan artists for sale ; had these artists been able to avoid the appearance* in question,
even by some departures from truth, there can be no doubt they would not have hesitated to do so. A
bird's-eye view of this canal, in Vanvitelli's work {fig. 5.), gives but a very imperfect idea of the reality, as
seen from the surface of the ground, and especially from the palace and lower parta of the park.
Forsyth seems to have paid little attention to this water, having been chiefly struck with the palace.
Eustace says, " The palace is one of the noblest edifices of the kind in Europe ; the gardens extensive, re-
gular, but except a part in the English style, uninteresting. From a reservoir on the mountain Gaezano,
the water is precipitated down the declivity to the plain, where, collected in a long straight canal, it loses
its rapidity and beauty, and assumes the appearance of an old fashioned stagnant pool." (Tour in Italy,
vol. i. p. 602.) Wilson says, the cascade of Caserta might have been made the finest of its kind in the
world ; but it has been spoiled by a love of formality, which has led the copious stream drizzling over regu-
lar gradations of steps into a long stagnant canal. (Tours, &c. vol. ii. p. 217.)
The English garden of Caserta was formed by Grajffer, a German, author of a Catalogue of Herba-
ceous Plants, who had been some time in England. He was sent to the king of Naples about 1760, by
Sir Joseph Banks, and has formed and preserved as perfect a specimen of English pleasure-ground as any
we have seen on the continent. The verdure of the turf is maintained in summer by a partially concealed
system of irrigation ; and part of the walks were originally laid with Kensington gravel. Every exotic,
which at that time could be furnished by the Hammersmith nursery, was planted, and many of them form
now very fine specimens. Among these the Camellias, Banksias, Proteas, Magnolias, Pines, &c. have attained
a large size, and ripen their seeds. There is a good kitchen and botanic garden, and extensive hot-houses,
chiefly in the English form ; but now much out of repair. Indeed this remark will apply to the whole
place, excepting the palace. Graeffer laid out the gardens of the Duke de San Gallo, at Naples, and various
others. He was not liked by the peasants of St. Lucio, who, taking the advantage of him, when thrown
from a cabriolet, stabbed him mortally before he could recover himself, in 1816.
88. In Sicily are some gardens of great extent. A few are mentioned by Swinburne ;
and an account of one belonging to a Sicilian prince, remarkable for its collection of
monsters, is given in Brydone's Tour.
Subsect. 2. Italian Gardening in respect to the Culture of Flowers and Plants of
Ornament,
89. Flowers appear to have been little cultivated by the Italians previously to the 10th
century. The introduction of the Christian religion as a national worship, though at
present favorable, was at first adverse to the use of flowers. Tertullian and Clement of
Alexandria, in the second century, inveighed against their use with all their eloquence :
and the rites of religion, then carried on in gloomy vaults, were not, as now, accom-
panied by bands of music, statues, pictures, and enriched altars decorated with flowers.
P. de Crescent in the beginning of the fourteenth century, mentions only the violet, lily,
rose, gilly-flower, and iris. Commerce began to flourish in the century which succeeded,
and various plants were introduced from the Eastern countries, by the wealthy of Venice
and Genoa.
C 3
22 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
90. The earliest private botanic garden was formed at Padua, by Gaspar de Gabriel,
a wealthy Tuscan noble, at considerable expense. It was accomplished in 1525 ; and
though not a public institution, it was open to all the curious. To this garden suc-
ceeded, that of Corner at Venice, and Simonetta, at Milan ; those of some convents at
Rome, and of Pinella, at Naples, with others enumerated by botanical historians.
(C. Spreng. Hist. lib. iii. ; HallersBib. Bot. 21. j Tiraboschi's Stor. del Litt. Ital.; Gesner,
Hort. German.; Stephanus de Re Hortense.)
91. The first public botanic garden established in Europe was that of Pisa, begun, accord-
ing to Deleuze, in 1543, by Cosmo de Medici ; and of which Ghini, and Cesalpin, cele-
brated botanists, were successively the directors. Belon, a French naturalist, who was
at Pisa in 1555, was astonished at the beauty of the garden, the quantity of plants it con-
tained, and the care taken to make them prosper. In 1591 the number of new plants
was found so far accumulated as to render a larger garden necessary, and that space of
ground was fixed on which is the present botanic garden ; two borders were destined for
ornamental flowers, and a green-house was formed for such as were too tender for the
open air. In the beginning of the eighteenth century, a great accession was obtained to
the garden by the double flowers of Holland, then introduced in Italy for the first time.
(Calvio, Hist. Pisanu) The example of Pisa was soon imitated by other cities and univer-
sities in Italy and Germany. In 1545, (not 1533, as stated by Adamson-see Deleuze,)
the public botanic garden of Padua was agreed on by the senate of Venice. It contained
in 1581 four hundred plants cultivated in the open air, besides a number kept in pots to
be taken into houses or sheds during winter. The garden of Bologna was next estab-
lished by Pope Pius the Vth ; then that of Florence by the Grand Duke ; and afterwards
that of Rome. From that time to the present day, the numbers'of botanic gardens have
been continually increasing, so that there is now one belonging to almost every principal
city in Italy ; an exertion the more remarkable, as botanic gardens in that country are
proportionably more expensive than in England, from the necessity of conveying a stream
of water to them, and forming a regular system of irrigation.
92. A taste for fiowers and ornamental plants has thus become general in Italy • and at the
same time the means of gratification afforded, by the superabundant plants and seeds of
these gardens being given away, or sold at very moderate prices to the curious. About
this time also the Dutch made regular exchanges of their bulbous roots for the orange-
trees of Genoa and Leghorn ; and the double night-smelling jessamine was introduced
at Pisa from Spain, and so highly prized as to have a centinel placed over it by the
governor. (Evelyn.) The use of flowers, it is probable, was never entirely laid aside in
Italy as ornaments to female dress ; but in the progress of refinement their application in
this way became more general, and more select sorts were chosen ; they became in de-
mand, both gathered in bouquets, and with the entire plants in pots ; they were used as
household ornaments both internal and external ; and the church, thinking that what
pleased man must be pleasing to the gods ; or conforming to the taste of the times, and
desirous of rendering religion as attractive as possible to the multitude, introduced flowers
as decorations of altars and statues, and more especially in their fetes and processions.
Pots and boxes of orange trees, pomegranates, bays, oleanders, myrtles, and other plants,
are now let out by the day, for decorating the steps and approaches to altars, or sold for
ornamenting roofs, balconies, virandas, courts, yards, passages, halls, staircases, and even
shops and warehouses in most of the large towns of Italy. Notwithstanding this there is
a recent instance on record of a lady residing in Rome, commencing a law-suit against
her neighbour, for filling her court-yard with orange-trees, the smell of the flowers of
which was by the other considered as a nuisance.
For the church the white lily (Lilium candidum) is in great demand, with which the Madona, or
Madre di Bio, is decorated as an emblem of her virginity. The typha ( T. latifolia) is much used when
in seed to put into the hands of statues of Christ, being considered as the reed with which the soldiers
handed him a sponge of vinegar. In Poland, where the typha has not been easily procured, we have seen
leeks in the flower-stalk used as a substitute. The rose, the stock-gilly-flower, the jessamine, Sec. are
next in demand, and are used in common with such others as are presented gratis, or offered for sale, as
decorations indiscriminately to the crowd of statues and pictures of saints which decorate the churches,
to private houses, and as ornaments of female dress.
On occasions of public rejoicing flowers are also much used in Italy. Favorite princes and generals are
received into towns and even villages through triumphal arches decorated with flowers, and the ground is
also sometimes strewed with them. The lives of Buonaparte, Murat, and Beauharnois, afford many
examples. The Emperor of Austria made a tour of Italy in 1819, and though every where disliked, every
where walking on a mine ready to explode, he was in many places so received ; and at the famous cascade
of Marmora, near Terni, a slight arcade, 300 yards in length, was formed to guide the steps of the imperial
visitor to the best point of view. It was covered with intersecting wreaths of flowers and foliage, and the
sides ornamented with festoons of box, myrtle, and bay. At Milan, a very gay city, flowers are greatly
prized, and in the winter season are procured from the peculiarly warm and ever verdant gardens between
Genoa and Nervi. A louis-d'or, we were informed, is sometimes paid for a single nosegay. During the
carnival the demand is great throughout Italy.
93. Florists' fiowers, especially the bulbous kinds, do not succeed well in the dry warm
climate of Italy. Fine varieties of the hyacinth, tulip, ranunculus, auricula, polyanthus,
&c. are soon lost there, and obliged to be renewed from more temperate countries.
They excel, however, in the culture of the tuberose, which forms an article of comma ce
Book I.
GARDENING IN ITALY,
23
at Genoa, as does the paper narcissus (Ar. orientalis) at Naples. In roses, jessamines,
oleanders, oranges, they also excel ; and also in most single flowers not natives of cold
climates. Sig. Villaresi, already mentioned, has raised from seeds of the Bengal rose
{Rosa indica), impregnated promiscuously with other roses, upwards of fifty distinct
varieties, many of which are of great beauty, and very fragrant. In general, flowers
and ornamental plants are most in demand, and cultivated to the greatest degree of
perfection in Lombardy, of which the flower-markets of Milan and Venice afford most
gratifying proofs. Many of the Chinese, New Holland, and some of the Cape trees
and shrubs, thrive well, and blossom luxuriantly in the open air in the warmer regions,
as in S. di Negro's garden, at Genoa, and those of Pisa and Caserta. Evelyn says,
he saw at Florence, in 1664, a rose grafted on an orange-tree ; the same tricks are still
passed off with the rose, jessamine, oleander, myrtle, &c. at Genoa, and even in some
parts of Lombardy.
94. The taste for flowers and plants of ornament is rather on the decline than otheruise in
Italy. Much depends on the taste of the princes in this as in every other matter, and
unfortunately those of Italy are at present mere ciphers. The king of Naples knows
no pleasures but those of the table, the seraglio, and the chace. For the latter enjoy-
ment, the Pope has kindly given him a dispensation to hunt on Sundays. The Pope is
debarred from pleasure by his office ; the grand Duke of Tuscany has some taste for
plants, but more for a heavy purse ; his relation, the vice-king of Lombardy, is more a
priest than a prince ; though he has some fondness for succulent exotics, of the common
sorts of which, he has a large collection. The king of Sardinia is an old man, and a mere
king Dei gratia.
Subsect. 3. Italian Gardening in respect to its Products for the Kitchen and the
Dessert.
95. The Italian fruits are nearly those of the Romans, to which they have made but few
additions, if we except the orange and the pine-apple. The orange is supposed to have
been introduced between the time of Pliny and Palladius ; it is the fruit in which they
excel, more from climate and soil than science. There are supposed to be nearly a hun-
dred varieties of this fruit in Italy ; but in the orange-nurseries at Nervi, it is not easy
to make out more than forty or fifty distinct sorts. These have mostly been obtained
from seeds. They have not the Mandarine orange, nor some varieties of shaddock (C.
decumana), which we possess. The most regular and systematic orange-orchards are at
Nervi ; and the largest trees around Naples, at Sorenta, Amalphi, &c. The more rare
sorts are kept in conservatories at Rome, and the largest house, and best collection,
is that of the Borghese. At Florence and Milan, all the sorts required to be housed
during winter, but at Hieres and Nice in France, and at Genoa and Nervi, they stand
the common winters in the open air.
96. The stone fruits in which they excel are the peach and cherry. There are above twenty varieties of
peaches cultivated in the neighbourhood of Rome and Naples ; and these fruits, grown on standard trees,
as apples and pears are in this country, arrive at a very high degree of perfection. They have few sorts of
apricots and nectarines, and not many plums ; but their Regina Claudia, or gages, are excellent. Cherries
are everywhere excellent in Italy, especially in Tuscany. The Milan or Morella cherry, is noted for its
prolific qualities, and for having a consistency and flavor somewhat resembling the Morchella esculenta, or
morel.
97. The chief berry of Italy is the grape : their varieties are not so numerous as in France or
Spain ; and are, for the most part, the result of long growth on one soil and situation. Vineyard grapes
are indifferent to eat in most parts of Lombardy, and in the best districts are equalled if not excelled by
muscats, sweet-waters, muscadines, and other sorts grown in hot-houses in this country. The grape is
the only berry that thrives in Italy. It is not kept low as in France; but elevated, on trellises near
nouses and in gardens (fig. 6.), and trained
to long poles or trees in the fields. Collec-
tions of gooseberries from Lancashire have
been introduced at Leghorn, Genoa, and
Monza; and, grown in the shade, they thrive
moderately at the gardens of the latter
place. The currant, the raspberry, and the
strawberry, though natives of the Alps
and Apennines, do not thrive in the gar-
dens, but are brought to market from the
woods ; and so is the black mulberry, which
is there cultivated for the leaves, as hardier
than the white, and which Sigismondi at
at one time considered as a fruit elsewhere
unknown.
98. Kernel-fruits in general, especially
pears, are excellent in the north of Italy ;
but indifferent in the warmer regions.
Services in considerable variety abound in
Piedmont, and part of Lombardy.
99. The pine-apple is cultivated in a few
places in Italy, but with little success, excepting at Florence and Milan,
gardens at Portici, but weak, yellow-leaved, and covered with insects.
garden, and in one or two other villas near Rome, are little better. By far the best and greatest quantity
are in the vice-royal gardens of Monza. The last king of Sardinia sent his gardener, Brochieri, to England
C 4
There are a few in the Royal
The few grown in the Pope's
24 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
to studv their culture. He returned, and in 1777 published a tract on them, with a plan of a pit for their
reception ; and in this way they are universally grown in Italy. Such, however, is the exhalation pro-
duced in this dry climate from leaves so full of pores, as are those of the pine, and such the want of
attention to supplying large pots and plenty of water, that the plants are generally of a pale sickly hue,
and the fruit of verv small size. . - .
100 Of the Melon tribe, the variety in Italy is endless, of every degree of flavor, from the richness ol tne
cantaieupe. to the cool, icy, sub-acid taste of the citrouille or water-melon. Too little care is bestowed in
selecting good fruits for seeds, and in preventing hybridism from the promiscuous intercourse with sur-
rounding sorts of cucumis; and, hence, seeds sent from Italy to this country are little to be depended on,
and generally produce varieties inferior to those of British growth. There are a few sorts of cucumbers,
and though there are a great number of gourds and pompions cultivated, the sorts, or conspicuous
varieties of both, are less numerous than in this country. Italian cucumbers are never so succulent as
those grown in our humid frames by dung-heat. it_j_ «.- 4k,
The love-apple, ess-plant, and capsicum, are extensively cultivated near Rome and Jsaples for the
kitchen; the fruit of the first attaining a larger size, and exhibiting the most grotesque forms. It is
singular! that in Sicily this fruit, when ripe, becomes sour, and so unfit for use, that the inhabitants are
supplied with it fromNaples. , . . ,
101 Want of demand for the fruits of the northern climates precludes their production. Were it other-
wise "there can be no doubt means would soon be resorted to, to produce them in as great perfection as we
do their fruits here ; all that is necessary, is to imitate our climate by abstracting or excluding heat, and
supplying moisture ; but luxury in Italy has not yet arrived to the degree adequate to produce this effect.
W> Of culinary vesetables, the Italians began with those left them by the Romans, and they added the
potatoe to their number as soon as, or before, we did. They now possess all the sorts known in this country,
and use some plants as salads, as the chiccory, ox-eye daisy, ruccola, or rocket (Brassica eruca, L.), which
are little used here The turnip and carrot tribe, and the cabbage, savoy, lettuce, and radish, thrive best
in the northern parts : but the potatoe grows well every where, and the Italian autumn is favorable to the
erowth of the cauliflowers, and broccolis, which are found of large size at Rome, Florence, and Bologna,
in the months of September and October ; and very large at Milan, all the summer and autumn. The le-
guminous tribe thrive every where ; but in some places the entire pod of the kidney-bean is so dry and
hard as to prevent its use as a substitute for peas. In short, though the Italians have the advantage over
the rest of Europe in fruits, that good is greatly counterbalanced by the inferiority of their culinary vege-
tables Much to remedy the defect might be done by judicious irrigation, which in the south of Italy, and
even in Lombardy, is so far necessary as to enter into the arrangement of every kitchen-garden. Shading,
blanching, and change of seed will effect much ; but the value of good culinary vegetables is not known
to the greater part of the wealthy Italians.
103. Horticulture has made little progress in Italy. It is not in Italy, Simond observes,
that horticulture is to be studied ; though nowhere is more produced from the soil by-
culture, manure, and water ; but forcing or prolonging crops is unknown ; every thing
is sown at a certain season, and grows up, ripens, and perishes together. The variety is
not great ; they have only three or four sorts of cabbage, not more of kidney-beans, and
one of pea ; the red and white beet, salsify, scorzonera, chervile, sorrel, onion, schallot,
Jerusalem artichoke, are in many parts unknown : but they have the cocomera, or water-
melon everywhere. In Tuscany and Lombardy, it is raised on dung, and then transplanted
in the fields, and its sugary icy pulp forms the delight of the Italians during the whole
month of August. Though they have walls round some gardens, they are ignorant of
the mode of training trees on them. {Agr. Tosc.)
; Subskct. 4. Italian Gardening, in respect to the planting of Timber-trees and Hedges.
104. The self-sown forests of the Alps and Apennines are
the chief resources of the Italians for timber ; and timber-
trees are chiefly propagated for parks, public walks, and
lining the great roads. The vine is still, in many places,
trained on the poplar and elm {fig. 7.); but in Tuscany
and Lombardy, where the culture is deemed superior, the
common maple {A. campestre) and flowering ash (Ornus
europcea) are preferred. {Sigismondi, Agr. Toscan. ; Chateau-
vieux, Lettres, &c. 1812.) The most common tree for
every other purpose is the narrow-leaved elm, which lines
the road from Rome to Naples, for upwards of twenty miles
together. Near Milan, the Lombardy poplar is a great deal _
used- but a late author, Gautieri {Delia Influsso del Boschi, &c 1817,) argues in favor
of cutting down, rather than planting in the Milanese plains. The finest avenues and
public equestrian promenades in Italy are those around Milan and at Monza ; the trees
are of various sorts, as the tulip-tree, platanus, lime, acacia, melia zederach, various oaks,
chestnuts beeches, &c. ; they were planted in Beauharnois' time ; and such is the rapidity
of vegetation in this climate, that already the tulip-trees produce blossoms, and in seven
years more the effect will be complete. The sorts are every where mixed, in order that
the failure or defective growth of one species may have a chance of being compensated
bv the growth of that, or of those adjoining ; or that if a malady were to attack one sort
of tree it might not lead to continuous defalcation. Most of those trees were planted
by VUhresi, who, before the late political changes, had constantly under his direction not
fewer than three thousand men for public and royal improvements.
105 The timber-trees of the native forests of Italy are chiefly oak, chestnut, and beech ; the
under<n-owths are of numerous species, including the arbutus, ilex, and myrtle. This
class of forests skirts the Alpine mountains, and covers, in many places, the Apennine
hills In higher regions the larch abounds, and in sheltered dells the silver fir. Ihe
Book I. GARDENING IN ITALY. 25
stone and cluster pine are confined to the lower regions, as the hills of Tuscany, the
vales of Arno, Tiber, &c.
106. Hedges are in general use in Italy, but are very imperfectly formed and managed.
In Lombardy the hawthorn is a good deal used ; but in Tuscany, the States of the
Church, and those parts of the Neapolitan territory which are hedged, the rhamnus pali-
urus is the prevailing plant, mixed, however, with the pyracantha, pomegranate, myrtle,
asparagus retrofractus, and with wild roses, brambles, hazels, reeds, &c. seldom without
gaps and holes, open or filled up with dead bushes or reeds. The willow alone often
forms a hedge in Lombardy, where the shoots are valuable for tying up the vine.
Subsect. 5. Italian Gardening, as empirically practised.
107. Gardens in Italy are common to the rural class of citizens. It is a general remark of
travellers, and of acknowledged truth, that the state of cottage gardens indicates the state
of the cottagers ; and those of Italy confirm the justness of the observation. Almost
the only plants grown in them are gourds and Indian corn. In Tuscany and Lombardy
some of the cabbage tribe, the kidney-bean, and occasionally the potatoe are to be seen, but
rarely any thing else. The gardens of the farmers are somewhat better, especially in the
northern districts, where they often contain patches of hemp, potatoes, parsnips, lettuce,
and some flowers and fruit-trees. The gardens of small proprietors are still better
stocked ; those of wealthy bankers and merchants are generally the best in Italy. The
gardens of the more wealthy nobles are only superior by their extent, and are dis-
tinguished as such, by having more or less of an accompanying park. The gardens of
the convents are, in general, well cultivated, and rich in fruits and culinary vegetables,
with some flowers and evergreens for church decorations. The priests assist in their
cultivation, and some of these men are much attached to gardening.
108. For commercial purposes gardening is chiefly practised by market-gardeners, who also
grow flowers, act as orchardists, and often make wine. There are hardly any nurseries
for trees and shrubs in Italy, if we except those for orange-trees at Nervi, and two small
ones for general purposes at Milan. Those who form new gardens are chiefly supplied
from France, or from their friends, or from private gardens ; most of which last sell
whatever they have got to spare.
109. The operative part of gardening in Italy is performed more by labourers than by regu-
lar apprentices and journeymen ; and thus good practical gardeners are more the result
of accident than of design. The great defect of both is the want of a taste for order and
neatness. The Italians are particularly unskilful in the management of plants in pots,
and especially exotics, which require protection by glass. These are put into houses
with upright or slightly declining glass fronts, and opaque roofs ; there they remain
during a winter of from three to five months ; want of light and air renders their leaves
yellow and cadaverous ; and when they are taken out they are placed in the most exposed
parts of the garden, often on parapets, benches, or stages. Here the sudden excess of
light soon causes them to lose their leaves, which they have hardly time to regain before
the period arrives for replacing them in the conservatory or hot-house. We know of few
exceptions to this censure, excepting at Monza, and Caserta, where they are kept in
winter, in glass-roofed houses, as in England, and placed out in summer under the shade
of poplars or high walls. Dr. Oct. Tazetti, professor of rural economy at Florence,
who lectures in a garden in which specimens are displayed of the leading sorts of Italian
field and garden -culture, acknowledged the justness of this remark.
1 10. The artists or professors are of two classes. First, The architects, who adopt the rural
branch of their art, {architetti rustici,) and who give plans for parks, chiefly or almost
entirely in the geometric style, to be executed under their direction, and that of the head
gardener. Secondly, The artist-gardeners, (artisti giardinieri,) who are generally the
gardeners, or directors of gardens, of some great establishment, public or private, and
who give plans for gardens, chiefly in what is there considered the English manner, and
for kitchen-gardens ; and as in England, either direct, by occasional visits, or undertake
bv contract, their execution and future occasional inspection.
Subsect. 6. Italian Gardening, as a Science, and as to the Authors it has produced.
111. By the establishment of professorships of botany and botanic gardens, in the sixteenth
century, the Italians have materially contributed to the study of the vegetable kingdom,
without some knowledge of the physiology of which, the practice of gardening must
be entirely empirical. Malpighi is considered the father of vegetable physiology in Italy.
It must be confessed, however, that the scientific knowledge of the Italians is chiefly
confined to their professors and learned men : the practical gardener is yet too ignorant
either to study or understand the subject ; too much prejudiced to old opinions to re-
ceive new ideas ; and, partly from climate, but chiefly from political and religious slavery,
too indifferent to wish to be informed. Some exceptions must be made in favor of such
gardeners as have been apprenticed in botanic and eminent gardens, or under intelligent
Germans, who are here and there to be found superintending the gardens of the nobles.
26 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
The bastardising of the cucumis tribe, by proximity, and the striking phenomena of the
male and female hemp, have introduced some vague ideas of the sexuality of vegetables ;
but the use of leaves, by far the most important knowledge which a gardener can possess,
seems no where understood by ordinary master-gardeners. Grafting and layering are
practised without any knowledge of the effects of the returning sap, or of the exclusion
of air and light. Nothing can be worse than the practice of budding orange-trees at
Nervi ; to be convinced of which, it is only necessary to compare the plants imported
from thence, with those brought from Malta or Paris. The culture of the vine, the olive,
and the fig, belongs to the rural economy of the country ; that of the vine is abundantly
careless, and the practice of the caprification of the fig, though laughed at by the pro-
fessors, is still followed in various places near Rome and Naples.
112. Religious and lunar observances are still followed by the gardeners in most parts of
Italy. With the Romans it was customary before any grand operation of agriculture
was undertaken, to consult or invoke the god of that department, as of Flora, Pomona,
&c. and to pay attention to the age of the moon and other signs. A good deal of this
description of ceremony is still carried on in general economy, by the priests and
farmers, and gardening has not yet entirely thrown off the same badge of ignorance
and religious slavery. Many gardeners regulate their sowings of kitchen-crops by the
moon, others call the priests to invoke a blessing on large breadths of any main crop ;
some, on minor occasions, officiate for themselves, and we have seen a poor market-
gardener at Savonna muttering a sort of grace to the virgin over a bed of new-sown
onions. Father Clarici, a priest who published Istoria e Culture delle Piante, &c. so
late as 1726, countenances most of these practices, and describes many absurd and foolish
ceremonies used for procuring good crops, and destroying insects.
113. Of the Italian authors on gardening, few or none are original. Filippo Re has
written a great many books, and may be compared to our Bradley. Silvo Sigismondi,
of Milan, has written a work on English gardening, resembling that of Hirschfield, of
which it is, in great part, a translation. Clarici is a very copious writer on culinary
gardening, and the culture of flowers ; and the most approved writer on the orange
tribe is Gallesio of Savonna.
Sect. II. Of the Revival, Progress, and present State of Gardening in Holland and
Flanders.
114. Gardening was first brought to a high degree if perfection in Holland and the
Netherlands. The crusades, in the twelfth century, are generally supposed to have
excited a taste for building and gardening in the north of Europe. But from Ste-
phanus and Gesner, it appears that a taste for plants existed among the Dutch, even
previously to this period. It is to be regretted that scarcely any materials are to be
found from which to compose such a history as this interesting circumstance requires.
Harte {Essays on Agriculture) conjectures that the necessities arising from the original
barrenness of the soil (that of Flanders having been formerly like what Arthur Young de-
scribes Norfolk to have been nearly a century ago), together with a certain degree of
libertv, the result of the remoteness of the situation from kings and priests, may have
contributed to improve their agriculture ; and that the wealth acquired by the commercial
men of Holland, then the most eminent in the world, enabled them to indulge in
country-houses and gardens, and to import foreign plants. To this we may add,
that the climate and soil are singularly favorable for horticulture and floriculture, the
two departments in which the Dutch are most eminent.
Subsect. 1. Dutch Gardening, as an Art of Design and Taste.
115. The Dutch are generally considered as having a particular taste in gardening, yet
their gardens, Hirschfield observes, appear to differ little in design from those of the
French. The characteristics of both are symmetry and abundance of ornaments. The
only difference to be remarked is, that the gardens of Holland are more confined, more
covered with frivolous ornaments, and intersected with still, and often muddy pieces of
water. The gardens of Ryswick, Houslaerdyk, and Sorgvliet were, in the beginning
of the last century, the most remarkable for geometrical beauty of form, richness in trees
and plants, and careful preservation. It is singular, our author observes, that the Dutch
are so fond of intersecting their gardens with canals and ditches of stagnant water,
which, so far from being agreeable, are muddy and ugly, and fill the air with unwhole-
some vapours. Yet they carry this taste, which has no doubt originated in the nature
of their country, to the East Indies ; and the numerous country-houses belonging to
the Dutch settlement in Batavia are all furnished with gardens and canals like those
in the neighbourhood of Amsterdam ; as if to render the unwholesome air of that
country still more dangerous. Every field is there crossed by a canal ; and houses on
eminences are surrounded at great expense by moats and draw-bridges like those of the
Hague. Such is the influence of habit, and the love of country ; and, therefore, how-.
Cook I.
GARDENING IN HOLLAND.
27
ever at variance with local circumstances, and sometimes even with utility, it cannot be
altogether condemned.
116. Grassy slopes and green terraces and ivalks are more common in Holland than in any
other country of the continent, because the climate and soil are favorable for turf; and
these verdant slopes and mounds may be said to form, with their oblong canals, the
characteristics of the Dutch style of laying out grounds.
117. Hague, the Versailles and Kensington of Holland, and in fact the most magnificent village in Europe,
contains two royal palaces with their gardens in the ancient style. Evelyn, in 1641, describes them as
" full of ornament, close walks, statues, marbles, grottoes, fountains, and artificial music ;" and of the
village he says, " beautiful lime-trees are set in rows before every man's house." Sir J. E. Smith {Tour
on the Continent, vol. i.) described them in 1783, the one garden as full of serpentine and the other as full
of straight lines. In 1814, these gardens had lost much of their former beauty, partly from age and decay,
but principally from neglect. Jacob {Travels in Germany), in the same year, found them formal and
crowded with high trees. Neill, in 1817, found in them nothing becoming royalty.
118. At Broeck and Alkmaar the ancient style is still maintained
in its purity in the villa gardens. M. Seterveldt's garden near Utrecht
is also a carefully preserved specimen. Here the grand divisions of the
garden are made by tall thick hedges of beech, hornbeam, and oak,
and the lesser by yew and box. There are avenue walks, and berceau
walks, with openings in the shape of windows in the sides, verdant
houses, rustic seats {fig. 8.), canals, ponds, grottoes, fountains, statues,
and other devices ; "and," adds the horticultural tourist, "we were
struck with this circumstance, that every thing in this garden has its
most exact counterpart: if there be a pond, or walk, or statues, or a
group of evergreens, on one side; the same may, with confidence,
be predicted on the other side of the garden ; so that the often quoted
couplet of Pope, ' Grove nods at grove, &c.' can no where be better
exemplified." {Hort. Tour, 249.)
119. At Brussels, among other curiosities, Evelyn mentions a hedge
of jets cTeau, lozenge-fashion, surrounding a parterre ; and " the park
within the walls of the city furnished with whatever may render it
agreeable, melancholy, and country-like." It contained " a stately
heronry, divers springs of water, artificial cascades, walks, grottoes,
statues^ and root-houses." This park was considerably enlarged some
years ago; the then decayed root-houses, grottoes, and more curious water- works removed, and the
whole divided by broad sanded paths, and decorated with good statues, seats, fountains, and cafes for
refreshment.
3
--^-Si* •.-'-^*<<^*
1 20. The modem, or English style of gardening, Sir
J. E. Smith informs us, was "quite the fashion" in
Holland, in 1783; but neither the surface of the
ground, the confined limits of territorial property, nor
the general attention to frugality and economy, are
favorable to this style. Some attempts, on a small
scale, may be seen from the canals, but we know
of no extensive parks and pleasure-grounds in this
manner.
121. An example of a Flemish garden in the English
style (Jig. 9.) is given by Kraft; it is of small size,
but varied by the disposition of the trees, rustic
seats, and raised surfaces ; and surrounded, as Dutch
and Flemish gardens usually are, by a canal. It was
laid out by Charpentier, gardener to the senate of
France, in the time of Napoleon.
122. The villa of M. Bertrand of Bruges is thus noticed in the Caledonian Horticultural
Tour : —
It has extensive grounds, and is flat, but well varied by art. Where the straight walks cross each
other at right angles, the centre of the point of intersection is shaped into an oblong parterre, resem-
bling a basket of flowers, and containing showy geraniums in pots, and gaudy flowers of a more hardy
kind planted in the earth.
Some things are in very bad taste. At every resting-place, some kind of conceit is provided for sur-
prising the visitant : if he sit down, it is ten to one but the seat is so contrived as to sink under him ;
if he enter the grotto, or approach the summer-house, water is squirted from concealed or disguised
fountains, and he does not find it easy to escape a wetting. The dial is provided with several gnomons,
calculated to show the corresponding hour at the chief capital cities of Europe ; and also with a lens so
placed, that during sunshine, the priming of a small cannon falls under its focus just as the sun reaches
the meridian, when of course the cannon is discharged.
The principal ornament of the place consists in a piece of %vater, over which a bridge is thrown ; at one
end of the bridge is an artificial cave fitted up like a lion's den, the head of a lion cut in stone peeping
from the entrance. Above the cave is a pagoda, which forms a summer-house three stories high. At
the top is a cistern which is filled by means of a forcing-pump, and which supplies the mischievous fountains
already mentioned.
The' little lawns near the mansion-house are decorated with many small plants of the double pome-
granate, sweet bav, laurustinus, and double myrtle, planted in large ornamented flower-pots and in tubs.
These plants are all trained with a stem three or four feet high, and with round bushy heads after the
manner of pollard willows in English meadows. The appearance produced by a collection of such plants
is inconceivably stift", to an eye accustomed to a more natural mode of training. Eight American aloes
{Agave Americana), also in huge Dutch flower-pots, finish the decoration of the lawn, and it must be
confessed, harmonize very well with the formal evergreens just described. A very good collection of
orange-trees in tubs was disposed along the sides of the walks in the flower-garden : two of the myrtle-
leaved variety were excellent specimens. All of these were pollarded in the style of the evergreen plants.
The soil of the place, being a mixture of tine vegetable mould, resembling surface peat-earth, with a
considerable proportion of white sand, seems naturally congenial to the growth of American shrubs ; and,
28
HISTORY OF GARDENING.
Part I.
indeed, rhododendrons, magnolias, and azaleas thrive exceedingly. In the open border of the flower-
garden we saw dahlias in great vigour and beauty.
Several kinds of tender plants were plunged in the open border for summer, particularly the Peruvian
heliotrope {Heliotropium Peruvianum), the specimens of which were uncommonly luxuriant, and, being
now in full flower, spread their rich fragrance all around. The European heliotrope [H. Europarum) is
likewise not uncommon in the flower-borders.
In the Jruit-garden we first saw pear and apple trees trained en pyr amide or en quenouille' i. e. pre-
serving only an upright leader, and cutting in the lateral branches every year.
The hot-houses cover ike north side of the fruit-garden. In the centre is a stove or hot-house for the
most tender plants; on each side of this is a green-house for sheltering more hardy exotics during
winter ; and at each extremity is a house partly occupied with peach-trees, and partly with grape vines.
In the space of ground before the houses are ranges of pine pits and melon frames. One frame is dedi-
cated to a collection of cockscombs (Cslosia critata), and these certainly form the boast of M. Bertrand's
garden ; they are of the dwarfish variety, but large or strong of their kind, and in brilliancy and variety
of colour, they can scarcely be excelled.
123. The villa of M. Meufemeester and the place of Marieleerne, in the neighbourhood of Ghent, are
described, but they were both in very bad order, though tolerably laid out, and having a good many hot-
houses.
124, The vilta ofM. Hopsomere is remarkable for three acres covered with groups of American plants of
great size and in the highest degree of luxuriance. An irregular piece of water expands itself among the
groups, and forms numerous bays, islets, sinuosities, &c. The surface is generally of turf, but in some
places in earth, with edgings of lieuth to the walks ; the walks are without gravel ; and the gardener, as in the
other places visited, was wretchedly habited, without shoes or stockings, and could not read. (Hort.
Tour, 74.)
125. The scat of Madame Vilain Quatorze (Jig. 10.), like most of the others mentioned,
and villas in general in this country, is interspersed with water, and the boundary of the
demesne, instead of being a wall, hedge, or belt of plantation, is a broad canal, over
which of course is seen the adjacent country. The grounds are of considerable extent,
and include a farm, pleasure-ground, kitchen and flower garden. A plan of a part of
the grounds round the bouse has been given in the horticultural tour, in which the fol-
lowing objects are indicated : —
A hot-house for erotic plants, (a)
An aviary with shvubs for the birds to perch upon. (6)
Gardener's room, (c)
Green -house. Entrance hy flight of wooden steps. (</)
Store for exotic plants. (-) "
Dry stove. (/)
Picture-gallery of a considerable height. It has an arched
roof, ard is lighted from the top. (g)
Dwelling-house. (A)
A large mirror is placed at the end of the passage. Lamps
are suspended from the ceilings of the house, gallery, green-
house, and stoves, at different places ( + ). When lighted,
the whole line, from the one extremity to the other, must be
reflected by the mirror, (i)
Grape and peach" houses. Peach trees are planted at the
back wall of each, and vines at the front, {le, A)
Pits for gTeen-house and stove plants. (/, /, /, /)
Pits for melons, cucumbers, and other tender plants, [m m)
Large bam. (n)
Stable and cow-houses, (o)
Part of the kitchen-garden. (/>)
Part of the pine-apple stoves, (q)
Corn fields, and a orop of Indian com, wheat, hemp, &c. (r)
The principal floor of the house and the picture gallery are
upon the same level, but there is a rise of a few -,teps to the
floors of the stove and green-house, which are elevated above
the ground more than nine fleet.
126. The place of M. Smetz is the finest near Antwerp. It was laid out in 1752 partly in the Dutch and
partly in the English taste, and contains at present, scenes of tonsile evergreens, vistas, canals, lakes,
secret water-works, caves, tombs, a lawn with a flock of stone sheep, a shepherd and dogs, dwarfs, a
drunkard, and other paltry contrivances. There are, however, good span-roofed hot-houses, rustic
seats, fine exotic trees, especially the purple beech (which here seeds freely, and comes purple from the
seed), catalpa and liquidamber, fine collections of dahlias, asclepias tuberosa, and lilium superbum,
in extensive groups ; and on the whole " as many natural beauties as can be expected in a flat
country, and instances of good taste and judicious management more than counterbalanced by those
of an opposite description." (Hort. Tour, 110.)
127. The villa of M. Caters de Wolfe near Antwerp is remarkable for two elegant curvilinear hot-houses,
erected by Messrs. Bailey of London, and glazed with plate glass. Their effect surpasses any thing
of the kind on the continent. A rich collection of the choicest exotics has lately been procured from
the Hackney nursery.
Book I. GARDENING IN HOLLAND. 29
128. The gardens round Rotterdam are generally many feet below the level of the canal. On the
Cingle, a public road which surrounds.the city are, a continued series of garden-houses nearly a mile in
extent; these miniature villas (lust hofs) being separated from each other only by wooden partitions, which
are generally neatly painted. To these the citizens with their wives retire on Sunday to smoke and take
coffee. (Hort. Tour, &c. 127.)
129. The palace-garden at Haerlem formerly occupied by King Louis, and originally the property of the
celebrated banker, Hope, is in no respect remarkable as to design ; but pines are grown there better
than in most gardens in Holland, and strawberries are successfully forced.
130. The Due d' Are ■mberg's seat nearEnghien, like many others in Flandersand Holland, was ruined during
the excesses of the French revolution ; but the Duke is now restoring it, and has begun with the gardens
rather than with the house. Extensive hot-houses are erected and many new fruit-trees planted. The finest
part of the park was not injured, and the horticultural tourists visited the celebrated temple of the grande
etoile. " This temple is of a heptangular shape, and at the angles on every side are two parallel columns
placed about a foot apart. From the seven large sides proceed as many broad, straight, and long avenues
of noble trees, affording rich prospects of the distant country in all these directions ; and from the seven
angles, and seen between the columns, proceed an equal number of small and narrow alleys, each ter-
minated by some statue, vase, bust, or other ornament. The temple is surrounded by a moat lined with
polished marble. The old orange-grove is situated at the end ot the avenue. It is one hundred and
seventy feet long, and twenty-seven feet wide, and contains one hundred and eight orange-trees in tubs,
many of them, as is the case in different old family-seats of the Netherlands, presents from the kings of
Spain 200, 300, and 400 years ago. The trees show straight stems of six or eight feet, and globular
heads, from which, according to continental practice, protruding shoots and blossoms are pinched off as
soon as they appear, for culinary and perfumery purposes. {Hort. Tour, 324. 372.)
Subsect. 2. Dutch Gardening, in respect to the Culture of Flowers and Plants of
Ornament.
131. The taste for flowers so prevalent in Holland, is thought to have originated with
their industry early in the twelfth century, the study of flowers being in some degree
necessary, as affording patterns for the ornamental linen and lace manufacturers. Lobel,
in the preface to his Histoiredes Plantes, 1756, states, that the taste for plants existed among
the Flemings during the crusades, and under the dukes of Burgundy ; that they brought
home plants from the Levant, and the two Indies ; that exotics were more cultivated
there than any where else ; and that their gardens contained more rare plants than
all the rest of Europe besides, till, during the civil wars which desolated this country
in the sixteenth century, many of their finest gardens were abandoned or destroyed.
Holland, Deleuze observes, had at the end of the seventeenth century, a crowd of dis-
tinguished botanists : and was then, as during the century preceding, the country the
most devoted to gardening. (Discours sur Vetat ancien et moderne de V Agriculture et
de la Botanique dans les Pays Bas. Par Van HuWiem, 1817; Extrait du Discours pro-
nonce, $c, a Gand, par M. Cornelissen, 1817.)
132. The botanic garden of Leyden was begun in 1577, thirty-one years after that of Pa-
dua. It was confided to Cluyt, a celebrated botanist, afterwards to Bontius, and in 1592,
L'Ecluse, from Frankfort, was appointed professor of botany. In 1599 they constructed
a green-house, and, in 1633, the catalogue of the garden contained 1104 species. At
this time the magistrates, the learned men, and the wealthy citizens were occupied in fa-
cilitating the progress of botany, and the introduction of new plants. A ship never left
the port of Holland, Deleuze observes, the captain of which was not desired to procure,
wherever he put into harbour, seeds and plants. The most distinguished citizens, Be-
verning, Favel, Simon de Beaumont, and Rheede, filled their gardens with foreign plants,
at great expense, and had a pleasure in communicating those plants to the garden of
Leyden. This garden, in Boerhaave's time, who, when professor of botany there, neg-
lected nothing to augment its riches and reputation, contained [Index alter Plant. 1720.)
upwards of 6000 plants, species and varieties. Boerhaave here exemplified a principle,
which he laid down (Elementa Chemia) for adjusting the slope of the glass of hot-houses,
so as to admit the greatest number of the sun's rays, according to the latitude of the
place, &c. These principles were afterwards adopted by Linnaeus at Upsal, and by most
of the directors of botanic gardens in Europe. It was in this garden, about the begin-
ning of the eighteenth century, that the gerania? and ficoidiae, and other ornamental
exotics were first introduced from the Cape. The garden of Leyden was visited by Sir
J. ,E. Smith in 1786 {Tour, &c. vol. i. p. 11.), who observes, that it had been much en-
larged within the last forty years, and was now about as large as the Chelsea garden.
In 1814 it appeared rather neglected; many blanks existed in the general collection of
hardy plants, and the hot-houses were much out of repair. It contains, however, some
curious old specimens of exotics, as Clusius's palm (Chamerops humilis), twenty feet
high, and upwards of 225 years old ; a curious ash, and various other trees and shrubs,
planted by Clusius. A new garden, in addition to the old one, and a menagerie, are
in progress. In this new garden the walks are laid with a mixture of peat-moss and
tanners' bark reduced to powder. Leyden, Deleuze informs us, was, for more than fifty
years, the only city in Holland where there was a botanic garden ; but before the middle
of the seventeenth century, they were established in all the provinces.
133. The botanic gardens of Amsterdam and Groningen merit particular notice The former was under
the direction of the two Commelins, John and Gaspar, and was the first garden in Europe that procured
a specimen of the coffee-tree. A seedling of this tree was sent to Paris in 1714. Two seedlings from this
plant were sent to Martinique in 1726, and these the Abbe Raynal observes (Hist, de Commerce, tome xvi.
ch. 20.) produced all the coffee-trees now cultivated in the French colonies. This garden still contains
many remarkable specimens of Cape and Japan plants. (Hort. Tour, 218.)
30 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
134. The garden of Groningen was begun by Henry Munting, a zealous botanist and learned man, who
had spent eight years travelling in the different countries of Europe, establishing correspondences between
botanists and cultivators. He spent the greatest part of his fortune upon his garden; but, in 1641, the
states of Groningen, thinking so useful an establishment ought to be under the protection of the republic,
purchased it, and appointed him professor. The catalogue of this garden, published in 1646, contains
about 1500 plants, without comprehending more than 600 varieties ; 100 of pinks, and 150 of tulips.
Henry Munting was succeeded by his son, Abraham, esteemed for his posthumous work, Phytographia
Curio'sa. Both these gardens are still kept up, but without that enthusiastic ardor which distinguished
the citizens of Holland, when under more auspicious political circumstances than they are at the present
time.
135. The Antwerp garden was formerly one of considerable repute in the Low Countries. In 1579 a cata-
logue of this garden was given by Dodoens (Florum et Coronarium arb. Hist.) which contained a consider-
able number of plants, including a great variety of tulips and hyacinths.
136. The garden of Clifford, near Haerlem, of which Linna;us published the history, was the most cele-
brated in 1737. Clifford got all the new plants from England, and corresponded with the botanists of every
country. Boerhaave gave him the plants of the Leyden garden ; Siegesbeck sent him those of Russia ; Haller,
those of the Alps; and Burman, Roell, Gronovius, and Miller, sent him portions of the seeds which they
received from different parts of the world. This garden had four magnificent hot-houses ; one for the
plants of the Levant and the south of Europe, one for Africa, one for India, and one for America.
137. The botanic garden of Utrecht was founded in 1630, and contains several palms and other exotics,
brought there at that time. It is still kept in tolerable order, but displays no kind of scientific arrange-
ment. (Hort. Tour, 244.)
138. The botanic garden of Ghent, established by Buonaparte in 1797, is, in the present day, the richest
and best garden of the Netherlands. The area is about three acres : it has a considerable collection of
hardy herbaceous plants, arranged after the Linneean method ; a pleasure-ground, in which the trees and
shrubs are distributed in natural families, and so as to combine picturesque effect ; an excellent rosary,
chiefly trained in the tree manner; and a range of hot-houses, in part with glass roofs. In the pleasure-
ground the busts of eminent botanists are distributed with good effect ; and on the large boxes of palms,
and other exotics, are marked the name of the donor, or the year in which the plant or tree was originated,
or introduced to the garden. On the whole, it is more complete than any garden we have seen south of
the Rhine, excepting that of Paris.
139. The royal botanic garden of Brussels has a good collection of orange-trees ; but in all other respects
is of a very inferior description.
140. The private botanic gardens of Van Schenen and Dr. Daaler, at Antwerp, are mentioned with ap-
probation in the Horticultural Tour. (p. 121.)
141. Tlie botanic garden of M.Parmentier, mayor of Enghien, is not only the richest in the low countries,
but, perhaps, in Europe. In 1817, Neill and his companions considered it as only exceeded in exotics by
the collection at Kew, or at Messrs. Loddiges.
142. Festivals of Flora are held twice a year, at midsummer and midwinter, by the
Agricultural Society of Ghent, and others. The plants are exhibited for three days. " By
a pleasing fiction, the plants alone are said to be competitors, and the successful plant is
said to be crowned." The reward is an honorary medal. {Hort. Tour, &c. p. 521.)
143. Florists' flowers began to be objects of commerce in Holland, about the beginning of
the seventeenth century. Double flowers were then first noticed, or brought into repute,
which may be said to have created a new aera in gardening, and certainly laid the found-
ation in Holland of a considerable commerce : — the more valuable, as it is totally inde-
pendent of political or civil changes, and founded on the peculiar qualities of the soil and
climate for growing bulbous roots. The florimania, as it is termed by the French, ex-
isted in the highest degree among the Dutch, from the beginning to the middle of the
seventeenth century. Many noted instances are on record, of the extravagant sums given
for flowers possessing certain qualities agreed on by florists as desiderata, and established
about this time as canons of beauty. Hirschfield states, that in the register of the city of
Alkmaar, in the year 1637, they sold publicly, for the benefit of the Orphan Hospital,
120 tulips, with their offsets, for 9000 florins ; and that one of those flowers, named the
Viceroy, was sold for 4203 florins. When we consider the value of money at this remote
period, these sums appear enormous, a florin at that time in Holland [Anderson s His-
tory of Commerce) being the representative of nearly an English bushel of wheat.
144. The commercial flower-gardens or bloemesteries of Haerlem have long been the most
celebrated for bulbous-rooted flowers. The name of Van Eden has been noted for upwards
of a century ; and there are now four gardens occupied by different members of this
family, celebrated florists. That of Voorhelm is of equal antiquity and celebrity. Of
the gardens of both families, and of several others, accounts will be found in the Horti-
cultural Tour. The most extensive and best managed is said to be that of Schneevoght,
lately a partner with Voorhelm.
145. The florimanists, Bosc observes, were much more numerous towards the middle
of the last century than at this moment (1809). " One does not now hear of twenty
thousand francs being given for a tulip ; of a florist depriving himself of his food, in order
to increase the number and variety of his anemonies, or passing entire days in admiring
the colours of a ranunculus, the grandeur of a hyacinth, or trembling, lest the breath of
an over-curious admirer should hurt the bloom of an auricula." The general price of
choice bulbs now, it is observed in the Horticultural Tour, varies from three to ten
guilders (a guild. = Is. 8d.j ; a few kinds are valued at from ten to twenty guilders ;
and the most select, new, and consequently rare, varieties, seldom fetch more than from
twenty to 50 guilders. Among the most precious at this time are, the Universal Con-
queror, Pompe Funebre, and Charbonier Noir, with yellow grounds; Louis XVI. and
Toilette Superieure, with white grounds, and the price of them is one hundred guilders
(£8 2s. 6d.\ a bulb. (Hort. Tour. p. 195.)
Book 1. GARDENING IN HOLLAND. 31
Subsect. 3. Dutch Gardening in respect to the Culture of Fruits and Culinary Vegetables.
146. The Dutch and Flemings are eminent as fruit-gardeners, but, as Harte observes,
they are better operators than writers, and having at the same time a good deal of the
spirit of gens de metier, we have almost nothing to offer in the way of historical inform-
ation. Those gardens, which Gesner and Stephanus inform us were so richly stocked
with flowers early in the sixteenth century, would, no doubt, be equally so with fruits
and legumes. One of the earliest books on the horticulture of the Low Countries, is
that of Van Osten, published about the end of the seventeenth century. They appear at
that time to have had all the fruits, now in common cultivation, in considerable variety,
excepting the pine-apple, which Miller informs us was introduced about that time by Le
Cour, of Leyden, from the West Indies, although not mentioned by Van Osten or Com-
melin. It is generally said, that about the same period all the courts in Europe were supplied
with early fruits from Holland. Benard admits (quoted in Repertory of Arts, 1802,) that
this was the case with the court of France, so late as the reign of Louis the Fourteenth.
Miller informs us that Le Cour paid great attention to gardening, and especially to the
culture of wall-fruits, and that he tried the effects of different kinds of walls and modes
of training. Speechly, early in the eighteenth century, made a tour in that country,
chiefly to observe the Dutch mode of cultivating the pine and the grape ; they forced, he
informs us (Tr. on the Vine), chiefly in pits and low houses, and produced ripe grapes
of the sweet-water kind in March and April. The Low Countries are celebrated for
good varieties of the apple and pear. The supplies of these articles sent to the markets
of Brussels, Antwerp, and Amsterdam, are equal, if not beyond any thing of the kind to
be met with elsewhere in Europe. The climate of Flanders suits these fruits ; that of
Holland is rather adverse to flavor, from its moisture ; but peaches, pines, and melons
attain a larger size than in France. Tournay is so much celebrated for its pears, that the
Ghent Society, in 1816, offered a prize for " the best explanation of the causes of the
superiority in size, beauty, and flavor, of the pears grown at Tournay." (Hort. Tour, 333.)
Forcing in pits and frames, is carried to great perfection in Holland, and melons and
pines are, at the present time, sent to the London and Paris markets, and sold for very
moderate prices.
147. The culinary vegetables of Holland are brought to great perfection. All the plants
of culture, and especially the cabbage tribe, turnip, onion, carrot, &c. are grown to
a large size, and very succulent. Of plants edible in their natural state, as the parsley
and other herbs, and the fungi, they have excellent varieties. For leguminous crops the
climate is sometimes too moist. Brussels is noted for the greens or sprouts, which bear
the name of that town ; and Van Mons informs us (Hort. Trans, iii. 197.) that they are
mentioned in the market regulations of that city so early as 1213. The Caledonian
Tourists, in 1817, found the markets of Ghent and Amsterdam better supplied with
culinary vegetables than any in Holland. The cauliflower was excellent. The Dutch
also excel in asparagus, carrots, and purslane.
148. Forcing-houses have been long in use in Holland, but the date of their introduc-
tion we have not been able to learn. It is singular that they are not once mentioned in
the early editions of Van Osten, published from 1689 to 1750 ; but Adanson (Families
des Plantes, Preface,) writing about the latter period, speaks of the hot-houses of the
Dutch in terms which evidently refer to forcing-houses. Orangeries, and botanic houses,
we have seen, (133.) were in use so early as 1599. Within the last twenty years the demand
for forced productions has greatly diminished in Holland. Summer, or what are called
main crops, are now chiefly attempted, both in public and private gardens ; but after the
annexation of Holland to France, and since its subsequent union with Flanders, the
spirit for enjoyments of even this sort, has declined with the means of procuring them.
Subsect. 4. Dutch Gardening, in respect to the planting of Timber-trees and Hedges.
149. Planting is not very general in Holland. In a country so thickly peopled, and
so conveniently situated in respect to marine commerce, it is not likely that much
ground would be devoted to merely useful plantations. In the more inland parts of
Flanders, there are natural forests and extensive copses ; these have been, and continue
to be kept up, and in some cases increased in extent by planting land too poor for culti-
vation. In Radcliff \s Agricultural Survey of that country, some account will be found
of their management. We observed, in 1819, some belts and clumps forming, in tha
English manner, on some waste lands near Cambray, and that the Duke of Wellington was
planting on his estate at Waterloo. Between Aranagoen and Rhenen, a tract of land,
several miles in extent, and no better in quality than Bagshot-heath, is planted with
Scotch firs, Weymouth pines, beech, and birch ; and many hundred acres adjoining
have been sown with acorns for copse, and enclosed with thorn hedges.
150. Avenues, hedge-rows, and ozier-holts, are the principal plantations of the Dutch.
In these they excel, and the country in consequence resembles a series of gardens.
32 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
Avenue trees, chiefly elms and oaks, are trained for eight or ten years in the nursery ;
repeatedly removed so as to become furnished with numerous fibrous roots, and pruned
so as to have clean smooth stems from ten to fifteen feet high. Avenues, being public
property, are under the care of proper officers. Judging from the vigorous growth
of the trees, and the manner in which they are pruned, these officers seem to under-
stand their business, and to do their duty. In Rotterdam, on the quays, are perhaps the
finest trees in Holland : they are narrow-leaved elms, upwards of fifty feet high, with
clear stems of twenty-five feet, and upwards, of a century old. At the Hague are re-
markably fine limes in the Mall, on the road to Scheveling ; and oaks, elms, and beeches,
round the palace called the House in the Wood. The hornbeam is a very common
plant for the garden-hedges. Every plant in the row or hedge is trained with an
upright stem, and the side shoots are shorn so closely, that we often find hedges of six
or eight feet high, not more than eighteen inches wide at base, contracted to six
inches wide at top. These hedges receive their summer shearing in July, by which time
scarlet runners are ready to shoot up from the garden side of their base, which in the
course of two months, cover the hedge with their fresh verdure and brilliant blossoms,
and present a good crop in October and the beginning of November. The Dutch have
also very excellent field-hedges of birch and willow, as well as of all the usual hedge-
plants, and the gardeners are particularly dexterous at cutting, training, and shearing them.
The deep moist grounds on the banks of their estuaries are particularly favorable for
the growth of the willow, and the hoops of two years' growth from the Dutch willow (a
variety of Salix alba, with a brownish bark,) are in great esteem in commerce. Their
common basket willows (& viminialis) are also excellent.
Subsect. 5. Dutch Gardening, as empirically practised.
151. Happily the use of gardens is universal in the Netherlands; and of the Dutch and
Flemings it may be truly said in the words of Lord Temple, " that gardening has been
the common favorite of public and private men ; a pleasure of the greatest, and a care of
the meanest, and indeed an employment and a possession, for which no man there is
too high nor too low." The gardens of the cottagers in these countries are undoubtedly
better managed and more productive than those of any other country ; no man who has
a cottage is without a garden attached ; often small, but rendered useful to a poor family
by the high degree of culture given to it. Every available particle of matter capable of act-
ing as manure is assiduously collected, and thrown into a neat ridge, cone, or bed, which
is turned over frequently ; and when sufficiently fermented and ameliorated, applied to
the soil. The plants in general cultivation in the cottage-gardens are the cabbage tribe,
including Brussels sprouts, the white beet for the leaves and stalks, the parsnip, carrot,
yellow and white turnip, potatoe, the pea, bean, and kidney-bean ; the apple, pear, and
currant, and in some places, the vine trained over the cottage, are the fruits ; and double
stocks, rockets, wall-flowers, pinks, violets, roses, and honey-suckles, the leading flowers
and plants of ornament. It is almost unnecessary to add, that the gardens of the trades-
men, farmers, citizens, private gentlemen, and princes, rise in gradation, in extent, riches,
and high keeping.
152. The principal nurseries, florists' gardens, and market-gardens are in the neigh-
bourhood of Amsterdam, Haerlem, and Antwerp. These gardens formerly supplied
trained trees, vines, and all the most valuable plants to Britain, and other parts of
Europe ; and the florists still continue to monopolise the commerce of bulbous roots.
Great part of the fruit-trees sent by London and Wise from their nursery at Brompton
Park, in the beginning of the 18th century, were previously imported from Holland ;
many of them reared in large wicker-baskets, were sent over in that state, and produced
fruit the first year after final planting. Justice {Brit. Gard. Dir.) gives credit to the
Dutch nurserymen for accuracy and punctuality 'r he mentions Voerhelms and Van
Zompel as tradesmen which he could recommend ; and it is remarkable, that the same
establishment (Voorhelm and Schneevooght) is the most eminent at this day. Garden-
seeds, for which Holland has long been celebrated, are chiefly grown by the market-
gardeners and small farmers round Haerlem. Roses are extensively grown at Noord-
wyck, between Leyden and Haerlem, for the apothecaries, and the dried leaves are sent
to Amsterdam and Constantinople. The sorts are, the Dutch 100-leaved and the com-
mon cabbage rose. A striking characteristic of Dutch fruit and forest tree nurseries is
the length of time the trees are trained in the nursery. They are so often removed there,
as to have a large fasciculus of fibrous roots, and the fruit-trees commonly bear for a year
or two before they are sold, at least for local planting. Ready-grown hedges and shrubs,
of various sizes and shapes, may be purchased ; and as they have been transplanted every
third year, like the trees, there is little risk of their not succeeding. At Brussels, pro-
fessor Van Mons has established a fruit-tree nursery, which he calls Fepimere de la Fide-
lite, in which are grown upwards of 800 new varieties of pear, raised by himself and M.
Duquesne of Mons, since 1803, besides new varieties of the other hardy fruit-trees.
Book I. GARDENING IN FRANCE. SG
1 53. The operative gardeners in Holland are for the most part apprenticed, and serve
as journeymen before they are employed to undertake the care of gardens where several
hands are employed ; but so general is horticultural knowledge, that every labourer is
considered as capable of cropping and dressing an ordinary tradesman or farmer's garden.
154. There are few or no artist-gardeners in Holland. Eminent practical gardeners are
employed to lay out walled kitchen-gardens ; and artists from Paris, generally called in
to lay out parks or pleasure-grounds of more than ordinary extent.
Subsect. 6. Dutch Gardening, as a Science, and in respect to the Authors it has
produced.
155. Horticulture as a science, has been less cultivated in the Netherlands than in
Italy or France. The botanists of the country were not among the first to advance the
study of physiology, nor has any of their practical men appeared with the science of a
Quintiney or a Miller. " The patience and riches," Bosc observes, " which produced
so high a degree of florimania in Holland, might have been usefully employed in ad-
vancing vegetable physiology; but science owes notliing to the Dutch in this branch."
At the present time, when science is so rapidly and so universally spread, the learned
in the Netherlands are unquestionably on a footing with those of other countries ; a proof
of which may be derived from the remarks of Van Mons, Van Marum, and other Dutch
and Flemish correspondents of our Horticultural and Linnaean Societies. The ma-
jority of working gardeners may be considered as nearly on a par with those of tins
country in point of science, and before them in various points of practice.
156. The Dutch and Flemings have Jew authors on gardening, and the reason may be,
the universality of practical knowledge in that country. Commelin and Van Osten are
their principal authors. The former published the Hortus Amslelodamus, in 2 vols,
folio, in 1697, and subsequently a small work on orange-trees; and Van Osten, who
was gardener at Leyden, published his Dutch Gardener about 1710. Various French
works on gardening have been printed at the Hague, and other parts of Holland.
Sect. III. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in France.
157. Three ceras mark the gardening of France ; that of Charlemagne, in the eighth ;
of Louis XIV., in the middle of the seventeenth ; and that of the Revolution, at the
end of the eighteenth centuries. The first introduced the best fruits, and spread the use
of vineyards and orchards ; the second was marked by splendor in design ; and the third
by increased botanical and scientific knowledge.
Subsect. 1. French Gardening, as an Art of Design and Taste.
158. Though tlie gardening of Charlemagne in the eighth century was chiefly of the useful
kind, yet he is said (see Nigellius) to have had a noble palace at lngleheim, on the Rhine,
supported by a hundred columns of Italian marble. This could hardly be erected,
without an accompanying and decorative garden, though the frugal habits of that prince
might prevent an extravagant display of design. From the Hortulus of Walafrid, pub-
lished in the beginning of the ninth century, it appears that gardens were in these times
made only within the walls of castles and monasteries.
159. Previously to the sixteenth century, any notices of gardening in France chiefly
relate to other branches than that under consideration. At the end of this century,
Francis the First built the palace of Fontainbleau, and introduced there some traits of
the gardening of Italy. Stephens and Liebault published their Maison liustique
about this time ; the early editions contain little on the subject of design, farther than
directions for forming avenues, arbors, and flower-gardens.
160. In the beginning of the seventeenth century, Hirschfield observes, the gardens of
France consisted only of a few trees and flowers, some plots of turf, and pieces of
water ; the whole, he adds, according to their own accounts, " totally deprived of taste,
and completely wild and neglected."
161. About the middle of the seventeenth century, and in the second year of Louis the
Fourteenth's reign, France was visited by Evelyn, who makes the following remarks on
the gardens in and near Paris: —
The garden of the Tuilleries " is rarely contrived for privacy, shade, or company, by groves, plantations
of tall trees, especially that in the middle, being of elms, and another of mulberries. There is a labyrinth
of cypress, noble hedges of pomegranates, fountains, fish-ponds, and an aviary. There is an artificial echo,
redoubling the words distinctly, and it is never without some fair nymph singing to it. Standing at one
of the focuses, which is under a tree, or little cabinet of hedges, the voice seems to descend from the
clouds ; at another, as if it were underground. This being at the bottom of the garden, we were let into
another, which, being kept with all imaginable accurateness as to the orangery, precious shrubs, and rare
fruits, seemed a Paradise."
St. Germains en Lay. " By the way I alighted at St. Cloes, where, on an eminence near the river, the
archbishop of Paris has a garden, for the house is not very considerable, newly watered, and furnished
with statues, fountains, and groves ; the walks are very fine ; the fountain of Laocoon is in a large square
pool throwing the water near forty feet high, and having about it a multitude of statues and basins, and
is a surprising object ; but nothing is more esteemed than the cascade, falling from the great 6tej»s into
D
34 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
the lowest and longest walk from the Mount Parnassus, which consists of a grotto, or shell house, on the
summit of the hill, wherein are divers water-works, and contrivances to wet the spectators."
Cardinal Richelieu's villa at Ruell. " The house is small, but fairly built in form of a castle, moated
round. The offices are towards the road, and over-against them are large vineyards walled in. Though
the house is not of the greatest size, the gardens about it are so magnificent, that I doubt whether Italy
has any exceeding it for varieties of pleasure. The garden nearest the pavilion is a parterre, having in
the midst divers brass statues, perpetually spouting water into an ample basin, with other figures of the
same metal ; but what is most admirable is the vast enclosure, and a variety of ground in the large garden
containing vineyards, corn-fields, meadows, groves, ,, whereof one is of perennial greens\ and walks of vast
lengths, so accurately kept and cultivated, that nothing can be more agreeable. On one of these walks,
within a square of tall trees, is a basilisk of copper, which, managed by the fountaineer, casts water near
sixty feet high, and will, of itself, move round so swiftly, that one can hardly escape wetting. This leads
to the Citroniire where is a noble conserve of all those rarities ; and at the end of it is the arch of Con-
stantine, painted on a wall in oil, as large as the real one at Rome, so well done, that even a man skilled in
painting may mistake it for stone and sculpture. The sky and hills, which seem to be between the arches,
are so natural, that swallows and other birds, thinking to fly through, have dashed themselves against the
wall. At the farther part of this walk is that plentiful, though artificial, cascade, which rolls down a very steep
declivity, and over the marble steps and basins, with an astonishing noise and fury ; each basin hath a
jette in it, flowing like sheets of transparent glass, especially that which rises over the great shell of lead,
from whence it glides silently down a channel, through the middle of a spacious gravel-walk, terminating in
a grotto. Here are also fountains that cast water to a great height, and large ponds, two of which have islands
for harbour of fowls, of which there is store. One of these islands has a receptacle for them, built of vast
pieces of rock, near fifty feet high, grown over with moss, ivy, &c. shaded, at a competent distance, with
tall trees ; in this the fowls lay eggs and breed. We then saw a large and very rare grotto of shell-work,
in the shape of satyrs, and other wild fancies ; in the middle stands a marble "table, on which a fountain
plays in forms of glasses, cups, crosses, fans, crowns, &c. Then the fountaineers represent a shower of
rain, from the top, met by small jets from below. At going out, two extravagant musketeers shot us with
a stream of water from their musket-barrels. Before this grotto is a long pool, into which ran clivers
spouts of water from leaden escallop basins. The viewing this Paradise made us late at St. Germains."
St. Germains. " The first building of this palace is of Charles V. called the Sage ; but Francis I. that
true virtuoso) made it complete. Speaking as to the style of magnificence then in fashion, which was with
too great a mixture of the Gothic, as may be seen of what there is remaining of his in the old castle, an
irregular piece as built on the old foundation, and having a moat about it It has yet some spacious and
handsome rooms of state, and a chapel neatly painted. The new castle is at some distance, divided from
this by a court, of a lower but more modern design, built by Henry IV. To this belong six terraces, built
of brick and stone, descending in cascades, towards the river, cut out of the natural hill, having under
them grandly vaulted galleries ; of these, four have subterraneous grots and rocks, where are represented
several objects, in the manner of scenes, and other motions by force of water, shown by the light of torches
only ; amongst these is Orpheus, with his music, and the animals which dance after his harp ; in the
second, is the king and dolphin ^dauphin) ; in the third is Neptune sounding his Trumpet, his chariot
drawn by sea-horses ; in the fourth, Perseus, and Andromeda ; mills, hermitages, men fishing, birds
chirping,' and many other devices. There is also a dry grot to refresh in, all having a fine prospect towards
the river, and the goodly country about it, especially the forest. At the bottom is a parterre ; the upper
terrace near half a mile in length, with double declivities, arched and balustered with stone of vast and
royal cost. In the pavilion of the new castle are many fair rooms well painted, and leading into a very
noble garden and park, where there is a pall-mall, in the midst of which, on one of the sides, is a chapel
with a stone cupola, though small, yet of a handsome order of architecture. Out of the park you go
into the forest, which, being very large, is stored with deer, wild boars, wolves, and other wild game.
The Tennis-court, and Cavalerizzo for the maneged horses, are also very observable."
The Count de Liancourt's palace, in the rue de Seine, " is well-built. Towards his study and bed-
chamber joins a little garden, which, though very narrow, by the addition of a well-painted perspective,
is to appearance greatly enlarged ; to this there is another part, supported by arches, in which runs a
stream of water, rising in the aviary, out of a statue, and seeming to flow for some miles, by being arti-
ficially continued in the paintiug, where it sinks down at the wall. It is a very agreeable deception. At
the eiid of this garden is a little theatre, made to change with divers pretty scenes, and the stage so ordered
that figures of men and women, painted on light boards, and cut out, are by a person who stands under-
neath, made to act as if they were speaking, by guiding them, and reciting words, in different tones, as the
parts require, &c."
A pretty garden at Caen, " planted with hedges of alaternus, having at the entrance a screen of an ex-
ceeding height, accurately cut in topiary work."
The gardens of the Luxembourg are near an English mile in circumference. " The parterre is, indeed,
of box, but so rarely designed and accurately kept cut, that the embroidery makes a wonderful effect to
the lodgings which front it. The walks are exactly fair, long, and variously descending, and so justly
planted with limes, elms, and other trees, that nothing can be more delicious, especially that of the horn-
beam hedge ; which, being high and stately, buts full on the fountain." [Memoirs, vol. i. 40 — 52.)
President Maisotis palace and gardens, " between St. Germains and Paris. The palace is environed by
a dry moat ; the offices underground ; the gardens are very excellent, with extraordinary long walks, set
with elms, and a noble prospect towards the forest, and on the Seine towards Paris. Take it altogether, the
meadows, walks, river, forest, corn-ground, and vineyards, I hardly saw any thing in Italy to exceed it.
The iron gates are very magnificent." {Memoirs, p. 239.)
162. The French taste in laying out gardens may be considered as having been settled
and confirmed by Le Notre during the reign of Louis XIV. Le Notre's taste and style,
Daines Barrington observes, continued in full repute for upwards of a century ; and
appeal's to have been in general vogue so late as 1771, fifty years after the introduction
of the modern style in England. However remarkable this may appear, it is a fact which
does not admit of a doubt ; for Alillin, the editor of the Journal Encyclopedique, in a
critique on the translation of "Wheatley's Observations on Modern Gardening, published
that year, after the most liberal encomiums on the work, expresses his doubts as to how
the modern style would be received in France, where he adds, " Le Notre's school is
still followed, and every rich proprietor is anxious that his garden, if it does not resemble,
shall at least recall to his mind those of the court, at Versailles, Trianon, Meudon,
Sceaux, or Clugny."
163. Le Notre was the most celebrated gardener that jrrobabli/ ever existed. If Le Notre,
observes Hirschfield, had been born under any other monarch than Louis the XIV., his
taste would, in all probability, never have spread, or his name been known to posterity.
But that age, in which a feeling for the fine arts had begun to awake in men's minds,
Book I. GARDENING IN FRANCE.
S5
together with the personal character of this monarch, was favorable to pomp and
brilliancy. The nation and the court wished to be dazzled and enchanted by novelty and
singularity ; and though there certainly was nothing in Le Notre's manner that had not
before been displayed in France and Italy, and with the exception of parterres, even by
the Romans, yet the grand scale and sumptuous expense of the plans surpassed every
thing before seen in France, and produced precisely the desired end. His lone dipt
alleys, triumphal arches, richly decorated and highly wrought parterres ; his fountains
and cascades, with their grotesque and strange ornaments ; his groves, full of architecture
and gilt trellises ; his profusion of statues and therms ; all these wonders springing up
in a desert-looking open country, dazzled and enchanted every class of observers. Le
Notre was educated an architect, and had attained his fortieth year before he finished his
first work in the rural department of his profession, the garden of Vaux le Vicompte,
afterwards V. le Villars, and now (1823) Vaux Praslin. The king, enchanted with
this decoration, made Le Notre his controller-general of buildings and director of wardens,
loaded him with presents, gave him a patent of nobility, and made him Knight of the order
of Saint Michael. His principal works are Versailles, which cost nearly 200 millions
of francs ; Trianon, Meudon, Saint Cloud, Sceaux, Chantilly, and the celebrated terrace
of Saint Germains. The gardens of the Tuilleries, the Champs Elysees, and many others
were either formed by him or improved from his designs. In 1678 he went to Italy,
where he furnished the plans of several gardens, particularly those of the villas Pamphili
and Ludovisi. England, Sweden, and all Europe adopted his Lmanner. He died in
1700. {Hirschfield, torn. v. 298.)
164. The gardens of Versailles, the grand effort of Le Notre, have been so frequently
described, and are so generally known, that we shall only quote one or two opinions
concerning them. Hirschfield considers them not as models of taste, but as models of
a particular class or character of gardens. Gray the poet was struck with their splendor
when filled with company, and when the water-works were in full action. Lord
Kaimes says they would tempt one to believe that nature was below the notice of a
great monarch, and therefore monsters must be created for him as being more astonish-
ing productions. Bradley says, " Versailles is the sum of every thing that has been done
in gardening." Agricola, a German author, declares {Phil. Treat, on Agr. Trans, by
Bradley,) that the sight of Versailles gave him a foretaste of Paradise. Our opinion
coincides with Gray's : " Such symmetry," as Lord Byron observes, " is not for soli-
tude." During the Revolution, it was proposed that the palace and gardens should be
sold as national property ; but M. Le Roy, the architect, greatly to his honor, stepped
forward and represented that the palace might be usefully employed for public purposes,
and the garden rendered productive of food for the people. '< This satisfied the citizens :
a military school was established in the palace ; and by planting some of the parterres
with apple-trees, and others with potatoes, the garden was saved." Niell was in-
formed, that by calculation the water-works of Versailles, which are not played off
oftener than eight or ten times a-year, cost 200/. per hour. There is an orange-tree
here " seme in 1421," and thirty feet high. {Hort. Tour, 409. et seq.)
165. Le Notre's successor was Dufresnoy, controller of buildings; his taste differed
considerably from that of his predecessor, and he is said to have determined on inventing a
style different and more picturesque. He preferred unequal surfaces, and sometimes at-
tempted these by art. His style had something of the modern English manner, but
his projects were rarely carried into execution. He was accused of being two ex-
pensive ; but it is more probable that the chief objection to his taste was the continued
prevalence of that of his predecessor. However, he constructed, in a style superior to
that of Le Notre, the gardens of the Abbe Pajot, near Vincennes, and in the Faubourg
Saint Antoine, two other gardens of his own, now known under the names of Moulin, and
of Chemincreux. Marly has been erroneously attributed to Dufresnoy, but it was
constructed from the plans of the architect Drus£, controller of the works at St. Ger-
mains. The garden of Bagnolet is the principal work of Desgodetz, a relation of Le
Notre. Chapelle d'Isle and the brothers Mansard, and other architects, at that time
constructed several gardens in France, but on the general plan of that of Le Notre.
Millin considers Dufresnoy as an artist of much greater genius than Le Notre, and
more attached to natural beauties, though less known by his talent for designing gardens
than by his comedies.
166. The English style of gardening began to pass into France, after the peace of
1762, and was soon afterwards pursued with the utmost enthusiasm. Hirschfield af-
firms that they set about destroying the ancient gardens, and replanting them in the
English manner, with a warmth more common to the mania of imitation than the genius
of invention. Even a part of the gardens of Versailles were removed, as De Lille la-
ments {Les Jardins, 4th edit. p. 40.), to make way for a young plantation a VAngloise.
Dufresnoy, as we have already stated, had been bold enough to depart from the fbrmer
style, and Gabriel Thouin, in the preface to his Plans Baisonnes des Jardins, &c. (1818)
D 2
36
HISTORY OF GARDENING
Part I.
says, this artist gave the model of natural gardens on a piece of ground which belonged
to him in the Faubourg Saint Antoine, already alluded to, and thus fixed the principles
of natural (that is, English j gardening in France about the commencement of the last
century. Laugier is the first French author who espoused the English style of garden-
ing in his Essai sur V Architecture, published in 1753 ; and next in order Prev6t, in his
Homme du Gout, published in 1770. About the same time, the first notable example
was preparing at Ermenonville, the seat of Viscount Girardin, about ten leagues
from Paris. An account of this place was written by Girardin himself in 1775, and
published in 1777. It was soon after translated into English by D. Malthus, Esq.
and is well known for its eloquent descriptions of romantic and picturesque scenes.
Morel observes, in his Thiorie des Jardins, published in 1766, that very little had been
done previously to 1766 : he mentions Ermenonville, as to which he had been con-
sulted, and the Due d'Aumont's park at Guiscard, and a seat near Chateau
Thiery, chiefly laid out by him. Soon after Morel's work, Delille's celebrated poem,
(Les Jardins,) made its appearance, and is perhaps a more unexceptionable performance
than The English Garden of Mason. The French, indeed, have written much better
on gardening and agriculture than they have practised, — a circumstance which may be
accounted for, from the general concentration of wealth and talent in the capital, where
books are more frequent than examples ; and of professional reputation in that country,
depending more on what a man has written, than on what he has done. It does not ap-
pear that English gardening was ever at all noticed by the court of France.
167. Ermenonville (fig.ll.), still in the Girardin family, but now rather neglected, appears to have been
laid out in a chaste and picturesque style, and in this respect to have been somewhat different and superior
to contemporary English places. The chateau (a) was placed on an island in the lake, near the village {b, .
Among other objects in the grounds were Rousseau's cottage (c) ; his tomb in the Island of Poplars (d) ;
that of the landscape-painter Mahier, who had assisted Girardin in designing the improvements in an
adjoining island (e) ; a garden in ruins (f), and the grand cascade (g). Useless buildings were in a great
degree avoided, and the picturesque effect of every object carefully considered, not in exclusion of, but in
connection with their utility. There is hardly an exceptionable principle, or even direction referring to
landscape-gardening laid down in the course of Girardin's Essay; and in all that relates to the pictu-
resque, it is remarkable how exactly it corresponds with the ideas of Price. Girardin, high in military
rank, had previouslv visited every part of Europe, and paid particular attention to England, and before
publishing his work,' he had the advantage of consulting those of Wheatley, Shenstone, G. Mason, ami
Chambers, from the first of which he has occasionally borrowed. He professes, however, that his object
is neither to create English gardens, nor Chinese gardens, and less to divide his grounds into pleasure-
grounds, parks, or ridings, than to produce interesting landscapes, " paysages mteressans, &e He re-
ceived the professional aid of J. M. Morel, the Kent of France, who afterwards published Theorie des
Jardins,
bis book.
that Girardinkept "a bandof musicians, who constantly perambulated the grounds making concerts some-
times in the woods, and at other times on the waters, and in scenes calculated for particular seasons, so
as to draw the attention of visitors to them at the proper time. At night they returned to the house,
and perfonned in a room adjoining the hall of company. Madame Girardin and her daughters were
clothed in common brown stuff, en amazones, with black hats, while the young men wore habillements
le plus simple et le pluspropres d les faire confondre avec les enfans du campagnards, &c.
Book I. GARDENING IN FRANCE. 87
163. WateleVs garden, the Moulin joli, the next example of the English style in France, is of a very
different description from Ermenonville. Watelet is the author of an Essai sur les Jardins, which a\-
peared in 1774 His garden was situated in the suburbs of Paris, on the Seine, and contained about four
acres, varied by buildings, grottoes, temples, and inscriptions, and was, on the whole, more in the Chinese
style, than in that of Kent or Shenstnne. The author, who professes to take utility for the basis of his
art, seems to have felt something wanting, in this particular,, to his temples and altars, and is ridiculed
by Hirschfield {Tlieorie des Jardins, torn. i. p. lb'8.) for proposing occasionally " de faire paroitre aupres
les temples, et les autels, les arcs de triomphe, §c. une troupe depanto?nimes, vetues suivant le costume neces-
saire, imitant des ceremonies, faisant des sacrifices, allant porter des offrandes," &c. The Prince de Ligne
admired Watelet's garden almost as much as that of Girurdin, though in so different a style. After de-
scribing it, he says, " Allez-y, incredules. . . . Meditezsur les inscriptions que legouty a dictees. Meditez
avec le sage, soupirez avec Vamant, et benissez Watelet." {Mem. et Lettres, &c. 230.) The object of such
as attempt English gardening in France on a small scale is still more to imitate the garden of Watelet,
than the " pat/sages interessans" of Girardin.
169. Of other English or mixed gardens which existed before the Revolution, the garden
of Mouceau, the property of the Duke of Orleans, was laid out by Blaikey, a British
landscape-gardener resident in France, in a romantic and irregular style. Blaikey also
formed some scenes in the Petit Trianon, especially in the lower part of the grounds, now
occupied by ruins, water, and a cottage, and in their kind very picturesque. It was here
that the queen of Louis XVI. used to entertain her guests habited as a shepherdess ;
that the citizens used to hold fetes champetres during the Revolution ; and that Napoleon
made a residence for Maria Louisa. Having reverted to the Bourbons, it is now com-
paratively neglected and dilapidated. {Hort. Tour, 406.) Bagatelle, in the Bois de
Bologne, formerly the retreat of Count d'Artois, and the Duke of Orleans's park at
Raincy, were laid out, in 1779, in the same taste, and by the same artist. The Jardin
de Marbceuf was planted by the Chevalier Jansin, an Englishman. (Ed. Encyc.xn. 543.)
De Lille cites the gardens of Beloeil, the chateau of the Prince de Ligne. Montreuil, a
garden of the Princess Gremene ; Maupertuis, a garden of the Marquis de Montes-
quieu, with a beautifully varied surface, abundance of wood and water, and a desert
after the manner of Mereville. He mentions several others, all of which are figured in
Recueil des Jardins, 16 cahiers, folio, and most of them described by Hirschfield (torn. i.
& v.), who considers Mereville and Ermenonville, as the two best specimens of English
gardening in France.
Mereville, the seat of M. La Borde, was one of the most considerable in France, and was laid out im.
mediately before the Revolution under the guidance of Robert, a famous landscape-painter. The chateau
stood on a terrace, and commanded a distant prospect over a marsh originally ot little interest. But the
wall of this terrace was covered with artificial rock-work, a river formed in the marsh with a bridge and
cascade. The general surface was raised by earth, and on the right and left of the view from the house
were raised considerable hills of earth, the one surmounted by a column 120 feet high, serving as a prospect-
tower, and the other by a Doric temple of 17 columns. At the base of one hill was a magnificent grotto
and rocks, and near the other stables in the character of Gothic ruins. Various buildings were erected in
other parts of the grounds ; one to the memory of Captain Cook, and another to that of M. Laborde's two
sons, who perished in the voyage of La Peyrouse. Every hardy exotic tree was planted, and many of them,
as the tulip-tree, ailanthus, sophora, &c. grew with great vigor and flowered luxuriantly. Many millions
of francs were expended on this place, which for some years past has been falling into decay and has been
lately sold in lots.
One of the finest modern parks in France is that of D'Argenson near vienne. Mathews {Diary
of an Invalid) considered it superior to any thing of the kind he had seen in France or Italy, and says it re-
minded him of his native Wye, and its picturesque banks.
170. English gardening during the consulate was little attended to. Malmaison, the
residence of Josephine, was laid out avowedly in the English style by Morel, and greatly
altered and improved by Blaikie and the English resident gardener, Hudson ; and richly
stocked with trees and shrubs from London. Since that time little has been done on an
extended plan ; and one may travel from one extremity of the kingdom to the other,
without seeing any scene having the general external appearance of an English park.
The works of this kind which are executed, are on a very limited scale, and crowded
with walks and ornaments. Most of them may be called fanciful, ingenious, and pretty,
but few are simple and grand. (Dulaure Desc. des Env. de Paris, and Hort. Tour, 357.
etseq.) All that a Frenchman considers necessary to form a Jardin Anglois, Blaikie
states to us, is crooked walks. Blaikie went to France in 1776, remained there during
the Revolution, and has been employed by all parties. The directory employed him to
plant the Tuilleries with potatoes, and never paid him for the sets ; and the national
assembly in 1792, appointed him commissioner for the establishment of a botanic garden
at Versailles, but he declined the employment. This venerable artist is still employed in
all the eminent cases in France, Holland, and the south of Germany.
171. The French revolution, however favorable to the progress of society, by the
emancipation of energies and intellects, and by the general subdivision and distribution
of property, has, as was to be expected, been injurious to gardening as an art of design ;
but if once the nation were politically content, a few years of quiet and prosperity, by en-
riching some and impoverishing others, would end in grouping property in more unequal
masses ; and the superfluous wealth of the opulent would be employed as before, under
the advantages of much more skill to display, and taste to approve what is beautiful or
excellent.
D 3
38
HISTORY OF GARDENING.
Part I.
172. With regard to the present state of landscajie- gardening in France, the royal gar-
dens, the Tuilleries, Versailles, St. Cloud, and the Trianons, are still kept up in a
respectable style. Ermenonville is in possession of the son of its creator, who, being
friendly to the Buonaparte family, was made a president during the reign of a hundred
days, and is consequently at present not in favor at court. The grounds are still shown
to strangers, but their effect, and the order in which they are kept, are far inferior to what
one is led to expect from the description in the Essai sur la Composition des Paysages,
&c. and from what, as we were informed (in 1815, and again in 1819), actually was the
case half a century ago. We saw no reason to admire the turf, which Sir J. E. Smith
informs us (Tour, &c.) had been, in 1786, about two years under the care of an intelli-
gent Scotch gardener, and who, he says, " assured us, and indeed what we saw con-
firmed it, that the superior beauty of our British grass-plots to those of other countries is
principally owing to management, and not to soil and climate." The lawns of Girardin,
and of the king in the grounds we have enumerated, are, we fear, sad proofs of the fallacy
of this gardener's opinion, and of the unsuitableness of dry arenaceous soils and warm
climates for those " velvet lawns" which are at once the greatest beauty and the charac-
teristic of English gardening in England. The finest lawns in and around Paris are
watered every summer evening, when it has not rained
during the day, e. g. that of the Palais Royal.
173. In the neighbourhood of Paris are various Chinese and Eng-
lish gardens which might be mentioned ; what they call Chinese
gardens differ from their English or (as G-. Thouin calls them,)
natural gardens, in being still more frittered down by walks, and
ornamented by Chinese-looking ornaments. One of the prettiest
town-gardens in France, and which it is but justice to say, is un-
equalled by any of the kind in Britain, is that of Bourseau, in
Paris, (Rue Mont Blanc,) about an acre in extent. It is described at
length in the Horticultural Tour.
174. Near Lyons is Hermitage, a villa of Guilliard St Etienne,
much spoken of in the guides, and by French tourists. It is of small
extent, on the rocky umbrageous banks of the Saone, and thickly sec
with statues, busts, rustic seats (fig. 12.), and every sort of garden or-
nament, with a museum. It is much too theatrical for a garden, and
gives more the idea of whim in the proprietor than of any thing else.
A situation of so much natural beauty, required at the utmost, only
as much art as was sufficient to mark its appropriation by man.
175. Around Montpelier and Marseilles, there is nothing in the
way of landscape gardening worth mentioning.
176. The plan of the residence of General Lomet at Agen (fig. 13.) is given by Kraft. (Plans de plus beaux
jardins, &c. pL 17.) It is situated on a hilly spot bordering the river, and contains in a very small space a dwell-
ing-house (a), poultry-yard (b), in the pavilions of which (c, d) are the coach-houses, stables, rooms above for
the coachman and stable-boys, and the gardener. There is a green-house (e), cart-shed, and warehouse, let
off to townsmen (/), a flower-garden (g), principal entrance and avenue (h, i), temple of Flora (A.). Roman
temple and bath (/), terrace covered with an arbour (m), a vine plantation trained on an arcade trellis in the
Italian manner [*), a terrace for orange-trees with a green-house underneath (o), parterre (p), miniature
fields of barley, wheat, beans, &c. (q), kitchen-garden (r), numerous monuments and statues (s, s), an
orchard (t), and a lake (u). Kraft says, it contains the greatest variety of picturesque views, but has
13
Book I.
GARDENING IN FRANCE.
S9
rather too many winding walks. It was laid out by
the architect, Kleber, who afterwards became the
celebrated general of that name, and was murdered
by a mameluke in Egypt Kleber seems to have been
fond of rustic buildings, with which this garden
abounds in the greatest variety of form and dimen-
sions, from the gardener's house, to that of the
bees, and the shelter for peacocks.
177. There is a very pleasing English garden at
J'itry, the property of Citizen Wenner, in which as
much is made of a small spot as can well be done. It
was laid out by Charpentier already mentioned.
178. The garden of the postmaster at Altkirch {fig.
14.), in Alsatia, is described by Kraft as a singularly
beautiful spot. Beyond the basin of water is an am-
phitheatre of shrubs and trees which is intersected
by shady walks leading to a mount containing the
grandest prospects of the Rhine and the Alps.
179. Public gardens or promenades are numerous
and well arranged in France as in most countries on
the continent : the demand for these arises from the
social habits of the people and the mildness of the
climate ; and their growth, even in the middle of
the cities, as in the Tuilleries and Boulevards of
Paris, and the street avenues of Bourdeaux, Lyons,
Marseilles, Montpelier, &c. is not impeded by the
smoke of coal What can be a greater luxury in a
city than such a garden as that of the Tuilleries
situated in its centre, — its open scenes of gaiety
and bustle, the distant hum of men heard in the
stillness of its thick and shady groves, its length-
ened perspectives of trees, vistas, statues, fountains,
its coffee and refreshments, its music and dancing
on certain occasions, — and finally, that sprinkling
of mind thrown over the whole by the scattered
stations of those who hire out chairs and periodical
literature ?
Subsect. 2. French Gardening, in respect to the Culture qf Flowers and Plants of
Ornament.
180. A taste for JloiL'ers was introduced to France from Holland, after that country had
established commercial relations with the Levant and the south of Europe. {Deleuzc,
Recherches, &c.) Charlemagne loved gardens, and was most particular in giving directions
to his gardeners. In his Capitulaire de Villis et Curtis, he enumerates the sorts of plants
which he desires may be grown in all his gardens. This list, however, excepting the
rose and the lily, is entirely medicinal ; and these too, were probably used as drugs ; for
the greatest beauty, in barbarous times, is utility.
181. It was in the thirteenth century that ornamental plants began to be introduced to
France as such. The crusades had brought to notice the gardens of the infidels in Egypt
and Syria ; the Christians invaders could not avoid being struck with their beauty, imitated
their plans, and imported their productions into Europe.
182. The sixteenth centary, however, had arrived before the culture of flowers was attempted.
Botany now began to become a science, independent of medicine. Gardens were con-
structed, destined for curious and beautiful plants ; and the discovery of America, and
the passage to the Indies, augmented their number. Travellers collected seeds, which
they sent home to their respective countries ; great care was bestowed on such as appeared
the most ornamental ; of some flowers, double varieties were produced, and the colors
and size of others, varied by culture, till advancing, by degrees, they at length became
an object of luxury, and trade and caprice, fashion and variety, gave incredible prices for
some of these productions ; for in what, observes Deleuze, will extravagance not inter-
mingle. Henry IV. had a taste for flowers : his gardener, Jean Robin, published a ca-
talogue of plants in 1610, in which the passion flower and crown imperial are mentioned,
the former as newly imported, and the latter as rare. In 1635, the varieties of tulips,
ranunculuses, and anemones, in the Jardin des Plantes, exceeded that of the species in
1800. Evelyn mentions, in 1644, (Memoirs, i. 52.) a M. Morine, who from an ordinary
gardener had' become one of the most skilful persons in France, who had a rare collection
of shells and flowers, and above 10,000 sorts of tulips alone. This florimania seems to
have declined and given way to a taste for exotics, during the reigns of Louis the Fifteenth
and Sixteenth, which has ever since continued to prevail.
183. The study of botany began to be cultivated in France at an early period, and has
since attained great consideration in that country from the labors of Adanson, the two
Jussieus, Mirbel, Humboldt, and De Candolle. The first botanic garden was formed in
1597, at Montpelier in Henry the Fifth's reign, through the representations of Belon.
In the following year it contained 1300 distinct species, the greater part gathered in the
neighbourhood.
The garden of Paris (Jardin des Plantes) was founded by Louis the Thirteenth, in 1626, and finished in.
lo34, after, as La Brossc the first director remarks, " eighteen years of prosecution, and six of culture."
D 4
40 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
The subsequent history and description of this garden, at different epochs, are given by Adanson, Jussieu,
and Thouin. It was visited by Sir J. E. Smith, in 1786, who observes that, " it used, in summer, to be the
evening walk of literary people, and even of persons of fashion ; and was, besides, frequented all day long
by students of both sexes. Here ladies might be seen at close study dissecting flowers, and reading their
descriptions ; nor is it at all unusual, at Paris, for the fair sex to attend scientific lectures in considerable
numbers. The collection of plants is generally reckoned inferior to that of Kew ; it contains, however,
many plants not in England, mostly from Peru and the Levant." The garden has been greatly enlarged
and much improved since 1786, and now includes departments which may be considered, as far as vegetables
are concerned, schools of horticulture, planting, agriculture, medicine, and general economy. It contains
some fine old exotics, sugar-canes from which a loaf of sugar was made and presented to the Empress
Josephine, a munificent patroness of gardens, and a few palms which belonged to Francis I. In different
volumes of the Annates du Musee, may be seen plans and descriptions of the garden, with the modes of
instruction pursued by Professor Thouin. There can be no question of its being the most scientific and
best kept garden in Europe, and an admirable horticultural and botanical school ; and in our opinion,
the Chevalier Thouin, its director, and the professor of rural economy, has an equal claim to superiority
as a scientific gardener.
T7ie botanic garden of tfte Trianon, according to Deleuze, was established by Louis XV. at the suggestion
of the Duke de Noailles, for the display of exotic trees, and a general collection of plants, for the amusement
of the royal family. Here B. de Jussieu disposed, for the first time, the plants in the order of natural
families. The botanic department of this garden is at present in a state of neglect.
The flower-garden of Malmaison in the time of Josephine was among the richest in Europe. Various
botanical collectors were patronised, some jointly with Lee of Hammersmith. The seeds brought home
by the navigator, Baudin, were here first raised and described by Ventenat in the Jardin de la Mal-
maison, in 1803. In 1813 Bonpland published the first volume of Plantes rares cultivees a Malmaison,
which ruined him, and compelled him to seek an asylum in America. This garden, though comparatively
neglected, contains some fine exotic trees as standards in the open ground, and protected in winter by
moveable houses. Among these are Magnolia grandiflora and an orange-tree as large a^they grow in
Spain. In the hot-houses are many fine exotics, and the original bulb of that splendid plant, Brunsvigia
Josephinte, which in 1817 measured two feet and a half in circumference, and produced a head of flowers
three feet and a half diameter. The hot-house here contains a rack-work covered with exotics and
watered by a concealed pipe. {Hort. Tour, 403.)
There are various botanic gardens established in the provinces of France, which maintain a regular corre-
spondence with that of Paris as the common centre. Each of these gardens, has, as it were, the care of the
botany and horticulture (for these are not separated) of a certain district, and when any new or valuable
plant is increased in the Paris garden, it is immediately distributed among the provincial gardens, to be by
them cultivated and increased, and distributed among the nurserymen and practical gardeners. Since
1813, those provincial gardens have suffered for want of funds ; and most of them are but indifferently
kept up. We could not help being struck with this in viewing the very well contrived new garden at
Marseilles, almost without plants. The richest provincial garden for its size, and the best in order, after
that of Paris, appeared to us (in 1819) to be that of Toulon. That of Rouen contains the original plant of
the hybrid lilac {Syringa Rothomagensis), named Varin, after the gardener who, about 1787, raised it
from seed.
Herb or physic gardens are more common in France than in Britain. Plants form a much more important
part of the Materia Medica of the hospitals and French physicians, than in this country, and their use is
very popular among the lower orders. The herbarists of Paris occupy a particular lane, where they offer
great variety of dried plants for sale.
Subsect. 3. French Gardening, in respect to its horticultural Productions.
184. The hardy fruits of France only exceed those of Britain by the olive, the fig, the
jujube, pomegranate, and a few others little cultivated. Nature, Professor Thouin ob-
serves, (Essai sur V Exposition, §c. de Veconomie rurale, p. 55.) has only given to France,
the acorn, the chestnut, the pear, the wild apple, and some other inferior fruits. Every
thing else which we have, agreeable or useful, is the product of foreign climates, and we
owe them in great part to the Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, Romans and Saracens.
The less ancient acquisitions are those of the crusades, or of accidental travellers. The
vine, the peach, the fig, the mulberry, the cherry, and the olive, were doubtless intro-
duced to France by the Romans ; the orange by the Italians ; and the pine-apple by the
Dutch. Apples, pears, and plums, are the fruits recommended for cultivation by
Charlemagne, in his Capit. de Villis et Curtis, &c. prepared about the end of the eighth
century, and referred to by Montesquieu, as a chef-d'oeuvre of prudence, good adminis-
tration, and economy. The Abbe" Schmidt informs us, (Mag. Encyc.) that this
monarch, who had domains in every part of France, gave the greatest encouragement to
the eradication of forests, and the substitution of orchards and vineyards. He was on
terms of intimate friendship with the Saracenic prince, Haroun al Raschild, and by that
means procured for France the best sorts of pulse, melons, peaches, figs, and other fruits,
He desires that fennel, rosemary, sage, rue, wormwood, and above sixty other pot-herbs
and medicinal plants, should be cultivated : one of these which he calls anthyllis (thought
to be the house-leek) was to be planted before the gardener's house, probably as being
vulnerary.
185. Early in the sixteenth century, it would appear they had at that time all the
fruits now in use, excepting the pine-apple. (Oliv. de Serres, and Stepk. and Lieb») Some
remarks on the state of horticulture at the end of this century are given by Benard
(Mem. de la Soc. Agr. du Seine et Oise, 1801,) and L. Deslongchamps. (Bon Jar d.
1817-18.) Blaikie (169, 170.) informs us, that about 1779 only three sorts of melons
were grown in France, the netted or Maraiche, and two large sorts of poor flavor.
Blaikie introduced the cantaleupes, which are now the prevailing sorts. The pine-apple
has never been successfully cultivated in France, it becomes sickly from exhalation,
and produces small fruit as in Italy. (99.) But France excels all other countries in
pears and plums, and produces excellent peaches.
186. Thehulinary vegetables of France have not been increased from the earliest
Book I. GARDENING IN FRANCE. 41
period of horticultural history, with the exception of the sea-cale and the potatoe. In
salading and legumes they far excel most countries ; but in the cabbage tribe, turnips,
and potatoes, they are inferior to the moister climates of Holland and Britain.
187. A sort of forcing seems to have commenced in France towards the end of the
sixteenth century. Be"nard informs us, that arcades open to the south were first erected
in Henry IVth's time, for accelerating the growth of pease at St. Germains en Laye ;
and that, in the end of the reign of Louis XIV., Fagon, at the Jardin des Plantes,
constructed some hot-houses with glass roofs, which he warmed with stoves and furnaces
for the preservation of tender plants ; and which gave rise to all the hand-glasses, frames,
and hot-houses subsequently erected in France. Melons and early cucumbers had been
hitherto grown on beds of dung, and covered at night with loose straw ; early salading
was raised in pots and boxes exposed to the sun during day, and placed in sheds or
arbors during night. But Richard Senior, observing what Fagon had done, built for
himself at St. Germains, and afterwards for Louis XV. at Trianon, hot-houses, in which
were seen, for the first time in France, peaches, cherries, plums, strawberries, bearing
fruit in the depth of winter. In the Ecole Potagere, written by Combles about the year
1750, are the details relative to these buildings. There is still, however, very little
forcing in France, and almost none in the market-gardens. Pease, potatoes, asparagus,
kidney-beans, salads, &c, are seldom or never forwarded by other means than by plant-
ing in warm situations under south walls, and grapes or peaches are never covered with
glass. Melons and seedling plants of different sorts are forwarded by beds of dung,
generally without the addition of sashes and frames.
188. French horticulture received a grand accession of theoretical and practical know-
ledge from the writings of Quintinye. Jean de Quintinye was born at Poictiers in 1626,
put to school among the Jesuits, took lessons in law, and afterwards travelled to Italy
with Tambonneau. Here his taste for agriculture began, or greatly increased. He
applied to its study as a science, and, on his return, Tambonneau committed his gardens
to his care. He attracted the attention of the court soon afterwards, and was made
director of several of the royal gardens during the reign of Louis XIV. He laid out a
jardin potager of thirty acres at Versailles ; the inhabitants of which, Neill observes,
seem to have imbibed from him a taste for horticulture and botany, the " Confreres
de St. Fiacre," (the tutelar saint of horticulturists,) or gardener's lodge, held here,
being the oldest in France. (Hort. Tour, 414.) Among other works, Quintinye wrote
The complete Gardener, translated by Evelyn, and abridged by London and Wise. He
died in 1701. After his death the king always spoke of him with regret, and Switzer
says, assured his widow, that the king and she were equally sufferers. Quintinye, in
his work on fruit-trees, has developed a system of pruning, which has not yet been
surpassed by that of any other author. Before his time the culture of wall, or espalier
trees, was little attended to ; gardens had been generally surrounded by high hedges, but
for these were now substituted walls of masonry, or of earth en pise. The pruning of
peach and pear trees is now well understood in France, and horticulture on the whole is
making rapid advances.
Subsect. 4. French Gardening, in respect to the jilanting of Timber-trees and Hedges.
189. Planting for profit has never been extensively practised in France, owing to the
abundance of natural forests in every part of the kingdom. These forests were much
neglected till within the last thirty years ; but they are now (being mostly national pro-
perty ) under a more regular course of management ; their limits defined by fences, and
the blanks filled up from the national nurseries. The roads of France being also kept
up by government, much attention is paid to lining them with rows of trees. In
some places, as in Alsatia, the walnut, cherry, apple, pear, and other fruit-trees are used ;
in other districts the elm, oak, or poplar, are employed ; and in the south, we frequently
find the mulberry, and sometimes the olive. The resinous tribe are rarely planted but
for ornament ; the oak, elm, beech, and Spanish chestnut, are the chief sorts used to fill
up blanks in the natural forests.
190. The idea of cultivating and naturalising foreign trees in France was first pro-
jected by Du Hamel in the time of Louis XV. He procured many seeds from
America, raised them in the royal nurseries, and distributed them among his friends.
A vast plantation of exotic trees was then made at St. Germains en Laye by the
Mareschal de Noailles. Lamoignon naturalised on his estate at Malsherbes a great
number of these trees, and at the age of eighty -four, Deleuze observes, saw every where
in France plants of his own introduction.
191. Hedges are not in general u^e in France; the plants employed in field-hedges,
in the northern parts, are the haw: horn, birch, or a mixture of native shrubs, as
hazel, briar, laburnum, &c. In Larguedoc the most common plant is the wild pome-
granate. In ornamental hedges tl.ey have attained great perfection ; for these the
42 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
favorite plants are the yew, the hornbeam, and the box ; and for tall hedges, the lime
and elm.
Subsect. 5. Flinch Gardening, as empirically practised.
1 92. The use of gardens is very general in France. Few cottagers are without them,
and in the northern districts, they commonly display a considerable degree of neatness,
and some fruit-trees and flowers. The southern parts of the country are the least civi-
lised; there the gardens of the laboring class are less attended to, and gourds or melons,
and Indian corn, as in Italy, are the chief articles grown. The gardens of the or-
dinary citizens and private gentlemen in France, are greatly inferior to those of the
same class in Holland or Britain ; they are seldom walled round, and rarely contain
any arrangements for foreign or tender exotics. A green-house, indeed, is a, rare
sight, and there does not seem to exist the slightest desire for enjoying any vegetable
production either earlier or later than their natural seasons. There are few wealthy
men in France at present, and consequently few first-rate gardens ; the best are in the
northern districts, and belong to princes of the blood, bankers, and other opulent citi-
zens. Those of the Dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, of Perigord, Laffite, and De-
laborde, may be included in this class ; though they are far inferior to many citizens'
seats and gardens in England.
193. There are excellent market-gardens in the neighbourhood of Paris, where, by
force of manure and daily waterings, the oleraceous tribe are brought to a large size
and very succulent quality. Figs, for the market, are grown by a particular class of
fruit-growers at Argenteuil ; grapes at Fontainbleau, peaches at Montreuil, and cherries
at various villages to the east of Paris. There are numerous florists who devote
themselves exclusively to the culture of flowers, and supply the market with roses,
lilies, stocks, and the more common greenhouse plants and orange-trees. The latter are
very neatly grafted, and otherwise well managed. In the winter time forced flowers
are exposed for sale, and also summer flowers which have been dried in stoves, and
preserve their color perfectly. The same thing is done with aromatic herbs, and some
pot-herbs, as parsley, chervil, &c.
194. There are few nurseries'in France ; the best are at Paris, and are chiefly occupied
with the culture of fruit-trees and ornamental shrubs. They excel in the culture of the
rose, of which they have upwards of 300 sorts, which form, to a small extent, articles of
foreign commerce. The two best provincial nurseries are those of Audibert at Tonelle,
in Languedoc, and Sedi at Lyons. Vallet's at Rouen is celebrated for orange-trees,
and Calvert and Co.'s (Englishmen) at Bonne Nouvelle, near the same place, equally so
for roses ; Vilmorin is the agricultural seedsman, Noisette the Lee, and Cels of Mont
Rouge the Loddidge of Paris. France long supplied a great part of Europe with
fruit-trees, from the celebrated nursery of the fathers of the Chartreux, near the
Luxembourg, established in the time of Louis XIV. and including eighty acres. That
establishment does not now exist ; but Ville Herve, the son of its former manager, has
the care of the collection of fruit-trees and vines in the national garden of the Luxem-
bourg. The extensive collection of grapes in this garden was formed by Chaptal, the
celebrated chemist, when minister of the interior, with a view to ascertain the best sorts,
and distribute them in the provinces, and the fruit-trees were brought by the elder Herve
from the Chartreux. (Preface to the Catalogue of the Luxembourg Garden, 1814 ; Cours
a" Agriculture, &c. art. Vigne.) When Blaikie went to France in 1776, there was not a
nursery for trees and shrubs in the kingdom. About Vitry only a few of such foresMrees
were cultivated as were used in avenues, and so few fruit-trees that the sorts were not
tallied; the cultivators like the orange nurserymen at Nervi (95.) recognising the few
sorts by the leaves and bark.
1 95. The operative gardeners in France are, in general, very ignorant. Few of them
have learned their art by regular application, or the customary engagement of apprentice-
ship. At Paris they are poorly paid, and work much harder than the same class in
England. Evelyn, in 1644, informs us, that the work of the royal gardens was all done
in the night-time, and finished by six or seven in the morning, in order, no doubt, that
nothing offensive might meet the eyes of the great of these times. Happily such a chasm
does not now exist between the rich and the poor ; but still, partly for the same reason,
but principally to avoid the mid-day sun, the great part of the work, in most private
gardens, is performed from three to nine o'clock in the morning, and again from six to
nine in the evening. The great recommendation of a French gardener is, to be able to
conduct a garden a bon marche ; and the greatest to prune trees a la Montreuil.
196. Of artists in gardening (artistes jardiniers, architects des jardins,) there are a num-
ber in France, chiefly resident in Paris. Blaikie, already mentioned, and Gab. Thouin,
brother to the professor, and author of Plans Raisonnes des Jardins, &c. (1818) may be
reckoned the most eminent. Girardin, Morel, and De Lille may be considered as hav-
Book I. GARDENING IN GERMANY. 43
ing established die principles of gardening in France, as an art of design ami taste ; but
it does not appear clear diat the artists in general have caught their principles .
Subsect. 6. French Gardening, as a Science, and as to the Authors it has produced.
197. The science of gardening is well understood in France among the eminent gar-
deners and professors ; perhaps better than in any other country. Quintinyeand Du Hamel
applied all the physiological knowledge of their day to the treatment of fruit and forest
trees ; and the theory of grafting, of healing wounds, and of artificial excitements to
fruitfulness, was explained in their works. BufFon, Magnal, Parent, and Rosier, Aubert
de Petit Thouars, Bosc, and above all Professor Thouin, have brought the whole science
of chemistry and of botany to bear on the various parts of gardening and rural economv,
which they have treated in various works, but especially in the Nouveau Cours d" Agriculture,
(14 vols. 8vo.) published in 1810.
198. The court and national gardeners have, for the last thirty years, been men eminent
for scientific and practical knowledge ; who have received a regular education, and rank
with other crown officers. It is not there as in England, where die royal situations have
always been occupied by mere empirical practitioners, recommended by some court
favorite, or succeeding by the common chances of life.
199. The great mass of operative gardeners in France, both as masters and labourers, are
incomparably more ignorant both of gardening, as a science, and of knowledge in general,
than the gardeners of this country ; few of them can read : and die reason of this ignorance
is, that there is no demand for good master-gardeners. The pupils and apprentices of the
Jardin des Plantes are mostly sent to manage the provincial botanic gardens, or to the few
proprietors who have first-rate gardens. The chief of them are foreigners, who return to
Germany or Italy. Indeed, where there is no forcing, and few plants in pots, scientific
gardeners are less necessary ; the management of fruit-trees in France being reduced to-
mere routine.
200. The French authors o?i gardening are very numerous, but Quintinye is their most
original and meritorious writer on horticulture, Du Hamel on planting, and Girardin and
D'Argenville on landscape-gardening. Their works on flowers are chiefly translations
from the Dutch.
Sect. IV. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in Germany.
201. The Germanic confederation, as arranged in 1815, includes the empire of Austria,
the kingdoms of Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, Wurtemburg, and Denmark, be-
sides various dukedoms and free towns. The materials which we have been able to collect
for so extensive a field, are exceedingly scanty ; and, indeed, it appears from Hirschfield,
that gardening made little progress in Germany till the seventeenth century. At present,
the taste for our art there is very considerable, and seems to have received a new stimulus
from the recent peace. " Gardens," Madame de Stae'l observes, ** are almost as beauti-
ful in some parts of Germany as in England ; the luxury of gardens always implies a
love of the country. In England, simple mansions are often built in the middle of the
most magnificent parks ; the proprietor neglects his dwelling to attend to the ornaments
of nature. This magnificence and simplicity united do not, it is true, exist in the same
degree in Germany ; yet in spite of the want of wealth, and the pride of feudal dignity,
there is every where to be remarked a certain love of the beautiful, which sooner or later
must be followed by taste and elegance, of which it is the only real source. Often, in the
midst of the superb gardens of the German princes, are placed iEolian harps, close by
grottoes, encircled with flowers, that the wind may waft the sound and the perfume to-
gether. The imagination of the northern people dius endeavours to create for itself a
sort of Italy ; and during the brilliant days of a short-lived summer, it sometimes attains
the deception it seeks." [Germany, chap, i.)
Subsect. 1. German Gardening, as an Art of Design and Taste.
202. The French style of gardening has prevailed in Germany from the earliest period
of history or tradition. The German architects, observes Hirschfield in 1777, in making
Uiemselves masters of the gardens, as well as of the houses, tended to spread and per-
petuate the prejudice. u A singular and deplorable Gallomania pervaded Germany from
die prince to the peasant, which neither irony, patriotism, nor productions which sliow
die force of our natural genius could destroy ; ' ainsi font les Francois ; voila ce que jai
ru en France ;' these words were sufficient to reduce the German to a mere copyist, and
in consequence we had French gardens, as we had Parisian fashions. Our nobles gave
the first example of imitation, and executed on their estates little miniatures of Versailles,
Marly, and Trianon. But now (1777)," he adds, "the Aurora of judgment and good taste
begins to arise in our country, and the recitals of the happy changes made in England in
the gardens, has prepared the way for the same revolution in Germany. However, we
44 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
cannot complain of the suddenness of that revolution, and that the imitation of the English
taste spreads too rapidly ; it appears, on the contrary, that we begin to think for ourselves,
and reflection proceeds much slower than mere imitation. We may meet perhaps here
and there several copies of the British manner, perhaps even of the Chinese style ; but
we expect to see the Germans inventing and combining for themselves, and producing
gardens stamped with the impression of national genius." {Theorie des Jardins, torn. i. 83.)
203. The climate and circumstances of Germany are less favorable to landscape-garden-
in" than Britain. Meyer, a scientific practical gardener and author, who studied his art
in the royal gardens at Paris, and afterwards spent some time in England, viewing the
principal country-seats, is of this opinion. {Pom. Franc. 1776.) He considers grounds
laid out in the ancient style, as " insipid and monotonous, from their regularity, and only
calculated to produce sadness and ennui. If their aspect strikes at the first glance, it fa-
tigues and tires at the second, and certainly is revolting and disgusting at the third."
He admires English gardens in England, but states three objections to their introduction
in Germany. The inferiority of the pasturage, the expense and want of space, and the
necessity and advantage of attending to the culture of legumes and fruits. A mixed
style is what he prefers, and what he adopted in the episcopal gardens which he laid out
and managed at Wurzburg.
204. The first example of an English garden in Germany, according to Rei chard (Reise
durch Deutschland, &c), was the Garten der Schwobber, in Westphalia, in the neighbour-
hood of Pyrmont. It was laid out about the year 1750, with winding walks and clumps,
and a rich collection of rare trees and plants. Hinuber's English garden at Hanover,
and that of Marienwerder in its neighbourhood, were begun about the same time ; and
soon after was commenced the splendid example exhibited by field-marshal Lacy, at
Dornbach, near Vienna, and which, it is said, originated in the family connections of that
warrior with England. It was finished in part by an English gardener, in 1770, at an
expence of half a million of florins. Its picturesque views and distant prospects are much
and deservedly admired ; but on the whole, as an English garden, it owes much more to
nature than to art. After this, the new taste, as Hirschfield remarks, became general in
the empire. The most noble example of a garden in the ancient style in Germany, is
that of Scboenbrunn, at Vienna ; and of an English garden, according to our idea of
what that ought to be, at Dronningard, near Copenhagen. Having given a general idea
of the history of this branch of gardening in Germany, we shall now submit some slight
notices of the art under the different governments of the empire.
205. Austria. Francis the First, about the middle of the seventeenth century, laid out or
greatly enlarged the gardens of Schoenbrunn, after the plans of Steckhoven, a Dutch artist.
These gardens occupy a plain and a long ridge or hill near the capital, and are much ad-
mired for their extent and simple, though formal grandeur. They are inferior to those
of Peterhoff and Versailles in respect to fountains, and to those of Sans Souci and Lodo-
visi for statues and antiques ; but for simple massive grandeur, for shade and verdure,
and all the more simple beauties of the ancient style, they are, we believe, superior to
any gardens now existing in Europe.
The Augarten (ere-garden, or garden of pleasure) is a public promenade in the suburbs of Vienna. It
is a square spot of ten acres, surrounded by an elevated broad terrace-walk, commanding extensive views ;
and the area is planted and subdivided by walks. At the entrance is a magnificent coffee-house. It was
formed during the reign of the benevolent emperor Joseph, whose particular wish it was, that it should be
open to everv class of citizens.
The Prater, or meadow, is an extensive public promenade of a different description, and suited both for
promenades en chetal and au pied. It forms part of an island in the Danube, and consists of an artificial
grove used as a tea-garden ; an avenue as a course for carriages, but chiefly the scattered remains of an
ancient forest of oaks and thorns used for walking, and for exhibiting all manner of fetes. W e consider it
the most agreeable scene of the kind on the continent. Here, in the summer evenings, all Vienna is as-
sembled : the imperial family mix familiarlv with the people, and Francis the Third, unattended, and in
the plainest garb, selects his table and rush-bottomed chair, and calls for his coffee and segar, like any
other citizen. Economical in his administration, frugal in his personal expenses, and exemplary in his
morals, he has nothing to fear from a personal familiarity with his subjects. Both the Prater and the gar-
den were planted with full-grown trees ; for Joseph II. as Pezzel, his biographer, informs us, wished to see
the effect of all his improvements. *.,.'. ^ ,. , .. , e
The imperial gardens of Luxembourg are extensive, avowedly English, and display a good deal ot our
manner ; but more, as we have elsewhere observed (Ed. Encyc. art. Landscape G.), in the taste of Brown
than of Kent.
206. In Hungary, Hirschfield, in 1783, says there are only the gardens of Esterhaz, a
seat of Prince Esterhazy, worthy of notice, and that they were chiefly indebted to the
beauty of the palace for their attractions. Dr. Townson, in 1793, mentions Count Vetzy
as laying out his grounds in the English style, aided by a gardener who had been some
time in England. The gardens of Count Esterhazy of Galantha, at Dotis, he considers
very fine ; and those of the Bishop of Eslau, at Felcho-Tarkan, as romantic. Dr.
Bright {Travels, 1815) mentions Kbrmond, the property of Prince Balhyani, as " con-
taining a very handsome garden in the French taste, with considerable hot-houses and
conservatories." Graaf Brunswick of Marton Vassar, had passed some time in Eng-
land, and his garden was laid out in the English style. The favorite mansion of Prince
Book I.
GARDENING IN GERMANY.
45
Esterhazy is Eisenstadt ; the palace has lately been improved, and the gardens, which
were laid out in 1754 in the French taste, were, in 1814, transforming in the English
manner. (Travels in Hungary, 346.)
207. At Dresden, the royal and principal private gardens exhibit nothing remarkable
in the way of art. They were formed chiefly during the electorate of Frederick Augus-
tus, King of Poland, and are remarkably confined, and by no means interesting in
detail. The situation and environs of Dresden every one feels to be delightful ; but
there is perhaps no city of the same rank on the continent equally deficient both in
ancient and modern gardens. (Ed. Encyc. art. Landscape Gard.)
208. Prussia. Almost all the geometric gardens of Prussia were formed during the
propitious reign of Frederick II.
The Thiergarten at Berlin is the most extensive. It is a sort of public park or promenade, on a flat
surface, and loose arenaceous soil, intersected by avenues and alleys, pierced by stars and pates d'oye,
varied by obelisks and statues, and accommodated with public coffee-houses, sheds for music and rural
fetes, and open areas for exercising troops.
The ancient gardens of Sans Souci at Potsdam are in the mixed style of Switzer, with every appendage
and ornament of the French, Italian, and Dutch taste. Various artists, but chiefly Manger, a German
architect, and Salzmann, the royal gardener, (each of whom has published a voluminous description of his
works there,) were employed in their design and execution ; and a detailed topographical historyof the
whole, accompanied by plans, elevations, and views, has been published by the late celebrated Nicholai
of Berlin, at once an author, printer, bookbinder, and bookseller. The gardens consist of, 1. The hill, on
the summit of which Sans Souci is placed. The slope in front of this palace is laid out in six terraces,
each ten feet high, and its supporting wall covered with glass, for peaches and vines. 2. A hill to the
east, devoted to hot-houses, culinary vegetables, and slopes or terraces for fruit-trees. 3. A plain at the
bottom of the slope, laid out in Switzer's manner, leading to the new palace ; and 4. A reserve of hot-
houses, and chiefly large orangeries, and pits for pines to the west, and near the celebrated windmill, of
which Frederick could not get possession.
The Sans Souci scenery is more curious and varied, than simple and grand. The hill of glazed terraces
crowned by Sans Souci has indeed a singular appearance ; but the woods, cabinets, and innumerable
statues in the grounds below, are on too small a scale for the effect intended to be produced ; and on the
whole distract and divide the attention on the first view. Potsdam, with its environs, forms a crowded
scene of architectural and gardening efforts ; a sort of royal magazine, in which an immense number of
expensive articles, pillared scenery, screens of columns, empty palaces, churches, and public buildings, as
Eustace and Wilson observe, crowd on our eyes, and distract our attention. Hirschrield, who does not
appear to have been a great admirer of Frederick, and who, as the Prince de Ligne has remarked, was
touched with the Anglomania in gardening, says, in 1785, " according to the last news from Prussia,
the taste for gardens is not yet perfect in that country. A recent author vaunts a palace chatnpetre,
which presents as many windows as there are days in the year : he praises the high hedges, mountains
of periwinkle, regular parterres of flowers, ponds, artificial grottoes, jets d'eau, and designs traced on a
plain." (Theorie, &c. torn. v. 366.)
209. The principal examples of the English style in Prussia are the royal gardens at
the summer residence of Charlottenburg, near Berlin, begun by Frederick the Great,
but chiefly laid out during the reign of Frederick William II. They are not extensive,
and are situated on a dull sandy flat, washed by the Spree ; under which unfavorable
circumstances, it would be wonderful if they w ere very attractive. In one part of these
gardens, a Doric mausoleum of great beauty contains the ashes of the much-lamented
queen. A dark avenue of Scotch firs leads to a circle of the same tree, 150 feet in
diameter. Interior circles are formed of cypresses and weeping-willows; and within
these, is a border of white roses and white lilies (Lilium candidum). The form of the
mausoleum is oblong, and its end projects from this interior circle, directly opposite the
covered avenue. A few steps descend from the entrance to a platform, in which, on a
sarcophagus, is a reclining figure of the queen : a stair at one side leads to the door of a
vault containing her remains.
210. The garden of the palace of the Heiligense (fig. 15.) is avowedly English, and is
in much better taste than that at Charlottenburg. The palace is cased externally with
46 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
marble ; i% is in a chaste style of Grecian architecture, and praised by Wilson ( Tours on tlie
Continent, 1820), as one of the best pieces of architecture in Prussia. It is built close to
the lake, and the kitchen is placed in an island, disguised as a temple, and connected by
a subaquarian passage. Those sumptuous works were the joint productions of the coun-
sellor Langhans, professor Hirschfield, and the architect Gontard, during Frederick
William II. 's reign.
211. Count Schulenburg's garden, near Freyenwalde, was laid out when Harris, author of Hermes, was
envoy at Berlin, and that philosopher is said, by Hirschfield, to have rendered the count some assistance ;
but so transient are these things, that we were unable (in 1813) to find out its site.
212. Denmark. The gardens of Marienlust, near Elsineur, which occupy the same
space as Chose in which Hamlet's father was murdered, and those of the Prince Frede-
rick, near the city, may be considered the Greenwich and Hyde Parks of Copenhagen.
Hirschfield mentions Ashberg, on the lake Pleon, as one of the finest residences in
Denmark in his time, and enumerates nearly a dozen others as seats of great beauty.
Dronningard may be considered as one of the best examples of the English stvle. It is an extensive
park, the late residence of an eminent Danish banker, De Conninck, about sixteen miles from Copenhagen.
The grounds are situated on a declivity, which descends to a natural lake of great extent,whose circuitous
shores are verged with rich woody scenery, and country-houses. The soil here approaches more to a
clayey loam than is general on the continent ; and the climate being cold, the turf is happily of a deep tone of
green, and close texture. The oak and beech abound in these grounds, as well as firs, and a number of
exotics. Buildings are not too frequent ; but there are several, and among them a hermitage, to which
one of the family actually retired, on occasion of a matrimonial disappointment, and lived there for several
years, till roused and restored to active life by the dangers of his country. There are numbers of small
spots round Copenhagen, of considerable beauty, in which something of the English style has been imi-
tated ; but in none of the gardens of the court has it been avowedly introduced.
213. There are many celebrated gardens in so extensive a country as Germany, that we can-
not find room to particularise. The royal gardens of Munich, Stuttgard, and Hanover,
the gardens of Baden, Hesse Cassel, Hesse Darmstadt, Saxe Gotha, Weimar, Worlitz,
Schweitzingen, and other places, are well deserving notice. Most of them will be
found described in Hirschfield's work, or noticed in the Lettres et Pensees of the Prince
de Ligne ; and the most modern are described in the Almanach du Jardinage, a periodical
work, published at Leipsic ; or, in the Gardener s Magazine, a quarterly periodical work
in the German language. Indeed, there are specimens of English gardening, more or
less extensive, in or near the capital towns of every state in Germany ; but, by far the
greater number are of a very inferior description. From the arid soil and limited ex-
tent result bad turf and an air of constraint ; and from too many buildings and walks.
a distracting bustle and confusion. They are crowded with winding sanded paths con-
tinually intersecting each other, little clumps, and useless seats or temples, and very fre-
quently resemble more the attempts of mimics or caricaturists, than imitators of our taste.
On the continent, indeed, the defects of the English style are more frequently copied
than the beauties ; which, we presume, arises from the circumstances of few of those who
lay out such gardens, having had a proper idea of the end in view in forming them, viz.
a painter-like effect in every case, where it does not interfere with utility, or some other
preferable beauty ; and, in many cases, an entire allusion to natural scenery. It is dif-
ficult for a person of limited education and travel to form a distinct idea of what English
gardens really are. The foreigner can seldom divest himself of the idea of a very limited
and compact space as requisite for this purpose ; the reverse of which is the case with all
our best scenes of picturesque beauty. The English gardens in the vicinity of Dresden,
Brunswick, Hamburgh, Prague, Toplitz, Leipsic, and other places, have given rise to
those remarks, in which even those professedly English in Prussia might be included.
There are some exceptions which might be pointed out at Cassel, Stutgard, (for views of
these gardens, see V Almanach du Jardinage,) Weimar, not unlike Kensington gardens,
(see Description du Pare de Weimar, et du Jardinde Tieffurth, Erfurt, 1797,) the park of
Fiirstenstein near Breslaw, Mergentheim, Worlitz, praised by the Prince de Ligne, and
the walk at Munich, laid out by Count Rumford. (Ed, Encyc. art. Landscape Gard.)
214. The Duke of Baden's gardens at Sckueilzingen (Jig. 16.), between the Rhine and the Mayne, are
ronsidered by Kraft as the most delightful in Germany. They cover a surface of about 300 acres, and con-
tain the ancient castle of the Marquises of Badr., (1). « The marquisate of Baden," says Kraft, "having
progressively and considerably increased by means of a numerous family, wings were obliged to be built on
each side, divided into apartments. The hot-houses, which form the wings (2, 2), have been much in-
creased. In front and morl advanced, is the garden, in the French style, executed on a circular plan.
In the middle of the avenue are four grass plots, bordered and enamelied with flowers. In the middle are
little basins with fountains, one of which (3) throws the water sixtv.seven, feet high. On the right and
left are plantations of odoriferous shrubs, orange-trees, embellished witj< statues aad vases of the finest
marble. Farther on are discovered the gardens, called the groves, situated on the right and left, laid out
in different forms, and embellished with a number of figures, vases, statues, the temple of Minerva
(4), the great rock surmounted by a figure of Pan (5), and Venus bathing (6). Higher up is the garden of
the large grove, ornamented with numerous figures (7, 7, 7, 7), altars, tombs, urns, &c. Shady walks
lead to the great basin (8>, the gates leading to which have groups of figures on the pedestals (9, 9). The
Grand Duke reserves the grand basin for the amusement of his family, par despctites navigations. A
very magnificent Turkish mosque (10) is erected on the left Here begins the picturesque garden, with
a»tificial hills, vales, and slopes ; many different sorts of trees ; a temple of Mercury in ruins (11): and va-
Book I.
GARDENING IN GERMANY.
47
pious walks, leading through shrubberies to the right, till you arrive at the nursery-garden (12). From
thence, crossing the canal, you arrive at the temple of Apollo (13), built of costly marble. In the garden
behind, are rocks with allegorical figures, subterraneous caves and caverns ; at one side a family bath of
marble (14), aviaries (15), cabinets, pleasure-garden, and basin for aquatic fowls (16& 17) ; small buildings, in
the form of monuments (18), serving as cabinets of natural history, museums, a laboratory, &c. ; a pictu-
resque garden and temple (19) ; a Roman aqueduct (20), supplied by a water-engine (21), a ruined aque-
duct (22) ; the offices for the administration of the garden, with its appurtenances (23) ; a large theatre
(24) ; residence of the director -general (25) ; of the inspectors of the garden (26) ; of the inspectors of the
forest (27) ; of the huntsmen (28) ; of the foresters (29). Besides all these things and many more., there is
a fruit-garden (30) ; kitchen-garden (31) ; private orangery (32) ; area for greenhouse plants in summer (33);
and lofty water-engine for conveying water to the castle (34).
16
7%e Ducal gardens of Saxegotha are remarkable for their fine Iannis, and for a ruined castle, which was
first built complete, and then ruined expres, by firing cannon against it.
Subsect. 2. German Gardening, in respect to the Culture of Floivers and Plants of
Ornament.
215. Floriculture was but little attended to in Germany, previously to the intro-
duction of botanic gardens ; but on the establishment of these, plants of ornament were
eagerly sought after in most of them : that of Altorf was famous for orange-trees, and
that of Copenhagen for bulbous roots.
216. The earliest private botanic garden in Europe, next to those of Italy, is said (Keith's
Botany, p. 18.) to have been one formed by William, Landgrave of Hesse, early in the
sixteenth century. Since that period more private botanic gardens have been formed in
Germany than in any other continental country. At Carlsrouhe, the Prince of Baden
Dourlach formed a botanic garden in 1715, in wluch, in 1737, there were 154 varieties
of oranges and lemons. Many might be named from that period to the present : the
latest is that of the Prince of Salm-Dyck. It was laid out in 1820, by Blaikie, of
St. Germains ; and is calculated to contain all the hardy plants which can be procured,
arranged in groups, according to the Jussieuean system. The prince is advantageously
known, by his works on succulent plants.
217. The first public botanic garden in Germany, according to Deleuze (Annates du
Musee, torn. 8.), was established by the Elector of Saxony, at Leipzic, in 1580; this
magistrate having undertaken the reform of public instruction throughout his dominions.
Those ofGiesscn, Altorf, Rintel, Ratisbon, Vim, and Jcnna, soon followed. In 1605, Jungerman, a cele-
brated botanist, obtained one for the university, which the landgrave had just founded at Giessen. After
having disposed of it, he went to Altorf, and solicited the same favor for this city. The senate of Nuremberg
agreed to his wishes in 1620, although the country was then a prey to the disasters of war. Jungerman,
48 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part L
named Professor, gloried in the prosperity of a university which he looked upon as his work, and in 1635
he published the catalogue of the plants he had collected. Ten years afterwards they constructed a green'
house, and the garden of Altorf (Pre/, to the Nuremberg Hesperides) was then the most beautiful of Ger-
many. That which Ernest, Count of Shawenbourg, established in 1621, at Rintel, in Westphalia, also ac-
quired much celebrity. Those of Ratisbon and Ulm are of the same epoch. From 1555, when the univer-
sity ot Jenna was founded, the professors of botany, during the summer season, took the students to the
country to herbahse. They soon found it would be much more advantageous to collect in one place the
plants they wished them to be acquainted with, and the government constructed a garden in 1629. The
direction of it was given to Rolfine, who has left a curious work on plants, containing a history of the
principal gardens ot Europe of his time.
At Leipsic, towards the end of the seventeenth centurv, the garden of Gaspard Bose was celebrated.
He introduced many American plants, and among others the dwarf almond.
218. At Vienna and Frankfort, L'Ecluse prosecuted the study of botany, and enriched the gardens at
these places with an immense number of plants. Maximilian II., who occupied the imperial throne from
lo64 to 1576, seconded his views, and caused a magnificent garden to be constructed at Vienna for the
plants which he collected, charging his ambassadors at Constantinople and other countries, to procure new
plants ; and giving the care of the garden to L'Ecluse. Rudolph II., who succeeded Maximilian, also en-
riched this garden, of which Sweert published a catalogue {Florilegium) in 1612.
Tlie Schoenbrunn botanic garden was begun with the palace, in 1753, bv the Emperor Francis I. He de-
sired that that establishment should be worthy of the imperial magnificence, and that it should extend the
domain of botany, in bringing together vegetables then unknown in Europe. By the advice of Van
Swieten, he procured two celebrated florists, the one from Leyden and the other from Delft. The first
The Emperor proposed to the celebrated Jacquin to go to the Antilles. This botanist departed in 1754, ac-
companied by Van der Schott, and two Italian zoologists, employed to procure animals for the menagerie
and the museum. These travellers visited Martinique, Grenada, St. Vincent, St. Eustace, St. Christopher
Jamaica, Cuba, Curaccao, and other places. In 1755 they sent home their first packages, and in 1756, Van
der Schott arrived with a collection of trees and shrubs almost all in good condition. The trees were five
or six feet high, and many had already borne fruit ; they were taken up with balls, and the earth enveloped
with leaves of bananas, tied by cords of Hibiscus tiliaceus. Thus packed, one with another, they weighed
100 lbs. These vegetables, and the water necessary to water them, formed the greater part of the cargo of
a vessel which had been forwarded from Martinique for Leghorn. From Leghorn the plants were trans-
ported on the backs of mules, and placed in the plain ground in the hot-houses built to receive them. The
third and the fourth quantities came in the same manner. The fifth and sixth arrived from Caraccas, by
Amsterdam. At last Jacquin left Havannah, and conducted to Schoenbrunn the last collection in 1759.
During this time presents and purchases were received from other countries, and in proportion as the
plants increased, they built hot-houses and orangeries, of a grandeur suitable to the plants destined to grow
in them. One range is 270 feet long, and 30 feet high within ; another above 300 feet long, and about the
same height ; and there are three more ranges, each about 240 feet long.
An accident in 1780 caused the loss of most of the plants of the great hot-house. Van der Schott being
sick, the gardener who supplied his place, forgot, during a verv cold night, to light the stoves. Perceiving
it in the morning, he thought to remedy the evil in making a very brisk fire. This sudden change of tem-
perature caused many of the trees to perish, whose trunks were of the thickness of the arm. To repair
this loss, Joseph II. engaged the naturalists to undertake a new voyage. Professor Master was named
chief of the expedition, with Dr. Stupiez, for a companion ; the gardeners Bose and Bredemver, and the
draftsman Mol. They went direct to Philadelphia, visited the United States, Florida, and" New Provi-
dence, sent home a large collection, and Bose afterwards got charge of the garden of Schoenbrunn.
The hot-houses of Schoenbrunn, To wnson observes {Voyage in Hungary), are the most spacious that
have yet been constructed in Europe; the trees of the tropics there develope their branches in full
liberty, and bear flowers and fruits. The most rare palms, the Cocos nucifcra, the Caryota urens, the
Elais guinensis, grow there with vigor. The Corypha umbraculifera extends its large leaves for twelve
feet round, and birds of Africa and America there fly from branch to branch among the trees of their
country. Jacquin published successively three great works, illustrating the plants of these gardens, viz.
Hortus Schoen., Icones plant, rariorum, and Fragmenta Botanica. We found these gardens in 1814 in
suitable order ; but the edifices requiring renovation. It is difficult for a mere European traveller to
form any idea of the grandeur of the palms sending out their immense leaves from the capitals of their
column-like trunks.
There are at Vienna two other public botanic gardens ; the one formed in what was a large gravel-pit
exclusively devoted to the plants of Austria ; and the other of smaller extent, attached to the university,
and devoted to a small general collection. Considerable compartments in the gardens of Princes
Lichtenstein, and Schwartzenberg, in Leopoldstadt, are devoted to the culture of ornamental plants
systematically arranged.
The botanic garden of Pesth was established in 1812, and enlarged in 1815 ; it was placed under the
direction of the professor Kitaibel, known in the scientific world as the author of Planted rariores
HungaruB.
219. The botanic garden of Dresden is small ; but is rich in exotics lately procured from England, and
carefully managed by Traugott Seidel.
The botanic garden of Berlin was established in the time of Frederick II. and is one of the few gardens
in which the arrangement of the plants is according to their native habitations. It has lately been greatly
enriched by Link and Otto ; as have those of Munich, Stuttgard, Baden, Hesse, and most others in
Germany, by their respective directors and gardeners.
The botanic garden of Kbnigsberg, was enlarged and re-arranged in 1812, and deserves notice for its
singularly varied surface, and agreeable recluse walks.
The botanic garden of Copenhagen was established before 1640. It was rich in hardy plants and trees,
about the end of the last century, but is at present rather neglected. Sperlin in 1642, and Pauli in 1653,
published catalogues of this garden.
220. The taste for plants in Germany is very considerable among the higher classes ; and
not only public bodies but private gentlemen, and princes of every degree, spend a much
greater proportion of their income, in the encouragement of this branch of gardening,
than is done by the wealthy of England. Since the restoration of tranquillity, this taste
has received a new stimulus by the opportunity afforded of procuring plants from
England. Among the lower classes, however, a taste for flowers is less popular in
Germany than in Italy, Holland, and France ; probably owing to their frugal habits,
and comparatively sober enjoyments.
Book I. GARDENING IN GERMANY.
49
Subsect. 3. German Gardening, in resj>ect to horticultural Productions.
221. In all probability horticulture was first introduced to Germany by the Romans,
and afterwards revived by the religious houses. The native fruits and culinary plants
of Germany are the same as those of France, already enumerated. In the museum of the
arsenal in Dresden, are still preserved, and shown to strangers, the gardening tools with
which Augustus the Second, Elector of Saxony, worked with his own hands. This
magistrate died in 1566. He is said to have planted the first vineyard in Saxony, and
to have greatly increased the varieties of the hardy fruits.
222. The more common fruits of Germany, the cherry, the pear, the plum, and the
apple, are natives, or naturalised in the woods. Good varieties would no doubt be
brought from Italy by the monks, who established themselves in Germany in the dark
ages, and from the convents be introduced to the gardens of the nobles, as the latter
became somewhat civilised. This would more especially be the case with those pro-
»inces situated on the Rhine, where the genial soil and climate would brin°- them to
greater perfection, and, in time, render them more common than in the northern districts.
Dr. Diel, however, a native of the best part of this tract of country {Nassau Dietz),
complains {Obst. Orangerie in Scherben, 1st band.), so late as 1804, that apples, pears, and
cherries, were most commonly raised from seeds, and planted in orchards, without being
grafted.
223. The finer fruits only thrive in the south of Germany, the apricot appears to have
been some time introduced in Austria and Hungary, and produces well as a standard in
the neighbourhood of Vienna. The peach is most commonly grown against walls. The
mulberry produces leaves for the silk-worm as far north as Frankfort on the Oder, but
ripens its fruit with difficulty, unless planted against walls. The vine is cultivated as far
north as the fifty-second degree of latitude, in vineyards, and somewhat farther in gardens.
The fig, -to nearly the same extent, against walls, its branches being every where protected
in winter ; it is, however, a rare fruit in Germany. At Vienna it is kept in large tubs
and boxes, and housed during winter in the wine-cellars.
224. The pine-apple, Beckman informs us, was first brought to maturity by Baron
Munchausen, at Schwobber, near Hamelin. The large buildings erected by the baron for
this fruit, are described in the Nuremberg Hesperides for 1714. It was ripened
also by Dr. Kaltschmidt at Breslaw, in 1702, who sent some fruit to the imperial
court. At present there are very few pineries to be found throughout the whole empire.
In Austria the best varieties of hardy fruit-trees are said (Bright' s Travels) to have been introduced
from Holland, by Van der Schott, about the middle of the seventeenth century ; but many of them must have
been in the imperial gardens long before this period, ffom the connection o'f Austria with the Netherlands ;
yet Meyer, in 1776, speaking of fruits, says, that" the age of Schoenbrunn will be for Franconia what that
of Louis the Fourteenth was for France." The Rev. J. V. Sickler, in Saxegotha, Counsellor Diel, at Nassau
Dietz, and Counsellor Ransleben, at Berlin, have established, within the last fifty years, fruit-tree nurse-
ries, where all the best Dutch, French, and English varieties may be purchased. Diel and Ransleben
prove the sorts, by fruiting the original specimens in pots in a green-house. Sickler has fruited an
immense number of sorts in the open air, and published descriptions of them in Der Teutsche Obst.
Gartner ; a work of which 48 volumes have already appeared.
In Hanover George II., after establishing an agricultural society, is said to have introduced the best
English fruits about 1751.
In Saxony the Earl of Findlater resided many years, and planted a vineyard at his country-seat in the
neighbourhood of Dresden, said to be the most northerly in Germany. He introduced flued walls, and
trained the best sorts of English peaches and apricots on them. The whole of his horticultural efforts
and his chateau were destroyed by the French army in 1813, for no other reason than his being an Eng-
lishman. A public walk and seat at Carlsbad remain to commemorate his taste and public spirit.
At Potsda?n the best fruits were introduced by Frederick II., who was passionately fond of them,
and cultivated all the best Dutch varieties on walls, espaliers, under glass, and in the open garden. He
was particularly fond of pine-apples, of which he grew a great number in pits; and is censured by an
English traveller (Burnett), because, on his death-bed, he made enquiries after the ripening of one of them,
of which he expected to make a last bonne bouche. Potsdam and Schwobber are the only parts of Germany
where forcing has ever been practised to any extent. There are now in the royal gardens of Prussia,
excellent pine-apples reared under the care of the director Linne, who has visited England.
At Weimar, the chief proprietor of the Landes industrie comtoir, and author of a work on potatoes, has
an excellent garden and extensive hot-houses where he raises the finest fruits. The whole, Jacobs ob-
serves (Travels, 1819, 332.), is kept in excellent order.
In Hungary horticulture has been much neglected, but fruit-tree nurseries were established there by
government in 1808, and subsequently by private gentlemen. Plums, Dr. Bright informs us, are culti-
vated in order to make damson brandy. The Tokay wine is made from the variety of grape figured and
described by Sickler, in his Garden Magazine of 1804, as the Hungarian blue. The soil uf the Tokay vine-
yards is a red brown clay, mixed with sand, incumbent on a clayey slate rock ; and it is observed by a
Hungarian writer quoted by Dr. Bright, that " in proportion as the soil is poor and stony, and the vine
feeble, the fruit and wine, though small in quantity, become more excellent in their quality." Tokay
wine is made in the submontane district which extends over a space about twenty miles round the town
of that name. The grapes are left on the plants till they become dry and sweet, they are then gathered
one by one, put in a cask with a perforated bottom, and allowed to remain till that portion of the juice
escape, which will run from them without any pressure. This, which is called Tokay essence, is generally
in very small quantity. The grapes are then put into a vat and trampled with the bare feet; to the
squeezed mass is next added an equal quantity of good wine, which is allowed to stand for twenty-four hours,
and is then strained. This juice, without farther preparation, becomes the far-famed wine of Tokay,
which is difficult to be obtained, and sells in Vienna at the rate of 121. per dozen. The Tokay vineyards
are chiefly the property of the emperor.
E
50 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part L
In Denmark, notwithstanding the severity of the climate, they succeed in bringing to a tolerable degree
of perfection most of the best sorts of fruits. Glass frames, portable canvass covers, and mats, are used to
protect the blossom of the more tender trees against walls ; and the hardier sorts, as the apple and cherry
jre, in skiing, before the blossom expand-, watered every night, in order at once to protect and retard it
by an envelope of ice. This ice is again thawed off before sunrise by copious waterings.
225. The culinary vegetables of Germany are the same as those of Britain ; but they
.ire without the greater part of our best varieties. The Brassica tribe and edible roots
arrive at greater perfection there than in France. The popular sorts are the field-cabbage and
the borecoles ; they are used newly gathered, and boiled and eaten with meat, in broths
or soups, and pickled in the form of sour kraut for winter use. The potatoe, kidney-
bean, onion, and lettuce, are also in general use ; and the first gardens possess all the
oleraceous and acetaceous vegetables grown in France and Holland.
Subsect. 4. German Gardening, as to planting Timber-trees and Hedges.
226. Planting, as a matter of profit has been little attended to in Germany from the num-
ber and extent of the native forests. In some districts, however, Pomerania for example,
barren sandy tracts are sown with acorns and Scotch pine-seeds, chiefly for the sake of
fuel and common husbandry timber. Much attention, as Emmerich informs us {Culture
of Forests), and as appears by the number of German works on Forstwissenschaft, is in
o-eneral paid to the management of forests already existing ; as far as we have been able
to observe, this extends to filling up vacancies by sowing, and occasionally draining and
enclosing ; thinning and pruning are little attended to in most districts. The oak, the
beech, and the Scotch pine, are the prevailing native trees of Germany.
227. Rows of trees along the public roads are formed and preserved with great care,
especially in Prussia. The mulberry is the tree used in some of the warmer districts,
and in other places the lime and the elm ; the Lombardy poplar is also common near
most towns of Germany, especially Berlin, Dresden, and Leipzic. Some attention is
every where paid to public avenues ; and the highways being, as in France, generally
kept up by the government, improvements can be executed promptly and with effect.
There being, in general, no accompanying hedges, and the trees being trained with naked
stems to ten or fifteen feet high, according to the lowness or exposure of the situation,
little injury is done to the materials of the road in wet weather. The breeze passes
freely between the stems of the trees. The traveller and his horses or cattle are shaded
during sunshine, and sheltered during storms ; and the man of taste is furnished with a
continued frame and foreground to the lateral landscapes.
228. Hedges, though not general in Germany, are used on the Rhine and in Holstein,
the plants generally hawthorn, but sometimes hornbeam or a mixture of native shrubs.
Hungary is the most backward province in respect to planting and hedges, as well as to
every thing else. A hedge there is rare ; and there are scarcely any public avenues be-
yond Presburg. Existing woods are subjected to a sort of management for the sake of
the fuel they afford, and for their produce in timber and charcoal for the mines.
Subsect. 5. German Gardening, as empirically practised.
229. The use of gardens is as general in the best districts of Germany as in England ;
but in Hungary and some parts of Bohemia, Gallicia, and Prussia, many of the lower
orders are without them, or if permitted to enclose a few yards of ground near their
wooden hovels, they seem too indolent and indifferent, or too much oppressed by the
exactions of their landlords, to do so. The cabbage tribe, and chiefly red greens, and
the potatoe, are the universal plants of the cottage-gardens of Germany ; lettuce, pease,
onions, and turnips, with some other sorts, and the common fruit-trees, are introduced in
some districts. Flowers are not very general, but the rose, thyme, and mint, are to be
seen in many places, and a variety of ornamental plants in the better sort of cottage-
gardens.
230. Farmers gardens, as in most countries, are a little larger than those of the
lowest class of cottagers ; but inferior in point of order and neatness to that of the man
who lives in his own cottage.
231. The gardens of the hereditary families are not, in general, much attended to ; their
appearance is too frequently that of neglect and disorder. Cabbage, potatoes, apples,
and pears, and perhaps a few onions, are the produce expected from them ; these are cul-
tivated by a servant, not always a gardener, and who has generally domestic occupations
to perform for the family. It will readily be imagined that, in such an extensive country,
there are innumerable exceptions ; in these, the gardens are better arranged, and the pro-
duce of a more varied description. Next to the gardens of the princes or rulers, the best
are those of the wealthy bankers and citizens. These are richly stocked with fruit-trees,
generally contain hot-houses, and are liberally kept up. Some of them contain collections
of exotics. The best private gardens in Denmark belong to this class, and the remark
will apply in the vicinity of all towns and cities in proportion to their rank as com-
mercial places.
Book I. GARDENING IN GERMANY. SI
232. There are very few good gardens in Hungary, that of Prince Esterhazy, the greatest
proprietor of that country, is extensive, abounds in hot-houses, and contains a very full
collection of plants. The prince has an English gardener, whom he sends frequently to
this country to collect whatever is new.
233. The German j^rinces and rulers are in general attached to gardens, and have very
considerable ones at their principal residences ; some of these have been mentioned, and
various others might be added. These gardens are under the direction of intelligent men,
who, in general, have spent part of their time in botanic gardens j and, in many cases,
have studied or practised in Holland, or in the Paris gardens.
234. There are market-gardens near most large towns, but nurseries are much less com-
mon. There are extensive gardens of both sorts at Hamburg ; but the best fruit-tree
nurseries are supposed to be those of Sickler and Diel already mentioned. There is a
good nursery at Wurtzburg, in Franconia, established by Meyer ; one at Frankfort on the
Oder, and three at Vienna, In most places, the principal market-gardeners propagate a
few fruit-trees for sale.
235. The operative part of gardening, in the better classes of gardens, is performed by
men, who have, agreeably to the general custom in Germany, not only served an appren-
ticeship, but travelled and worked for a certain time in different parts of the country, or
of other countries.
"Die term of apprenticeship is three years and a half, and for travel three years, unless the apprentice is
the son of a master-gardener ; in which case, the term for travel is reduced to one year. All apprentices
roust be able at least to read and write, and are taught to draw, and furnished with written secrets in
gardening by their master, during the term of apprenticeship. When that is completed, the youth is initi-
ated into what may be called the free-masonry of gardening, and, being furnished with a pass-word, he pro-
ceeds from one town to another, till he can get work. Till this happens, his pass-word, and also a passport from
the gardeners' society of the place where he was initiated, procures for him, at every Gartner lierberge, or
gardeners' lodging-house, lodging and food, and as much money as will supply his wants till he arrives at
the next inn of a similar description. In this way he may walk over the whole of the German empire,
Denmark, and a part of Holland, at the general expense ; the numerous ramifications of the society ex-
tending over the whole of this immense tract. Such institutions exist for every trade in Germany, but being
disliked by the governments, and being politically considered of an arbitrary and injurious nature, are now
on the decline. On his return from probation, the travelled journeyman is entitled to take a master's
place ; and very commonly he continues travelling tiH he hears of one. The regular German gardener is
a careful, neat-handed, and skilful workman ; and, if allowed sufficient time, or assistance, will keep a
garden in good order, and produce all the crops required of him in their proper seasons.
236. The artists or architects of gardens, in Germany, are generally the Land baumeister,
or those architects who have directed their attention chiefly to country-buildings. Where
only a kitchen or flower-garden is to be formed, an approved practical gardener is com-
monly reckoned sufficient. It occasionally happens, that a nobleman, who wishes to lay
out an extensive garden, after fixing on what he considers a good gardener of some edu-
cation, and capable of taking plans, sends him for a year or two to visit the best gardens
of England, Holland, or France. On his return, he is deemed qualified to lay out the
garden required ; which he does, and afterwards attends to its culture, and acts as a
garden-architect ( Garten baumeister) to the minor gentry of his neighbourhood.
Subsect. 6. German Gardening, as a Science, and as to the Authors it has produced.
237. The Germans are a scientific people : they are a reading people, and in conse-
quence the science of every art, in so far as developed in books, is more generally known
there than in any other country. Some may wish to except Scotland ; but, though the
Scotch artisan reads a great deal, his local situation and limited intercourse with other
nations, subject him to the influence of the particular opinions in which he has been edu-
cated : he takes up prejudices at an early period, and with difficulty admits new ideas
from books. On the other hand, the Germans of every rank are remarkable for liberality
of opinion : all of them travel ; and, in the course of seeing other states, they find a
variety of practices and opinions, different from those to which they have been accustomed ;
prejudice gives way ; the man is neutralised ; becomes moderate in estimating what
belongs to himself, and willing to hear and to learn from others.
238. There are horticultural societies and professorships of rural economy in many of the
universities ; one or two gardeners' magazines, and almanacks of gardening ; and some
eminent vegetable physiologists are Germans. Even in Hungary, it appears {BrighCs
Travels), a Georgicon, or college of rural economy, has been established by Graff Festetits
at Keszthely, in which gardening, including the culture and management of woods and
copses, forms a distinct professorship. The science of France may be, and we believe is,
greater than that of Germany in this art, but it is accumulated in the capital ; whereas,
here it emanates from a great number of points distributed over the country, and is conse-
quently rendered more available by practical men. The minds of the gardeners of France
are, from general ignorance, less fitted to receive instruction than those of Germany ;
their personal habits admit of less time for reading ; their climate and soil require less
artificial agency. The German gardener is generally a thinking, steady person ; the
climate, in most places, requires his vigilant attention to culture, and his travels have en-
E 2
52
HISTORY OF GARDENING.
Part I.
larged liis views. Hence he becomes a more scientific artisan than the Frenchman, and is
in more general demand in other countries. Some of the best gardens in Poland, Russia,
and Italy, are under the care of Germans.
239. The Germans have produced few original authors on gardening, and none that can
be compared to Quintinye or Miller. They have translations of all the best European
books ; and so vigilant are they in this respect, that even a recent and most useful work on
exotic gardening, by Cushing, hardly known in England, has not escaped the Leipsic
book-makers. Hirschfield has compiled a number of works, chiefly on landscape-gar-
dening ; J. V. Sickler and Counsellor Diel have written extensively on most departments
of horticulture, especially on the hardy fruits. (Sulzers Theory of the Fine Arts ;
Ersches Handbuchy&c. 2 Band. 1 Abth.)
Sect. V. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in Switzerland.
240. Extensive gardens are not to be expected in a country of comparative equalisation
of property, like Switzerland ; but no where are gardens more profitably managed or more
neatly kept, than in that country. " Nature," Hirschfield observes, " has been liberal to
the inhabitants of Switzerland, and they have wisely profited from it. Almost all the
gardens are theatres of true beauty, without vain ornaments or artificial decorations.
Convenience, not magnificence, reigns in the country-houses ; and the villas are distin-
guished more by their romantic and picturesque situations, than by their architecture."
He mentions several gardens near Geneva and Lausanne ; Delices is chiefly remarkable
because it was inhabited by Voltaire before he purchased Ferney, and La Grange and
La Boissier are to this day well known places. Ferney is still eagerly visited by every
stranger, but with the chateau of the Neckar family, that of the Empress Josephine, of
Beauharnois, and others, eulogised in the local guides, pre-
sent nothing in the way of our art particularly deserving of
notice ; though their situations, looking down on so mag-
nificent a lake, the simplicity of their architecture, and the
romantic scenery by which they are surrounded, render
them delightful retirements, and such as but few countries
can boast. The villa-gardens excel in rustic buildings
(fig. 17.) and arbors ; and are, for the most part, a mixture
of orchards on hilly surfaces, cultivated spots, and rocks.
However insignificant such grounds may look on paper
{fig. 1 8. ), in the reality they are pleasing and romantic. The public promenades at
Berne are most beautiful, and kept with all the care of an English flower-garden. Swit-
zerland has the pecu-
liar advantage of pro-
ducing a close turf,
which in most places,
and particularly at
Lausanne and Berne,
is as verdant as in
England. Harte
says great part of the
Pays de Vaud is like
the best part of Berk-
shire ; and indeed
every one feels that
this is the country
most congenial to an
Englishman's taste
and feelings.
241. The first botanic garden which appeared in Sivitzerland was that of the celebrated
Conrad Gesner, at Zurich, founded before the middle of the sixteenth century. He had
not, Deleuze observes, sufficient fortune to obtain much ground, or to maintain many
gardeners ; but his activity supplied every thing, and he assembled in a small spot what
he had been able to procure by his numerous travels and extensive correspondence. Public
gardens were, in the end of this century, established at Geneva, Basil, and Berne, and
subsequently in most of the cantons. The first of these gardens at present is that of
Geneva, lately enlarged and newly arranged under the direction of that active and highly
valued botanist, Decandolle. The garden of Basil is rich in the plants of all the moun-
tainous regions which lie around it, including the Tyrol and Piedmont. A taste for
flowers is perhaps more popular in Switzerland than in Germany ; for though frugality is
not less an object in every branch of rural economy, yet real independence is more gene-
Book I. GARDENING IN SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 55
ral ; a poor man here, as Burns used to say, has generally some other estate than that of
sin and misery ,- some little spot that he can call his own, and which he delights to cultivate
and ornament. Speaking of Zurich, Simond observes (Tour, &c. 1819, p. 404.), " Haer-
lem excepted, there is not a town where more attention was ever paid to fine flowers :
many new plants, as the Hortensia, Volkameria, &c, are here grown in perfection. The
taste for flowers is particularly displayed on the occasion of the birth of a child. When the
news is carried about to all the relations and friends of the family ; the maid is dressed
in her best attire, and carries a huge nosegay of the finest flowers the season affords.
242. Horticulture is carefully practised in Switzerland ; vineyards are formed as far
north as Lausanne ; and the apple, pear, plum, cherry, and wal-
nut are common on every farm ; the three first are in every cottage-
garden. The filbert, gooseberry, currant, raspberry, and strawberry
are natives ; but only the filbert, raspberry, and strawberry are com-
mon in the woods and copses. In the sheltered valleys of this country,
the apple and the pear are most prolific. Stewed pears is a common
dish among the cottagers in autumn ; the fruit is also dried, and in
winter forms an excellent soup ingredient. The cabbage, the potatoe,
the white beet grown for the leaves as spinach, and their foot-stalks
as chard, and the kidney-bean for haricots and soups, are the popular
vegetables. Particular attention is paid to bees, which are kept in
neat rustic sheds (Jig. 19.), or the hives carefully thatched with bark ^^t^^^ZZ~T'
or moss.
243. There is little or no forest planting in Switzerland, but hedges of hawthorn are not
uncommon. The walnut is there a very common high-road tree in the autumnal months,
and furnishes the pauper traveller with the principal part of his food. Poor Italians have
been known to travel from Naples and Venice to Geneva on this sort of fare. They
begin with Indian corn and grapes, which they steal from the fields, till they arrive at
Milan, and the rest of the road they depend on walnuts, filberts, and apples.
Sect. VI. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in Sweden and Norway.
244. Gardening is jmtronised by the higher classes, and practised round the principal
towns of Sweden and Norway. " All the Swedes with whom I have ever met," observes
Hirschfield, " whether elevated by birth, or enlightened by education, were estimable
friends of beautiful nature and of gardens." Sir J. E. Smith (Lin. Trans., vol. i.) ex-
presses an equally high opinion of this people. Mediocrity of circumstances, a poor court,
political liberty, and a varied and comparatively unproductive country, seem to have
contributed to give a more thinking turn to the Swedish nobles, than in countries natu-
rally prolific. Their immense public works, canals, harbors, and excellent roads, careful
agriculture, extensively worked mines, botanic gardens, literary institutions, and scientific
authors are proofs of what we assert.
245. The ancient style of gardening appears to have been introduced to Sweden, at least
previously to 1671 ; for Hermand, who published his Regnum Suecia in that year, men-
tions the gardens of the palace as well as the Vivarium, or park. The gardens, he says,
were used for delight and recreation. They lay between the Palatium and Vivarium,
and the latter contained some wooden buildings, in which were kept lions, leopards, and
bears. This garden and park appear to have been formed by Gustavus Adolphus, about
1620. Charles the Twelfth procured plans from Le Notre, and had the trees and plants
sent from Paris. It is remarked by Dr. Walker, as a curious fact, that though the yew-
tree is a native of Sweden, those plants of this species sent from Paris, to plant Le Notre's
designs, died at Stockholm the first winter.
246. Tlie mixed style is exemplified in Haga, formed on a rocky situation, about the
middle of the eighteenth century, by Gustavus III., with the assistance of Masretier. It
is the Trianon of Sweden. The approach is a winding walk through rocks and luxuriant
verdure. Drottningholm is a royal palace, formed by the same prince on the island of
that name. The gardens are in a sort of Anglo-Chinois manner, but as far as art is con-
cerned, in no respect remarkable. Both these gardens are surrounded or intermingled
with water, rocks, Scotch pine, spruce fir, and buildings, forming a picturesque assem-
blage of saxatile and verdant beauty. There are some confined spots laid out in the
English taste, chiefly by British merchants in the neighbourhood of Gottenburg, as there
are also near Christiana and Tronijem, in Norway ; but it may be remarked, that this
style is not likely to be generally adopted in either country, because they already possess
much greater beauties of the same kind, which it is our aim to create, and with which
those created would not bear a comparison.
247. A taste for flowers is not popular in Siveden ; if a farmer or cottager has any spare
room in his garden, he prefers rearing a few plants of tobacco. But the study of every
branch of natural history is in repute among the higher classes and literati ; and the ce-
E 3
54
HISTORY OF GARDENING.
Part I.
lebrity of the Swedish botanists, and of the Upsal garden, is universal. It was difficult,
Deleuze observes, to form vegetable collections in the northern countries ; but industry
can conquer obstacles, and the more precautions necessary to secure the plants from the
vigor of the climate, the more will culture be perfected.
248. The botanic garden of Upsal was founded in 1657, under the auspices of King
Charles Gustavus, and by the attention of Olaus Rudbeck. This learned man, seconded
by the credit of the Count of Gardie, chancellor of the academy of Upsal, and who had
himself a fine botanic garden at Jacobsdahl, obtained funds necessary for the construction
of a garden and green-house, and to collect foreign plants ; and he augmented its riches
by the gift he made of his own garden in 1662. The progress of this establishment
may be seen by comparing the three catalogues given by Rudbeck in 1658, 1666, 1685.
The latter enumerates 1870 plants, among which are 630 distinct species of exotics.
(Bib. Banksiana.) In 1702, the fire which consumed the half of the city of Upsal, re-
duced the green-house to ashes, and the garden was in a deplorable condition till 1740,
when its walls ay ere rebuilt. Two years afterwards the botanical chair and the direction
of the garden were given to Linnaeus ; and the university, undoubtedly excited by that
refonner of natural history, took charge of all the necessary expenses for the acquisition
and preservation of plants. Linnaeus, feeling how essential it was to be assisted in all the
details of culture, obtained Diderich Nutzel, a clever gardener, who had visited attentively
the gardens of Germany, Holland, and England, and who had then the charge of that of
ClifFort, in Holland. He there constructed new green- houses, intended for plants of
different climates ; and he solicited successfully the principal botanic gardens of
Europe for specimens. Soon after, several of his pupils, whom he had excited with enthu-
siasm for botany, went across the seas to collect seeds and specimens ; and many tropical
plants, first grown at Upsal, were sent from thence to the southern countries of Europe.
The description and plan of the garden of Upsal may be seen in the Amoenitates Academicce. (Dissert 7.
t. i. p. 172.) Linnasus, in 1748 and 1753, published the catalogue of the plants cultivated there, and since his»
time, others have appeared, containing the additions which hare been made by his successors. In 1804,
the large orangery, built by Linnaus, was found to be considerably out of repair, and was taken down and
rebuilt. A magnificent lecture-room and museum was at the same time added. The ceilings of these
rooms are supDorted by columns, which being hollow, are used as flues, and thus afford an elegant and
effectual means of heating the air. On the whole, the garden is respectably kept up ; and many hardy
plants, natives of North America in particular, are found here in greater luxuriance than in France or
Germany.
249. In horticulture the Swedes are considered as successful operators ; but their short
summers are adverse to the culture of many sorts of fruits and culinary vegetables in the
open air ; and there is not yet sufficient wealth to admit of forcing, or forming artificial
climates to any extent. The apple, pear, and plum ripen their fruits in the best districts,
especially in warm situations ; but where the better varieties are grown, they are always
planted against walls, and protected, as in Denmark. The Rubus chanuemorus, or cloud-
berry (fig. 20.), is very common in 20
Lapland; its fruit is delicious, and
sent in immense quantities, in autumn,
from all the north of the Gulf of
Bothnia, to Stockholm, where it is
used for sauces, in soups, and in mak-
ing vinegar. Dr. Clarke was cured of
a bilious fever, chiefly from eating
this fruit. There are a few forcing-
houses near Gottenburg and Stockholm
for peaches and vines ; and one or two
instances of pines being attempted in
pits near the capital and in East Goth-
land. The borecoles, red and green, the
rutabaga and potatoe are the popular
vegetables ; but the best gardens have most of the Dutch and English varieties of the
culinary tribe.
250. The toivns and cities of Norway, Dr. Clarke informs us (Scandinavia, ch. 17. 1806),
were formerly supplied with culinary herbs from England and Holland ; but gardening
became more general after the publication by Christian Gartner of a manual adapted to
Sweden. Now all sorts of vegetables are common round Tronijem. The gardens of the
citizens are laid out in the Dutch taste, and full of fruits and flowers. Of these are enu-
merated, apples, pears, plums, cherries, strawberries, cabbages, cauliflowers, turnips, cu-
cumbers, potatoes, artichokes, lupines, stocks, carnations, pinks, lilies, roses, and many
other garden-flowers. In the garden of the minister of Enontekis (Jig. 21.), a village
situated 287 miles north of Tornea, and perhaps the best garden in Lapland, Dr. Clarke
found pease, carrots, spinach, potatoes, turnips, parsley, and a few lettuces. The tops of
the potatoes were used boiled, and considered a delicate vegetable.
Book I.
GARDENING IN RUSSIA.
56
251. Planting is little wanted in Siveden, for seedling Scotch pines, spruce firs, and
birch, rise up in abundance wherever old ones have been cut down. Enclosures in Swe-
den, as in Switzerland, are most frequently made of stone or of wood. Trees are planted
along the roads in several places, and especially near Stockholm. The lime, the birch,
and the ash, or trembling poplar, are the species used.
Sect. VII. Of the Rise, Progress, and 'present State of Gardening in Russia.
252. The history of gardening in Russia is very different from that of any of those
countries which have yet come under review. Peter the Great sought, by one giant stride,
to raise the character of his nation to a level with that of other countries ; and, by extra-
ordinary efforts, introduced excessive refinement amidst excessive barbarism ; asembled
magnificent piles of architecture in a marsh, and created the most sumptuous palaces and
extensive parks and gardens, in the bleak pine and birch forests which surrounded it. As
a man of Cronstadt rhymes,
" Built a city in a bog,
And made a Christian of a hog."
Nothing can be more extraordinary in the way of gardening, than these well-known
facts, that a century ago there was scarcely such a thing, in any part of Russia, as a
garden ; and, for the last fifty years, there have been more pine-apples grown in the neigh-
bourhood of Petersburg than in all the other countries of the continent put together.
Subsect. 1. Russian Gardening, as an Art cf Design and Taste.
253. Russian gardening, as an art of design, began, like every other art, with Peter
the Great. This emperor's first effort was made in 1714, when the garden of the sum-
mer-palace, on the banks of the Neva, in Petersburg, was laid out in the Dutch taste.
But the grandest and most superb garden, in the geometric manner, is that which he con-
structed soon afterwards, about thirty wersts from the city, on the shores of the gulf.
This imperial residence, as far as respects the gardens, has been justly called the Versailles
of Russia; and the Prince de Ligne, an excellent judge, gives the preference to its water-
works. The whole was originally designed and laid out by Le Blond, a pupil of Le Notre,
and for some time court architect of St. Petersburg. This, with the other suburban
palaces and gardens, have been minutely described by Georgi, and more generally by
Storch, from whom we select the following outline : —
254. Peter/toff, in respect to situation, is perhaps unrivalled. About five hundred fathoms from the sea-
shore this region has a second cliff, almost perpendicular, near twelve fathoms high. Bordering on this
precipice stands the palace, thereby acquiring a certain peculiar prospect over the gardens and the gulf, to
the shores of Carelia and St. Petersburg, and to Cronstadt. It was built in the reign of Peter the Great,
by the architect Le Blond, but has received, under the succeeding monarchs, such a variety of improve-
ments, that it has become a sort of specimen of the several tastes that prevailed in each of these ajras, the
influence whereof is visible in the numerous architectural ornaments, which are all highly gilt. The inside is
correspondent with the destination of this palace ; throughout are perceptible the remains of antiquated
splendor, to which is contrasted the better taste of modern times. The gardens are more interesting by
their peculiar beauties. The upper parts of them, before the land-side of the palace, are disposed into
walks, plantations, and parterres, which acquire additional elegance by a large basin and canal, plentifully
furnished with fountains of various designs and forms. The declivity before the back-front of the palace
towards the sea has two magnificent cascades, rolling their streams over the terraces into large basins, and
beneath which vast sheets of water, we walk as under a vault, without receiving wet, into a beautiful grotto.
The whole space in front of this declivity, down to the sea-shore, is one large stately garden in the old-
fashioned style, and famous for its jets-d'eau, and artificial water- works. Some of them throw up columns of
water, a foot and a half in diameter, to a height of two and a half or three fathoms. A pellucid canal, lined
with stone, ten fathoms wide, running from the centre of the palace-facade into the gulph of Finland, divides
these gardens in two. In a solitary wood stands the summer-he use, called Monplaisir, which among other
things is remarkable for its elegant kitchen, wherein the Empress Elizabeth occasionally amused herself
in dressing her own dinner. In another portion of the gardens, close to the shore of the gulf, stands a
neat wooden building, formerly a favorite retreat of Peter the Great, as he could here have a view of
E 4
36 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part L
Cronstadt and the fleet. The bath is likewise worthy of observation, situated in the midst of a fhlclfet
We enter a large oval space, enclosed by a wooden wall, without a covering at top, but open to the sky,
and shaded by the surrounding trees. In this wall are chambers and recesses furnished with all that con-
venience or luxury can require to that end. In the centre of this area is a large basin, surrounded by a
gallery, and provided with steps, rafts, and gondolas : the water is conducted hither by pipes, which fill the
basin only to a certain height." — These gardens still exist, and the water-works are kept in tolerable re-
pair. There is adjoining a small specimen of English gardening, laid out by Meader, once gardener at
Alnwick castle in Northumberland, and who is author of The Planter's Guide.
255. At Petrowka, near Moscow, is the principal private ancient garden in Russia.
The hedges and alleys are chiefly formed of spruce fir, which are shorn, and seem to
flourish under the shears. It contains also a labyrinth, and a turf amphitheatre, on which
the proprietor, Comte Razumowski, had operas performed by his domestic slaves.
Sophiowski, in Podolia, is a magnificent residence of the Countess Potocki, laid out by a Polish archi-
tect, Metzel, in the manner of Switzer. It has a magnificent terrace or promenade, and extensive ave-
nues, conservatories, and gardens.
256. The first attempt at the modern style of gardening in Russia was made by Catherine,
about 1778, at Zarskoje-selo, at that time enlarged and re-laid out. The gardener
employed was Busch, a German, and father of their present superintendant. The gor-
geous magnificence of this residence is well known. " A natural birch forest, on ground
somewhat varied, forms the ground-work of the park and gardens. The gate by
which they are approached, is an immense arch of artificial rock-work, over which is
a lofty Chinese watch-tower. The first group of objects is a Chinese town, through
which the approach leads to the palace ; a building, which, with its enclosed entrance,
court, offices, baths, conservatories, church, theatre, and other appendages, it would seem
like exaggeration to describe. The rest of the garden-scenery consists of walks, numer-
ous garden-buildings, columns, statues, &c. with bridges of marble and wood, a large
lake, and extensive kitchen-gardens and hot-houses." The following more detailed
description is from the pen of Storch already mentioned.
257. Zarskoje-selo, the famous summer- residence of Catherine the Second, is situated in an open plea-
sant region, diversified by little hills, meads, and woodlands. The space of the whole domain contains
four hundred and twenty thousand square fathoms. This princely seat owes its origin to Catherine the
First, and its enlargement and embellishment to Elizabeth ; but it is indebted for its completion in ele-
gance and taste, and the greater part of its present magnificence, to the creative reign of Catherine the
Second. We are now in a small wood within sight of the palace. On the left we have the park wall, and
before us the entrance on the Petersburg side. It consists of two portals, composed of blocks of sand-
stone, in the form of rocky fragments, over one of which is a Chinese watch-house. By this passage we
enter the foregrounds of the palace, having the gardens to the right, and a Chinese village to the left,
through which the way leads over a Chinese bridge to the park. Before us lies the road to the little
neighbouring town Sophia, which goes through a colossal gate of cast-iron. The court of the palace forms
an amphitheatre of buildings opposite the grand parade, closed on each side by an iron palisade.
The gardens are laid out in the English manner : among their curiosities that admit of a description, the
following objects may principally be recorded. A small temple containing a collection of antique and modem
statues ; a solitude for dinner-parties like that in the hermitage; a magnificent bath ; a coach, hill, similar to
that at Oranienbaum ; picturesque ruins ; a small town to commemorate the taking of Taurida, &c. Two
artificial lakes are connected by a running stream, crossed by an arched bridge, covered at the top by a
roof resting on two rows of marble columns, on the model of the bridge at Stowe. On one of the islands on
these lakes stands a Turkish mosque, on another a spacious hall for musical entertainments. In a thick
shrubbery we come upon a pyramid in the Egyptian form, in the vicinity whereof are two obelisks.
This majestic sanctuary of art and nature, continues Storch, is at the same time a magnificent temple of
merit. Formed of the rocky foundations of the earth, here the monuments of great achievements tower
towards the skies, fearless of the destructive vicissitudes of time. A marble obelisk reminds us of the
victory near Kagul, and of the victor RomanzofF Zudunaisky. To the Dey of Tschesmi, and the hero
Orlof Tschesmenskoy, a marble column on a pedestal of granite is devoted. A grand triumphal arch
proclaims the patriotic ardor of Prince Orlof, with which he faced rebellion and the plague in the
capital, and quelled them both. The victory in the Morea and the name of Feador Orlof are handed
down to posterity by a rostral column. — Plain and gigantic as the sentiments of the heroes whose memories
are perpetuated in these masses of rocks, they stand surrounded by the charms of Nature, who softens
her majesty through the veil of artless graces.
258. Paulowsky presents the best specimen of the English style, in the neighbourhood
of the Russian capital, or indeed in the empire. It was begun during the reign of
Catherine, in 1780, from a design said to have been furnished by the celebrated Brown,
from a description sent him by Gould, an Englishman, the gardener of Potemkin, and
finished afterwards during the reign of Paul. This place possesses considerable variety
of surface, and a varied clothing of wood, the Scotch pine and aspen being natural to these
grounds, as well as the birch. Near the palace, there is a profusion of exotics of every
description, including a numerous collection of standard roses, which, with some of the
American shrubs, require to be protected with straw and mats during winter. The
Chevalier Storch has given a very interesting description of these gardens, in his Briefe
iiber Paulowsky, &c. 1802.
259. The gardens of Potemkin, a man whose mind, as the Prince de Ligne has ob-
served, contained mines of gold and steppes, and one of the most extravagant enccuragers
of our art that modern times can boast, were of various kinds, and situated in different
parts of the empire. The most extensive gardens of this prince were in the Ukraine ;
but the most celebrated were those belonging to the palace of Taurida, now an imperial
residence in St. Petersburg. The grounds are level, with several winding and straight
Cook I.
GARDENING IN RUSSIA.
57
canals, and walks, adorned with numerous buildings, a rich collection of exotics, and most
extensive hot-houses of every description. Their grand feature, in Potemkin's time, was
the conservatory, or winter-garden {Jig- 22.), attached to the palace. The plan of this
part of the building is that of a semicircle, embracing the end of a saloon, nearly 300 feet
long. It is lighted by immense windows, between columns, has an opaque ceiling,
and is at present heated by common German stoves. It is too gloomy for the growth
of plants, but those grown in the glass sheds of the kitchen-garden are carried there, sunk
in the ground, and gravel-walks, turf, and every article added, to render an illusion to a
romantic scene in the open air as complete as possible. The effect was, after all, it is
said, never satisfactory but when illuminated. This palace, the original exterior of
which was in a very simple style, and the interior most magnificent, is said to have been
the design of Potemkin, but it was entirely re-modelled at his death by Catherine, used
as barracks by Paul, and is now very imperfectly restored. [Ed. Encyc. art. Landscape
Gardening.)
This winter-garden or conservatory, so much spoken of, is thus described by Storch : " Along one
side of the vestibule is the winter-garden, an enormous structure, disposed into a garden, only separated
from the grand hall by a colonnade. As, from the size of the roof, it could not be supported without
pillars, they are disguised under the form of palm-trees. The heat is maintained by concealed flues placed
in the walls and pillars, and even under the earth leaden-pipes are arranged, incessantly filled with boil-
ing water. The walks of this garden meander amidst flowery hedges, and fruit-bearing shrubs, winding
over little hills, and producing, at every step, fresh occasions for surprise. The eye of the beholder, when
weary of the luxuriant variety of the vegetable world, finds recreation in contemplating some exquisite
production of art: here a head, from the chisel of a Grecian sculptor, invites to admiration; there a
motley collection of curious fish, in crystal vases, suddenly fixes our attention. We presently quit these
objects, in order to go into a grotto of looking-glass, which gives a multiplied reflection of all these won-
ders, or to indulge our astonishment at the most extraordinary mixture of colors in the faces of an
obelisk of mirrors. The genial warmth, the fragrance and brilliant colors of the nobler plants, the volup-
tuous stillness that prevails in this enchanted spot, lull the fancy into sweet romantic dreams ; we imagine
ourselves in the blooming groves of Italy ; while nature, sunk into a death-like torpor, announces the
severity of a northern winter through the windows of the pavilion. In the centre of this bold creation,
on a lofty pedestal, stood the statue of Catherine II., surrounded by the emblems of legislature, cut in
Carrara marble. It has been thrown out of the building on its being made into barracks."
The gardens at Potemkin's other residences, as well as many imperial and private gardens in Russia,
were laid out by Gould, a pupil of Brown. Sir John Carr relates an anecdote on Gould's authority, which
was confirmed to us, in 1813, by the present gardener, Call, his successor, and deserves a place here. In
one of the prince's journeys to the Ukraine, Gould attended him with several hundred assistants, destined
for operators, in laying out the grounds of Potemkin's residence in the Crimea. Wherever the prince
halted, if only for a day, his travelling pavilion was erected, and surrounded by a garden in the English
taste, composed of trees and shrubs, divided by gravel-walks, and ornamented with seats and statues, all
carritd forward with the cavalcade." On another occasion, " having accidently discovered the ruins of
a castle of Charles XII. of Sweden, he immediately not only caused it to be repaired, but surrounded by
gardens in the English taste." (Carr's Baltic, &c.)
260. The most extensive seats laid oxit in the modern style, in the neighbourhood of
Moscow, are those of Gorinka, a seat of Count Alexy Razumowsky {fig. 23.), and
Petrowka, a seat of Petrowsky Razumowsky. The former is remarkable for its botanical
riches, and an immense extent of glass. The grounds are of great extent, but the sur-
face flat, and the soil a dry sand. A natural forest of birch and wild cherry clothes the
park, and harmonises the artificial scenes. The mansion, built by an English artisan, is
highly elegant ; and the attached conservatories and stoves, and decorated lawn, form
a splendid and delightful scene, unequalled in Russia,
23
58
HISTORY OF GARDENING.
Part I.
261. Petrowha contains both an ancient garden, already referred to, and a large extent of
o-round, laid out in the modern style, and adorned with buildings, from designs by Signor
Camporezi. There is some variety of surface, abundance of birch and fir woods, with
some oaks and aspens interspersed, and a large piece of water. Among the ornamental
buildings is a cotton-manufactory, in actual use as such. The practice of introducing
manufactories as garden-buildings, is very general in Russia, and almost peculiar to that
country. __
262. Among other gardens near Moscow may be mentioned those of Count Alexy
Razumowsky,*and of Paschow, in Moscow; of Zaritzina {fig. 24.), a singular Turkish
palace, built by Potemkin for Catherine ; of Astankina Count Cheremetow, Peckra,
Prince Galitzin, and various others, which would well bear description. In general, ex-
tent, exotics, and magnificent artificial decorations are more the object of the modern style
24
in Russia, than scenes merely of picturesque beauty. "We think this may be accounted
for, partly from the general want of refinement of taste in that country, and partly from
its inaptitude for that style. The nobles of Russia, suddenly rendered aware of being
distanced in point of civilisation by those of most other European countries, are resolved
not merely to imitate, but even to surpass them in the display of wealth. The most
obvious marks of distinction, in refined countries, are necessarily first singled out by
rude and ambitious minds, and large magnificent houses and gardens are desired, rather
than comfortable and elegant apartments, and beautiful or picturesque scenes ; since, as
every one knows, it is much more easy to display riches than to possess taste ; to strike
by what is grand, than to charm by what is beautiful.
263. Around Petersburg and Moscoiv are several public gardens and various private ones,
which their owners, with great liberality, convert into places of public entertainment, to
which all the people of decent appearance are at liberty to come. The country-seats of
the two brothers Nariskin deserve our particular notice, as being frequented on Sundays
by great numbers of the higher classes. A friendly invitation, in four different lan-
guages, inscribed over the entrance to the grounds, authorises every one, of decent
appearance and behaviour, to amuse himself there in whatever way he pleases, without fear
of molestation. In several pavilions are musicians, for the benefit of those who choose
to dance ; in others are chairs and sofas, ready for the reception of any party who wish
to recreate themselves by sedate conversation, after roaming about with the great throng ;
some parties take to the swings, the bowling-green, and other diversions ; on the canals
and lakes are gondolas, some constructed for rowing, others for sailing ; and if this be
not enough, refreshments are spread on tables, in particular alcoves, and are handed
about by persons in livery. This noble hospitality is by no means unenjoyed ; the con-
course of persons of all descriptions, from the star and riband, to the plain well-dressed
burgher, forms such a party-colored collection, and sometimes groups so humorously
contrasted, that for this reason alone it is well worth the pains of partaking once in the
amusement. (Storch's Petersburgh, p. 441.)
264. In the country parts of Russia, hundreds or even thousands of miles may be
gone over without meeting with any country-seat worth mentioning. The nearest to
Moscow, southwards, which we have seen, is that of Sophiowski, in Podolia, 1000 wersts
distant.
Book I. GARDENING IN RUSSIA.
59
Subsect. 2. Russian Gardening, in respect to the Culture if Flowers and Plants
qf Ornament.
265. Dutch floiver-roots, would doubtless be introduced in the imperial gardens with
the Dutch taste in design ; and soon after copied by such of the nobility as could afford
to copy in matters of this kind. It was reserved, however, for Catherine the Second to
give the first impulse to this taste, by establishing at Petersburg, the first public botanic
garden in 1785, for the use of the academy of sciences. Another was soon after formed
for the medical college.
266. The botanic garden of the university of Moscow was founded by the present
emperor, in 1801, but was unfortunately destroyed by the French in 1812; at which
time the university was burned down. Both, however, are now restored to their original
splendor.
267. The first private botanic garden formed in Ritssia was that of Count Dimidow,
begun during Peter the Great's reign. It was chiefly devoted to native plants ; but
still the hot-houses for exotics occupied more than one acre of ground. Two botanists
were sent to travel over the whole of Asiatic Russia. In 1 786 a catalogue was pub-
lished, when the collection amounted to 4363 species or varieties, exclusive of 572
varieties of fruit-trees, 600 varieties of florists' flowers, and 2000 species which had not
flowered. " Une seule anecdote,'" says Deleuze, " will prove how eager Dimidow was to
enrich his garden. Being at Rome, in 1773, he found in the garden of the Pedis Au-
gustins del corso, the handsomest orange-tree he had ever seen. The monks did not wish
to part with it, and he was obliged to employ a good deal of money and influence to over-
come their scruples. Having succeeded, he caused the tree, which was planted in the
open air, to be taken up with an immense ball, put in a large box, set on a carriage made
on purpose, and transported to Moscow." (Annates, &c. torn. ix. 174.)
268. The botanic garden qf Gorinka, already mentioned, presents the most extensive
private establishment not only in Russia but perhaps in the world. The great extent of
glass has been already mentioned. When we saw these hot-houses, in 1814, they were
much injured by the French ; but the whole garden is now, we understand, completely
reinstated. Dr. Fischer, its director, is a well known botanist, and corresponds with
most botanical cultivators in Europe. A catalogue of this garden was published by Dr.
Redowsky, in 1804. {Bib. Banks.) Its proprietor having lately died, this garden will
probably share the fate of many others.
There are other private botanic gardens near Petersburg and Moscow ; and good collections of orna-
mental plants at Pawlowsky and Gatschina, both imperial residences. The Baron Rahl has an extensive
range of hot-houses, devoted chiefly to orange-trees and tender plants ; and many of the Dutch and
German merchants cultivate flowers in the gardens of their summer-residences, on "the Strelna road at
Petersburg. Excepting however among the first of the nobility, and the wealthy foreign merchants
ornamental culture of every description is quite unknown in Russia. The taste of the ordinary nobleman
is too gross ; the peasant is out of the question, and there is no middle class in the empire of the Tzars.
269. The climate of Russia is adverse to floriculture. Dr. Howison remarks [Caled.
Mem. hi.), " that there is scarcely any plant, or flowering shrub, which can resist the
intense frost and cold of the winter in Britain, to be found out of doors in Russia • and
at times, even the hardy whin-bush is destroyed." He says, the gardener, in the
Tauridon palace, Call, showed him " lilac-trees, laburnums, different varieties of thorn,
whin-bushes, &c. growing in large wooden tubs, filled with earth, and which were
preserved there all winter, with the intention of being sunk in the borders of the garden, as
soon as the weather should grow warm enough to admit of it. In the gardens of the
villas and country-houses of the higher classes of Russians and foreigners settled in the
country, in the short period of a week from the disappearance of the winter, a beautiful
and rich display of shrubs and flowers in full blow, consisting of hydrangea, various
species of geranium and myrtle, wall-flower, carnation, &c. become visible. All these
are, in like manner, reared in hot-houses. As their bloom fades, fresh plants are brought
from the conservatory to replace them, thus keeping up an artificial garden, as it may be
called, during the whole warm season ; and when the cold weather begins again, the
whole are removed and replaced in the green-house."
Suesect. 3. Russian Gardening, in respect to its horticultural Productions.
270. Dutch and German fruits were introduced to Russia with the Dutch and French
taste in gardening, by Peter the Great. With the English style, Catherine introduced
English gardeners and English fruits. Before this period, the wild pear, the wild cherry,
the black currant, the cranberry, and the strawberry must have been almost the only
fruits seen in aboriginal Russia ; all these may be gathered in the woods. The apple is
abundant in the Ukraine, and a century ago, as at present, may have been sent to
Moscow for the use of the higher classes. At present, the imperial family, and a few,
perhaps six or eight of the first nobility, enjoy almost all the European fruits in tolerable
perfection, chiefly by the influence of glass and fire heat. The quantity of pines and
grapes grown in the neighbourhood of Petersburg, is indeed an astonishing feature in its
60 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
horticulture. Pines, grapes, and peaches, being grown so as to ripen In August and
September, enjoy, in these months, abundance of sun, and nearly equal in flavor
those grown in England or Holland ; but the apple, pear, cherry, and plum, being in
that part of the empire considered as only half hardy fruits, rarely ripen in the open
air so as to be fit for the dessert ; and are generally planted in houses, or against walls,
and brought forward by glass. About Petersburg the branches of the cherry-tree are
protected by burying in the soil, as the French do those of the fig-tree, in the fruit-gardens
of Argenteuil. The climate being less severe about Moscow, the hardier fruits ripen
somewhat better in the open air, but still far inferior to what they do at Edinburgh, which
is in the same parallel of latitude. We have seen apples, pears, cherries, &c. fit to eat,
in the hot-houses of the imperial gardens at Tzaritzina, in April, but without flavor.
271. Almost all the horticulture of Russia is contained in Moscow and around Peters-
burg ; elsewhere scarcely any sort of fruit-tree is to be found but the wild pear. Kitchen-
gardens are rare, even in Podolia, a very fine Polish province in the Ukraine, with a
deep rich soil, level surface, and favorable climate. The only fruits a Russian peasant
or minor Russian nobleman can taste are the wild pear (groutchky), dried or green, the
strawberry, and the eranberry. Of the last, a cooling acid beverage is made by infusion
in water.
272. If any culinary vegetables were known in Russia, before the beginning of the
last century, it could only have been the dwarf, ragged-leaved brown kale and the mush-
room ; the potatoe is but lately introduced, and that only in a few places. Many of
the peasants refuse to eat or cultivate this root, from mere prejudice, and from an idea
very natural to a people in a state of slavery, that any thing proposed by their lords must
be for the lord's advantage, and not for theirs ; thus the first handful of food thrown to
untamed animals operates as a scare.
The example of the court, and the number of foreigners employed in the Russian service, civil and military,
in their literary institutions, and established as medical or commercial men in the towns, will, no doubt,
gradually introduce a variety of culinary plants. The late war may also have had some influence, by giving
the, till then, untravelled noble a taste for the comforts of Germany and France; but, unfortunately, the
Russians are averse to a country life, and will continue to be so" till they acquire a taste for domestic
enjoyments and rural recreations. Dr. Howison (Mem. of Caled. Hort. Soc. vol. iii. 77.) has given "an
account of the most important culinary vegetables cultivated in the interior of the Russian empire." Of
these, the cucumber, melon, yellow turnip, radish, and bulbous celery, were introduced from Germany,
and are known but to a few. The remaining sorts mentioned are, the variegated cabbage, introduced
from the South Sea Islands; mustard, from Sarepta, near the Chinese wall ; and an onion from Chinese
Tartary. These were introduced by Hasenkampf, of the late Russian embassy to China. The English and
German court-gardeners grow abundance of all our best vegetables, and contrive to prolong the season of
some of them, as cauliflowers, celery, cabbage, &c. by earthing them in cellars. A succession of salad-
ing is kept up in hot-houses, during winter, and even the first crops of all the common oleraceous and
acetaceous plants are reared under glass and by fire heat in some of the best gardens. In Storch's
Petersburg (chap, iv.), the dependence of Russia on foreign countries for her culinary vegetables and
fruits is amply detailed. In the Crimea, according to Mary Holderness, horse-radish, asparagus, carrot,
dock, sorrel, nettles, capers, and mustard, are gathered wild, and used as pot-herbs. Cabbages are culti-
vated, and they attain a great size : onions, pompions, water-melons, and capsicum, are also grown,
(Notes, &c. 125.)
Subsect. 4. Russian Gardening, in respect to the Culture of Timber-trees and Hedges.
273. Forest or hedge -planting is scarcely known in Russia. There are yet abundance
of natural forests for timber and fuel, and in the northern parts where no system of pas-
turage can take place, enclosures are not now, and probably never will be, of any use.
Hedges are in use in the gardens of the capital, and of the city of residence. The time
is not yet come for planting the sides of the high-roads, though that would be a grand
feature of improvement. In some governments, towards the south, this has been partially
done in a few places, by stakes of the silvery-leaved, or Huntingdon willow (Salix alba),
but the trembling poplar, birch, and lime, are the proper trees for the northern parts, and
the cherry, alder, sycamore, oak, elm, walnut, &c. may be introduced in advancing
southwards.
Subsect. 5. Russian Gardening, as empirically practised.
274. The very limited use of gardens in this country has been already noticed. Few are
to be seen attached to the isbas, or log-houses of the boors, and not many to the rich
privileged slaves, or the native freedmen of the towns. There is no such thing as a Rus-
sian farmer ; every proprietor farms the whole of his own estate by means of his slaves
and an agent. The greater part of these proprietors have no gardens, or if they have,
they are wretched spots, containing a few borecoles, and but rarely potatoes or
legumes. The use of gardens is, therefore, almost entirely confined to the imperial
family, the highest class of nobles, and a few foreigners, who have settled in the principal
cities.
275. There are nurseries established in different districts by government, especially in
Courland and the Ukraine. In the Nitika nursery, in the Crimea, apple, pear, peach,
almond, vine, fig, olive, and pomegranate plants are propagated under Sterens, a Ger-
man, and sold at low prices.
Book I. GARDENING IN POLAND.
61
276. The head operative gardeners of Russia are almost all foreigners or sons of
foreigners. Sometimes a nobleman sends a slave as an apprentice to a o-ardener, for his
own future use ; but generally the assistant labourers are mere Russian boors, slaves of
the lord ; or other slaves who have obtained permission to travel and work on their own
account for a few years. These boors make very tractable labourers ; for the Russian is
imitative and docile, to a high degree. They require, however, to be excited by interest
or fear. The freed slaves on the government estates in the Ukraine, Mary Holderness
informs us {Notes on the Crimea, &c. 1821.), dig sitting and smoking.
277. The garden-artists of Russia are the English or German head-gardeners attached
to the establishment of the emperor, or of some eminent noble. Gould Potemkin's
gardener, was the Brown of Russia in Catherine's time. This man had a character in
some degree analogous to that of his master ; he lived in splendor, kept horses and women
and gave occasionally entertainments to the nobility. A few years a«-o he returned to
England, and died at an advanced age in 1816, at Ormskirk in Lancashire, his native town.
A foreigner once established as head-gardcncr to the emperor, or any of the first nobility in Russia
becomes in some degree a despot, like his master, and unless he commits very gross errors indeed his
conduct is never enquired into, nor does he lose his place but with life, or return home. He is not very
liberally paid, but he enjoys every comfort the state of society there affords ; lives in a house that would
be reckoned a considerable mansion in England, and has abundance of servants, and a carriage and
horses, at his command. His country, and its broad cloth, procure him the respect of the nobles, and the
dread of the slaves; the former he may render tributary by presents of seeds, and the latter he may kick
and beat at pleasure. If at any time he goes too far, a few radishes to the police-bailiffs, or a few peaches
or a melon, to the chevaliers their masters, will restore every thing to harmony.
Subsect. 6. Russian Gardening, as a Science, and as to the Authors it has produced.
278. Science of evert/ kind stagnates in Russia. However adroit the foreign gar-
deners may be, in adapting practices to the climate, it can hardly be expected, in the
circumstances in which they are placed, that they should increase the knowledge brought
with them. Separated from their friends, surrounded by strangers using a language
with which they never become familiar, without the means of procuring new books and
rarely coming in contact with intelligent gardeners or naturalists; much of the know-
ledge they carried with them, is unavoidably forgotten or neglected. We regret to add,
that it has been remarked by various travellers, that even the moral sense of Englishmen,
who settle in Russia, becomes in time contaminated by the baneful influence of Russian
manners. The want of common honor and honesty which pervades all ranks of the
natives in Russia, from the first minister to the meanest slave, is incredible. One won-
ders at first, how such an immoral state of society can exist ; but the refined moral habits
of civilised nations, like their refinements in cookery and dress, may all be traced to the
simple principle of self-preservation : and as a savage can put up with a homely fare
and a coarse garb, so it would appear a barbarous people may hang together by a sort of
tattered moral principle,
279. We knoiv of no original Russian author on gardening. There is a poem, On
Gardens, by Samboursky, translated into the French language by Masson de Blamont :
there is also a poem on glass, by the Russian poet Lomanosow, which, as containing a
eulogium on hot-houses, may be considered as belonging to this subject. Some transla-
tions have been published in German ; and various papers on botanical, physiological,
and agricultural subjects, appear from time to time, in the Transactions of the Imperial
Economical Society.
Sect. VIII. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in Poland.
280. Gardening, as an art of design, was introduced into Poland by the electoral kings
about the end of the seventeenth century, and especially by Stanislaus Augustus, the third
elector.
281. In respect to gardens in the geometric style of design, the most ancient royal ex-
ample is the Jardin Electoral de Saxe. It was never completed, and is now a public
garden. Le Jardin Kraszinski is another public garden ; but by far the most remarkable
is that of Lazienki, or the Bath, formed by the last king, on the site of an ancient park,
at Ujasdow, within the suburbs of the city. At the beginning of the reign of Stanislaus,
in 1764, it was a marshy wood, planted with alders, with some canals and other stagnated
pieces of water, near which was a grotesque edifice, called the Bath, and from which this
park takes its name.
The palace of Lazienli [fig. 25.), a beautiful piece of Roman architecture, from the designs of Camsitzer,
a German artist, is placed on an island in a considerable piece of water. It consists of a centre and two
wings. The centre is placed in the middle of a narrow part of the lake, and the wings are on opposite
shores, and joined to the centre by arches with orangeries over. The entrance is by a carriage -portico, in
one of the wings, to which yon arrive without seeing the lake ; and on entering the orangery, its first effect
is surprising and delightful. On the north shore of this lake is an open amphitheatre of stone with its
orchestra on the brink of the water ; and near the margin an island of trees, which served as the prosce-
nium. This theatre was at all times open to the public ; and in addition to the ordinary exhibitions, ships and
naval engagements were occasionally exhibited. The gaiety which reigned here during the first years of
the reign of Stanislaus, the singular effect of the illuminations, the ships, and the resounding of the music
62 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
in the woods, are still recollected by some of the oldest inhabitants of Warsaw, and gpolcen of with feelings
of regret. The grounds were not extensive, nor, excepting near the palace, much ornamented : they con-
sisted of a number of broad green alleys, crossing each other at right angles ; of smaller covered paths,
leading to open circles of turf for dances and music, and for tents and booths on extraordinary occasions.
In several places coffee-rooms and ice-cellars were established, and still remain ; and there are two pavilions
for the king's mistresses ; and another, which served as a seraglio, for strangers or visitors of the king : t he
three being connected with the palace by arbor-like paths, or arcades of trellis work, covered by creepers.
25
One thing deserves to be remarked as to these gardens, which is, perhaps, not to be found in any others
in Europe. Pedestals, as if for placing statues, were ranged in different parts of the grounds, particularly
along the broad walk leading from the palace to the amphitheatre. On these pedestals, on extraordinary
occasions, selected living figures, male and female, dressed in character, were placed, and taught to main-
tain certain attitudes, after the manner of the representations called Tableaux, and which are sometimes,
though rarely, produced in private circles at Paris and Vienna on days when theatrical amusements are
forbidden. It is not to be wondered at that so luxurious a king should have wanted decision of character,
lost his honor, kingdom, and, in short, every thing worth having. In 1813 this seat was nearly in the
state in which it was left by Stanislaus ; but we understand it has since undergone several changes.
282. The principal private garden in the ancient style was that of Villaneuve, the
property of Count Stanislaus Pototcky, a few miles from the capital, but now modernised.
Judging from the excellent views of these gardens, painted by B. Cannaletti, and now in
the zamosk, or castle, in Warsaw, they must have been elegant of the kind. At Cracovie
there are the remains of a geometric garden, of a few acres, laid out by Marshal Loudon,
when Austrian governor of that city ; one of a convent of some extent, and a small public
garden. But in the south of Poland, and especially in Gallicia, the only thing remark-
able as to design in gardens, is the powerfully walled enclosures of the convents and
religious houses, in some of which are venerable orchards, broad grass-walks, mossy trees,
and curious sun-dials. 2g
283. English gardening was introduced into Poland by the Princess
Isabella Czartoryska, at Pulhawa. This lady, highly accomplished, of
great taste, and much good sense, had been a considerable time in
England. She carried to Poland a gardener, Savage, and with his
assistance, and that of Vogel and Frey, artists of Warsaw, she laid out
Pulhawa, between 1780 and 1784, and published in Polish {Mysli
Rozne o Sposobie Zakladania Ogrodoiv) a work with plates, on English
gardening, in 1801. The situation of Pulhawa, like almost every other
with which we are acquainted in Poland or Russia, is flat and sandy ;
but is somewhat relieved by the Vistula. On the brink of this river, on
a wooded bank, stands the house, a plain Grecian building, which with
the grounds are described by Burnet, in his view of Poland, (chap, xi.)
There are several decorative buildings, and statues (Jig- 26. ) ; de-
tached clumps of shrubs are more frequent in these gardens than
would be admitted by a good taste in England ; but all Poland is a
natural forest ; and as the grand object of improvement in every country, is to obtain
applause by the employment of art and expense, artificial forms, from their rarity, are
better calculated for this purpose than such as are more universally beautiful, but so
common locally as to want the charm of novelty, — or whose beauties are too refined to
be generally understood. Thus clumps in Poland may be as much esteemed as groups
are in England, on the same principle, that, in a wild country, butcher-meat is more
esteemed than game, because the latter is the common food.
Zamoyst the seat of Count Zamoski, and Villaneuve the residence of Count Potocky, are also examples of
the modern style. The first are of limited extent, but the latter, near Warsaw, are very extensive, and
were laid out chiefly from the designs of Princess Czartoryska.
The gardens of General Benningsen, near Wilna, were in a mixed style, surrounded by oak and pine
forests. They were destroyed during the retreat of the French army in 1812.
Those of Colonel Lachanitxki, at Poniemenia, on the banks of the Niemen, at Grodno, are not extensive,
but contain more romantic and picturesque scenery than any garden we have seen in Poland.
284. The oldest botanic garden in Poland is that of Wilna, founded by Catherine, soon
after the dismemberment of that country ; the most thriving is that of Cracovie, placed in
1812 under the direction of Professor Oestricher, a zealous botanist. A garden was also
begun about 1810, in Warsaw, on the steep banks of the Vistula. Of the original
Book I. GARDENING IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 6S
Warsaw garden, of which a catalogue was published towards the middle of the last cen-
tury, we could, in 1813, procure no account. Count Benningsen had an excellent
botanic garden at his seat near Wilna, which, as already observed, was destroyed and the
chateau burned down in 1812. It was rich in hardy plants. At Pulhawa the Princess
Isabella Czartoryska has a considerable collection, and used frequently to send her
gardener (Savage), lately deceased, to England to procure the newest exotics.
285. A few flowers are cultivated in same of the wealthier citizens' gardens, around War-
saw, and a few in gardens of the conventual institutions ; but in a general point of view,
they are as uncommon in Poland as in Russia. In both countries a few may occasionally
be seen on market-days, which have been gathered in the fields, and brought in by the
peasants ; these are purchased by the minor nobles to decorate their rooms, by the monks
to display on their altars, or by devotees to present to the virgin or the image of their
patron saint. The floors of the higher classes, in Poland, are often strewed with the
leaves of the Acorns calamus, which abounds in the marshes of that country. In some
districts, towards Courland, the spray of the spruce fir is used for this purpose ; a practice,
as Mary Woolstonecraft has remarked, common in Sweden and Norway.
286. The horticultxire of Poland is at a very low ebb : excepting in a few of the noble-
men's gardens and those of the richest monasteries, there was till lately no vegetable but the
kohl rabi, and no fruit but the apple, pear, and cherry. Towards the sea-coast, and on
the borders of Austria, there is greater variety. The potatoe is now in more general use
in Poland than in Russia, though a slight prejudice still exists against it, from its having
been introduced by the Germans. The cucumber is cultivated in many places for salting,
or preserving by barrelling and sinking the barrel in their wells. In some places, the
common carnation poppy is grown for the seed, which taken when beginning to ripen,
and strewed on a sort of milk-porridge, or milk-paste, made from the meal of buck-wheat,
or Polish millet (Dactylon sanguinale), is reckoned a delicacy. Bees are kept by some of
the freed men or minor nobles. The Polish hives and mode of taking the honey, to be
afterwards described, are exceedingly simple, and never requiring the death of the insects,
seem preferable to any mode of bee-culture yet devised by the bee-masters of other coun-
tries. Hirschfield mentions, that the gardens of Prince Casimir Poniatowski, elder
brother of the last king, contained at one time 5000 annanas, in a range of hot-houses 600
feet long. In 1813, the only pines grown in Poland, were a few at Pulhawa, and some
grown by a German, who rented the hot-houses belonging to the late king's establishment
at Warsaw. Only one or two instances then existed of vines and peaches being grown
near the capital, but there were abundance of these and other fruits at Pulhawa and
Zamoyst, and some few at Villaneuve. The Polish noblemen have gained in every kind of
knowledge from having been so long a period in the French service ; and since the re-
establishment of peace, they have set about agricultural and gardening improvements,
with a considerable degree of energy.
287. Plantijig in Poland is but little required for purposes of utility. Some public
avenues have been formed near Warsaw and Posen ; and the elm, one of the best avenue
trees, thrives at both places. There are scarcely any hedges in the country, excepting in
gardens and near towns.
288. Original Polish autho7-s on gardening are not to be expected : but translations of
various works on rural economy were pointed out to us in the library of the Dominicans,
at Grodno ; but the only Polish work on gardening, which may be considered as original,
we believe to be Mysli Rozne o Sposobic Zakladania Ogrodoiv, &c. 1808; or, " Various
Thoughts on the Manner of planting Gardens," by Princess Isabella Czartoryska.
Sect. IX. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Garde?ii?ig in Spain and
Portugal.
289. The love of gardens, or of rural life, it is alleged by Hirschfield, is far from being
general in Spain : not however from lightness of character or bad taste, but from a kind
of supineness which cannot be better described than by calling it Spanish. This supine-
ness is the more incomprehensible, as the country, though desert and uncultivated in
many places, is yet full of natural charms in others, thus indicating as it were a field of
exertions for the hand of man. In many provinces, Puente informs us, one may travel
several leagues without seeing a tree, and according to the same author, the environs of
Madrid neither present pavilions nor country-houses, and it was not till towards the end
of the eighteenth century that they began to repair the roads around the capital, and
border them with trees.
290. The Arabs of Spain attended to agriculture, translated and commented on the
ancient authors, and though they occupied themselves more particularly in the study- of
medicine and botany, they did not neglect the culture of gardens. Many of them
travelled to their brethren in Asia, to pursue natural history, and bring plants to Europe.
Ebn-Alwan has left us a list of plants in the garden of Seville, in the eleventh century,
64 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
which are more numerous than those which were cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.
The recent substitution of a representative for a despotic government, so happily brought
about (1820), can hardly fail of acting as a stimulus to exertion in our art, in common
with every other.
Subsect. I. Spanish Gardening, as an Art of Design and Taste.
291. The oldest garden in Spain is said to be that of the Moorish palace of Alcazar,
near Seville ; the greater part of this palace was constructed by Peter the Cruel, between
the years 1353 and 1364, who exactly copied the Arabian style of the ancient part of the
edifice ; and the remainder was erected by Charles V. The outside of the Alcazar is
miserable in its appearance, but the first court after entering the gate has a very grand
effect ; the part looking into that court is purely Arabic in its style, though ascertained
to have been constructed since the conquest by the Christians. The courts are orna-
mented with marble fountains, and are well shaded with corridors, supported by marble
pillars. The garden of the Alcazar is said to have been laid out by the Moors, and is
preserved in its original state. It contains walks paved with marble, parterres laid out
with evergreens, and shaded with orange-trees. In many parts of it there are baths,
supplied by marble fountains from an aqueduct, and they have a contrivance for ren-
dering the walks one continued fountain by forcing up small streams of water from
minute pipes in the joinings of the slabs, which in this climate produces a most grateful
effect. As a specimen of an Arabian garden in its original state, this is an interesting
object, and we naturally associate with it recollections gathered from the Eastern
writers ; especially from the Song of Solomon, in which the descriptions very well agree
with this garden ; for, in addition to the other circumstances, it is completely walled
round, and is secluded from every one, except the inhabitants of one part of the palace.
(Jacob's Travels in the South of Spain.)
292. The remains of a reputed Moorish garden still exists at Grenada, another residence
of the Arabian kings. It is situated on the Serra del sol, or mountain of the sun, occu-
pies above twenty acres, is covered with wood cut into quarters by straight and winding
walks, and interspersed with fountains ; the latter sometimes ostentatiously displayed,
and at other times secreted so as to escape notice till they are brought to play on the
spectator, and raise a laugh at his expense. Sir John Carr mentions that they take a
particular delight in playing off these reversed showers which rise from the principal
walks and places of repose, against the ladies. Several of these fountains, and many of
the walks wrere formed by Charles V., so that excepting certain venerable cypresses, and
the old palace, no other part can with certainty be traced to the days of the Moorish
kings.
293. In the beginning of the fifteenth century, soon after the union of Spain under one
monarch, Charles V. made considerable improvements, and formed gardens and foun-
tains at different palaces, of which little now remain.
294. In the beginning of the seventeenth century, under the reign of Philip IV. were
laid out the finest gardens in Spain. These are the gardens of the Escurial in Madrid,
of Ildephonso in its neighbourhood, and of Aranjuez near Toledo. Evelyn in 1667,
being anxious to receive some account of them, writes to the Earl of Sandwich, then the
English ambassador at Madrid, who answers him in such a way that Evelyn was " ex-
ceedingly affected with the descriptions, and greatly instructed in many particulars."
The gardens of the Escurial adjoin the palace from which you descend to them by vast terraces and stairs
of marble varied by fountains. The garden, or rather park below, is of great extent, and the compart-
ments formed by the intersection of the alleys, are filled with different sorts of fruit-trees. This is the gene-
ral outline, and for the details of the statues, fountains, trellis-work, basins, &c. we must refer the reader
to Thompson's Description of the Escurial ; or the art. Escurial, in the Encyc. Brit.
The garden of Ildephonso is situated around a summer-house, or Chateau de plaisance of that name;
and here nature and art, says P. Caimo (Lettres d'mi vago Italiano, &c), combine to spread their respec-
tive beauties, and render this garden as magnificent as agreeable. Fountains, jets-d'eau, canals, temples,
covered seats, cabinets, bowers, grottoes, labyrinths, pastures, hedges of myrtle and laurel, are so distributed
as to produce the best effect. The water is collected in streams from the surrounding mountains, and
made to unite in a torrent which precipitates itself into an immense reservoir. Hence, from this abundant
source, the fountains are as powerful as numerous, and no species of artificial ornament is omitted that
can embellish a garden. The alleys are very long, some of them threefourths of a league. Most of them
are kept shorn on the sides forming a thick close surface from the ground to the summits of the trees, and
statues are placed at regular distances.
The garden of Ildephonso occupies a ridge, rising to the south, and falling both to the east and to the
west. Near the palace it is laid out in the old taste, with clipped hedges and straight walks, highly adorned
and refreshed with numerous fountains; but in proportion to the distance it becomes more wild, till it ter-
minates in the uncultivated and pathless forest, where the craggy rocks appearing among oaks and pines, pre-
sent a striking contrast with the works of art. This garden, Townsend observes, is delightful for its walks,
which although shady, are neither damp nor gloomy; and if it be true that beauty is founded on utility, this
place will always deserve to be admired. In the present day, it is not uncommon to build the mansion in the
middle of a field, open and exposed to every wind, without shelter, without a fence, wholly unconnected
with the garden. Near the habitation all is wild ; and art, if any where, appears only at a distance. In all
this we can trace no utility, nor will succeeding generations discover beauty. On the contrary in the gar-
den of St. Ildephonso, we find every thing, which in a sultry season is desirable ; a free circulation of air,
a deep shade, and refreshing vapors to absorb the heat ; whilst from its contiguity to the mansion the
access to it is easy, and at any time these comforts may be instantly enjoyed ; yet without their numerous
Book I. GARDENING IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 65
fountains, the clipped hedges, and the narrow walks, the circulation would be less rapid the shade less
deep, and the refreshing vapor would be wanting. (Tmvnsend's Travels in Spain i 360 ) '
Of the palace and gardens of Aranjuez, Baretti observes {Tour in 1776, vol'ii'.), "that a poet would
formed of double rows of elms, and are sufficiently wide for four carriages to drive abreast On each side
between the rows of trees, is a canal kept clear by a continual stream which passes through' it This water
has contributed to render the trees of an enormous size and thick verdure from top to bottom The com
partments, or islands, formed by the alleys and the canals, are covered with copse, and occupied with deer"
wild boars, hares, rabbits, pheasants, partridges, and other wild animals and birds, which are reeularlv fed
by certain shepherds or attendants, and have incredibly multiplied. This park, like the garden of Eden
is divided by a river (the Tagus), and what is remarkable and prince-like, it is without surroundine walls'
but verges into an open hilly country. The palace is near the centre of the park, on the margin of the'
river, and both banks are united by a bridge of five arches. In front of the palace is an immense cir
cular level lawn, ornamented with four trees in its centre. On the whole, according to Baretti's descrintion"
this must have been the finest park in the old style in the world.
295. Of private gardens, a few are mentioned by Tovvnsend, and Sir John Carr, some
as belonging to British merchants, and situated round the principal sea-ports, and' a few
to Spanish nobles in the interior. At the Retiro, near Malaga, a seat of Count Villacasa
and formerly a royal residence, are gardens in the Moorish style, with straight cypress
walks, and excellent water-works. The archbishop of Valencia has a country-house and
beautiful gardens at Puzol, near the city. The hermitages of Montserrat, near Tarra-
gona, abound in oak, olives, ash, elm, box, myrtle, eglantine, jessamine, rosemary,
lavender, thyme, and other aromatic shrubs and plants, tastefully disposed among die
rocks and declivities, by the hand of nature, with very little assistance from man.
Granjas, the seat of Don Ramon Fortuny, near Tarragona, appears to be in good taste combining the
ancient style with the cultivation of the orange, fig, vine, olive, and other fruits, and with an accidental
mixture of rocks and picturesque scenery. A very interesting engraving of this peculiar and beautiful
residence is given by Sir John Carr, in his travels in Spain ; the doors of the dining-room he informs us
open into a small garden, the walls of which are covered with myrtles, jessamines, and roses and the view
is over an orchard of olives, oranges, and pomegranates. In the centre of the garden are grotesque water
works. We are not aware of any attempt to introduce the modern style of landscape-gardening in this
296. Gardening in Portugal is very little attended to as an art of taste. Travellers
mention a few villas belonging to merchants in the neighbourhood of Lisbon ; and, as
usual, there are some avenues or public walks near the town. Montserrat, near Cintra
a seat of the late eminent merchant, Beckford, was formed at immense expense by a na-
tive of Cornwall for M. de Vismes, and further improved by the former o-entleman. It
is laid out in the geometric style ; abounds in inequalities, stairs, terraces, statues, and
orange-trees. Of late, we are informed, it has been much neglected. Repton (Frag, on
Lands. Gard. 1815,) gives an engraving of a plan which he had sent out to Lisbon^ for
laying out a small garden in the modern style.
Subsect. 2. Spanish and Portuguese Gardening, in respect to the Culture of Flowers
and Plants of Ornament.
297. The study of plants is of great antiquity in Spain. This study was introduced
by the Arabs ; there was a considerable collection of plants at Seville early in the
eleventh century ; and half the common plants of the country, Harte informs us have
names derived from the Arabic. The succeeding seven centuries present a blank in this
branch of gardening history. According to Deleuze, the taste shown for botany in Spain
and Portugal, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, declined with the sciences •
and that country where they had been cultivated when the rest of Europe was in a state
of barbarism, appeared to sink into apathy, after having shone with the greatest eclat
under Charles the Fifth and Emanuel of Portugal.
298. The public garden of Madrid was established in 1753. Ferdinand the Sixth cave
its direction to his first physician, Don Joseph Sagnol. He bought the private warden of
Don Joseph Queer, who cultivated at home a great number of foreign plants : he named
this botanist professor, and added Don Jean Minuart. At the same time, he arranged
instructions for travellers going to America, and ordered them to bring home seeds, and
to add the indication of the climate, and die nature of the soil where they collected them.
They also sent travellers with particular orders to make collections of vegetables. It is
from these treasures that the royal garden of Madrid has become the nursery of the plants
of Peru, Mexico, and Chili ; and from thence they have been sent to other gardens of
Europe. The same king, Sir J. E. Smidi informs us (Suppt. Encyc. Brit. art. Botany),
invited Linnams, with the offer of a large pension, to superintend a college formed for the
purpose of making new enquiries into the history of nature and the art of agriculture.
Linnaeus, as appears by his correspondence, recommended Loefling.
299. A taste for flowers and plants of ornament is not very general in Spain, though
odoriferous flowers, as the jessamine, the orange, &c. are said to be in repute with the
ladies ; and various sorts are grown in the conventual gardens of the priests, for official
decorations in churches and oratories.
300. The botanic garden of Coimbra in Portugal was founded in 1773.
F
66 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
Subsect. 3. Spanish and Portuguese Gardening, in respect to its horticultural
Productions and Planting.
301. Horticulture has made but little progress in Spain. The earliest of the few
Spanish authors who have written on gardens, is Herrera, whose book on rural economy-
appeared early in the seventeenth century. It contains a treatise on gardens {Be las
Huertas), in which he distinguishes only two sorts; one for " delight and provision for
the house," and the other for supplying the public market. Private gardens, he says,
need not fte extensive ; those for selling vegetables and fruits should be near a town or
village, and well supplied with water. He gives directidns for cultivating the vine, fig,
olive, apple, pear, and the common culinary plants. Of these, the soil and climate are
peculiarly favorable to the alliaceous and cucurbitaceous tribes, some sorts of which, as the
onion and winter-melon, form articles of foreign commerce.
302. The fruits of Spain are more numerous than those of any other European country.
Besides all those of Italy, native or acclimated, Spain possesses the date, tamarind, and
various fruits of the West Indies. The varieties of the grape, fig, melon, and orange
are numerous, and many of them excellent. The pine-apple is little cultivated in
Spain ; but is grown in a few places, in the southern provinces (Jacob), in the open air.
303. Culinary herbs and roots are not much attended to in Spain. Onions and garlic
are in universal use ; and the sweet potatoe (Convolvulus batatus) is cultivated in various
places. The British residents import their potatoes from their native country.
304. Forcing is unknown in Spain, but there are hot-houses for plants at Madrid, and
at Coimbra and Montserrat in Portugal.
305. Planting timber-trees or hedges is scarcely known in either Spain or Portugal.
Sect. X. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in European Turkey.
306. Of Turkish gardening, when the country was under the Romans, nothing is
known. The Roman taste would pass to Byzantium when the seat of empire
was removed there in the fourteenth century by Constantine ; but as to its history when
the rest of Europe was enveloped in ignorance and superstition, very little is known.
The numerous Greek authors on rural matters (Geoponici), who wrote between the
fourth and fourteenth centuries, do little more than copy Columella and other Latin
georgical writers ; they mention very few plants as ornamental, and treat chiefly of
agriculture, vineyards, and poultry.
307. The modern taste for gardens in Turkey is materially influenced by their national
character, and the nature of the climate. Gardens of taste are considered places of shade,
repose, and luxurious enjoyment ; not of active recreation, or a varied display of verdant
scenery. " For some miles round Adrianople," Lady M. W. Montague observes, in 1717,
" one sees nothing but gardens. The rivers are bordered with fruit-trees, under which
the citizens divert themselves in the evenings ; not in walking, which is not a Turkish
pleasure, but in seating themselves on a carpet spread on the turf, under the thick shade
of a tree ; there they take coffee, and smoke amidst vocal or instrumental music, groups
of dancing females, and other sports."
308. The gardens of the srdtan at Constantinople acquired a degree of celebrity through
the letters of Lady M. W. Montague, to which, it appears from subsequent authors who
have examined them, they are by no means entitled. These gardens were visited by Dr.
Pouqueville in 1798, and it is generally allowed that he has described them with as little
imagination and as much accuracy as any writer. The grand seignior's gardener was then
a German, a native of Rastadt, by name Jaques, whose salary was 6000 piastres a-year.
He conducted Dr. Pouqueville and his companion between the first and second ram-
parts of the town, which form the natural fortifications of the seraglio on the side to the
sea.
The palace is, properly speaking, a town within itself, having its walls crowned with battlements, and
its bastions and its gates, like an old fortified place. Dr. Clarke says, that the seraglio occupies the whole
site of the ancient Bvzantium ; and Pouqueville, that the present manege is placed where there was a hippo-
drome at the time of the lower empire ; so that the destination of the place has not been much altered for
the last fifteen hundred vears. The first garden they saw was a place enclosed on three sides, with a
palisade the fourth side being formed by the rampart. It was filled with shrubs; such as early roses,
heliotropes, and others, distributed in clumps, with several beams, and a great deal of rubbish lying about.
At last they arrived at the entrance of the sultan's garden.
The gateway to the garden is of white marble, about fifteen feet high, by four wide, decorated with
columns in a very bad taste. A treillage, twenty-five feet high and fifteen wide, extremely massy, forms
a cross running each wav, from one side to the other of the garden, dividing it into four equal divisions.
In the' centre of the cross, it forms a dome over a small basin of white marble, in which is a jet-d'eau
Jaques ordered some of the men to make it play, but the water did not rise above six feet It was, indeed,
an exhibition much below mediocrity- The four squares formed by this cross, are planted with flowers, and
in the middle of each are basins again, with jets-d'eau quite in miniature That to the left, as we entered,
appealed the most singular of them. After the water has risen to the height of about four feet, it divides
like a parasol, and each stream falls upon a shell, upon the circuit of the basin, which again divides it
into an infinite number of still smaller streams, scarcely bigger than threads. We contemplated this chef,
ttteuvrc for some minutes, and thought it very pretty for amusing children.
Book I.
GARDENING IN EUROPEAN TURKEY.
67
The trcillage, a work truly German, seems, from its solidity, calculated to brave the injuries of time for
a long series of years. It is covered with jessamine, which perfumes the whole garden ; and, to say the
truth, it has no difficult task to perform, for the enclosure is so small, that there can hardly be said to be
sufficient space for the air to circulate freely. To the right, which is the side towards the sea, the treil-
lage leads to the kiosque of the grand seignior, called Jeni-kiosqtie, the new pavilion. Three circular steps
lead up to it, which occupy, in the semicircle they form, the portion of the kiosque that projects into the
garden. .
A number of cages, with canary-birds, were hanging about ; these little creatures sung charmingly, and
had been taught to draw water. About fifteen paces from this kiosque, running along the same rampart,
is a terrace of about fifty feet in length, and twelve in breadth, adorned with flowers, which has lately
been turned into a conservatory.
The largest garden, to which they descended from the terrace, is a hundred and twenty paces long, and
fifty broad. At the eastern extremity is a hot-house, where Jaques was cultivating a number of foreign
plants and flowers with great care. The hot-house was little better than a shed ; under it were a number
of benches, rising in a stage one above the other, with the flower-pots ranged upon them. Among the
plants, some from Abyssinia and the Cape held a distinguished rank for their superior fragrance. An-
other garden, or rather a terrace, raised five-and-twenty feet high, which looks down upon the garden
just quitted, contained nothing but a red and parched soil, with a few withered plants.
An aviary had been made by order of the Sultana Valide ; and this, according to the ideas of the Turks,
is the most curious thing upon the terrace. " I quitted this dismal garden," says Dr. Pouqueville, " this
kiosque of Hassan Pasha, perfectly free from the chimeras with which my imagination had been pre-
viously filled. I had formerly read the letters of Lady Montague, and I seriously believed that I
was to find walls incrusted with emeralds and sapphires ; parterres enamelled with flowers ; in short, the
voluptuous palace of Armida ; but her account is drawn from the sources furnished by her own brilliant
imagination." — We quitted the burning garden to visit the haram. The haram of the sultan — the
promised paradise. Lady Montague was now about to triumph.
The garden of the haram is a square very ill kept ; it is divided from east to west by a terrace. It was
here that the feast of tulips was formerly held ; but this has been long abolished. According to all ap-
pearance it must have been a very poor thing ; but the pens of romance-writers can embellish objects the
most ordinary, and make them appear of prodigious importance. Some clumps of lilacs and jessamine,
some weeping willows hanging over a basin, and some silk-trees, are the only ornaments of this imaginary
Eden ; and these the women take a pleasure in destroying as soon as the flowers appear, by which their
curiositv is excited.
A plan of these gardens is given by Kraaft ifig.Zl.), from which little can be gathered but that they
abound in trees and buildings, and are surrounded by a formidable wall.
309. Various opinions have existed as to the sultan's garden. Thornton, author of a late
work on Turkey, arraigns Dr. Pouqueville for not being more dazzled with the magni-
ficence of the haram, and for thinking that Lady Mary Wortley Montague has rather5, in
her descriptions of eastern luxury and splendor, painted from a model formed by her
own brilliant imagination, than from reality. But it is certain, H. M. Williams observes,
that Dr. Clarke's testimony is a strong confirmation of Dr. Pouqueville's. Indeed, there
is so striking a similarity in the accounts given by the two doctors, that each strongly
supports the truth of the other, and both lessen extremely the ideas we have hitherto
F 2
68 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
been led to entertain of the luxury and magnificence that reigns in the grand seignior's
seraglio. (Pouqueville 's Travels, translated by H. M. Willia7ns.)
310. Flower-gardening. " When the Turks," observes Deleuze, " by the taking of Coik
stantinople, had given stability to their empire, they devoted themselves particularly to
the culture of flowers." Belon, in 1558, speaks with admiration of the gardens which he
saw among them. " There are no people," he says, " who delight more to ornament
themselves with beautiful flowers, nor who praise them more, than the Turks. They
think little of their smell, but delight most in their appearance. They wear several sorts
singly in the folds of their turban ; and the artisans have often several flowers of different
colors before them, in vessels of water. Hence gardening is in as great repute with them
as with us ; and they grudge no expense in procuring foreign trees and plants, especially
such as have fine flowers." Busby, ambassador at Constantinople in 1550, has the same
remarks, and adds, that they frequently give flowers in presents ; and that, though very
avaricious in other things, they do not hesitate to pay dear for them.
311. Of the horticulture of Turkey little is known, or how far the use of gardens is
general. " The capital of the Turkish empire," T. Thornton observes {Present State of
Turkey, 22. ) , " though the soil in its immediate vicinity is barren and ungrateful,
receives from the neighbouring villages, and from the surrounding coasts of both the seas
which it commands, all the culinary herbs and fruits of exquisite flavor which the most
fastidious appetite can require. On the shores on both sides of the Bosphorus the
ground forms a chain of schistous hills, covered with vineyards and gardens, and
beautiful trees and shrubs ; and the valleys, which are exceedingly fertile, are in the highest
state of cultivation. "
Of the botany and gardening of the Morea some account is given by Dr. Pouqueville. [Travels in 1798.)
" This country, formerly a part of Greece, is rich in vegetable productions, but at present proportionably
poor in cultivation. There is no great variety cultivated in the gardens ; the ground in general is ill
prepared ; the Greeks are unacquainted with the spade, and only use a mattock for turning it. Spinach
and artichokes, which will even grow naturally without cultivation, are among the best culinary veget-
ables. Cabbages and cauliflowers grow to a prodigious size ; they have also very good carrots. Beans
and French beans are produced in such abundance, that they might become an object of exportation ; but
the seeds of both are much smaller than ours in France. The lettuces are small ; and the celery never
will be good while, as at present, they do not earth it up. The tomatoes are very fine, as is the fruit
yielded by the melongena. The melons, water-melons, and gourds, are not to be exceeded in any part of
the world. Mint, balm, fennel, parsley, and other herbs, abound in the gardens. The orchards are well
furnished with almonds, oranges, lemons, citrons, peaches, pears, apricots, quinces, cherries, pomegranates,
medlars; they have also the arbutus, the service-tree, and the carob-tree; all these might be improved, if
more pains were taken in cultivating them." (p. 201.) The account which this author, and also Dr. Hol-
land {Albania and Greece, &c. 1812 and 1815), gives of the plants, the timber, and the fruit-trees, natives
of the Morea, is highly interesting; he regrets that he could not occupy himself more with the subject,
adding, that a botanist might compose a work worthy of the age in which we live, in undertaking a
complete Flora Peloponnesica.
Chap. IV.
Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in the British Isles.
312. That gardening was introduced to Britain by the Romans, there can be but little
doubt. According to Strabo, writing in the fourth century, " The people of Britain
are generally ignorant of the art of cultivating gardens, as well as of other parts of agri-
culture" (lib. iii. p. 200.) ; but Tacitus, half a century afterwards (A. D. 79), informs
us, that " the soil and climate were very fit for all kinds of fruit-trees, except the vine and
the olive ; and for all plants and edible vegetables, except a few, which were peculiar to
hotter countries." (Vita Agric. cap. xiv.) Afterwards they found different parts of the
country not unfit for the vine ; and wine was made in England towards the end of the
third century, under the Emperor Probus. The remains of Roman villas discovered in
different parts of the country may be considered as existing evidence that Roman gardening
was established, both as an art of taste, and of vegetable culture, by the generals and other
members of the government. Pliny expressly states, that cherries were introduced into
Britain about the middle of the first century : they had been brought to Italy by Lucullus
only a century before.
313. Modern British gardening seems to have received its first stimulus during the
reign of Henry VIII. ; a second powerful impulse in the time of Charles II., with the
splendid style of Le Notre ; again, with the introduction of the modern style during the
reign of Geo. II. ; next, in the early part of the reign of Geo. III. with the plants of
North America, and finally through the establishment of the Horticultural Society during
the regency.
314. The outline of gardening history here submitted will be found amply illustrated
by the literature and topography of British gardening in Part IV., and indeed by all
the other chapters on the statistics of British gardening.
Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES.
6<>
Sect. I. British Gardening as an Art of Design and Taste.
315. Of British gardening, as an art of taste, nothing is known for the first thousand
years of our aera. With the eleventh century commences some notices as to England ;
with the fifteenth, a few indications as to Scotland ; and with the seventeenth century
some hints as to the state of our art in Ireland.
Subsect. 1 . Gardening in England, as an Art of Design and Taste.
316. Roman landscape-gardeiiing was lost in England when that people abandoned
Britain to the Saxons in the beginning of the fifth century ; but as it had revived in
France under Charlemagne, it would probably be re-introduced into England with the
Norman Conqueror, in the end of the eleventh century.
317. Henry I. (1100), the third king after William the Conqueror, had, according to
Henry of Huntingdon [History, lib. 7.), a park (habitationem ferarum) at Woodstock;
and it may not be too much to conjecture, that this park was the same which had sur-
rounded the magnificent Roman villa, whose extensive ruins, occupying nearly six acres,
have been recently dug up on the Duke of Marlborough's estates in that neighbourhood.
Blenheim, the first residence in Britain, or perhaps in Europe, in respect to general grandeur,
may in this view be considered as the most interesting in point of its relation to antiquity.
318. In the time of Henry II. (1154), Fitzsteven, it is observed by Daines Barrington
states, that the citizens of London had gardens to their villas, " large, beautiful, and
planted with trees." In De Cerceau's Architecture, published in the time of Henry III.
there is scarcely a ground-plot not laid out as a parterre or a labyrinth.
319. During Henry V.'s. reign, in the beginning of the fifteenth century, King James I.
of Scotland was a prisoner in Windsor castle for several years. In the poem written by
that monarch he gives the following account of a royal garden there : —
"Now was there maide fast by the touris wall "So thick the bewis and the leves grene
A garden faire, and in the corneris set Beschudit all the alleyes that there were,
Ane herbere grene, with wandis long and small And myddis every herbere might be sene
Railit about, and so with treeis set The scharp grene swete jenepere,
Was all the place, and hawthorn hedges knet, Growing so fair with branches here and there,
That lyfe was non, walkyng there for bye That as it semyt to a lyfe without,
That myght within scarce any wight espye. The bewis spred the herbere all about"
The Quair, by King James I. of Scotland, published by Lord Woodhouselee.
i
320. Towards the end of the fifteenth century, Leland, in his Itinerary, states, that at
" Wresehill Castelle, in Yorkshire, the gardeins within the mote, and the orchardes
without, were exceeding fair. And yn the orchardes, were mountes, opere topiaris,
writhen about with degrees like cokil shelles, to com to the top without payn." [Itinerary,
&c. p. 60.) Such a mount still exists at the castle inn at Marlborough, not ascended
by steps or degrees, but by a winding path. It is covered with ancient yew-trees, no
longer opere topiaris. Leland also mentions the gardens at Morli, in Derbyshire, and
some others of less note in the northern counties.
321. During the reign of Henry VII, Holingshed informs us, that large parks or
circumscribed forests of several miles in circumference were common. Their number in
Kent and Essex alone amounted to upwards of a hundred, (p. 204. ) The Earl of Nor-
thumberland had in Northumberland, Cumberland, and Yorkshire, twenty-one parks, and
5771 head of red and fallow deer. He had also parks in Sussex, and other southern
counties. These parks were formed more from necessity than luxury ; tenants for land
being then not so readily obtained as in later times.
322. During the reign of Henry VIII. the royal gardens of Nonsuch were laid out
and planted. " At Nonsuche," says Hentzner, " there were groves ornamented with trellis-
work, cabinets of verdure, and walks embowered with trees, with columns and pyramids
of marble. Two fountains that do spout water, the one round the other like a pyramid,
on which are perched all over, small birds that spout water out of their bills." These
gardens are stated, in a survey taken in die year 1650, above a century after Henry's
death, to have been cut and divided into several alleys, compartments, and rounds, set about
with thorn-hedges. On the north side was a kitchen-garden, very commodious, and
surrounded with a wall fourteen feet high. On the west was a wilderness severed from
the little park by a hedge, the whole containing ten acres. In the privy-gardens were
pyramids, fountains, and basins of marble, one of which is " set round with six lilac-trees,
which trees bear no fruit, but only a very pleasant smell." In the privy-gardens were,
besides the lilacs, 144 fruit-trees, two yews, and one juniper. In the kitchen-garden
were seventy-two fruit-trees and one lime-tree. Lastly, before the palace, was a neat
handsome bowling-green, surrounded with a balustrade of freestone. " In this garden,"
observes Daines Barrington, u we find many such ornaments of old English gardening,
as prevailed till the modern taste was introduced by Kent."
F 3
70 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
Hampton-court was laid out about the middle of this reign, by Cardinal Wolsey. The labyrinth, one
of the best which remains in England, occupies only a quarter of an acre, and contains nearly half a mile
of winding walks. There is an adjacent stand, on which the gardener places himself, to extricate the
adventuring stranger by his directions. Switzer condemns, this labyrinth for having only four stops, and
gives a plan for one with twenty. Daines Barrington says (Archceolog.), that he got out by keeping close
to the hedge.
323. During Elizabeth's reign, Hatfield, Lord Treasurer Burleigh's, Holland-house,
and some other old seats were laid out. Of Hatfield, Hentzner says, the " gardens are
surrounded by a piece of water, with boats rowing through alleys of well cut trees, and
labyrinths made with great labor ; there are jets-d'eau and a summer-house, with many
pleasant and fair fish-ponds. Statues were very abundant. The Gardener's Labyrinth,
published during this reign, contains plates of " knotts and mazes cunningly handled
for the beautifying of gardens."
324. During the reign of James I. the gardens of Theobalds and Greenwich were
formed or improved. The garden at Theobalds, Mandelso, a traveller who visited
England about 1640, describes as " a large square, having all its walls covered with
fillery (trellis-work), and a beautiful jet-d'eau in the centre. The parterre hath many
pleasant walks, part of which are planted on the sides with espaliers, and others arched
over. Some of the trees are limes and elms, and at the end is a small mount, called
the Mount of Venus, which is placed in the midst of a labyrinth, and is upon the whole
one of the most beautiful spots in the world." [Voyages de Mandelso, torn. i. p. 598.)
Lord Bacon attempted to reform the national taste during this reign, but apparently
with little immediate success. He wished still to retain shorn trees and hedges ; but
proposed winter, or evergreen gardens, and rude or neglected spots, as specimens of wild
nature. " As for the making of knots or figures," says he, " with divers colored earths
they be but toys. I do not like images cut out in juniper or other garden-stuff — they
are for children." [Essay on Gardens^) Sir Henry Wotton says, " the garden at Lord
Verulam's was one of the best he had seen, either at home or abroad." Lawson's New
Orchard was published in 1626; he gives directions also for parterres and labyrinths.
A curious idea is given of the taste of these times in what he says of the latter. " Mazes
well framed a man's height may, perhaps, make your friend wander in gathering berries,
till he cannot recover himself without your help."
325. During the commonwealth a Janua Trilinguis was published at Oxford, in which
we are informed, that " gardening is practised for food's sake in a kitchen-garden and
orchard, or for pleasure's sake in a green grass-plot and an arbor." As to the formation
of the latter, the author adds, " the pleacher (topiarius) prepares a green plat of the more
choice flowers and rarer plants, and adorns the garden with pleach-work ; that is, with
pleasant walks and bowers, &c. to conclude with purling fountains, and water- works."
(chap. 32.) We learn also from this comprehensive author (Commenius) the ancient use
of parks. We are told, " the huntsman hunteth wild beasts, whilst he either allureth
them into pitfalls, and killeth them, or forceth them into toils ; and what he gets alive
he puts into a park." (chap. 37.)
326. During tlie reign of Charles II., landscape-gardening received a grand impulse.
This monarch, we are informed by Daines Barrington, sent for Perault and Le Notre ;
the former declined coming to England, but the latter planted Greenwich and St.
James's Parks. Charles planted the semicircle of Hampton Gourt ; the beginning, as
Switzer informs us, of a grand design never completed. Lord Capel and the Earl of
Essex are mentioned by Switzer as eminent encouragers of gardening during this reign.
The latter sent his gardener, Rose, to study the much celebrated beauties of Versailles ;
and on his return he was appointed royal gardener.
Chatsworth (Jig. 28.), the magnificent seat of the Duke of Devonshire, was laid out in this reign ; and
it is conjectured, from a design from the same artist {Beauties of England and Wales. Derbyshire.) Waller
the poet formed his residence at Beaconsfield about the same time. The grounds there being very irre-
gular, he has been at considerable labor in reducing the parts near the house and banquetting-room to
regular slopes and levels, harmonising with an oblong basin or canal. It is but justice to the memory of
this amateur, who was undoubtedly a man of taste in his day, that, in the more remote scenes, no appear-
ance of art is discernible, or seems ever to have been intended. Their dry, ragged-edged paths, conducted
through the natural woods, form a fine contrast to the artifioial scenes at Prior's Park.
Garden-buildings, Daines Barrington conjectures, were first erected in England during this reign by
Inigo Jones, at Beckett near Farringdon. There a banquetting-room is placed on a point of land project-
ing into a lake, and is surrounded with a broad base, or platform, protected by a parapet-wall, and
shaded by the far-projecting eaves of the building. It consists of one apartment with a cellar below ; and
the covered platform, or base, is supposed to be for the purpose of angling.
327. Evelyn, the well-known author of Sylva and other gardening books, flourished
during this reign. In his memoirs (published by Bray, 1818) are the following remarks
on the gardens of England, in respect to taste and style : —
Wooton, in Surrey, 1652, the residence of his father he describes as, for woods and waters, among
the most natural and magnificent examples which England afforded " till this late and universal lux-
ury of tne whole nation since abounding in such expenses." —
" Gave my brother some directions about his garden, which he was desirous to put into some form, for
which he was to remove a mountain overgrown with large trees and thickets, and a moat within ten
Book I.
GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES.
28
71
yards of the house :" this his brother " succeeded in doing, by digging down the mountain, and flinging it
into a rapid stream, which carried away the sand, rilled up the moat, and levelled that noble area where
now the garden and fountain is."
Groom' s-bridge neax Tunbridge, " a pretty melancholy place."
1654. Lady Brook's garden at Hackney, " one of the neatest and most celebrated in England."
Caversham, Lord Craven's, Berkshire. " Goodly woods felling by rebels."
Cashiobury (Jig. 29. ), Lord Essex, Hertfordshire. " No man has been more industrious than this noble
29
F 4
72
HISTORY OF GARDENING.
Part I.
lord (Essex) in planting about his seat, adorned with walks, ponds, and other rural elegancies." — " The
gardens are very rare, and cannot be otherwise, having so skilful an artist to govern them as Cooke, who
is, as to the mechanical part, not ignorant in mathematics, and pretends to astrology. There is an excellent
collection of the choicest fruit. My lord not illiterate beyond the rate of most noblemen of this age."
Wilton, Lord Pembroke's, Wiltshire. " The garden, heretofore esteemed the noblest in England, is a
large handsome plain, with a grotto and water-works, which might be made much more pleasant were
the river that passes through cleansed and raised ; for all is effected by mere force," &c.
Hampton Park, Middlesex, " formerly a flat naked piece of ground, now planted with sweet rows of lime,
trees, and the canal for water now near perfected ; also the hare-park. In the garden is a rich and noble
fountain, with syrens, statues, Sec. cast in copper by Fanelli, but no plenty of water. The cradle-walk of
hornbeam in the garden is, for the perplexed twining of the trees, very observable. There is a parterre
which they call Paradise, in which is a pretty banquetting-house set over a cave or cellar."
1662. A citizen's garden. " One Loader, an anchorsmith in Greenwich, grew so rich as to build a house
in the street, with gardens, orangeries, canals, and other magnificence, on a lease. His father was of the
6ame trade, and an anabaptist."
Bushnell's Wells at Enstone. " This Bushnell had been secretary to Lord Verulam. It is an extraor-
dinary solitude. There he had two mummies, and a grot, where he lay in a hammoc like an Indian.
Hence we went to Ditchley, an ancient seat of the Lees," &c. — Bushnell's gardens and water-works
still exist, and are shown as curiosities to strangers.
Ham House, and garden of the Duke of Lauderdale, Middlesex, "inferior to few of the best villas of
Italy itself, the house furnished like a great prince's ; the parterres, flower-gardens, orangeries, groves,
avenues, courts, statues, perspectives, fountains, aviaries, and all this at the banks of the sweetest river
in the world, must needs be admirable."
Wansted House, Essex, [fig. 30.) " Sir Josiah Child's prodigious cost in planting walnut-trees about his
seat, and making fish-ponds some miles in circuit in Epping-forest, in a barren spot, as oftentimes thes*.
suddenly monied men for the most part seat themselves."— In 1822 this magnificent seat was reduced to a
mere mass of materials, through the improvidence of Wellesley Long Pole, who became possessed of it by
marriage. The house was sold in lots, and the ground let in small portions on building leases.
Sir Henry CapeU's orangery and myrtitleum at Kew, " most beautiful and perfectly well kept He was
contriving very high palisadoes of reeds to shade his oranges during the summer, and painting these reeds
in oil "
Althorp, Lord Northampton's, Northamptonshire. " The iron gate opening into the park of very good
work, wrought in flowers, painted in blue, and gilded."
Beddington, the seat of the Carews, Surrey, now decaying, " heretofore adorned with ample gardens, and
the first orange-trees that had been seen in England, planted in the open ground, and secured in winter
only by a tabernacle of boards and stoves, &c. standing a hundred and twenty years. Large and goodly
trees, and laden with fruit, now in decay, as well as the grotto and fountains. The cabinets and other
curiosities in the house and abroad being now fallen to a child under age, and only kept by a servant or
two from further dilapidation. The estate anq\ park about it also in decay."
Marsden, Surrey. " Originally a barren warren, bought by Sir Robert Clayton, who built there a pretty
house, and made such alteration by planting, not only an infinite store of the best fruit, but so changed the
natural situation of the hills, valleys, and solitary mountains about it, that it rather represented some
foreign country which could produce spontaneously pines, firs, cypress, yew, holly, and juniper ; they were
come to their perfect growth, with walks, &c. among them."
Alburie Howards, Surrey. " Found the garden exactly done to the design and plot I had made, with the
crypt through the mountain in the park, 30 perches in length. Such a Pausilippe (alluding to the grot of
Pausilippo at Naples) is no where in England besides. The canal was now digging, and the vineyard
planted." — This crypt was in part remaining in 1816, but stopped up at the further end.
Swallovfield, Lady Clarendon, Berkshire. " Lady C. skilled in the flowery part, my lord in diligence of
planting. Water flagged with calamus, all that can render a country-seat delightful, and a well furnished
library in the house." [Mem. by Bray, i. 432.)
328. During the same reign (Charles II.) notes were made on some of the gardens round
London by J. Gibson, which have been subsequently published in the ArcluEologia.
(vol. xii.) Many of those mentioned by Evelyn are included, and spoken of in nearly the
same terms by Gibson. Terrace- walks, hedges of evergreens, shorn shrubs in boxes, and
orange and myrtle trees are mentioned as their chief excellencies. The parterre at Hampton
Court is said to resemble a set of lace patterns. Evelyn himself is said to have a " pleasant
Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 73
villa at Deptford, a fine garden for walks and hedges, and a pretty little green-house with
an indifferent stock in it. He has four large round philareas, smooth-clipped, raised on a
single stalk from the ground, a fashion now much used. Part of his garden is very
woody and shady for walking ; but not being walled, he has little of the best fruits."
329. During the reign of William and Mary, gardening, Switzer says, arrived at its
highest perfection. King William, Daines Barrington informs us, gave vogue to dipt
yews, with magnificent gates and rails of iron, not unfrequent in Holland, and about
this time (see Huetiana) introduced into France, and, in reference to the opaque stone-
walls which they supplanted, called there clairs-voyees. The most extensive iron screens
of this sort in England, next to those of Hampton Court, were formed by Switzer, at
Leeswold, in Flintshire, laid out by that artist in a mixed style, or what is called
Bridgeman's first manner. Hampton Court being at this time the actual residence of
the royal family, the gardens underwent considerable improvement. An elegant alcove
and arched trellis were added at the end of one of the alleys, and four urns placed before
the principal part of the house, supposed by Daines Barrington (Archceologia) to be the
first that were thus used in England. Towards the end of this century, vegetable sculp-
tures, and embroidered parterres, were probably in their highest vogue, a conjecture
confirmed by the works of Le Blond, James, Switzer, &c. published during this and the
following reign. Sir William Temple's Essay on the Gardens of Epicurus appeared
about the same time. His picture of a perfect garden, is that of a flat, or gentle de-
clivity of an oblong shape, lying in front of the house, with a descent of steps from a
terrace, extending the whole length of the house. This enclosure is to be cultivated as a
kitchen-garden and orchard. Such a garden he found at Moor Park, Hertfordshire,
laid out by the Countess of Bedford, celebrated by Dr. Donne, " the sweetest place, I
think, that I have seen in my life, before or since, at home or abroad." Lord Walpole,
in his enthusiasm for the modern style, observes on this description, that any man might
form as sweet a garden, who had never been out of Holborn. — It has long since been
destroyed, and its place occupied by lawn and trees.
330. During Queen Anne's reign the principal alteration mentioned by Daines Bar-
rington, as having taken place in the royal gardens, was that of covering the parterre
before the great terrace at Windsor with turf. Switzer meniions, that her Majesty finished
the old gardens at Kensington, begun by King William. Wise, who had been apprentice
to Rose, and succeeded him as royal gardener, turned the gravel-pits into a shrubbery,
with winding walks, with which Addison was so struck, that he compares him to an epic
poet, and these improved pits as episodes to the general effect of the garden. Wise and
London afterwards turned nurserymen, and designers of gardens, in which last capacity
they were nearly in as great demand as was afterwards the celebrated Brown. To
London and Wise, as designers, succeeded Bridgeman, who appears to have been a more
chaste artist than any of his predecessors. He banished vegetable sculpture, and intro-
duced wild scenes and cultivated fields in Richmond park ; but he still dipt his alleys,
though he left to their natural growth the central parts of the masses through which they
were pierced. Blenheim, Castle Howard, Cranbourne, Bushy Park, Edger, Althorpe,
New Park, Bowden, Hackwood, Wrest, and indeed almost all the principal noblemen's
seats in the ancient style, were laid out during this, the preceding, and part of the latter
reigns, or between the years 1660 and 1713. Blenheim was laid out by Wise in three
years ; Wansted and Edger were the last of London's designs. (Switzer.)
331. During the reign of George I. nothing of consequence appears to have been done
to the royal gardens ; though, near the end of it, Vanbrugh was appointed surveyor of
the waters and gardens of the crown, but continued only a year or two in office.
332. During the reign of George II. Queen Caroline enlarged and planted Kensington
Gardens, and formed what is now called the Serpentine River, by uniting a string of
detached ponds. This was a bold step, and led the way to subsequent changes of taste.
Lord Bathurst informed Daines Barrington, that he was the first who deviated from the
straight line in pieces of made water, by following the natural lines of a valley, in widen-
ing a brook at llyskins, near Colebrook ; and that Lord Strafford thinking that it was
done from poverty or economy, asked him to own fairly, how little more it would have
cost him to have made it straight. From Lord Walpole's correspondence (published
1819) we learn that Queen Caroline proposed to shut up St. James's Park, and convert
it into a noble garden for the palace of that name. When her Majesty asked Lord
Walpole's father what it might probably cost, he answered " only three crowns."
Cannons, the magnificent seat of the Duke of Chandos, is one of the principal places laid out in the
ancient style during this reign. We are ignorant of the name of the French artist who gave the design,
but the execution was superintended by Dr. Blackwell, a physician and agriculturist of some note. The
Duke is mentioned by Miller, as one of the principal encouragers of gardening. As far as we have been
able to learn, the last extensive residence laid out in the ancient style, in England, was Exton Park, in
Rutlandshire, then the property of the Earl of Gainsborough, the Maecenas of his age. It was finished
about the year 1730. Kent had already returned from Italy, and been employed as a painter and architect,
and he began to display his genius a few years afterwards as a landscape-gardener.
74 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
333. In this brief outline of tlie progress of the ancient style in England, we have not
had room to notice numerous fine gardens formed by private individuals, preferring rather
to notice what had been done in the gardens of the court, which, as they generally lead
the fashion in every country, may be considered as a tolerably exact index of the state of
a nation's taste. The reader who is desirous of tracing more minutely the progress of
this branch of gardening among the landed proprietors of England, will find himself
amply gratified by consulting The Beauties of England and Wales; a work in which is
exhausted every source of antiquarian and topographical research, up nearly to the present
time. The histories of gardening, by Lord Walpole and Daines Barrington, and the
prefaces to the gardening works of Miller and Switzer, may also be referred to.
334. The modern style of landscape-gardening was introduced during the early part of
the eighteenth century. The origin of this style, and by whom and where it was first
exhibited, have given rise to much discussion, and various opinions and assertions.
The continental nations in general assert that we borrowed it from the Chinese ; or with Gabriel Thouin
and Malacarne, deny us the merit of being the first either to borrow or invent it, by presenting claims of
originality (166. and 78.) for their respective countries. Gabriel Thouin asserts {Plans Raisonnes, preface,
&c.) that the first example was given by Dufresnoy (16fi.), a Parisian architect, in the Faubourg Saint
Antoine, in the beginning of the eighteenth century. The claims of Malacarne of Padua, in behalf of
Charles I. Duke of Savoy, about the end of the sixteenth century, have been already adverted to. In as
far as literature is concerned, we think that Tasso's claim to priority is indisputable. (See Dissertazione su
i Giardini Inglese, by Hippolyto Pindemonte, Verona, 1817, or a translation of part of it by us in the
New Monthly Magazine, Feb. 182G.) Deleuze, the historian of botany and ornamental plants, (Annates du
Musee, torn. viii. 1806,) endeavours, at some length, to prove that the new style of gardening arose from
the necessity of finding room for the great number of ornamental shrubs and trees introduced from Ame-
rica, during the first half of the eighteenth century. Bcettinger, in his Racemazionem zur Gartenhunst
der Alten, &c. carries us back to the descriptions of the grotto of Calypso by Homer, the vale of Tempe
by iElian, and of Vaucluse by Petrarch.
335. British authors are of various opinions as to the origin of the modern style.
The poet Gray [Life and Letters, &c. Letter to Mr. Hoiv, dated 1763) is of opinion, that " our skill in
gardening, or rather laying out grounds, is the only taste we can call our own ; the only proof of original
talent in matters of pleasure. This is no small honor to us j since neither France nor Italy have ever
had the least notion of it."
Warton and Lord Walpole, the former in his Essay on Pope, and the latter in his History of Modern
Gardening, agree in referring the first ideas to Milton ; and Warton adds, that the Seasons of Thomson
may have had a very considerable influence.
George Mason, the author of an Essay on Design in Gardening, which appeared in 1768, and is one of the
earliest prose works on the modern style, states, that " were only classical authorities consulted, it would
hardly be supposed that even from the earliest ages any considerable variation in taste had ever prevailed."
(Essay on Design, &c. p. 27.) Speaking of the Chinese style he says, " little did Sir William Temple
imagine, that in not much more than half a century, the Chinese would become the nominal taste of his
country ; or that so many adventurers in it would do great justice to his observation, and prove by their
works, how difficult it is to succeed in the undertaking. Yet to this whimsical exercise of caprice, the
modem improvements in gardening may chiefly be attributed." (Essay on Design, &c. p. 50.) No man
could be a more enthusiastic admirer of the classics, a warmer patriot, or a more rigid critic, than this
author ; and it appears from another part of his work (Discussion on Kent, p. 105.) that he was well aware,
when he wrote the above passage, that the origin of the modern style was generally traced to Kent. That
he should derive it from our attempt at the Chinese manner, we consider as a proof of candor and
impartiality.
Mason the poet states, in a note to the English Garden, that " Bacon was the prophet, Milton the herald,
of modern gardening; and Addison, Pope, and Kent, the champions of true taste." The efficacy of
Bacon's ideas, G. Mason considers to have been " the introduction of classical landscapes," though this
does not very clearly appear from his essay, the object of which seems to be, to banish certain littlenesses
and puerilities, and to create more variety, by introducing enclosures of wild scenery, as well as of culti-
vation. The title of champion, applied to Addison, alludes to his excellent paper in the Spectator, No. 414.
" On (,he causes of the pleasures of the imagination arising from the works of nature, and their superiority
over those of art," published in 1712 ; and when applied to Pope, it refers to his celebrated Guardian,
No. 173. published the following year. Bcettinger, however, affirms that the bishop of Avranches^ had
thrown out similar ideas, previously to the appearance of the Spectator. (See Huetiana, Pensee 51.
" Beautes naturelles prqferables aux beautes de I'art ," and p. 72. " Desjardins a la mode.")
The Rev. Dr. Alison, author of the Analysis of Beauty, seems to consider the modern style as derived
from our taste for the classic descriptions of the poets of antiquity. " In this view," (alluding to the pro-
gress of art from the expression of design to the expression of variety and natural beauty,) he observes,
" I cannot help thinking that the modern taste in gardening (or what Walpole very justly, and very em-
phatically, calls the art of creating landscape,) owes its origin to two circumstances, which may, at first,
appear paradoxical, viz. to the accidental circumstances of our taste in natural beauty being founded upon
foreign models ; and to the difference or inferiority of the scenery of our own country to that which we
were accustomed peculiarly to admire."
Eustace, the Italian tourist, considers Tasso's garden of Armida as more likely to have given rise to the
English style than any classical work, or even the Paradise of Milton.
Our own opinion inclines to that of G. Mason, without doubting that examples of wild scenery, with
walks, may have been exhibited long before both in Italy and this country. The general progress of ideas
in matters of taste and refinement, required the creation of such a style ; and the highly-cultivated state
of the country, the accounts of Chinese gardens, and the descriptions of the poets, would all conspire to
its production.
336. The principles of modern, landscape-gardening were unquestionably first laid down
by English writers. It is allowed on all sides, that Addison and Pope " prepared for
the new art of gardening the firm basis of philosophical principles." Addison's paper on
Imagination, was published so early as 1712; and Pope's celebrated Guardian on Ver-
dant Sculpture, in 1713. Pope attacked the verdant sculpture, and formal groves of the
ancient style, with the keenest shafts of ridicule ; and in his epistle to Lord Burlington,
laid down the justest principles of art ; the study of nature, of the genius of the place,
and never to lose sight of good sense.
Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 75
337. The first examples of modern landscape-gardening were given by Pope and Addi-
son. In so far as was practicable on a spot of little more than two acres, Pope practised
what he wrote ; and his well-known garden at Twickenham contained, so early as 1716,
some highly picturesque and natural-like scenery ; accurately described by various con-
temporary writers. Only the soil of Pope's garden now remains. (See Beauties of
England and Wales. ) Addison had a small retirement at Bilton, near Rugby, laid out
in what may be called a rural style, and which still exists, with very little alteration be-
sides that of time.
338. The first artists who practised in the modern style, were Bridgeman and Kent.
Bridgeman was the fashionable designer of gardens in the beginning of the 18th century,
and may be considered as having succeeded to London and Wise, London having died
in 1713. Lord Walpole conjectures Bridgeman to have been " struck and reformed"
by the Guardian, No. 173. He banished verdant sculpture, and introduced morsels of
a forest appearance in the gardens at Richmond ; " but not till other innovators had
broke loose from rigid symmetry." But it was reserved for Kent, the friend of Lord
Burlington, says Daines Barrington, to carry Pope's ideas more extensively into execu-
tion. It was reserved for him " to realise the beautiful descriptions of the poets, for
which he was peculiarly adapted by being a painter ; as the true test of perfection in
modern gardening is, that a landscape-painter would choose it for a composition." Kent,
according to Lord Walpole, appeared immediately after Bridgeman began to make in-
novations on the old style. Among these innovations the capital stroke was the destruc-
tion of walls for boundaries, and the introduction of ha-has; — the harmony of the lawn
with the park followed. Kent appeared at this moment, and saw that all nature was a
garden ; " painter enough to taste the charms of landscape, bold and opinionative enough
to dare and to dictate, and born with a genius to strike out a great system ; from the
twilight of imperfect essays, he realised the compositions of the greatest masters in paint-
ing." " Kent," continues his lordship, " was neither without assistance nor without
faults. Pope contributed to form his taste ; and the gardens at Carleton House were
probably borrowed from the poet's at Twickenham."
339. The origin and establishment of the modern style of landscape gardening in England
appears thus to have been effected by Addison, Pope, Bridgeman, and Kent.
The various deviations front rigid uniformity, or more correctly, the various attempts to succeed in the
Chinese manner, appear to have taken a new and decisive character under the guidance of Kent, a circum-
stance, in our opinion, entirely owing to his having the ideas of a painter ; for no mere gardener, occupied
in imitating the Chinese, or even Italian manner, would ever have thought of studying to produce pictu-
resque effect. Picturesque beauty, indeed, we consider to have been but little recognised in this country,
excepting by painters, previously to the time of Pope, who was both a painter and a poet. The continued
approbation of the modern style, as purified from the Chinese absurdities, originally more or less introduced
with it, and continued in many places long after Kent's time, we consider to be chiefly owing to the cir-
cumstance of the study of drawing and landscape-painting having become a part of the general system of
education ; and thus, as Alison observes, our taste for n'atural beauty was awakened ; " the power of
simple nature was felt and acknowledged, and the removal of the articles of acquired expression, led men
only more strongly to attend to the natural expression of scenery, and to study the means by which it
might be maintained or improved."
340. The adoption and extension of the modern style in England may next be con-
sidered. The means which led to its popularity in Britain, and indeed over the whole of
Europe, were the examples of artists and authors, to which it gave rise.
341. The country-seats in which the modern style was first Employed are described by
Shenstone, G. Mason, and Wheatley, in their works on gardening, and incidentally by
some other authors.
Stowe appears to have been the first extensive residence in which the modern style was adopted.
Lord Cobham seems to have been occupied in re-modelling the grounds at Stowe, about the same time
that Pope was laying out his gardens at Twickenham. His lordship began these improvements in 1714,
employing Bridgeman, whose plans and views for altering old Stowe from the most rigid character of the
ancient style to a more open and irregular design, are still in existence. Kent was employed a few years
afterwards, first to paint the hall, and aftenvards in the double capacity of architect and landscape-gar-
dener ; and the finest buildings and scenes there are his creation. The character of Stowe is well known :
nature has done little ; but art has created a number of magnificent buildings, by which it has been at-
tempted to give a sort of emblematic character to scenes of little or no natural expression. The result
is unique ; but more, as expressed by Pope, " a work to wonder at," than one to charm the imagination.
The friends of Lord Cobham seem to have considered him as the first who exhibited the new style to his
country, if we may judge from the concluding lines of an epitaph to his memory, placed in the garden,—
ET ELEGANTIORI H0RTORUM CULTU HIS PRIMUM IN AGRIS ILLUSTRATO PATRIAM ORNAVIT, 1747.
Woburn Farm, near Weybridge, in Surrey, is supposed to have been one of the first small places where
the new system struck out by Kent was adopted. Southcote, says G. Mason, possessed a genius in many
respects well suited to the purpose, but was rather too lavish of his flowery decorations. The extent
of the grounds was one hundred and fifty acres, thirty-five of which were ornamented to the highest
degree, two-thirds of the remainder were in pasture on rising grounds, and the rest in tillage. The
decorations consisted in having a broad margin of shrubbery and gravel-walk to almost every fence,
but varied by difference of style, views, buildings, &c. It is minutely described in Wheatley's Observations,
as an example of an ornamented farm. G. Mason thinks the decorated strip often too narrow, and some-
times offensive, from the impossibility of concealing the fence. To this bordering walk, he thinks, may
probably be attributed the introduction of the belt. His remarks refer to the year 1768. In 1803, it had
repeatedly changed proprietors, and scarcely a vestige remained to distinguish it from a common farm.
Pains Hill, the creation of the Hon. Charles Hamilton, ninth son of James, sixth earl of Abercorn, is
supposed to have been one of the next specimens exhibited of the modern style. Hamilton is said to have
*tudied pictures, with a view to the improvement of grounds. Pains Hill is a small park, surrounded on
76 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
three sides by garden and picturesque scenery. Excepting from the house, there is no distant prospect ;
but the surface being considerably undulated, the views from the walks across the park have some variety,
and are always agreeable. This place is one of the few, described by Wheatley, which is still in perfect
preservation.
Hagley seems to have been improved about the same time as Pains Hill, in effecting which, Lord
Lyttelton might probably receive some hints from the poet Thomson, who was then his guest. The
grounds are much varied, and the distant prospects picturesque. A very small rill, which passed through
the grounds in a sort of dell, was surrounded with shrubbery and walks, from which the park-scenery
formed a sort of foreground, and sometimes a middle distance to the offscape ; thus, in the language of
Wheatley, " blending the excellencies of the park and the garden." The fine trees, the distant prospects,
and the principal buildings, still remain ; but the garden-scenery has been long since choked by the
growth of the forest-trees; and some years ago the fence was removed, and the whole thrown into
the park. t
South Lodge comes next in order. Soon after the improvements of Hamilton and Lyttelton, " the great
Pitt," G. Mason informs us, " turned his mind to the embellishment of rural nature," and exercised his
talent at the South Lodge upon Enfield Chace. "The first ground surrounding the enclosure was then
wild and woody, and is diversified with hill and dale. He entertained the idea (and admirably realised
it) of making the interior correspond with the exterior scenery. His temple of Pan is mentioned in Observ-
ations. But the singular effort of his genius was a successful imitation of the picturesque appearance of a
by-lane, on the very principles Price supposes it might be practicable."
The Leasowes were improved about the same time. It was literally a grazing-farm, with a walk, in
imitation of a common field, conducted through the several enclosures. Much taste and ingenuity was dis-
played in forming so many points of view in so confined an extent, and with so few advantages in point of
distance. But root-houses, seats, urns, and inscriptions, were too frequent for the whole to be classed with
a common, or even an improved or ornamented English farm. It was, in fact, intended as an emblematical
scene in which constant allusion was made to pastoral poetry ; and if we consider it in this light, in that of
a sentimental farm, it was just what it ought to have been. We regret to find that Repton should attack
the taste of this amiable man, from a misconception, as we presume, of his intentions, by blaming him for
not " surrounding his house with such a quantity of ornamental lawn or park only, as might be consistent
with the size of the mansion or the extent of the property." We fear that if Shenstone had adopted this
mode of improvement, the Leasowes had never been distinguished from places got up by the common rou-
tine of professorship. Shenstone broke his heart through the infamous conduct of a Birmingham attorney,
in whose hands he had placed the title-deeds of his estate. The farm is now much neglected, though the
paths, and many of the seats and root-houses, still remain.
Claremont and Esher are well known. Both were laid out by Kent and Claremont, afterwards enlarged,
and the house and kitchen-gardens added by Brown. Walpole and Wheatley have celebrated both, and
also Garth. Esher is praised by Warton, in his poem " The Enthusiast or Lover of Nature," 1740. Esher
no longer exists ; but Claremont is kept up in tolerable style by Prince Leopold.
Persfie/d was laid out so late as 1750. It is a small park, with an interesting walk, carried along the brow
of a romantic rocky bank of the river Wye, perhaps as faultless as the nature of the place admits of. " I
cannot recollect," says G. Mason, writing of this place in 1768, " that any of the scenes on the Wye are
the least adulterated by the introduction of any puerile appendage whatever."
342. The artists or professors who established the modern style were, Bridgeman, Kent,
Wright, Brown, and Eames.
Of Bridgeman we have been able to procure no information.
Kent was born in Yorkshire, and apprenticed to a coach-painter in 1719. He soon afterwards came to
London, discovered a genius for painting, was sent to Italy, patronised there by Lord Burlington, returned
with his lordship, and lived with him in Burlington House till 1748, when he died at the age of 63 years.
On his first return, he was chiefly employed to paint historical subjects and ceilings ; and the hall at Stowe
is from his pencil Soon afterwards he was employed as an architect ; and, lastly, as a landscape-gardener.
It is not known where he first exercised his genius as a layer-out of grounds ; probably at Claremont and
Esher, two of his designs, both minutely described by Wheatley, and, judging from the age of the trees,
laid out some time between 1725 and 1735. Kent was also employed at Kensington Gardens, where he is
said to have introduced parts of dead trees to heighten the allusion to natural woods. Mason, the poet,
mentions Kent's Elysian scenes in the highest style of panegyric, and observes in a note, that he prided
himself in shading with evergreens in his more finished pieces, in the manner described in the 14th and
15th sections of Wheatley's Observations. " According to my own idea," adds G. Mason, " all that has
since been done by the most deservedly admired designers, by Southcote, Hamilton, Lyttelton, Pitt, Shen-
stone, Morris, for "themselves, and by Wright for others, all that has been written on the subject, even the
Gardening Didactic Poem and the Didactic Essay on the Picturesque, have proceeded from Kent. Had
Kent never exterminated the bounds of regularity, never actually traversed the way to freedom of man-
ner, would any of these celebrated artists have found it of themselves? Theoretical hints from the
highest authorities had evidently long existed without sufficient effect. And had not these great masters
actually executed what Kent's example first inspired them with the design of executing, would the subse-
quent writers on gardening have been enabled to collect materials for precepts, or stores for their ima-
ginations ?" {Essay, &c. p. 112.)
Wright seems to have been in some repute at the time of Kent's death. " His birth and education,"
G. Mason informs us, " were above plebeian ; he understood drawing, and sketched plans of his designs ; but
never contracted for work, which might occasion his not being applied to by those who consider nothing so
much as having trouble taken off their hands." At Becket, the seat of Lord Barrington, he produced an
admired effect on a lawn ; and at Stoke, near Bristol, he is supposed to have decorated a copse-wood with
roses, in the manner advised in the fourth book of the English Garden, and extensively displayed at
Fonthill Abbey. He also designed the terrace-walk and river at Oatlands, both deservedly admired ; the
latter being not unfrequently mistaken for the Thames itself.
Brown is the next professor, in the order of time. He was a native of Northumberland, filled the situation
of kitchen-gardener at a small place near Woodstock, in Oxfordshire ; and was afterwards head-gardener at
Stowe till 1750. He was confined (see Beauties of E. and W. Bucks) to the kitchen-garden, by Lord Cobham,
who, however, afterwards recommended him to the Duke of Grafton, at Wakefield Lodge, Northampton-
shire, where he directed the formation of a large lake, which laid the foundation of his fame and fortune.
Lord Cobham afterwards procured for him the situation of royal gardener at Hampton Court and Windsor.
He was now consulted by the nobility, and among other places at Blenheim. There he threw a dam across
the vale, and the first artificial lake in the world was completed in a week. By this he attained the summit
of his popularity. The fashion of employing him continued, says G. Mason, not only to 1768, but to the
time of his death, many years afterwards. Repton has given a list of his principal works, among which
Croome and Fisherwicke are the two largest new places which he formed, including at Croome the man-
sion and offices, as well as the grounds. The places he altered are beyond all reckoning. Improvement
was the passion of the day ; and there was scarcely a country-gentleman who did not, on some occasion
or other, consult the royal gardener. Mason, the poet, praises this artist, and Lord Walpole apologises
for not praising him. Daines Barrington says, " Kent hath been succeeded by Brown, who hath un-
doubtedly great merit in laying out pleasure-grounds ; but I conceive that, in some of his plans, I see
rather traces of the kitchen-gardener of old Stowe, than of Poussin or Claude Lorrain. I could wish, there-
Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 77
fore, that Gainsborough gave the design, and that Brown executed." The works and memory of Brown
have been severely attacked by Knight and Price, and strenuously defended by Repton, who styles him " his
great self-taught predecessor." " Brown," observes G. Mason, " always appeared to myself in the light
of an egregious mannerist ; who, from having acquired a facility in shaping surfaces, grew fond of exhi-
biting that talent, without due regard to nature, and left marks of his intrusion wherever he went. His
new plantations were generally void of genius, taste, and propriety ; but I have seen instances of his ma-
naging old ones much better. He made a view to Cheney's church, from Latimer (Bucks), as natural
and picturesque as can well be imagined. Yet at the same place he had stuffed a very narrow vale, by the
side of an artificial river, with those crowded circular clumps of firs alone, that Price attributes to him.
The incongruity of this plan struck most of the neighbouring gentlemen, but was defended by the artist
himself, under shelter of the epithet ' playful,' totally misapplied." (Essay on Design, p. 130. 2d edit. 1795.)
That Brown must have possessed considerable talents, the extent of his reputation abundantly proves ;
but that he was imbued with much of that taste for picturesque beauty which distinguished the works of
Kent, Hamilton, and Shenstone, we think will hardly be asserted by any one who has observed atten-
tively such places as are known to be his creations. Whatever be the extent or character of the surface,
they are all surrounded by a narrow belt, and the space within is distinguished by numbers of round or
oval clumps, and a reach or two of a tame river on different levels. This description, in short, will apply to
almost every place in Britain laid out from the time (about 1740) when the passion commenced for new-
modelling country-seats, to about 1785 or 1790, when it in a great measure ceased. The leading outline of
this plan of improvement was easily recollected and easily applied ; the great demand produced abundance
of artists; and the general appearance of the country so rapidly changed under their operations, that in
1772, Sir William Chambers declared, that if the mania were not checked, in a few years longer there
would not be found three trees in a line from the Land's-end to the Tweed. Brown, it is said, never went
out of England, but he sent pupils and plans to Scotland and Ireland ; and Paulowsky, a seat of the late
emperor Paul, near Petersburg, is said to be from his design. Brown, as far as we have learned, could not
draw, but had assistants, who made out plans of what he intended. He generally contracted for the
execution of the work. He amassed a handsome fortune, and his son Launcelot has sat in several
parliaments.
The immediate successor of Brown was his nephew, Holland, who was more employed as an architect
than as a landscape-gardener, though he generally directed the disposition of the grounds when he was
employed in the former capacity. Holland, we believe, retired from business some years ago.
Eamcs is the next artist that deserves to be mentioned ; of him, however, we know little more than that
he is mentioned in terms of respect by G. Mason.
343. The authors who established the modern style are, Addison, Pope, Shenstone,
G. Mason, Wheatley, and Mason, the poet.
Addison's Spectators have been already referred to.
Pope's Epistle to Lord Burlington has also been noticed, as well as
Shenstone's Unconnected Thoughts ; the former published in 1716, the latter in 1764.
G. Mason's Essay on Design in Gardening, from which we have so frequently quoted, was first published
in 1768, and afterwards greatly enlarged in 1795. It is more a historical and critical work than a didactic
performance. Mason was an excellent classical scholar : he lived much alone, and almost always in London,
being connected with the Sun Fire Office.
Wheatley's Observations on Modern Gardening, published in 1770, is the grand fundamental and standard
work on English gardening. It is entirely analytical ; treating, first, of the materials, then of the scenes,
and lastly, of the subjects of gardening. Its style has been pronounced by Ensor inimitable ; and the
descriptions with which his investigations are accompanied, have been largely copied and amply praised
by Alison, in his work on taste. The book was soon translated into the continental languages, and is
judiciously praised in the Mercure de France, Journal Encyclopedique, and Wieland's Journal. G. Ma-
son alone dissents from the general opinion, enlarging on the very few faults or peculiarities which
are to be found in the book. Wheatley, or Whateley, (for so little is known of this eminent man, that we
have never been able to ascertain satisfactorily the orthography of his name,) was proprietor of Nonsuch
Park, in Surrey, and was secretary to the Earl of Suffolk. He published only this work, soon after which
he died. After his death, some remarks on Shakspeare, from his pen, were published in a small 12mo.
volume.
The English Garden, a poem by W. Mason, was published in four different books, the first of which
appeared in 1772. With the exception of the fourth book, it was received with very great applause. The
precepts for planting are particularly instructive. On the whole, the work maybe classed with the Observ-
ations of Wheatley ; and these two books may be said to exhibit a clear view of the modern style, as first
introduced and followed by liberal and cultivated minds ; whilst the Dissertation on Oriental Gardening,
by Sir William Chambers, published in 1772, holds up to ridicule the absurd imitations of uncidtivated
amateurs and professors, who have no other qualifications than those acquired in laboring with the spade
under some celebrated artist. Mason was a clergyman, resident in Yorkshire, and died in 1797.
344. The partial corruption of the modern style took place as soon as it became fashion-
able ; though it may be true, that " in all liberal arts, the merit of transcendent
genius, not the herd of pretenders, characterises an aera," yet in an art like that of
laying out grounds, whose productions necessarily have such an influence on the general
face of a country, it is impossible to judge otherwise of the actual state of the art, than
from the effect which is produced. This effect, about forty years ago, when clumps and
belts blotted every horizon, could never be mistaken for that intended by such pro-
fessors as Kent, or such authors as Wheatley and Mason. The truth is, such was the rage
for improvement, that the demand for artists of genuine taste exceeded the regular supply ;
and, as is usual in such cases, a false article was brought to market, and imposed on the
public. A liberal was thus for a time reduced to a mechanic art, and a new character given
to modern improvements, which, from consisting in a display of ease, elegance, and
nature, according to the situation, became a system of set forms, indiscriminately applied
in every case. This system was in fact more formal, and less varied, than the ancient
style to which it succeeded, because it had fewer parts. An ancient garden had avenues,
alleys, stars, pates-d'oye, pelotons or platoons (square clumps), circular masses, rows,
double and single, and strips, all from one material, wood ; but the modern style, as
now degraded, had only three forms, a clump, a belt, and a single tree. Place the belt
in the circumference, and distribute the clumps and single trees within, and all that re-
spects wood in one of these places is finished. The professor required no further exa-
mination of the ground than what was necessary to take the levels for forming a piece of
78 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
water, which water uniformly assumed one shape and character, and differed no more
in different situations, than did the belt or the clump. So entirely mechanical had the
art become, that any one might have guessed what would be the plan given by the pro-
fessor before he was called in ; and Price actually gives an instance in which this was
done. The activity of this false taste was abated in England before our time ; but we
have seen in Scotland, between the years 1795 and 1805, we believe, above a hundred
of such plans, in part formed by local artists, but chiefly by an English professor, who
was in the habit of making annual journeys in the north, taking orders for plans, which
he got drawn on his return home, not one of which differed from the rest in any thing
but magnitude. These plans were, in general, mounted on linen, which he regularly
purchased in pieces of some hundreds of yards at a time, from a celebrated bleachfield
adjoining Perth.
345. The monotonous productions of this mechanical style soon brought it into disrepute ;
and proprietors were ridiculed for expending immense sums in destroying old avenues
and woods, and planting in their room young clumps, for no other reason than that it
was the fashion to do so.
The first symptoms of disapprobation that were ventured to be uttered against the degradation of the new
taste, appear to be contained in an epistolary novel, entitled Village Memoirs, published in 1775, in
which the professors of gardening are satirised under the name of Layout. A better taste, however, than
that of Layout is acknowledged to exist, which the author states, " Shenstone and nature to have brought
us acquainted with." Most of the large gardens are said to be laid out by some general undertaker, " who
introduces the same objects at the same distances in all." (p. 143.) The translation of Girardin Be la Com-
position des Pay sages, ou des Moyens d'embellir la Nature autour des Habitations, enjoignant I'agreable &
futile, &c. accompanied with an excellent historical preface by Daniel Malthus, Esq. in 1783, must have
had considerable influence in purifying the taste of its readers. A poem in Dodsley's collection, entitled,
Some Thoughts on Building and Planting, addressed to Sir James Lowther, Bart, published in the same
year, and in which the poet recommends, that
" Fashion will not the works direct,
But reason be the architect."
must have had some effect. But the Essay on Prints, and the various picturesque tours of Gilpin, pub-
lished at different intervals from 1768 to 1790, had the principal influence on persons of taste. The beauties
of light and shade, outline, grouping, and other ingredients of picturesque beauty, were never before ex-
hibited to the English public in popular writings. These works were eagerly read, and brought about
that general study of drawing and sketching landscape among the then rising generation, which has ever
since prevailed ; and will do more, perhaps, than any other class of studies, towards forming a taste for the
harmony and connection of natural scenery, the only secure antidote to the revival of the distinctness and
monotony which characterise that which we have been condemning.
346. The monotonous style has been ably exposed by Price and Knight. The Essays on
the Picturesque, of the former, and the poem of the latter, though verging on the opposite
extreme of the evil they wished to remove, have greatly improved the taste of proprietors
and patrons. The object of The Landscape, a didactic poem, is to teach the art of cre-
atine scenery more congruous and picturesque than what is met with in that " tiresome
and monotonous scene called Pleasure-ground." Price's Essays on the Picturesque, and
on the use of studying Pictures, with a view to the improvement of real Landscape, are
written with the same intention ; but, as might be expected from a prose work, enter on
the subject much more at length. In order to discover " whether the present system of
improving is founded on any just principles of taste," Price begins by enquiring,
" whether there is any standard, to which, in point of grouping and of general compo-
sition, works of this sort can be referred ; any authority higher than that of the persons
who have gained the most general and popular reputation by their works, and whose
method of conducting them has had the most extensive influence on the general taste."
This standard (which, it will be recollected by the candid reader, is desired only for what
relates to grouping and composition, not to utility and convenience, as some have unfairly
asserted) Price finds in the productions " of those great artists, who have most diligently
studied the beauties of nature, both in their grandest and most general effects, and in their
minutest detail ; who have observed every variety of form and of color ; have been abte
to select and combine ; and then, by the magic of their art, to fix upon the canvass
all these various beauties." Price recommends the study of the principles of painting,
" not to the exclusion of nature, but as an assistant in the study of her works." He
points out and illustrates two kinds of beauty in landscape ; the one the picturesque,
characterised by roughness, abruptness, and sudden variation ; the other beauty in the
more general acceptation, characterised by smoothness, undulations, intermixed with a
certain degree of roughness and variation, producing intricacy and variety. Such beauty
was made choice of by Claude in his landscapes, and such, he thinks, particularly adapted
to the embellishment of artificial scenery. These principles are applied by Price, in a
very masterly manner, to wood, water, and buildings.
347. The reformation in taste contended for by Price and Knight was, like all other pro-
posals for reform, keenly opposed by professors, by a numerous class of mankind who hate
innovation, and with whom " whatever is is right," including perhaps some men of taste,
who had no feeling for the picturesque, or had mistaken the object of the book. The
first answer to Price's work, was a letter by Repton, in which candor obliges us to state,
Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 79
that the latter has misrepresented his antagonist's meaning, by confounding the study of
pictures with that of the study of the principles of painting. Price published an able
answer to this production, which, he informs us, was even more read than the original
essays. Two anonymous poems of no merit made their appearance, as satires on The
Landscape, and indirectly on the Essays on the Picturesque. The Review of the Land-
scape, and of an Essay on the Picturesque, &c. by Marshall, was published in 1795.
There can scarcely be any thing more violent than this publication. The periodical
critics brought forward all sorts of reasons against the use of the study of pictures, and
deny (with truth perhaps as to themselves) the distinct character of the picturesque. Mr.
Price they treat as " a mere visionary amateur," and Knight as " a Grub-street poet,
who has probably no other garden than the pot of mint before his windows."
The vagiu opinion of a great ?nass of country-gentlemen, tourists, and temporary authors, maybe also in-
cluded- these taking the word picturesque in its extreme sense, and supposing it intended to regulate what
was useful, as well as what was ornamental, concluded that Price's object was to destroy all comfort and
neatness in country-seats, and reduce them to mere portions of dingle or jungle scenery. Such opinions we
have frequently heard expressed by men in other respects of good sense. Even continental authors have
imbibed and disseminated similar exaggerations. " Egares par Gilpin, qui a cherche par ses voyages en
diverses parties de V Angleterre et de VEcosse, d donner des regies, pour y assujeter le genre pittoresque et
romantique, ils ont pris location pour demander que I'art fut totalemcnt banm des jard/ns. lis adoptent
le pittoresque d'un Solvate -• Bosa dans les paysages, comme le vrai nature dans I'art defaire desjardtns, et
on rejette comme un asserbUsenent a ce meme art, toutes les regies qu'un Bridgcwater {Bridgeman) et un
Brown avoient publiees dans ce genre." (Description Pittoresque des Jardins, du gout le plus moderne.
Leipsig, 1802. See also Tubinger's Taschenbuch, fur nature und Gartenfrevnde, 1798, p. 194.)
Of enlightened and liberal minds, who have in some degree opposed Price's principles, we can only in-
stance the late W. Wyndham, who in a letter to Repton, (Kepton was at one period secretary to Wyndham,
when that gentleman was in office,) written after the publication of his defence, combats, not the works of
Price, but the popular objections to the supposed desire of subjecting every thing to the picturesque.
" The writers of this school," he observes, " show evidently that they do not trace with any success the
causes of their pleasure. Does the pleasure that we receive from the view of parks and gardens, result
from their affording in their several parts, subjects that would appear to advantage in a picture? \\ hat
is most beautiful in nature, is not always capable of being represented in a painting ; as prospects, moving
flocks of deer. Many are of a sort which have nothing to do with the purposes of habitation ; as the sub-
jects of Salvator Rosa. Are we therefore to live in caves? Gainsborough's Country Girl is more pictu-
resque than a child neatly dressed. Are our children to go in rags ? No one will stand by this doctrine ;
nor do they exhibit it in any distinct shape at all, but only take credit for their attachment to general
principles, to which every one is attached as well as they. Is it contended, that in laying out a place,
whatever is most picturesque is most conformable to true taste ? If they say so, they must be led to conse-
quences which they can never venture to avow. If they do not say so, the whole is a question of how
much or how little, which, without the instances before you, can never be decided." " Places are not to
be laid out with a view to their appearance in a picture, but to their use, and the enjoyment of them in
real life ; and their conformity to these purposes is that which constitutes their true beauty. With this
view, gravel walks, and neat mown lawns, and, in some situations, straight alleys, fountains, terraces,
and, for aught I know, parterres and cut hedges, are in perfect good taste, and infinitely more conform-
able to the principles which form the basis of our pleasure in those instances, than the docks and thistles,
and litter and disorder, that mav make a much better figure in a picture." {Letter from Wyndham,
published by Repton, in a note to his Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening.)
I he i
Beat
ledge thus acqui.—
that to a superior understanding and taste, like those of Price, it may often suggest very useful hints ; but
if recognised as the standard to which the ultimate appeal is to be made, it would infallibly cover the face
of the country with a new and systematical species of affectation, not less remote than that of Brown from
the style of gardening which he wishes to recommend ; let painting be allowed its due praise in quicken,
ing our attention to the beauties of nature ; in multiplying our resources for their farther embellishment ;
and in holding up a standard, from age to age, to correct the caprices of fashionable innovations ; but let
our taste for these beauties be chiefly formed on the study of nature herself; nor let us ever forget so far
what is due to her indisputable and salutary prerogative, as to attempt an encroachment upon it by laws,
which derive the whole of their validity from her own sanction." (p. 287.)
348. To draw a fair conclusion from these different opinions, it is necessary to take the
whole of them, and the general scope of the authors into view. From the vein of excel-
lent sense which pervades Wyndham's letter, and particularly the latter part of it, which
we have extracted entire, it is impossible to avoid suspecting, either that there is a cul-
pable obscurity in the works referred to, or that Wyndham had not sufficiently, if at all,
perused them. We are inclined to believe that there is some truth in both suppositions.
We have no hesitation, however, both from a mature study of all the writings of these
gentlemen, relating to this subject, as well as a careful inspection of their own residences,
in saying, that there is not an opinion in the above extract, to which Price and Knight would
not at once assent. Knight's directions, in regard to congruity and utility, are as distinct as
can well be expected in a poem. Price never entered on the subject of utility. His
works say, " Your object is to produce beautiful landscapes ; at least this is one great
object of your exertions. But you produce very indifferent ones. The beauty of your
scenes is not of so high a kind as that of nature. Examine her productions. To aid
you in this examination, consult the opinions of those who have gone before you in the
same study. Consult the works of painters, and learn the principles which guided them
in their combinations of natural and artificial objects. Group your trees on the principles
they do. Connect your masses as they do. In short, apply their principles of painting
whenever you intend any imitation of nature, for the principles of nature and of painting
are the same." " Are we to apply them in every case? Are we to neglect regular
beauty and utility ? Certainly not, that would be inconsistent with common sense."
80 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
349. The taste of the present day in landscape-gardening may be considered as com-
paratively chastened and refined by so much discussion, so many errors and corrections,
and a great many fine examples. It is also more liberal than it was half a century ago ;
admitting the use of the beauties of every style, even the geometric, as occasion requires ;
in short, considering beauty as always relative to the state of society ; and in gardening,
even to the state of the surrounding country. The principal artist of the present period,
or that which has intervened since the death of Brown and Eames, was the late H. Repton,
Esq. This gentleman, from being an amateur, began his career as professor of landscape-
gardening about thirty years ago (1788) ; and till a sort of decline or inactivity of taste
took place ten or twelve years since, he was extensively consulted. Though at first an
avowed defender and follower of Brown, he has gradually veered round with the change
effected in public opinion by the Essays on the Picturesque, so that now, comparing his
earlier works of 1795 and 1805, with his Fragments on Landscape Gardening, published
in 1817, he appears much more a disciple of Price than a defender of his " great self-
taught predecessor." Repton was a beautiful draftsman, and gave, besides plans and
views, his written opinion in a regular form, generally combining the whole in a manu-
script volume, which he called the red book of the place. He never, we believe, undertook
the execution of his plans ; nor has, as far as we are aware, been employed out of Eng-
land, but Yalleyfield, in Perthshire, was visited by his two sons, and arranged from their
father's designs. The character of this artist's talent seems to be cultivation rather than
genius, and he seems more anxious to follow than to lead, and to gratify the preconceived
wishes of his employers, and improve on the fashion of the day, than to strike out grand
and original beauties. This, indeed, is perhaps the most useful description of talent both
for the professor and his employers. Repton's taste in Gothic architecture, and in ter-
races, and architectural appendages to mansions, is particularly elegant. His published
Observations on this subject are valuable, though we think otherwise of his remarks on
landscape-gardening, which we look upon as puerile, wanting depth, often at variance
with each other, and abounding too much in affectation and arrogance. On the whole,
however, we have no hesitation in asserting, that both by his splendid volumes, and ex-
tensive practice among the first classes, he has supported the credit of this country for
taste in laving out grounds. Repton was born near Felbrig, in Norfolk, and died at
Hare-street, in Essex, in 1817.
350. The principal country-seats which display the modern taste of laying out grounds,
will be found arranged in the order of the counties in Part IV. of this work, Book I.
and Chapter II.
Subsect. 2. Gardening in Scotland, as an Art of Design and Taste.
351. Gardening was introduced into Scotland by the Romans, and revived by the reli-
gious establishments of the dark ages.
352. In the sixth century, is supposed to have been formed, the garden of the abbey
of Icolmkill, in the Hebrides. It is thus noticed by Dr. Walker (Essays, vol. ii. p. 5.),
from its remains as they appeared in the end of the eighteenth century. " On a plain
adjoining the gardens of the abbey, and surrounded by small hills, there are vestiges of a
laro-e piece of artificial water, which has consisted of several acres, and been contrived both
for pleasure and utility. Its banks have been formed by art into walks, and though now
a boo-, you may perceive the remains of a broad green terrace passing through the middle
of it, which has been raised considerably above the water. At the place where it had
been dammed up, and where there are the marks of a sluice, the ruins of a mill are still
to be seen, which served the inhabitants of the abbey for grinding the corn. Pleasure-
grounds of this kind," adds Dr. Walker, " and a method of dressing grain still un-
practised in these remote islands, must, no doubt, have been considered in early times,
as matters of very high refinement."
353. In the twelfth century, Chalmers informs us (Caledonia Depicta, vol. i. p. 801.),
" David I. had a garden at the base of Edinburgh castle. This king," he adds,
" had an opportunity of observing the gardens of England under Henry I. when Norman
gardening would, no doubt, be prevalent;" and we may reasonably suppose that he was
prompted by his genius to profit from the useful, and to adopt the elegant, in that agree-
able art.
354. During the greater part of the fourteenth century, Scotland was in a state of intes-
tine war ; but in that succeeding, it is generally believed architecture and gardening
were encouraged by the Jameses. James I., as we have seen (319.) admired the gar-
dens of Windsor, in 1420, and having been in love there, and married an English woman,
would in all probability imitate them. He is described in the Chronicles of Scotland as
" an excellent man, and an accomplished scholar. At his leisure hours he not only in-
dulged himself in music, in reading and writing, in drawing and painting ; but when
the circumstances of time and place, and the taste and manners of those about him made
it proper, he would sometimes instruct them in the art of cultivating kitchen and pleasure
Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 81
gardens, and of planting and engrafting different kinds of fruit-trees. " (Scoticron. lib. xvi.
cap. 30.)
355. In the middle of the fifteenth century, James III. is described by Pitscottie, as
" delighting more in music and policie (probably from the French polir, to remove, level,
or improve ; or from a corruption of sepolir, to improve one's self, — levelling and smooth-
ing the grounds about a house, being naturally the first step after it is built), and build-
ing, than lie did in the government of his realm." The general residence of tins mo-
narch was Stirling Castle ; and a piece of waste surface in the vale below is said to have
been the site of the royal gardens. Enough remains to justify a conjecture, that at this
early period they displayed as much skill as those of any other country. We allude
to a platform of earth resembling a table, surrounded by turf seats, or steps rising in gra-
dation, the scene, no doubt, of rural festivities.
356. In the middle of the sixteenth century, the Regent Murray had a garden in the
neighbourhood of Edinburgh, which still exists. It contains some venerable pear-trees,
a magnificent weeping thorn-tree of great age, and the remains of elm-bowers, which
have doubtless in their time sheltered the fair queen of Scots, but the interwoven boughs
of which now appear in the shape of fantastically bent trunks, thin of spray and leaves.
{Hort. Tour, &c. p. 226.)
357. There are various remains of gardens of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in Scotland.
At the palace of Falkland is a large square enclosure, on a dull flat, in which there
exist only a few stunted ash-trees, though the boundary stone wall is still a formidable
fence. The gardens of Holyrood House appear to have been exceedingly confined ; the
boundary wall only remains, and there are some indications of the rows of trees which
stood in the park, which seems to have extended to the base of the adjoining hill, Arthur's
Seat. The palace of Scone, we learn from Adanson, a poet of the seventeenth century,
was surrounded by " gardens and orchards, flowers and fruits;" and the park, in which
are still some ancient trees, " abounded in the hart and fallow deer." Generally a few
old trees in rows adjoin the other royal residences, and oldest baronial castles ; but they
give no indications of the extent to which art was carried in their disposition.
358. During the seventeenth century, a few gardens must have been formed in Scot-
land. About the end of this century, the grounds of the Duke of Hamilton were
planted, in all probability by a French artist. The design of Chatelherault, an orna-
mental appendage to the palace of Hamilton, is named after, and formed in imitation of,
the residence of that illustrious family in France, laid out by Le Notre.
359. About the beginning of the eighteenth century, the Earl of Lauderdale is said to
have sent plans, sections, and sacks of earth from his domain at Hatton, to London and
Wise, in London ; and these artists, it is added, formed a plan, and sent down a gardener
to superintend its execution. Hatton is still a fine old place ; but has long changed its
possessor.
360. English artists were called into Scotland during litis century. Switzcr, Laurence, and Langley
mention in their works, that they were frequently called into Scotland to give plans of improvement.
Switzer appears to have resided a considerable time in Edinburgh, as he there published, in 1717, a tract
on draining, and other useful and agricultural improvements. The Earls of Stair and Haddington (who
wrote on trees), both great planters, about this time, probably consulted them ; as would, perhaps, Fletcher
of Saltoun, the proprietors of Dundas Castle, Barnton, Saughton Hall, Gogar, and particularly Cragie
Hall, a residence laid out with much art and taste, and next in rank, in these respects, to Hatton. New
Liston, Dalkeith House, Hopeton House, and various other places near Edinburgh, are also in Switzer's
style. New Liston and Hopeton House, planted, we believe, from 1735 to 1740, were probably the last
considerable seats laid out in the ancient style in Scotland. •
361. The modern style was first introduced into Scotland by the celebrated Lord Karnes,
who, some time between 1740 and 1750, displayed it on his own residence at Blair
Drummond. An irregular ridge, leading from the house, was laid out in walks, com-
manding a view, over the shrubs on the declivity, of portions of distant prospect. One
part of this scene was composed entirely of evergreens, and formed an agreeable winter-
garden. Lord Karnes did not entirely reject the ancient style, either at Blair Drum-
mond, or in his Essay on Gardening and Architecture, published in the Elements of
Criticism. In that short but comprehensive essay, he shows an acquaintance with the
Chinese style, and the practice of Kent ; admits both of absolute and relative beauty
as the objects of gardening and architecture, and from this complex destination, accounts
for that difference and wavering of taste in these arts, " greater than in any art that has
but a single destination." (Vol. ii. p. 431. 4th edit. 1769.)
Lord Karnes's example in Scotland may be compared to that of Hamilton or Shenstone in England ; it
was not generally followed, because it was not generally understood. That the Elements of Criticism,
though long since obsolete as such, tended much to purify the taste of the reading class, there can be no
doubt. Every person also admired Blair Drummond ; but as every country-gentleman could not bestow
sufficient time and attention to gardening to be able to lay out his own place, it became necessary to have
recourse to artists ; and, as it happened, those who were employed had acquired only that habit of me-
chanical imitation which copies the most obvious forms, without understanding the true merits of the
original. In short, they were itinerant pupils of Brown, or professors in his school, who resided in Scot-
land ; and thus it is, that after commencing in the best taste, Scotland continued, till within the last
twenty years, to patronise the very worst.
362. The grounds of Duddingston House may be referred to as a contrast to the style of
G
82 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part 1.
Blair Drummond, and a proof of what we have asserted in regard to the kind of modern
landscape-gardening introduced to Scotland. This seat was laid out about the year 1 750.
The architect of the house was Sir William Chambers ; the name of the rural artist,
whose original plans we have examined, was Robertson, nephew to the king's gardener
of that name, sent down from London. We know of no example in any country of so
perfect a specimen of Brown's manner, nor of one in which the effect of the whole, and
the details of every particular part, are so consistent, and co-operate so well together in
producing a sort of tame, spiritless beauty, of which we cannot give a distinct idea. It
does not resemble avowed art, nor yet natural scenery ; it seems, indeed, as if nature
had commenced the work and changed her plan, determining no longer to add to her
productions those luxuriant and seemingly superfluous appendages which produce
variety and grace. The trees here, all planted at the same time, and of the same age,
seem to grow by rule. The clumps remind us of regularly tufted perukes. The waters
of the tame river neither dare to sink within, nor to overflow its banks ; the clumps keep
at a respectful distance ; and the serpentine turns of the roads and walks, seem to hint
that every movement to be made here, must correspond.
The extent of Duddingston, we suppose, may exceed 200 acres. The house is placed on an eminence in
the centre, from which the grounds descend on three sides, and on the remaining side continue on a level
till tiiey reach the boundary belt. This belt completely encircles the whole ; it is from 50 to 200 feet wide,
with a turf drive in the middle. One part near the house is richly varied by shrubs and flowers, and kept
as garden-scenery ; in the rest the turf is mown, but the ground untouched. A string of wavy canals, on
different levels, joined by cascades, enter at one side of the grounds, and taking a circuitous sweep through
the park, pass off at the other. This water creates occasion for Chinese bridges, islands, and cascades.
The kitchen-garden and offices are placed behind the house, and concealed by a mass of plantation.
Over the rest of the grounds are distributed numerous oval unconnected clumps, and some single trees.
In the drive are several temples and covered seats, placed in situations where are caught views of the
house, sometimes seen between two clumps, and at other times between so many as to form a perspective
or avenue. There is also a temple on the top of a hill, partly artificial, which forms the object from
several of these seats, and from other open glades or vistas left in the inside of the belt. The outer margin
of this plantation is every where kept perfectly entire, so that there is not a single view but what is
wholly the property of the owner ; unless in one instance, where the summit of Arthur's Seat, an adjoining
hill, is caught by the eye from one part of the belt, over the tops of the trees in its opposite periphery.
That this place has, or had in 1790, great beauties, we do not deny; but they are beauties of a peculiar
kind, not of general nature— not the beauties of Blair Drummond, or such as a liberal and enlightened
mind would desire to render general ; but in great part such as Sir William Chambers holds up to ridicule
in his Dissertation on Oriental Gardening (see his Introduction, p. 6 — 11.), and Price, in his Essays on
the Picturesque. Yet Duddingston may be reckoned the model of all future improvements in Scotland, till
within the last twenty years. The same artist laid out Livingston, effected some improvements at Hope-
ton House, Dalkeith, Dalhousie, Niddry, the Whim, Moredun, various other places near Edinburgh, and
some in Ayrshire.
363. No artist of note had hitherto arisen in Scotland in this department of gardening,
if we except James Ramsay. This person was employed by Robertson, in Ayrshire, as
a mason, but soon displayed a taste for disposing of verdant scenery, and afterwards
became a landscape-gardener of considerable repute. He gave ground-plans and draw-
ings in perspective, both of the buildings and verdant scenery. Leith Head, a small
place near Edinburgh, is entirely his creation. His style was that of Brown, in his
waters and new plantations near the house ; but he was less attached to the belt, his
clumps were not always regular, and lie endeavoured to introduce a portion of third
distance into all his views. Ramsay died at Edinburgh in 1794, and this record of his
taste is due to his memory.
364. English professors of the modern style have occasionally visited Scotland, and some
regularly. From nearly the first introduction of the new style to the present time,
annual journeys have been made into Scotland from the county of Durham by the late
White, and subsequently by his son. White, senior, we believe, was a pupil of Brown,
of much information on country-matters, and generally respected in Scotland. Of his
professional talents we have said enough, when we have mentioned their source. Air-
thrie, near Stirling, and Bargany, in Ayrshire, are the principal productions of this
family. In what respects the talents of White, junior, differ from those of his father, or
whether they differ at all, we are not aware ; though we think it highly probable they
will partake of the general improvement of the age. We have already mentioned that
none of the eminent English artists had ever been in Scotland ; but that Valleyfield
was laid out from Repton's designs. Nasmyth, an eminent landscape-painter in Edin-
burgh, and G. Parkyns, author of Monastic Remains, have occasionally given designs
for laying out grounds in Scotland, both in excellent taste.
The country-seats of Scotland are elsewhere described. (Part IV. Book I. Chap. III.)
Subsect. 3. Gardening in Ireland, as an Art of Design and Taste.
365. Of the ancient state of gardening in Ireland very little is known. A short Essay
on the Rise and Progress of Gardening in Ireland, by J. C. Walker, is given in the
Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy (vol. xiv. part 3.) from which we shall glean
what is available for our purpose.
366. In the time of Queen Elizabeth, Fynnes Morrison, "a minute observer," travelled
Book I.
GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES.
S3
through that kingdom. He does not once mention a garden as appertaining either to a
castle or to a monastery ; he only observes, " that the best sorts of powers and fruits are
much rarer in Ireland than in England ; which, notwithstanding, is more to be attri-
buted to the inhabitants than to the ayre." In an inedited account of a Tour in 1634,
also quoted by Walker (Trans. R. I. A.), Bishop Usher's palace is said to have a " pretty
neat garden."
367. Of remains of ancient gardens in Ireland we may quote a few examples. Some
of the largest sculptured evergreens are at Bangor, in the county of Down ; and at
Thomas-town, in the county of Tipperary, are the remains of a hanging garden, formed
on the side of a hill, in one corner of which is a verdant amphitheatre, once the scene of
occasional dramatic exhibitions. Blessington gardens, if tradition may be relied on,
were laid out during the reign of James II. by an English gentleman, who had left- his
estate at Byfleet in Sussex, to escape the persecution of Cromwell. In King William's
time, knots of flowers, curious edgings of box, topiary works, grassy slopes, and other
characteristics of the Dutch style, came into notice. Rowe and Bullein, Englishmen,
who had successively nurseries at Dublin, were in these days the principal rural artists
of Ireland; though Switzer and Laurence, as well as Batty Langley, occasionally
visited that country.
368. The first attempts to introduce the modern style into Ireland are supposed to have
been made by Dr. Delany at Delville near Glassnevin, about the year 17i20. Swift has
left a poetical description of these scenes. Dr. Delany, Walker says, impressed a vast
deal of beauty on a very small spot of ground ; softened the obdurate straight line of
the Dutch into a curve, melted the terrace into a sloping bank, and opened the walk to
catch the vicinal country. Walsh (History of Dublin, 1820) says, these grounds retain
all the stiffness of the old garden. As there existed an intimacy between Pope and
Delany, it is supposed the former may have assisted his Irish friend. This example
appears to have had the same sort of influence in Ireland, that the gardening of Lord
Karnes had in Scotland. It gave rise to a demand for artists of the new school ; and the
market was supplied by such as came in the way. Much less, however, was done in that
country, partly from the abundance of picturesque scenery in many districts, and partly
from other obvious causes. Mount Shannon, near Limerick, the seat of the late Chan-
cellor Clare, is said to have been laid out from his lordship's designs, and the recent
improvements at Charleville forest, where one of the most comfortable and magnificent
castles in Ireland has been executed by Johnson of Dublin, were the joint productions
of Lord and Lady Charleville. Walker mentions Marino, Castle-town, Carton,
Curraghmore, the retreat of St. Woolstans, and Moyra, as exhibiting the finest garden-
scenery in Ireland. Powerscourt, and
Mucross, near the lakes, are reckoned the
most romantic residences, and are little in-
debted to art. St. Valori, Walker's own
seat, is a beautiful little spot near the well-
known village of Bray. Miss Plumtree
mentions Blarney Castle (Jig. 31.), as one
of the most enchanting spots in the world.
There have been delightful shrubberies,
which might easily be restored. The cas-
tle stands on a rock not very high, and
below are fine meadows, with an ample
stream flowing through them ; there is
plenty of wood, and a considerable lake at
a short distance from the house, which furnishes excellent trout : in short, nature has left
little for art to supply; and yet this charming spot is deserted, abandoned, looking
wholly neglected and forlorn. {Residence in Ireland, 1817, 240.)
369. English artists professing the modern style have been but little employed in Ireland,
the common practice being to engage a good kitchen-gardener from England, and leave
every thing to him. Sutherland was, in 1810, the local artist of greatest repute. A.
M'Leish has since settled in this country, and, from what we know of this artist, we
have little doubt he will contribute, in an eminent degree, to establish and extend a
better taste than has yet appeared there. W. T. Mackay, curator of the Trinity-college
garden, is said to excel in laying out grounds. Though landscape-gardeners from the
metropolis have not been called to Ireland, yet it has happily become not an unfrequent
practice to employ eminent English architects, — a practice, as far as taste is concerned,
certain of being attended with the most salutary effects.
Sect. II. British Gardening, in respect to the Cidture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament.
370. Flowers are more or less cultivated wherever gardening is practised ; but a parti-
cular attention to this department of the art can only take place under circumstances of
G 2
84 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
ease, and a certain degree of refinement. A taste for fine flowers has existed in Holland
and the Netherlands from a very remote period, and was early introduced into England ;
but when that taste found its way to Scotland and Ireland, is much less certain.
Subsect. 1. Gardening in England, in respect to the Culture of Flowers and the
Establishment of Botanic Gardens.
371. The taste for florists' flowers, in England, is generally supposed to have been
brought over from Flanders with our worsted manufactures, during the persecutions of
Philip II. ; and the cruelties of the Duke of Alva, in 1567, was the occasion of our re-
ceiving, through the Flemish weavers, gillyflowers, carnations, and provins roses. But
flowers and flowering shrubs were known and prized even in Chaucer's time, as appears
from a well-known passage of that poet. An Italian poet published, in 1586, a volume
of poems, one of which is On the Royal Garden ; from this poem it would appear that
Queen Elizabeth was attached to the culture of flowers, but few are named either in these
poems, or in the description of Theobald's. Parterres seem to have been introduced in
the beginning of Queen Elizabeth's reign, and also the tulip, and damask and musk
roses. Gerrard, who published his herbal three years before, mentions James Garnet,
" a London apothecary, a principal collector and propagator of tulips, for twenty years
bringing forth every season new plants of sundry colors not before seen, all which to de-
scribe particularly were to roll Sisyphus's stone, or number the sands."
372. One of the earliest notices which we have of a botanic garden in England is that of
the Duke of Somerset, at Sion House, in the beginning of this century. It was placed
under the superintendence of Dr. Turner, whom Dr. Pulteney considers as the father of
English botany. Turner had studied at Bologna and at Pisa, where, as we have already
seen (91.), botanic gardens were first formed. After being some years with the Duke
of Somerset, he retired from Sion House to Wells, where he had a rich garden, and died
there in 1560. About this time existed the botanic gardens of Edward Saintloo, n
Somersetshire, James Coel, at Highgate, J. Nasmyth, surgeon to James I., and John
de Franqueville, merchant in London. From the care of the latter, Parkinson observes,
" is sprung the greatest store that is now flourishing in this kingdom." Gerrard had a
fine garden in Holborn, in the middle of the sixteenth century, of which there is a cata-
logue in the British Museum, dated 1590. This garden was eulogised by Dr. Boleyn
and others his contemporaries. Gerrard mentions Nicholas Lete, a merchant in London,
" greatly in love with rare and fair flowers, for which he doth carefully send into Syria,
having a servant there, at Aleppo, and in many other countries; for which myself, and
the whole land are much bound unto him." The same author also gives du* honor to
Sir Walter Raleigh, Lord Edward Zouch, the patron of Lobel, who brought plants and
seeds from Constantinople, and to Lord Hudson, Lord High Chamberlain of England,
who, he says, " is worthy of triple honor for his care in getting, as also for his keeping
such rare and curious things from the farthest parts of the world. " [Pulteney 's Sketches, 1 25. )
373. In the beginning of the seventeenth century, flowers and curious plants appear to
have been very generally cultivated. Piatt's Paradise of Flora, which is the first book
that treats expressly on flowers, appeared in 1600. Parkinson published his Paradisus
in 1629. " A modern florist," observes Dr. Pulteney, " wholly unacquainted with the
state of the art at the time Parkinson wrote, would perhaps be surprised to find that his
predecessors could enumerate, besides 16 described as distinct species, 120 varieties of
the tulip, 60 anemones, more than 90 of the narcissus tribe, 50 hyacinths, 50 carnations,
20 pinks, 30 crocuses, and above 40 of the Iris genus." [Sketches, &c. vol. ii. 123.) The
laurel, or bay-cherry, was then very rare, and considered as a tender plant, being de-
fended " from the bitterness of the winter by casting a blanket over the top thereof," and
the larch-tree was only reared up as a curiosity. Greenhouse-plants were placed in
cellars, where they lost their leaves, but those of such as survived shot out again in spring
when removed to the open air.
Flowers were much cultivated in Norwich, from the time of the Flemish weavers settling there. Sir J.
E. Smith {Linn. Trans. vol. ii. p. 296.-) mentions a play called Rhodon and Iris, which was acted at the
florists' feast at Norwich, in 16o7 ; a proof that the culture of flowers was in great estimation there at that
time ; and in 1671 Evelyn mentions Sir Thomas Brown's garden there, as containing a paradise of rarities,
and the gardens of all the inhabitants as full of excellent flowers. From Norwich the love of flowers
seems to have spread to other manufacturing establishments ; and the taste still continues popular, not
only there, but among the weavers in Spitalflelds, Manchester, Bolton, and most of the commercial towns
in Lancashire, and many in Cheshire, Derbyshire, and other adjoining counties. A florists' society is
established in almost every town and village in the northern district. These societies have annual shows,
as in London and Norwich ; and a book, called The Flower Book, is published annually in Manchester,
containing an account of their transactions, the prizes which have been given, and the new flowers which
have been originated.
Ham House, the Duke of Lauderdale's, had famous parterres and orangeries at this time. Sir Henry
Capell had a very fine orangery and myrtilleum at Kew ; and Lady Clarendon, who, Evelyn informs us,
was well skilled in flowers, had an ample collection at Swallowfield in Berkshire.
In the garden of William Coijte, of Stubbers, in Essex, the yucca blossomed in 1604, for the first time in
England. {Lobel, Hist. Plant.)
The place of Royal Herbalist was created by Charles I. ; and Parkinson was appointed to fill it. Queen
Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 85
Mary appointed Plunkenet to be his successor, " a man distinguished for botanical knowledge." Under
this botanist's directions, collectors were despatched to the Indies in search of plants.
Tradescant's botanic garden at Lambeth was established previously to 1629. Tradescant was a Dutch,
man, and gardener to Charles I. In 1656, his son published a catalogue of this garden, and of the museum,
which both of them had collected. Weston observes {Catalogue of Authors on Gardening, SO.) that the
garden having for some years lain waste, on the 1st of May, 1749, William Watson, t\ R. S., having
visited its site, found many of the exotics remaining, having endured two great frosts in 1729 and 1740. A
curious account of the garden is given by Sir W. Watson, in the Philosophical Transactions, (vol. xl.)
Tradescant left his museum to E. Ashmoll, who lodged in his house. Mrs-. Tradescant contested the will,
and on losing the cause drowned herself.
TJie Chelsea botanic garden seems to have existed about the middle of this century. In 1685, Evelyn
visited Watts, their head gardener. " What was very ingenious, was the subterranean heat conveyed by
means of a stove under the conservatory, all vaulted with brick, so that he has the door and windows open
in the hardest frosts, excluding only the snow." {Memoirs, &c. vol. i. 606.) In Watts's garden was a tulip-
tree, and in the hot-house a tea-shrub. {Ray.) The ground occupied by this garden was rented from Sir
Hans Sloane ; who afterwards, in 1722, when applied to for its renewal, granted it in perpetuity at 5/. a
year, and fifty new plants to be presented annually to the Royal Society, till their number amounted to
two thousand.
Farious private botanic gardens existed at the end of this century. That of the celebrated naturalist
Ray, in Essex, Dr. Uvedale's, at Enfield, and especially that of the Duchess of Beaufort, at Badmington,
were rich in plants ; but that of Sir Hans Sloane, at Chelsea, surpassed them all.
374. A public botanic garden in England was first founded at Oxford, in 1632, nearly'
a century after that at Padua. This honor was reserved for Henry, Earl of Danby, who
gave for this purpose five acres of ground, built green-houses and stoves, and a house
for the accommodation of the gardener, endowed the establishment, and placed in nt, as
a supervisor, Jacob Bobart, a German, from Brunswick, who lived, as Wood tells us, in
the garden-house, and died there in 1G97. The garden contained at his death above
1600 species. Bobart's descendants are still in Oxford, and known as coach-proprietors.
375. Green-houses and plant-stoves seem to have been introduced or invented about
the middle of the seventeenth century. They were formed in the Altorf garden in 1645.
Evelyn mentions Loader's orangery in 1662, and the green-house and hot -house at
Chelsea are mentioned both by that author and Ray in 1685.
376. During the whole (if the eighteenth century, botany was in a flourishing state in
England. Previously to this period the number of exotics in the country pro-
bably did not exceed 1000 species : during this century above 5000 new species were
introduced from foreign countries, besides the discovery of a number of new native
plants. Some idea may be formed of the progress of gardening, in respect to ornamental
trees and shrubs, from the different editions of Miller's dictionary. In the first edition
in 1724, the catalogue of evergreens amounts only to twelve. The Christmas-flower
and aconite were then rare, and only to be obtained at Fairchild's at Hoxton : only
seven species of geraniums were then known. Every edition of this work contained
fresh additions to the botany of the country. In the preface to the eighth and last edition,
published in 1768, the number of plants cultivated in England is stated to be more than
double those which were known in 1731. Miller was born in 1691 ; his father was
gardener to the Company of Apothecaries, and he succeeded his father in that office in
1722, upon Sir Hans Sloane's liberal donation of near four acres to the Company. He
resigned his office a short time before his decease, which took place in 1771, and was
succeeded by Forsyth, who was succeeded by Fairbairn, and the last by Anderson the
present curator.
377. As great encouragers of botany during this century, Miller mentions in 1724,
the Duke of Chandos, Compton Speaker of the House of Commons, Dubois of Mitcham,
Compton Bishop of London, Dr. Uvedale of Enfield, Dr. Lloyd of Sheen. Dr. James
Sherrard, apothecary, had one of the richest gardens England ever possessed at Eltham.
His gardener, Knowlton, was a zealous botanist, and afterwards, when in the service of
the Earl of Burlington, at Londesborough, discovered the globe conferva. Dr.
Sherrard's brother was consul at Smyrna, and had a fine garden at Sedokio, near that
town, where he collected the plants of Greece and many others. The consul died in
1728, and the apothecary in 1737. Fairchild, Gordon, Lee, and Gray of Fulham,
eminent nurserymen, introduced many plants during the first half of the century. The
first three corresponded with Linnaeus. Collinson, a great promoter of gardening and
botany, had a fine garden at Mill-hill. Richard Warner had a good botanic garden at
Warnford Green. The Duke of Argyle, styled a tree-monger by Lord Walpole, had
early in this century a garden at Hounslow, richly stocked with exotic trees. A num-
ber of other names of patrons, gardeners, and authors, equally deserving mention, are
necessarily omitted. Dr., afterwards Sir John Hill, had a botanic garden at Bayswater ;
he began to publish in 1751, and produced numerous works on plants and flowers,
which had considerable influence in rendering popular the system of Linnaeus, and
spreading the science of horticulture, and a taste for ornamental plants. In 1775 Drs.
Fothergill and Pitcairn sent out Thomas Blaikie (170.) to collect plants in Switzer-
land, and this indefatigable botanist sent home all those plants mentioned in the Hortus
Kcwensis, as introduced by the two Doctors.
378. During the latter part of the eighteenth century, Hibbert, of Chalfont, and
G 3
86 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
Thornton, of Clapham, opulent commercial men, may be mentioned as great encouragers
of exotic botany. The collection of Heaths, Banksias, and other Cape and Botany Bay
plants, in the Clapham garden, was most extensive ; and the flower-garden, one of the
best round the metropolis. The Duke of Marlborough, while Marquis of Blandford,
formed a collection of exotics at White Knights, surpassed by none in the kingdom.
(Historical Account of White Knights, &c. 1820, quarto.) R. A. Salisbury, one of our
first botanists, and a real lover of gardening, had a fine garden and rich collection
at Chapel Allerton, in Yorkshire. Subsequently, he possessed the garden formed by
Collinson at Mill Hill. Choice collections of plants were formed at the Earl of Tan-
kerville's at Walton, the Duke of Northumberland's at Sion House, at the Comte
de Vandes' at Bayswater, Vere's at Knightsbridge, and many other places. Lee, Lod-
dige, Knight, Colville, and several other nurserymen, might be named as greatly
promoting a taste for plants and flowers by their well-stocked nurseries and publications.
Of these the Heathery, the Botanical Cabinet, and the Genus Protea, are well known
and esteemed works. A grand stimulus to the culture of ornamental plants, was given
by the publication of Curtis's Botanical Magazine, begun in 1787, and still continued
in monthly numbers. Here the most beautiful hardy and tender plants were figured
and described, and useful hints as to their culture added. Other works by Sowerby,
Edwards, Andrews, &c. of a similar nature, contributed to render very general a know-
ledge of, and taste for plants, and a desire of gardens and green-houses, to possess these
plants in a living state. Maddocks's Florists' Directory, which appeared in 1792, re-
vived a taste for florists' flowers, which has since been on the increase.
379. The royal gardens at Kew were begun about the middle of this century,
under the auspices of Frederick, Prince of Wales, the father of George III. The exotic
department of that garden was established-thiefly through the influence of the Marquis
of Bute, a great encourager of botany and gardening, who placed it under the care of
W. Aiton, who had long been assistant to Miller, of the Chelsea garden. Sir John
Hill published the first Hortus Kewensis in 1768, but subsequent editions have been
published under the direction of Aiton, the father and son ; the last, in five volumes,
the joint production of Dr. Dryander and R. Brown, is reckoned a standard work. A
compendium in a pocket -volume has been published, which enumerates about 10,000
species. Sir Joseph Banks gave the immense collections of plants and seeds obtained in
his voyages to this garden, and this example has been followed by most travellers, so that
it is now the richest in England, as far as respects its catalogue, though it is generally
believed a greater, or at least, an equal number of species are actually cultivated in the
botanic garden of Liverpool.
380. The Cambridge botanic garden was founded about the middle of the eighteenth
century by Dr. Walker. It has chiefly become celebrated for the useful catalogue of
plants (Hortus Cantabrigiensis) published by Donn, its late curator. The garden is
small, and never at any one time could contain all the plants, to the number of 9000,
enumerated in that work. But if ever introduced there, that circumstance is supposed
to justify their insertion in the catalogue.
381. The nineteenth century has commenced with the most promising appearances
as to floriculture and botany. The Linhsean and Horticultural Societies of London
have been established ; and florists' societies are increasing ; and some other gardening
and botanical associations forming in the counties. The number of plant-collectors sent
out is greatly increased ; and not only do societies and public bodies go to this expense,
but even private persons and nursery-men. The botanic gardens of Liverpool and Hull
have been established, and others are in contemplation.
382. The Liverpool garden owes its origin to the celebrated W. Roscoe. It was begun
in 1803, and a catalogue published in 1808 by Shepherd, the curator, containing above
6000 species.
Subsect. 2. Gardening in Scotland, in respect to the Culture of Flowers and tfie
Establishment of Botanic Gardens.
383. A taste for florists' floivers, it is conjectured, was first introduced into Scotland
by the French weavers, who took refuge in that country in the seventeenth century, and
were established in a row of houses, called Picardy-row, in the suburbs of Edinburgh.
It seems to have spread with the apprentices of these men to Dunfermline, Glasgow,
Paisley, and other places ; for in Scotland, as in England, it may be remarked, that
wherever the silk, linen, or cotton manufactures, are carried on by manual labor, the
operators are found to possess a taste for, and to occupy part of their leisure time in the
culture of flowers.
384. The original botanic garden of Edinburgh took its rise about the year 1 6S0, from
the following circumstances: " Patrick Murray, Baron of Livingston, a pupil of Dr.,
afterwards Sir Andrew Balfour, in natural history, formed a collection of 1000 plants
at Livingston ; but soon afterwards dying abroad, Dr. Balfour had his collection trans-
Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 87
ferred to Edinburgh, and there uniting it with his own, founded the botanic garden.
It had no fixed support for some time ; but at length the city of Edinburgh allotted a
piece of ground near the College-church, for a public garden, and appointed a salary for
its support out of the revenues of the University." [Walker s Essays, 358.) In 1767,
the garden was removed to a more eligible situation, considerably enlarged, and a very
magnificent range of hot-houses erected under the direction of Dr. John Hope, who first
taught the Linnasan system in Scotland. This garden, in general arrangement, and in the
order in which it is kept, is inferior to none in the kingdom, though at Kew and Liver-
pool, the collection of plants is necessarily much greater. The collection in 1812,
amounted to upwards of 4000 species, among which are some rare acclimated exotic
trees, which have attained a great size. This garden was again removed, in 1822, to a
situation including sixteen acres, where it is established with extensive hot-houses, and
other desiderata, in a very superior style.
385. In the early part of the eighteenth century, this taste was introduced to the higher
classes by James Justice, F. R. S., who had travelled on the continent, and spared no
expense in procuring all the best sorts of florists' flowers from Holland, and many
curious plants from London. Such was his passion for gardening, that he spent the
greater part of his fortune at Crichton, near Edinburgh, where he had the finest garden,
and the only pine-stove in Scotland, and the largest collection of auricula?, as he informs
us, in Europe. In 1755, he published The Scots Gardener s Director, esteemed an ori-
ginal work, and containing full directions, from his own experience, for the culture of
choice flowers. About the end of this century, florists' societies which had existed
before, but declined with the decline of gardeners' lodges, were revived in Edinburgh ;
and there are now several in Glasgow, Paisley, and other parts of the country. Those
at Paisley are considered remarkable for the skill and intelligence of their members, and
the fine pinks and other flowers produced at their shows. [Gen. Rep. of Scot. App. to
chap. 2.) The Edinburgh Florists' Society gave rise to the Caledonian Horticultural
Society, which was established in 1 809, and has greatly promoted this and other branches
of gardening in Scotland.
386. In the middle of the eighteenth century, the Marquis of Bute had a rich botanic
garden in the island from which he takes his title. Towards the end, a sale botanic gar-
den was formed at Forfar, by Mr. George Donn, a well-known botanist ; and another at
Monkwood, in Ayrshire, by Mr. James Smith, which contains about 3500 species,
chiefly indigenous.. At Dalbeth, near Glasgow, T. Hopkirk, a wealthy commercialist,
also maintained a respectable assemblage of natives.
387. The nineteenth century will probably witness a great degree of progress in botany
rid floriculture in Scotland. Notwithstanding the example of Justice in 1750, and the
opening of the new botanic garden, with a tolerable collection in 1782, a taste for col-
lections of plants can hardly be said to have existed among the higher classes in Scotland,
previously to the present century. Flowers, either gathered, or in pots, were rarely pur-
chased by the inhabitants of the capital, and not at all by those of any of the provincial
towns. One, or at most, two green-houses might be said to have supplied all the wants
of Edinburgh, till within the last twenty years, and the demand, though increased, is
still of a very limited description among the middling classes. A very complete botanic
garden has been lately formed at Glasgow, and W. J. Hooker, F. R. S., a distinguished
botanist, appointed professor. A new stimulus to the introduction and culture of rare
plants will be given by a periodical work, commenced by Dr. Hooker, and devoted to
the description of such new plants as flower in Scotland ; for variety is useful in many
things. Such flowers and exotics as were cultivated in the gardens of country-gentlemen
were, till within the last thirty years, grown in die borders of the kitchen-garden, or in
the forcing-houses ; but it has now become customary to have flower-gardens and hot-
houses expressly for plants, as in England. (See Part IV. Book I. Chap. III.)
Subsect. 3. Gardening in Ireland, in respect to Floricidture and Botany.
388. Botany and flower-gardening have been much neglected in Ireland. Parterres, it
would appear, (,/. C. Walker s Hist.) came into notice during the reign of King William.
Dr. Caleb Thrilkeld was among the first of the few who formed private botanic gardens
for their own use, and Sir Arthur Rawdon almost the only individual who displayed
wealth and taste in collecting exotics. Upon visiting the splendid collection of Sir Hans
Sloane, at Chelsea, Sir Arthur, delighted with the exotics there, sent James Harlow, a
skilful gardener, to Jamaica, who returned with a ship almost laden with plants, in a
vegetating state. For these a hot-house was built at Moyra, in the beginning of Charles
the Second's reign, supposed to be the first erection of that kind in Ireland.
389. In 1712, a small collection of plants was cultivated in the garden of the Dublin
Medical College.
390. The botanic garden of Trinity College was established in 1786, and though small,
yet, as Neill observes, contains a richer and more varied collection than perhaps is to be
found any where else within the same compass. There is also a botanic garden at Cork.
Gi
38 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
391. The botanic garden of the Dublin Society was established In 1790, chiefly through
the exertions of Dr. Walker Wade. It contains upwards of thirty acres, delightfully
situated, and very ingeniously arranged.
392. There are a few private collections in Ireland ; and one of the best flower-gardens
is that of Lord Downes, at Merville, near Dublin ; but, in general, it may be stated, that
ornamental culture of every kind is in its infancy in that country. Something will pro-
bably be effected by the Dublin Horticultural Society, established in 1816.
Sect. III. British Gardening, in respect to its horticultural Productions
393. The hwivledge of culinary vegetables and adtivated fruits was first introduced to
this country by the Romans ; and it is highly probable that the more useful sorts of the
former, as the brassica, and onion tribe, always remained in use among the civilised parts
of the inhabitants, since kale and leeks are mentioned in some of the oldest records, and
the Saxon month April was called Sprout Kale.
394. The native fruits of the British isles, and which, till the 13th or 14th century, must
have been the only sorts known to the common people, are the following : small purple
plums, sloes, wild currants, brambles and raspberries, wood strawberries, cranberries,
black-berries, red-berries, heather-berries, elder-berries, roan-berries, haws, holly-berries,
hips, hazel-nuts, acorns, and beech-mast. The wild apple or crab, and wild cherry,
though now naturalised, would probably not be found wild, or be very rare in the early
times of which we now speak. The native roots and leaves would be earth-nut, and any
other roots not remarkably acrid and bitter ; and chenopodium, sorrel, dock, and such
leaves as are naturally rather succulent and mild in flavor.
395. The more delicate fruits and legumes, introduced by the Romans, would, in all
probability, be lost after their retirement from the island, and we may trace with more
certainty the origin of what we now possess to the ecclesiastical establishments of the
dark ages, and during the reign in England of the Norman line, and the Plantao-enets.
It may in general be asserted, that most of our best fruits, particularly apples and pears
were brought into the island by ecclesiastics in the days of monastic splendor and luxury,
during the 12th, 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. Gardens and orchards (horti et pomaria)
are frequently mentioned in the earliest chartularies extant ; and of the orchards many
traces still remain in different parts of the country, in the form, not only of enclosure-
walls and prepared fruit-tree borders, but of venerable pear-trees, some of them still
abundantly fruitful, and others in the last stage of decay. Of the state of horticulture
previous to the beginning of the 16th century, however, no distinct record exists. About
that time it began to be cultivated in England, and at more recent periods in Scotland
and Ireland.
Subsect. 1. Gardening in England, in respect to its horticidtural Productions.
396. The earliest notice of English horticulture which we have met with, is in Gale's
History of Ely, and William of Malmsbury, and belongs to the twelfth century. Brithnod,
the first abbot of Ely, in 1107, is celebrated for his skill in gardening, and for the ex-
cellent gardens and orchards which he made near that monastery. " He laid out very
extensive gardens and orchards, which he filled with a great variecy of herbs, shrubs, and
fruit-trees. In a few years the trees which he planted and ingrafted, appeared at a dis-
tance like a wood, loaded with the most excellent fruits in great abundance, and added
much to the commodiousness and beauty of the place." (Gale's Hist, of Ely, 2. c. ii.)
William of Malmsbury speaks of the abundance of vineyards and orchards in the vale of
Gloucester. At Edmondsbury, a vineyard was planted for the use of the monks of that
place, in 1140.
397. In the thirteenth century (A. D. 1294), the monks of Dunstable were at much ex-
pense in repairing the walls about the garden and herbary of their priory ; and the her-
bary mentioned in Chaucer's Nonne's Priest's Tale, appears to have been well stored with
medical herbs, shrubs, &c. Paris, in describing the backwardness of the seasons in
1257, says, that " apples were scarce, pears still scarcer; but that cherries, plums, figs,
and all kinds of fruits included in shells, were almost quite destroyed." (Henry's Hist.
b. iv. chap. 5. sect. 1.)
398. Previously to the sixteenth century, it is generally said, that some of our most com-
mon pot-herbs, such as cabbages, were chiefly imported from the Netherlands, their cul-
ture not being properly understood in this country. " It was not," says Hume, " till the
end of the reign of Henry VIII. that any salads, carrots, turnips, or other edible roots,
were produced in England. The little of these vegetables that was used, was formerly
imported from Holland and Flanders. Queen Catherine, when she wanted a salad, was
obliged to despatch a messenger thither on purpose." (Hist, of Eng. anno 1547.) Fuller,
in 1660, speaking of the gardens of Surrey, says, " Gardening was first brought into Eng-
land for profit about seventy years ago ; before which we fetched most of our cherries
from Holland, apples from France, and hardly had a mess of raeth-ripe peas, but from
Holland, wliich were dainties for ladies ; they came so far and cost so dear. Since gar-
Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES 89
dening hath crept out of Holland to Sandwich, Kent, and thence to Surrey, where
though they have given £6 an acre and upwards, they have made their rent, lived com-
fortable, and set many people to work." [Worthies, partiii. p. 77.)
399. During the reign of Henry VIII., rapid steps were made in horticulture. Ac-
cording to some authors, apricots, musk-melons, and Corinth grapes from Zante, were in-
troduced by that monarch's gardener ; and different kinds of salad, herbs, and esculent roots
were, about the same time first brought into the country from Flanders. Salads, how-
ever, according to Holingshed, are mentioned during Edward IV. 's reign. Henry had
a fine garden at his favorite palace of Nonsuch, in the parish of Cheam, in Surrey.
Here Kentish cherries were first cultivated in England. The garden wall was fourteen
feet high, and there were 212 fruit-trees. Leland, who wrote during this reign, informs
us [Itinerary, &c), that at Morle in Derbyshire, " there is as much pleasure of orchards
of great variety of fruit, as in any place of Lancashire. The castle of Thornbury, in
Gloucestershire, had an orchard of four acres, and there were others at Wresehill on
the Ouse."
400. Books on horticulture appeared towards the middle of the sixteenth century. The
first treatise of husbandry was a translation from the French, by Bishop Grosshead, in
1500. In 1521, appeared Arnold's Chronicles, in which is a chapter on " The crafte of
graffynge, and plantynge, and alterynge of fruits, as well in colours as in taste." The
first author who treats expressly on gardening is Tusser, whose Five Hundred Points of
good Husbandrie, $r. tvith divers approved Lessons on Hopps and Gardening, &c. was
first published in 1517.
Thomas Tusser, (Sir J. Banks in Hort. Trans, i. 150.) who had received a liberal education at Eton
school, and at Trinity- Hall, Cambridge, lived many years as a farmer in Suffolk and Norfolk ; he after-
wards removed to London, where he published the first edition of his work, and died in 1580. In his
fourth edition, in 1578, he first introduced the subject of gardening, and has given us not only a list of the
fruits, but also of all the plants then cultivated in our gardens, either for pleasure or profit, under the fol-
lowing heads : —
Seedes and heroes for the kychen, herbes and rootes for sallets and sawce, herbes and roots to boyle or to
butter, strewing herbs of all sorts, herbes, branches, and flowers for windowes and pots, herbs to still in
summer, necessarie herbs to grow in the gardens for physick, not reherst before. — This list consists of
more than 150 species.
Of fruits he enumerates, apple-trees of all sorts, apricoches, bar-berries, bollese black and white, cherries
red and black, chestnuts, cornet plums (probably the Cornelian cherry) ; damisens white and black,
filberts red and white, gooseberries, grapes white and red ; grene or grass-plums, hurtil-berries (vaccinium
vitis-idcea), medlers or merles, mulberries ; peaches white, red, and yellow fleshed (called also the orange-
peach) ; peres of all sorts, peer plums, black and yellow, quince trees ; raspes, reisons (probably currants),
small nuts ; strawberries red and white ; service trees, wardens white and red ; wallnuts, wheat plums.
Other fruits perhaps might have been added, as the fig ; that fruit having been introduced previous to
1534, by Cardinal Pole. The orange and pomegranate, which Evelyn, in 1700, says, had stood at Bedding,
ton 120 years ; and the melon, which, according to Lobel, was introduced before 1570, so that on the whole,
we had all the fundamental varieties of our present fruits in the middle of the sixteenth century. The pine-
apple is the only exception, which was not introduced till 1690.
401. The fertility of the soil of England was depreciated by some in Tusser's time,
probably from seeing the superior productions brought from Holland and France.
Dr. Boleyn, a contemporary, defends it, saying, " we had apples, pears, plums, cherries,
and hops of our own growth, before the importation of these articles into England by
the London and Kentish gardeners, but that the cultivation of them had been greatly
neglected. He refers as a proof of the natural fertility of the land to the great crop of
sea-pease (Pisum maritimum), which grew on the beach between Orford and Aldbo-
rough, and which saved the poor in the dearth of 1555. Oldys soon afterwards, speaking
of Gerrard's fine garden and alluding to the alleged depreciation of our soil and climate,
says " from whence it would appear, that our ground could produce other fruits besides
hips and haws, acorns and pig-nuts." At this time, observes Dr. Pulteney (Sketches,
&c. 118.), "kitchen garden wares were imported from Holland, and fruits from
France."
402. During the reign of Elizabeth, horticulture appears to have been in a state of
progress. Various works on this branch then appeared, by Didymus Mountain, Hyll,
Mascal, Scott, Googe, &c. ; these, for the most part, are translations from the Roman
and modern continental authors. Mascal is said to have introduced some good varieties
of the apple.
403. Charles I. seems to have patronised gardening. His kitchen-gardener was
Tradescant, a Dutchman, and he appointed the celebrated Parkinson his herbalist. In
1629, appeared the first edition of this man's great work, in folio, entitled, "Parodist
in sole Paradisus terrestris ; or, a Garden of all sortes of pleasant Flowers, with a Kitchen
Garden of all manner of Herbs and Roots, and an Orchard of all sort of Fruit-bearing
Trees, &c." This, as Neill observes (Ed. Encyc. art. Hort.), may be considered as the
first general book of English gardening possessing the character of originality. For the
culture of melons, he recommends an open hot-bed on a sloping bank, covering the
melons occasionally with straw, — the method practised in the north of France at this
day. Cauliflowers, celery, and finochio, were then great rarities. Virginia potatoes
(our common sort) were then rare ; but Canada potatoes (our Jerusalem artichoke) were
90 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
in common use. The variety of fruits described, or at least mentioned, appears very
great. Of apples there are 58 sorts; of pears, 64; plums, 61 ; peaches, 21 ; nectarines,
5 ; apricots, 6 ; cherries, no fewer than 36 ; grape-vines, 23 ; figs, 3 ; with quinces,
medlars, almonds, walnuts, filberds, and the common small fruits.
404. Cromwell was a great promoter of agriculture and the useful branches of gar-
dening, and his soldiers introduced all the best improvements wherever they went. He
gave a pension of 100/. a-year to Hartlib, a Lithuanian, who had studied husbandry in
Flanders, and published A Letter to Dr. Bead, concerning the Defects and Remedies
of English Husbandry, and the Legacy, both useful works. He was an author, says
Harte, who preferred the faulty sublime, to the faulty mediocrity. He recommended
the adoption in England of the two secrets of Flemish husbandry, that of letting farms
on improving leases, and cultivating green crops.
405. Charles II. being restored to the throne, introduced French gardening, and his
gardener, Rose, Daines Barrington informs us, " planted such famous dwarfs at Hamp-
ton Court, Carlton, and Marlborough gardens, that London, who was Rose's apprentice,
in his Retired Gardener, published 1667, challenges all Europe to produce the like."'
Waller, the poet, in allusion to the two last gardens, describes the mall of St. James's
park, as :
" All with a border of rich fruit-trees crown'd."
When Quintinye came to England to visit Evelyn, Charles II. offered him a pension to
stay and superintend the royal gardens here ; but this, says Switzer {Pref. to Ichnographia
rustica), he declined, and returned to serve his own master. Daines Barrington conjec-
tures that Charles II. had the first hot and ice houses ever built in this country, as at the
installation dinner given at Windsor, on the 23d of April, 1667, there were cherries,
strawberries, and ice-creams. These fruits, however, had been long, as Switzer states,
raised by dung-heat by the London gardeners, and the use of ices must have long before
been introduced from the continent.
406. Evelyn was a distinguished patron of horticulture. On returning from his
travels, in 1658 he published his French Gardener, and from that time to his death in
1706 continued one of the greatest promoters of our art. In 1664, he published his
Pomona, and Calendarium Hortense ; the latter, the first work of the kind which had
appeared in this country. In 1658, his translation of Quintinye's work on orange-trees,
and his Complete Gardener appeared; and his Acetaria, in 1669, was his last work on
this branch of gardening. Evelyn is universally allowed to have been one of the warmest
friends to improvements in gardening and planting that has ever appeared. He is
eulogised by Wotton, in his Reflections on Ancient and Modern Learning, as having
done more than all former ages, and by Switzer, in his historical preface to Ichnographia
rustica, as being the first that taught gardening to speak proper English. In his Memoirs
by Bray, are the following horticultural notices.
1661. Lady Brook's at Hackney ; " vines planted in strawberry borders, staked at ten feet distance. I
saw the famous queen-pine brought from Barbadoes, and presented to his majesty." Evelyn had seen one
four years before, and he afterwards saw the first king-pine presented at the Banquetting-tiouse, and tasted
of it. At Kensington Palace is a picture, in which Charles II. is receiving a pine-apple from his gardener,
Rose, who is presenting it on his knees.
1666. At Sir William Temple's at East Sheen, the most remarkable things " are his orangery and gar-
dens, where the wall fruit-trees are most exquisitely nailed and trained, far better than I have noted any
where else." Sir William has some judicious remarks on the soils and situations of gardens, in his Essay
written in 1668. He was long ambassador at the Hague, and had the honor, as he informs us, and as
Switzer confirms, of introducing some of our best peaches, apricots, cherries, and grapes.
1678. At Kew Garden, {Memoirs, vol. ii. p. 17.) " Sir Henry Capel has the choicest plantation of fruit in
England, as he is the most industrious and most understanding in it." Daines Barrington {Archaologia,
viii. 122.) considers Lord Capel to have been the first person of consequence in England, who was at much
expense in his gardens, having brought over with him many new fruits from France.
407. During the eighteenth century, the progress of horticulture, as of every other de-
partment of gardening was rapid. This will appear from the great number of excellent
authors who appeared during this period, as Millar, Lawrence, Bradley, Switzer, in the
first half; and Hitt, Abercrombie, Marshal, M'Phail, and others in the latter part of the
period. Switzer was an artist-gardener and a seedsman, and laid out many excellent
kitchen and fruit gardens, and built some hot-walls and forcing-houses.
408. Forcing-houses and pine-stoves appear to have been introduced in the early part
of the eighteenth century : but forcing by hot beds and dung placed behind walls of
boards were, according to Switzer ( Fruit Gardener) and Lord Bacon, in use for an un-
known length of time.
409. The pine-apple was first successfully cultivated by Sir Matthew Decker, at Rich-
mond, in 1719. Warner, of Rotherhithe, excelled in the culture of the vine, and raised
from seed the red, or Warner's Hamburgh, a variety which still continues to be much
esteemed.
410. In the last year of the seventeenth century, appeared a curious work, entitled,
Fruit-ioalls improved by inclining them, to the Horizon, by N. Facio de Doulier, F. R. S.
Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES.
91
This work incurred the censure of the practical authors of the day .; but founded on
correct mathematical principles, it attracted the attention of the learned, and of some
noblemen. Among the latter was the Duke of Rutland, and the failure of the trial of
one of these walls, led to the earliest example which we have been able to discover of forc-
ing grapes in England. Tin's, Lawrence and Switzer agree, was successfully accom-
plished at Belvoir Castle, in 1705. Switzer published the first plans of forcing-houses,
with directions for forcing generally, in his Fruit Gardener, in 1717.
411. The nineteenth century has commenced by extraordinary efforts in horticulture.
The culture of exotic fruits and forcing has been greatly extended, and while in the
middle of the eighteenth century scarcely a forcing-house was met with, excepting near
the metropolis ; there is now hardly a garden in the most remote county, or a citizen's
potagery, without one or more of them. The public markets, especially those of the
metropolis, are amply supplied with forced productions, and far better pines, grapes, and
melons are grown in Britain than in any other part of the world.
412. The London Horticultural Society, established in 1805, has made astonishing
exertions in procuring and disseminating fruits, culinary vegetables, and horticultural
knowledge, and has succeeded in rendering the subject popular among the higher classes,
and in stimulating to powerful exertion the commercial and serving gardeners. A Preat
and lasting benefit conferred on gardening by this society is the publicity and illustra-
tion which they have given by their transactions to the physiological discoveries of
Knight, who has unquestionably thrown more light on the nature of vegetation than
any other man, at least in this country.
Subsect. 2. Gardening in Scotland, in respect to its horticultural Productions.
413. The earliest Scottish horticulturists, Chalmers remarks, were the abbots; and their
orchards are still apparent to the eyes of antiquaries, while their gardens can now be
traced only in the chartularies. A number of examples of gardens and orchards are
mentioned in writings of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries : and even at this day, Mr.
Neill observes, " several excellent kinds of fruits, chiefly apples and pears, are to be
found existing in gardens, near old abbies and monasteries. That such fruits were
introduced by ecclesiastics cannot admit of a doubt. The Arbroath oslin, which seems
nearly allied to the burr knot apple of England, may be taken as an instance ; that apple
having been long known all round the abbey of Aberbrothwick, in Forfarshire ; and
tradition uniformly ascribing its introduction to the monks. — The great care bestowed
on the culture of fruits, and of some culinary herbs, by the clergy and nobility, could
not fail to excite, in some degree, the curiosity and the attention of the inhabitants in
general ; and it may, perhaps, be said that the first impulse has scarcely spent its force ;
for it is thus but comparatively a short time (four or five centuries) since the cultivation
of apples, pears, chenries, gooseberries, and currants, and many of the common kitchen-
vegetables, were introduced into this country." [On Scottish Gardens and Orchards in
Gen. Rep. of Scot. p. 3.)
414. About the beginning of the eighteenth century, the best garden in Scotland was
that of J. Justice, at Crichton, near Edinburgh. From the year 1760 to 1785, that of
Moredun claimed the priority. Moredun garden was managed by William Kyle, author
of a work on forcing peaches and vines ; ahd Dr. Duncan informs us, that the late Baron
Moncrieff, its proprietor, " used to boast, that from his own garden, within a few miles ©f
Edinburgh, he could, by the aid of glass, coals, and a good gardener, match any country
in Europe, in peaches, grapes, pines, and every other fine fruit, excepting apples and
pears ;" these he acknowledged were grown better in the open air in England, and the
north of France. (Discourse to Caled. Hort. Soc. 1814.) It is observed, in another of
Dr. Duncan's discourses to this society, Uiat in 1817, on the 10th of June, a bunch of
Hamburgh grapes was presented, weighing four pounds, the berries beautiful and large.
" In June, it is added, such grapes could not be obtained at any price, either in France,
Spain, or Italy." These facts are decisive proofs of the perfection to which horticulture
has attained in Scotland, in spite of many disadvantages of soil, climate, and pecuniary
circumstances.
415. The Scotch authors on this department of gardening are not numerous. The
first was Reid in the beginning, and the best, Justice, about the middle of the eighteenth
century. In the nineteenth century, Nicol's works appeared, and a variety of other writers
in the memoirs of the Caledonian Horticultural Society.
416. The nineteenth century promises greatly to increase the reputation of Scotland
for gardeners and gardening, not only from the general improvement in consequence of
the increase of wealth and refinement among the employers and patrons of the art ; but
from the stimulus of the Caledonian Horticultural Society, which, by well devised com-
petitory exhibitions and premiums, has excited a most laudable emulation among
practical gardeners of every class.
92 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
Subsect. 3. Gardening in Ireland, in respect to its horticultural Productions.
417. As far as respects hardy fruits and culinary vegetables, the gardens of the prin-
cipal proprietors in Ireland may be considered as approaching to those of Scotland or Eng-
land, as they are generally managed by gardeners of these countries ; but, in respect to
exotic productions, Irish gardens are far behind those of the sister kingdoms. Indeed, it
is only within the last fifteen years that it has become the practice to build hot-houses of
any description in that country ; and the number of these is still very limited. The first
forcing-house was erected in the Blessington gardens. The gardens of the minor nobi-
lity and gentry of Ireland are poor in horticultural productions ; many content them-
selves with cabbages and potatoes, and perhaps a few pears, onions, and apples.
Sect. IV. British Gardening, in respect to tlie planting of Timber-trees and Hedges.
418. The British Isles were well stocked with timber when comparatively unpeopled with
men. As population increased, culture extended itself, and forests were encroached on or
eradicated, to make room for the plough or the scythe. History, as far as it goes, bears
witness to this state of things in England, Scotland, and Ireland.
Subsect. 1. Gardening in England, in respect to the ]>lanting of Timber-trees and
Hedges.
419. The n'oods of England were so numerous and extensive when Domesday-book
was compiled, as to be valued, not by the quantity of timber, but by the number of
swine which the acorns and mast could maintain. Four hundred years after this, in the
time of Edward IV., an eminent writer says, that England was then a well timbered
country.
420. Till the begbining of the seventeenth century, the subject of planting for timber and
fuel, seems not to have attracted much attention as an important part of the rural eco-
nomy of England. Sir John Norden, in his Surveyor s Dialogue, published in 1607,
notices the subject; as had been done before by Benose, in 1538, and Fitzherbert, in 1539.
In 1612 was published, Of planting and preserving of Timber and Fuel, an old Thrift
newly revived, by R. C. ; and in the following year, Directions for planting of Timber
and Fire Wood, by Arthur Standish. Planting for timber and copse is noticed in
Googe's Husbandry, published in 1614, and is the express subject of Manwood's Treatise
on Forests, and their Original and Beginning, published in 1615 ; and of Rathbone's Sur-
veyor, in 1616. It is singular that so many books on this subject should have been pub-
lished so near together at so early a period. The reason seems to be, as professor 3Iar-
tyn has observed, that a material attack was made on the forest-trees in the 27th year of
the reign of Henry VIIL, when that monarch seized on the church-lands ; and from
this time the consumption of oak-timber was continually increasing, not only in conse-
quence of the extension of commerce, and of great additions to the royal navy, but be-
cause it was made more use of in building houses. This alarmed both government and
individuals. Holinshead, who lived in the reign of Elizabeth, says, that in times past
men were contented to live in houses built of sallow, willow, &c. ; so that the use of oak
was, in a manner, dedicated wholly unto churches, religious houses, princes' palaces,
navigation, &c. ; but now nothing but oak is any where regarded.
In the reign of James /., it appears that there was great store of timber, more than proportioned to the
demand. 1 or on a survey of the royal forests, &c. in 1608, we find that a great part of what was then in-
tended to be sold, remained a considerable time undisposed of.
During the civil war, in the time of Charles I., and all the time of the interregnum, the royal forests, as
well as the woods of the nobility and gentry, suffered so much, that many extensive forests had, in a few
years, hardly any memorial left of their existence but their names. Thisloss would not have operated so
severely, had the principal nobility and gentry been as solicitous to plant with judgment, as tc cut down
their woods.
The publication of Evelyn's Sylva, in 1664, raised a great spirit of planting, and created a new asra in this
as in other branches of gardening. In his dedication to Charles II., in 1678, he observes, that he need not
acquaint the king how many millions of timber-trees have been planted in his dominions, at the instiga-
tion, and by the sole direction of that work. The government at that time, alarmed by the devastation
which had been committed during the civil war, gave great attention to the increase arid preservation of
timber in the royal forests.
421. Tree-nurseries were established during the seventeenth century. Young trees, the
early authors inform us, were procured from the natural forests and copses, where they
were self-sown ; but about the beginning of the seventeenth century, public nursery-
gardens were formed, originally for fruit-trees ; but towards the end, nurserymen, as we
learn from Switzer and Cooke, began to raise forest-trees and hedge-plants from seeds.
The first nursery we hear of was that of Corbett, at Twickenham, mentioned by Ben
Jonson, and the next of consequence that of London and Wise, at Brompton Park,
already mentioned, and still continued as a nursery.
422. During the eighteenth century, especially in the latter part, planting proceeded
rapidly. The Society of Arts, &c. established in 1753, have greatly contributed, by
their honorary and pecuniary rewards, to restore the spirit for planting. The republi-
cation of Evelyn's Sylva, in a splendid manner, by Dr. Hunter, and subsequently of
Book L GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 93
different works by Kennedy, Young, the Bishop of Llandaff, Marshall, Pontey, and
others, has doubtless contributed to that desirable end ; and the result is, that many
thousand acres of waste lands have been planted with timber-trees, independently of
demesne-plantations, and such as have been made for shelter or effect.
423. The nineteenth century has commenced with a much more scientific mode of
planting and managing trees than formerly existed. Excellent modes of pruning have
been pointed out and practised by Pontey, which will render future plantations much
more valuable than where this operation and thinning have been so generally neglected
as hitherto.
424. At what time hedges were introduced into England is xincertain. They would proba-
bly be first exhibited in the gardens of the Roman governors, and afterwards re-appear in
those of the monks. From these examples, from the Roman authors on husbandry, or more
probably from the suggestion of travellers who had seen them abroad, they would be in-
troduced in rural economy. Marshal conjectures, that clearing out patches in the woods
for aration, and leaving strips of bushes between them, may have given the first idea of
a hedge, and this supposition is rendered more plausible, from the circumstance of some of
the oldest hedges occupying so much space, and consisting of a variety of plants. However
originated, they did not come into general use in laying out farms till after the Flemish
husbandry was introduced in Norfolk about the end of the seventeenth century. (Kent**
Hints, &c.) So rapidly have they increased since that period, that at the end of the
eighteenth century they had entirely changed the face of the country. In the time of
George I. almost every tract of country in England might have been said to consist
of four distinct parts or kinds of scenery : 1. The houses of the proprietors, and their
parks and gardens, and the adjoining village, containing their farmers and labourers ;
2. The common field or inteicommonable lands in aration ; 3. The common pasture,
or waste untouched by the plough; and, 4, The scattered or circumscribing forest
containing a mass of timber or copse. But at present these fundamental features are
mixed and variously grouped, and the general face of the country presents one continual
scene of garden-like woodiness, interspersed with buildings and cultivated fields, un-
equalled in the world.
The oldest enclosures in England are in Kent and Essex, and seem to have been formed of hawthorn
sloe, crab, hazel, dogwood, &c. taken from the copses, and planted promiscuously ; but now almost all
field or fence-hedges are formed of single or double rows of hawthorn, with or without trees, planted
at regular distances to shoot up for timber.
Subsect. 2. Gardening in Scotland, in respect to the planting of Timber-trees and
Hedges.
425. Scotland in ancient times was clothed with extensive tracts of wood. (Graham,
in Gen. Rep. of Scot. vol. ii.) By various operations carried on by the hand of Nature
and of man, this clothing has been in a great measure destroyed. The attempts to re-
store it by planting timber, however, appear to be of recent origin. Dr. Walker seems to
be of opinfon, that the elder (Sa7nbucus 7iigra) was the first barren tree planted in Scotland ;
and that the plane or sycamore was the next. The wood of the former was in much re-
quest for making arrows. " A few chestnuts and beeches," he adds, " were first planted
in gardens, not long before the middle of the seventeenth century, some of which have
remained to our times." Notwithstanding this high authority, however, there seems to be
good reason to conclude, that some trees which still exist were planted before the Re-
formation ; they appear to have been introduced by the monks, being found for the most
part in ecclesiastical establishments. Such are the Spanish chestnuts, the most of which
are still in a thriving condition in the island of Inchmahoma, in the lake of Monteith, in
Perthshire, where there was a priory built by David I. Some of these chestnut-trees
measure within a few inches of eighteen feet in circumference, at six feet from the ground.
They are probably three hundred years old, or upwards. There are planted oaks at
Buchanan , which are apparently of the same age.
426. The father of planting in Scotland, according to Dr. Walker, was Thomas, Earl
of Haddington, having begun to plant Binning-wood, which is now of great extent and
value, in 1705. But it is stated on an authority almost approaching to certainty, that
the fine timber in the lawn at Callender House, in Stirlingshire, was planted by the Earl
of Linlithgow and Callender, who had accompanied Charles II. in his exile, upon his
return from the continent after the Restoration. This timber is remarkable, not only
for its size, but for its quantity. Planting for timber became very general in Scotland
between the years 1730 and 1760, by the exertions and example of Archibald, Duke of
Argyle, the Duke of Athol, the Earls of Bute, Loudon, Hyndford, and Panmure, Sir
James Nasmyth, Sir Archibald Grant, Fletcher of Saltoun, and others. It is well ascer-
tained that Sir Archibald Grant began to plant in 1719.
427. A great stimulus to planting in Scotland was given by the Essays of Dr. Anderson,
published in 1784, in which the value of the larch-tree and the progress it had made
at Dunkeld, since planted there in 1741. were pointed out. The examples and
94 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
writings of Lord Kames also contributed to bring this, and every description of rural
improvement into repute ; but the high price of timber during the war produced the
most sensible effect as to planting.
428. The two Jirst tree-nurseries in Scotland were established at Edinburgh, about the
beginning of the eighteenth century, by Malcolm, at the Water Gate, and Gordon, at
the Fountain Bridge. To these succeeded a considerable one by Anderson and
Leslie, about 1770. Leslie contributed to render the larch popular, and was the first
nurseryman who ventured to erect a greenhouse. Since this period, tree-nurseries are
nearly as common in Scotland as in England.
429. Hedges ivere introduced to Scotland by some officers in Cromwell's army about
the middle of the seventeenth century. The first were planted at Inch Buckling Brae,
in East Lothian, and at the head of Loch Tay, in Perthshire. The former hedge was
in existence in 1804, and then consisted of a single row of old hawthorns. They are
now general in all the low and tolerably fertile and sheltered parts of the country ;
contributing with the plantations to ameliorate the climate, and greatly to improve the
scenery.
Subsect. 3. Gardening in Ireland, in respect to the planting of Timber-trees and
Hedges.
430. Trees appear to have covered Ireland in former times. " Though in every part
of Ireland, in which I have been," observes A. Young, in 1777, (Tour, vol. ii. 2d edit.)
" one hundred contiguous acres are not to be found without evident signs that they
were once wood, at least very well wooded; yet now the greatest part of the kingdom
exhibits a naked, bleak, dreary view, for want of wood, which has been destroyed for a
century past with the most careless prodigality, and still continues to be cut and wasted.
The woods yet remaining are what in England would be called copses. The gentlemen
in that country are much too apt to think they have got timber, when in fact they have
got nothing but fine large copse-wood." Shaw Mason, in a Statistical Survey of
Ireland, lately published, says there were natural woods in some places in James II.'s
time ; but he produces very few instances, of artificial plantations of full growth, and
none of older date than the middle of the seventeenth century, when it appears, that
through the instigation of Blythe and other officers in Cromwell's army, some gentlemen
began to plant and improve. The late Lord Chief Baron Foster was the greatest
planter when A. Young visited Ireland, and his lordship informed the tourist that
the great spirit for this sort of improvement began about 1749 and 1750.
431. Hedges, as fences, were probably, as in Scotland, introduced by the officers of
Cromwell's army.
Sect. V. British Gardening, as empirically practised.
432. The use of gardens, is perhaps more general in England and Scotland than in
any other country, if we except Holland. The laborious journeyman-mechanic, whose
residence, in large cities, is often in the air, rather than on the earth, decorates his garret-
window with a garden of pots. The debtor deprived of personal liberty, and the pauper
in the work-house, divested of all property in external tilings, and without any fixed
object on which to place their affections, sometimes resort to this symbol of territorial
appropriation and enjoyment. So natural it is for all to fancy they have an inherent
right in the soil ; and so necessary to happiness to exercise the affections, by having some
object on which to place them.
433. Almost every cottage in England has its appendant garden, larger or smaller, and
slovenly or neatly managed, according to circumstances. In the best districts of
England, the principal oleraceous vegetables, some salads, herbs, flowers, and fruits are
cultivated ; and in the remote parts of Scotland, at least potatoes and borecoles are
planted. Tradesmen and operative manufacturers, who have a permanent interest in
their cottages, have generally the best cottage-gardens ; and many of them, especially at
Norwich, Manchester, and Paisley, excel in the culture of florists' flowers.
434. The gardens of farmers are larger, but seldom better managed than those of the
common cottagers, and not often so well as those of the operatiye manufacturers in
England. They are best managed in Kent and in East Lothian.
435. The gardens and grounds of citizens, who have country-houses, may be, in size,
from an eighth of an acre to a hundred acres or upwards. Such a latitude, it may
easily be conceived, admits of great variety of kitchen-gardens, hot-houses, flower-gar-
dens, and pleasure-grounds. They are, in general, the best managed gardens in Britain,
and constitute the principal scenery, and the greatest ornament of the neighbourhood
of every large town. Those round the Metropolis, Liverpool, and Edinburgh are
pre-eminent.
436. The gardens of independent gentlemen of middling fortune vary considerably in
dimension. Few of the kitchen-gardens are under an acre, the flower-garden may
contain a fourth or a third of an acre, and the pleasure-ground from three to ten or
Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 95
twelve acres. The lawn or park varies from thirty or forty to three or four hundred
acres. The whole is in general respectably kept up, though there are many exceptions
arising from want of taste, of income, or engagements in other pursuits on the part of
the proprietor ; or restricted means, slovenliness, and want of taste and skill in the
head gardener. These gardens abound in every part of every district of Britain, in
proportion to the agricultural population.
437. The Jtrst-rate gardens of Britain belong chiefly to the extensive land-holders ; but
in part also to wealthy commercial men. The kitchen-gardens of this class may
include from three to twelve acres, the flower-garden from two to ten acres, the pleasure-
ground from twenty to one hundred acres, and the park from rive hundred to five
thousand acres. Excepting in the cases of minority, absence of the family, or pecu-
niary embarrassments, these gardens are kept up in good style. They are managed
by intelligent head gardeners, with assistants for the different departments, and appren-
tices and journeymen as operatives. A few of such residences are to be found in
almost every county of England, in most of those in Scotland, and occasionally in
Ireland.
438. The royal gardens of England cannot be greatly commended ; they are in no
respect adequate to the dignity of the kingly office. That at Kew has been already
mentioned as containing a good collection of plants ; but neither this nor any of the
other royal gardens are at all kept in order as they ought to be, not on account of want
of skill in the royal gardeners, but for want of support from their employers.
439. Gardens for public recreation are not very common in Britain ; but of late a con-
siderable specimen has been formed at London in the Regent's Park, an extensive
equestrian promenade, and one at Edinburgh on the Calton Hill, of singular
variety of prospect. There are also squares and other walks, and equestrian promenades,
in the metropolis, and other large towns ; but in respect to this class of gardens, they
are much less in use in Britain than on the continent, for Britons are comparatively
domestic and solitary animals.
440. Of gardens for public instruction, there are botanic gardens attached to the princi-
pal universities and experimental gardens belonging to the London and Edinburgh hor-
ticultural societies.
441. Commercial gardens are very numerous in Britain, arising from the number,
magnitude, and wealth of her cities being much greater in proportion to the territorial
extent of the country than in any other kingdom. In general, they have been origi-
nated by head gardeners, who have given up private servitude.
442. Market-gardens and orchards are numerous, especially round the metropolis, and
their productions are unequalled, or at least not surpassed by any gardens in the
world, public or private. Forcing is carried on extensively in these gardens, and the
pine cultivated in abundance, and to great perfection. Their produce is daily exposed
in different markets and shops ; so that every citizen of London may, throughout the
year, purchase the same luxuries as the king or as the most wealthy proprietors have
furnished from their own gardens, and obtain for a few shillings what the wealth of
Croesus could not procure in any other country ! a striking proof of what commerce will
effect for the industrious. Some gardens are devoted to the raising of garden-seeds for
the seed-merchants, and others, to the growing of herbs and flowers for the chemist or
distiller.
443. There are florists' gardens, where plants are forced so as to furnish roses and
other flowers of summer in mid-winter. The tradesman's wife may thus at pleasure
procure a drawing-room garden equal to that of her sovereign, and superior to that of
all the kings and nobles on the rest of the globe.
444. Of nursery-gardeyis for stocking and forming new gardens and plantations, and
repairing or increasing the stock of old ones, there are a number in which a very con-
siderable capital is embarked. These have greatly increased with the increasing spirit
for planting, and other branches of gardening. The principal are near the metropolis ;
but they arc to be found in most districts, originated in almost eyery case by head gar-
deners, whose capital consists of the savings made during their servitude.
445. The operative part of gardening is carried on by labourers, apprentices, journey-
men, and masters.
The labourers are women for weeding, gathering some descriptions of crops, and other light works : and
men for assisting in the heavier operations in extraordinary seasons. The permanent sub-operatives are
the apprentices and journeymen ; the former are indentured generally for three years, at the expiration
of which they become journeymen, and alter a few years' practice in that capacity, in different gardens,
they are considered qualified for being masters, or taking the charge of villa, private, or first-rate gardens
according to their capacity, education, and assiduity, and the class of gardens in which they have studied
and practised. Formerly there were lodges, or societies of gardeners, and a sort of mystic institution and
pass-word kept up, like those of the German gardeners and masons ; but within the last fifty years this has
been in most places given up. The use of books, and the general progress of society, render such institu-
tions useless in point of knowledge and hospitality, and injurious politically, or in respect to the market-
value of labor. {Preston's History of Masonry.)
96 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
The head gardeners of this country are universally allowed to be the most intelligent and trust-worthy
part of the operatives of any branch of rural economy, and the most faithful and ingenious of those who
constitute the serving establishment of a country-residence. Those of Scotland are by many preferred,
chiefly, perhaps, from their having been better educated in their youth, and more accustomed to frugality
and labor. Scotland, Neill observes, " has long been famous for producing professional gardeners ; per-
haps more so than any other country, unless we except Holland, about a century ago. At present, not
only Great Britain, but Poland and Russia are supplied from Scotland ; and the numbers of an inferior
class to be found in every part of England and Ireland, is quite astonishing." (Gen. Rep. &c. chap, ii.) Lord
Gardenstone ( Travelling Memorandum, 1790) says, that in every country in Europe, he found gardeners
more sober, industrious, and intelligent than other men of a like condition in Society.
446. The use of gardens in Ireland is of a very limited description, and the gardens
there, of all the classes, are greatly inferior to the corresponding classes in Britain. A
few exceptions may be made in favor of the Dublin botanic gardens, and those of one or
two wealthy citizens and extensive proprietors ; but the cottage-gardens, in many districts,
contain nothing besides potatoes ; and potatoes are the chief ingredients in the gardens
of private gentlemen. Parnel, Wakefield, and Curwen, have ably shown that till wheaten
bread and meat take place of these roots, no great improvement can be expected among
the lower classes of Ireland.
447. The artists or architects of gardens, in Britain, are of three classes. First, head
gardeners who have laid out the whole, or part of a residence, under some professor, and
who commence artist or ground workmen, as this class is generally denominated, as a
source of independence. Such was Hitt, Brown, &c. Secondly, architects who have
devoted themselves chiefly to country-buildings, and thus acquiring some knowledge of
country -matters, and the effects of scenery, combine with building, the laying out of
grounds, depending for the execution of their ideas on the practical knowledge of the
gardener, pro tempore. This class are commonly called ground-architects. Such was
Kent. Thirdly, artists who have been educated and apprenticed, or otherwise brought
up entirely, or chiefly for that profession. These are often called landscape-gardeners,
but the term is obviously of too limited application, as it refers only to one branch of the
art. Such was Bridgeman, Eames, &c.
Sect. VI. British Gardening, as a Science, and as to the Authors it has produced.
448. Those superstitious observances attendant on a rude state of society, retained their
ground in British gardening till the end of the seventeenth century. Meager, Mascal,
Worlidge, and the authors who preceded them, regulate the performance of horticultural
operations by the age of the moon. Turnips or onions, according to these authors, sown
when the moon is full, will not bulb but send up flower -stalks ; and fruit-trees, planted
or grafted at that season, will have their period of bearing greatly retarded. A weak tree
is to be pruned in the increase, and a strong tree in the wane of the moon. Quintinye
seems to have been the first to oppose this doctrine in France, and through Evelyn's
translation of his Complete Gardener, he seems to have overturned it also in England.
" I solemnly declare," he says, " that after a diligent observation of the moon's changes
for thirty years together, and an enquiry whether they had any influence in gardening,
the affirmative of which has been so long established among us, I perceived that it was
no weightier than old wives' tales, and that it had been advanced by unexperienced gar-
deners. I have, therefore, followed what appeared most reasonable, and rejected what
was otherwise ; in short, graft in what time of the moon you please, if your graft be good,
and grafted on a proper stock, provided you do it like an artist, you will be sure to suc-
ceed. In the same manner sow what sorts of grain you please, and plant as you please,
in any quarter of the moon, I'll answer for your success, the first and last day of the
moon being equally favorable."
Quintinye not onlv removed ancient prejudices, but introduced more rational principles of pruning than
had before been offered. Switzer says, he first made it known that a transplanted tree could not grow till
it made fresh fibres, and that therefore the old ones, when dried up, might be cut off
449. The influence of Bacon's writings produced the decline and fall of astrology, in
the beginning of the eighteenth century. A different mode of studying the sciences was
adopted. Vegetable physiology and chemistry, the first a new science, and the latter
degraded under the name of alchemy, began to be studied, and the influence of this
dawn of intellectual day was felt even in agriculture and gardening.
450. The practice of forcing fruits and flowers, which became general about the middle
of the century, led gardeners to reflect on the science of their art, by bringing more
effectually into notice the specific influence of light, heat, air, water, and other agents of
vegetation. The elementary botanical works published about the same time, by dif-
fusing the doctrines of Linnaeus, co-operated ; as did the various horticultural writers of
this century, especially Miller, Bradley, and Hill, and subsequently Home, Anderson,
and others.
451. The increasing culture of exotics, Doctor Pulteney observes, "from the begin-
ning of the eighteenth century, and the greater diffusion of taste for the elegancies and
luxuries of the stove and green-house, naturally tended to raise up a spirit of improve-
Book L GARDENING IN ULTRA-EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. 97
ment and real science in the art of culture. To preserve far-fetched varieties, it became
necessary to serutinise into the true principles of the art, which ultimately must depend
on the knowledge of the climate of such plant, and the soil in which it nourishes in that
climate. Under the influence of such men as Sloane, the Sherrards, and other great en-
couragers of science, gardeners acquired botanical knowledge, and were excited to
greater exertion in their art."
452. The increased zeal for planting, and more careful attendance to the pruning of
trees, tended to throw light on the subject of vegetable wounds, and their analogy widi
those of animals, as to the modes of healing, though the French laugh at our ignorance
on this subject (Cours d'Agr. art. Plaie,) at the close of the eighteenth century.
453. But the science of horticulture received its greatest improvement from Kjiight,
the enlightened president of the Horticultural Society. The first of this philosopher's
writings will be found in the Philosophical Transactions for 1795, entitled Observations on
the Grafting of Trees. In the same Transactions for 1801 and 1803, are contained his
ingenious papers on the fecundation of fruits, and on the sap of trees. Subsequent
volumes contain other important papers ; and a great number in which science and art
are combined, in a manner tending directly to enlighten and instruct the practical gar-
dener, will be found in the Transactions of the Horticultural Society. Through the
influence of this author and that society, over which he is so worthy to preside, we see
commenced an important aera in the horticulture of this country, an aera rendered pecu-
liarly valuable, as transferring the discoveries of science immediately to art, and rendering
them available by practitioners. How great may be its influence, on the comforts and
luxuries of the table, it is impossible to foresee. The introduction and distribution of
better sorts of the common hardy fruits and culinary plants, will tend immediately to the
benefit of the humbler classes of society ; and by increasing a little the size, and encou-
raging the culture, both ornamental and useful, of cottage-gardens, the attachment of
this class to their homes, and consequently their interest in the country, will be increased.
Even agriculture will derive advantages, of which, as an example, may be adduced the
result of pinching off the blossoms of the potatoe, which, by leaving more nourishment for
the root, will increase the produce (according to Knight's estimate) at least one ton per
acre. (Hort. Tr.'i. 190. Treatise on the Apple and Pear.)
454. Gardening, as an art of design and taste, may be said to have been conducted
mechanically, and copied from precedents, like civil architecture, till the middle of the
eighteenth century ; but at this time the writings of Addison, Pope, Shenstone, and
G. Mason appeared ; and in these, and especially in the Observations on Modern Gar-
dening, by Wheatley, are laid down unalterable principles for the imitation of nature in
the arrangement of gardening scenery. The science of this department of the art may
therefore be considered as completely ascertained ; but it will probably be long before it
be appropriated by gardeners, and applied in the exercise of the art as a trade. A some-
what better education in youth, and more leisure for reading in the periods usually de-
voted to constant bodily labor, will effect this change ; and its influence on the beauty of
the scenery of country-residences, and on the face of the country at large, would be such
as cannot be contemplated without a feeling of enthusiastic admiration. If this taste were
once duly valued and paid for by those whose wealth enables them to employ first-rate
gardeners, it would soon be produced. But the taste of our nobility does not, in gene-
ral, take this turn, otherwise many of them would display a very different style of scenery
around their mansions.
455. Britain has produced more original authors on gardening than any other country.
It may be sufficient here to mention, in the horticultural department, Justice, Miller,
and Abercrombie. In ornamental gardening, Parkinson and Madocks ; in planting,
Evelyn and Nicol ; and in landscape-gardening, G. Mason and Wheatley.
Chap. V.
Of the present State of Gardening in Ultra- European Countries.
456. The gardens of the old continents are either original, or borrowed from modern
Europe. With the exception of China, the gardens of every other country in Asia,
Africa, and America, may be comprised under two heads. The aboriginal gardens
displaying little design or culture, excepting in the gardens of rulers or chiefs ; and
the gardens of European settlers displaying something of the design and culture of their
respective countries. Thus the gardening of the interior of Asia, like the manners of
the inhabitants, is the same, or nearly the same, now, that it was 3000 years ago ; that of
North America is British ; and that of almost all the commercial cities in the world, ex-
H
9S
HISTORY OF GARDENING.
Part I.
cepting those of China, is European, and generally either Dutch, French, or English.
We shall notice slightly, 1st, The aboriginal gardening of modern Persia and India; 2d,
Of China ; 3d, The state of gardening in North America ; and 4th, In the British
colonies and other settlements abroad.
Sect. I. Syrian, Persian, Indian, and African Gardens of modern Times.
457. Tlie outlines of a Jewish garden, nearly 3000 years ago, coincide with the gardens
formed in the same countries at the present day. Maundrel in the fourteenth century,
Russel in the seventeenth, Chardin in the eighteenth, and Morier in the nineteenth cen-
turies, enumerate the same trees and plants mentioned by Moses, Diodorus, and Hero-
dotus, without any additions. The same elevation of site for the palace {fig. 33.); the same
terraces in front of it; and the same walls and towers surrounding the whole for security,
still prevail as in the time of Solomon and his successors. Maundrel describes the gar-
den of the Emir Facardine, at Beroot, as a large quadrangular spot of ground divided
into sixteen lesser squares, four in a row, with walks between them, and planted with
citron-trees. Each of the lesser squares was bordered with stone, and in the stone-work
were troughs, very artificially contrived for conveying the water all over the garden,
there being little outlets cut at every tree, for the stream as it passed by to flow out and
water it. On the east side were two terrace-walks, rising one above the other, each
having an ascent to it of twelve steps. At the north end they led into booths and
summer-houses, and other apartments very delightful. {Travels from Aleppo to Jeru-
salem, p. 40.)
458. The gardens of Damascus are described by Egmont and' Heyman as perfect
paradises, being watered with copious streams from Lebanon ; and in the Account of the
Ruins of Balbeck, the streams are said to be derived from Lebanus and Anti-Lebanus,
and the shades of the palms and elms are described as exquisite in that burning climate.
The time of the singing of birds is mentioned in Solomons Song as a season of great
pleasure, and then as now, they no doubt constituted a material article in fine gardens.
Russel observes, that " in Syria there are abundance of nightingales, which not only
afford much pleasure by their songs in the gardens, but are also kept tame in the houses,
and let out at a small rate to divert such as choose it in the spring, so that no entertain-
ments are made in this season without a concert of these birds. " {Natural Hist, of Aleppo,
P-710
459. The gardens of the Persians, observes Sir John Chardin, in 1732, " consist
commonly of a grand alley or straight avenue in the centre planted with planes (the
zinzar, or chenar of the east), which divides the garden into two parts. There is a
basin of water in the middle, proportionate to the garden, and two other lesser ones on
the two sides. The space between them is sown with a mixture of flowers in natural
confusion, and planted with fruit-trees and roses, and this is the whole of the plan and
execution. They know nothing of parterres and cabinets of verdure, labyrinths, ter-
races, and such other ornaments of our gardens. The reason of which is, that the
Persians do not walk in their gardens as we do, but content themselves with having
the view of them, and breathing the fresh air. For this purpose they seat themselves
in some part of the garden as soon as they come into it, and remain there till they go
out." According to the same author, the most eastern part of Persia, Hyrcania, is one
entire and continued parterre from September to the end of April. " All the country
is covered with flowers, and this is also the best season for fruits, since in the other
months they cannot support the heat and unhealthy state' of the air. Towards Media
and the northern frontiers of Arabia, the fields produce of themselves tulips, anemones,
single ranunculuses of the most beautiful red, and crown imperials. In other places, as
around Ispahan, jonquils are wild and flower all the winter. In the season of narcissus,
Book I.
GARDENING IN SYRIA, PERSIA, &c
99
seven or eight sorts spring up among lilies (Lilium), lily of the valley, violets of all
colors, gilly-flowers, and jessamines, all of an odor and beauty far surpassing those
of Europe. But nothing can be more beautiful than the peach-trees, so completely
covered with flowers as to obstruct the view through their branches." Morier mentions
the garden of Azar Gerib, in Ispahan, as extending a mile in length, and being formed
on a declivity divided into twelve terraces, supported by walls, each terrace divided into
a great number of squares. This garden is devoted to the culture of the most esteemed
Persian fruits. The neighbourhood of Bushire was formerly famous for its gardens ;
but Morier informs us, " that in the whole territory of Bushire at this day, there are only
a few cotton-bushes (Acacia Julibrissin) ; here and there date-trees ; now and then a
konar-tree (a palm), with water-melons, beringauts (gourds), and cucumbers." These
date-trees, the towers, and the presence of camel-drivers, gave this town, when Morier
saw it, a truly Persian appearance. (Fig. 32.)
460. The gardens of Kerim Klian are thus described by Morier : " An immense wall
of the neatest construction encloses a square tract of land, which h laid out into walks
shaded by cypress and chenar (Platanus), and watered by a variety of marble canals,
and small artificial cascades. Over the entrance, which is a lofty and arched passage, is
built a pleasure-house. In the centre of the garden is another of the principal pleasure-
houses. There is a basin in the middle of the principal room, where a fountain plays
and refreshes the air, &c. The whole soil of this garden is artificial, having been exca-
vated from the area below, and raised into a high terrace. The garden is now falling
into decay ; but those who saw it in the reign of Kerim Khan, delight to describe its
splendor, and do not cease to give the most ravishing pictures of the beauty of all* the
environs of his capital." (Journey to Persia, 1812, p. 206. Johnson's Journey from
India, 1817, chap. v. )
461. The gardens of the chiefs of India, now or lately existing, are of the same general
character as those of Persia. " In the gardens belonging to the Mahomedan princes,
which in some parts of India were made at a very great expense, a separate piece of
ground was usually allotted for each kind of plant, the whole being divided into square
plots, separated by walks. Thus one plot was filled with rose-trees, another with pome-
granates, &c. The gardens of this sort, most celebrated in India, were those of Ben-
galore and Delhi. The former, belonging to Tippoo, were made by him and his father,
Hyder Ali. As Bengalore is very much elevated above the sea, it enjoys a temperate
climate ; and in the royal gardens there were seen not only the trees of the country, but
also the cypress, vine, apple, pear, and peach ; both the latter produced fruit. Straw-
berries were likewise raised, and oaks and pine-trees, brought from the Cape of Good
Hope, flourished. Some magnificent palaces and walled gardens (Jig. 33.) are mentioned
by Morier and other oriental travellers ; but all agree in representing their interior in
a state of neglect.
462. The gardens of Aalimar, near Delhi, which were made in the beginning of the
seventeenth century by the Emperor Shaw Jehan, are said to have cost 1,000,000/.
sterling, and were about a mile in circumference. They were surrounded by a high
brick wall ; but the whole are now in ruins." (Edin. Encyc art. India, p. 87.)
463. Of the royal gardens of Shaw Leemar, near Lahore, a city of Hindostan, some
account is given in the Journal of the Royal Institution for July, 1820. " They
differ," says the writer, " from the indigenous royal gardens generally found in India, in
belonging to the class of hanging-gardens." Their length is about 500 yards, and their
breadth about 140. They consist of three terraces watered by a stream brought upwards
of sixty miles, and irrigating the country through which it passes. The only thing
worthy of notice is the use of this water in cascades for cooling the air. There are large
trees, including the apple, pear, and mango, a border and island of flowers, among
H 2
100
HISTORY OF GARDENING.
Part I.
which the narcissus abounds. Captain Benj. Blake, who describes these gardens, in
making excursions in the neighbourhood, " stumbled, as it were, upon a most magnifi-
cent mausoleum, round which was a walled garden of orange and pomegranate trees."
464. The gardens of the islands of Japan .partake of the same general character as those
of Persia and Hindostan. According to Ksempfer, they display little of taste in design,
but are full of the finest flowers and fruits. " Such," he says, " is the beauty of the
flowers which ornament the hills, the fields, and the forests, that the country may even
dispute the preference in this point with Persia. They transplant the most beautiful of
their wild flowers into the gardens, where they improve them by culture. Colors are the
grand beauties desired both in plants and trees. Chestnut-trees, lemons, oranges, citrons
and peaches, apricots and plums, abound. The sloe, or wild plum, is cultivated on
account of its flowers, which by culture acquire the size of a double rose, and are so
abundant that they cover the whole tree with a snowy surface speckled with blood.
These trees are the finest of their ornaments, they are planted in preference around their
temples : and they are also cultivated in pots or boxes for private houses, as oranges are
in Europe. They plant the summits of the mountains, and both sides of the public
roads, with long rows of fir-trees and cypress, which are common in the country. They
even 'ornament sandy places and deserts by plantations ; and there exists a law in this
island, that no one can cut down a tree without permission of the magistrate of the place,
and even when he obtains permission, must replace it immediately by another."
465. The gardens of the different African seaports on the Mediterranean, such as
Tangier, Algier, Tunis, Tripoli, &c. have the same general character as those of Persia ;
but inferior in proportion to the degraded state of society in these comparatively barba-
rous places. The author of a Ten Years' residence in Tripoli confirms the remarks
of Chardin and Ksempfer, as to the carelessness with which art lends her aid to nature.
" In their gardens the Moors form no walks ; only an irregular path is left, which
you trace by the side of white marble channels for irrigation. Their form is gene-
rally square, and they are enclosed by a wall, within which is planted a corresponding
line of palm-trees. The whole is a mixture of beauty and desolation." {Narrative, &c.
466. The aboriginal horticulture of these countries consists chiefly in the culture of the
native fruits, the variety of which is greater than that indigenous to any other country.
The peach, the mango, all the palm tribe, and, in short, every fruit-tree cultivated in
Persia and India by the natives, is raised from seed, the art of grafting or laying being
unknown. Water is the grand desideratum of every description of culture in this coun-
try. Without it nothing can be done either in agri-
culture or gardening. It is brought from immense
distances at great expense, and by very curious con-
trivances. One mode practised in Persia consists in
forming subterraneous channels at a considerable depth
from the surface, by means of circular openings at cer-
tain distances, through which the excavated material is
drawn up (fig. 34.) ; and the channels so formed, are
known only to those who are acquainted with the country. These conduits are described
by Polybius, a Greek author, who wrote in the second century before Christ ; and Morier
(Journey to Persia) found the description perfectly applicable in 1814. Doves' dung is
in great request in Persia and Syria, for the culture of melons. Large pigeon-houses
(jig. 35.) are built in many places, expressly to collect it The melon is now, as it was
2500 years ago, one of the necessaries of life, and when the prophet Isaiah meant
to convey an idea of the miseries of a famine, he foretold that a cab of doves' dung
would be sold for a shekel of silver. The whole province of Syria was formerly famous
for its horticultural productions, of which the bunch of grapes brought to Moses by his
Book I. GARDENING IN CHINA. 101
spies (Numb. xiii. 23. ) is a proof ; but it has been in a constant state of neglect since it
came into the hands of the Turks, " who, of all nations," as Montesquieu observes, " are
the most proper to enjoy large tracts of land with insignificance. "
467. Trees and bushes appear to have been held in superstitious veneration in these
countries as early as the time of Moses, of which the story of the burning bush may be
adduced as a proof. There are many other instances mentioned in the Jewish writings,
of attachment to trees, and especially to the oak and plane. Morier, Johnson, and Sir
William Ouseley (Embassy, &c. vol. i.), describe the Persians as often worshipping under
old trees in preference to their religious buildings. The chenar, or plane, is greatly pre-
ferred. On these trees the devotees sacrifice their old clothes by hanging them to their
branches, and the trunks of favorite trees are commonly found studded with rusty nails
and tatters. (Sir William Ousley, App. 1819.) Groves of trees are equally revered in
India, and are commonly found near the native temples and burial-places of the
princes.
Sect. II. Chinese Gardening.
468. We know little of the gardening of China, notwithstanding all that has been written
and asserted on the subject. It does not appear perfectly clear to us, that the difference
between the gardens of Persia and India, and those of China, is so great as has been very
generally asserted and believed. It is evident, that the Chinese study irregularity and
imitate nature, in attempting to form rocks ; but whether this imitation is carried to
that extent in wood, water, and ground, and conducted on principles so refined as
those given as Chinese by Sir William Chambers, appears very doubtful. With all this,
it must be confessed, there is a distinctive difference between the Chinese style and
every other, though to trace the line of demarcation does not appear practicable in the
present state of our information on the subject.
469. One of the earliest accounts of Chinese gardens was given by Pere le Comte, who,
as well as Du Halde, had resided in the country as a missionary. " The Chinese,"
observes Le Comte (Lettre vi.), " appear still more to neglect their gardens than their
houses. They would consider it as a want of sense to occupy their grounds only in
parterres, in cultivating flowers, and in forming alleys and thickets. The Chinese, who
value order so little in their gardens, still consider them as sources of pleasure, and
bestow some expense in their formation. They form grottoes, raise little hills, procure
pieces of rocks, which they join together with the intention of imitating nature. If they
can, besides these things, find enough of water to water their cabbages and legumes,
they consider, that as to that material they have nothing more to desire, and content
themselves with a well or a pond." Olof Toreen, a Swede, who visited China early in
the eighteenth century, and has published an account of his travels, states, " that in the
Chinese gardens are neither seen trees artificially cultivated, nor alleys, nor figured par-
terres of flowers ; but a general confusion of the productions of verdant nature." ( Voyage
to Osbek, the East Indies and China, 8vo. 1761.)
470. The imperial gardens of China are described in the Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses,
&c. in a letter dated Pekin, 1743. It was translated by Spence, under the fictitious title
of Sir Harry Beaumont, whom Lord Walpole describes as having " both taste and zeal
for the present style ;" and was published in Dodsley's collection in 1761. These gar-
dens are described to be of vast extent, containing 200 palaces, besides garden-buildings,
mock towns, villages, all painted and varnished, artificial hills, valleys, lakes, and canals ;
serpentine bridges, covered by colonnades and resting-places, with a farm and fields,
where his imperial majesty is accustomed to patronise rural industry, by putting his hand
to the plough, or, as it has been otherwise expressed, " by playing at agriculture once a-
year." Views of these gardens, taken by native artists for the Chinese missionaries, were
sent to Paris about the middle of the eighteenth century, and engravings from them were
published by permission of the court in 1788, in a work entitled RecueUs des Plans des
Jardins Chinois. We have examined the plan of the imperial gardens (fig. 36.) with the
utmost care, but confess we can see nothing but a mass of buildings generally forming
squares or courts, backed by peaked hills, and interspersed with pieces of water, sometimes
evidently artificial, and at other times seemingly natural. The first jet-d'eau ever seen
in China was formed in the imperial gardens by Pere Benoit, who went to Pekin as
astronomer. The emperor was transported with it, and instead of astronomer, made the
reverend father the fountaineer.
471. But the national taste of the Chinese in gardening must have had something
characteristic in it, even to general observers ; and this character seems to have been
obscurely known in Europe from the verbal accounts of Chinese merchants or travellers,
in the beginning of the seventeenth century. A proof of this is to be found in Sir
William Temple's Essay, written about the middle of the seventeenth century. He
informs us, that though he recommends regularity in gardens, yet, for any thing he
H 3
102
HISTORY OF GARDENING.
Part I.
36
£3f^B TjnBOlU
5
^[DDQ[
knows, there may be more beauty in such as are wholly irregular. " Something of this
sort," he says, " I have seen in some places, but heard more of it from others, who have
lived much among the Chinese." Referring to their studied irregularity, he adds,
" When they find this sort of beauty in perfection, so as to hit the eye, they say it is
sharawadgi, an expression signifying fine or admirable." It appears from this passage,
that the Chinese style had not only been known, but imitated in England, nearly a cen-
tury previous to the publication of the Jesuit's Letters, and, at least, sixty years
before Kent's time. Sir William Temple retired to East Sheen in 1680, and died in
the year 1700.
472. Sir William Chambers's account of the Chinese style has given rise to much dis-
cussion. This author, afterwards surveyor-general, resided some time at Canton, and
after returning to England, gave a detailed account of Chinese gardening ; first in the
appendix to his Designs of Chinese Buildings, &c. in 1757, and subsequently at greater
length in his Dissertation on Oriental Gardening, in 1772, and commended, as G. Mason
observes, by so good a judge as Gray. Sir William Chambers avows that his
information is not derived entirely from personal examination, but chiefly from the con-
versation of a Chinese painter ; and it has been very reasonably conjectured, that he has
drawn, in some cases, on his own imagination, in order to enhance the reader's opinion
of Chinese taste, with the laudable end of improving that of his own country. In his
essay of 1757, which was published in French as well as English, and was soon trans-
lated, as Hirschfield informs us, into German, he says, " the Chinese taste in laying out
gardens is good, and what we have for some time past been aiming at in England."
With the exception of their formal and continual display of garden-buildings, and their
attempts of raising characters, not only picturesque and pleasing, but also of horror,
surprise, and enchantment, Sir William's directions, especially in his second work, will
apply to the most improved conceptions of planting, and forming pieces of water, in the
modern style ; or, in other words, for creating scenery such as will always resemble, and
often might be mistaken for that of nature. But whatever may be the merits of the
Chinese in this art, it may reasonably be conjectured, that their taste for picturesque
beauty is not so exactly conformable to European ideas on that subject as Sir William
would lead us to believe. Their decorative scenes are carried to such an extreme, so
encumbered with deceptions, and what we would not hesitate to consider puerilities, and
there appears throughout so little reference to utility, that the more mature and chastened
taste of Europeans cannot sympathise with them. Chinese taste is, indeed, altogether
peculiar; it is undoubtedly perfectly natural to that people, and therefore not to be
subjected to European criticism.
473. Lord Walpole's opinion of tlie Chinese gardens is that they " are as whimsically
irregular as European gardens were formerly uniform and unvaried ; nature in them is
as much avoided as in those of our ancestors." In allusion to those of the emperor's
palace, described in the Lettres Edifantes, he says, " this pretty gaudy scene is the work
Book I.
GARDENING IN CHINA.
103
of caprice and whim ; and when we reflect on their buildings, presents no image but
that of unsubstantial tawdriness."
474. Lord Macartney s remarks on these gardens show, that at least picturesque
scenes are seen from them. " The view," he says, " from one of the imperial gardens
mi^ht be compared to that from the terrace at Lowther Castle." This view is
altogether wild and romantic, and bounded by high uncultivated mountains, with no
other buildings than one or two native cottages. In what degree of estimation such a
view is there held does not, however, appear ; it would be too much to conclude that,
because it existed in that situation, it had been created or left on purpose, or was con-
sidered as eminently beautiful or desirable. " It is our excellence," observes his
lordship, " to improve nature ; that of a Chinese gardener to conquer her : his aim is to
change every thing from what he found it. A waste he adorns with trees ; a desert he
waters with a river or a lake ; and on a smooth flat are raised hills, hollowed out valleys,
and placed all sorts of buildings."
475. The description of the gardens of Woo-yuen in Ellis's Journal of the late
Embassy to China, 1818, is as follows : " We stopped opposite the gardens of Woo-yuen,
which, after a little hesitation on the part of the mandarins, we were allowed to visit.
Although now much neglected, they were interesting as a specimen of Chinese garden-
ing. The Chinese are certainly good imitators of nature, and their piles of rocks are
not liable to the same ridicule as some modern Gothic ruins in England; indeed they
are works of art on so great a scale, that they may well bear a rivalship with the original :
the buildings are spread over the ground without any attention to effect being produced
by their exterior, unconnected with the scenery ; the object seems to be to furnish pre-
texts for excursions within the enclosure, which is so disposed as to appear more
extensive than it really is. Much labor has been expended upon the walks, which, in
places, resemble mosaic work. These gardens were a favorite resort of Kien-long,
whose dining-room and study were shown to us ; in the latter was a black marble slab,
with a poem inscribed upon it, composed by his majesty, in praise of the garden. The
characters were particularly well executed. The trees in the garden were chiefly the
olea fragrans and some planes."
(Vol. i. p. 433.)
476. The villa ofPuanke-qua, belonging
to one of the principal hong merchants
of Canton, is interesting as a specimen
of Chinese taste in laying out grounds ;
the great object is to produce as much
variety as possible within a small
space." (Vol. ii. p. 186.)
477. The Fatee gardens at Canton, be-
longing to rich individuals, and the resort
of the fashionables, " consist of straight
walks lined with flower-pots, contain,
ing the curious and beautiful plants of
the country." (Vol. ii. p. 186.)
478. A plan of a Chinese gar-
den and dwelling, executed at
forty-five leagues from the city
of Pekin, was taken by Stern-
berg, a gardener, who was se-
veral years in that country, and
is given by Kraft in his Plans,
(Plans, &c, partie 2. pi. 95.)
If this plan (fig. 37.) is really
correct, it seems to counte-
nance the idea of the modern
style being taken from that of
the Chinese. The house of the
mandarin, its proprietor, con-
tains an entrance under a tri-
umphal arch (a), barracks or
offices (b), fountains (c), en-
trance-gate for dignified persons
(d), vases of odors (e), officers'
dwellings (f ), residences of those
in waiting (g), fountains (h),
residence of the proprietor (i),
apartments for mandarin ladies
(k), triumphal arch (I), bagnio
and room for sports (m), a pa-
H 4
104
HISTORY OF GARDENING.
Part I.
vilion on a rock (n), building for the practice of archery (o), green-house (p), pleasure-
house (q), and a rock under which the river passes and forms a waterfall (r). (Kraft,
P-70.)
479. Horticulture in China is generally considered to be in an advanced state ; but
we have no evidence that the Chinese are acquainted with its scientific principles, and
especially with the physiology of plants. The climate and soil of so immense a
tract as China, are necessarily various ; and equally so, in consequence, the vegetable pro-
ductions. Besides the fruits peculiar to the country, many of which are unknown to the
rest of the world, it produces the greater part of those of Europe ; but, excepting the
oranges and pomegranates, they are much inferior. The orange was introduced to Eu-
rope from China, and the pine-apple to China from South America, by the Portuguese in
the sixteenth century.
The Chinese are supposed to have a number of culinary vegetables peculiar to themselves. They are said
to cultivate edible plants, even in the beds of their rivers and lakes, and among others, the pi-tsi or water
chestnut {Scirpus tuberosus, Rox.), which yields tubers of a farinaceous quality and agreeable taste. The
convolvulus reptans {Lour.) grown in ditches, amaranthus polygamus, and tristis, Sinapis Pekinensis, and
some others used as pot-herbs. They have also a particular variety of brassica, used both as a salad and
in a boiled state. (Abel's Journal.) Le Comte, Du Halde, Eckeberg, and others, praise the manner in
which the Chinese cultivate culinary vegetables, which, they say, are abundant in their gardens, and form
the chief part of the nourishment of the lower orders. They add, however, that the greater part of their
fruits do not equal ours ; either because the Chinese are ignorant of the art of improving them, or because
they do not give themselves the trouble. Their grand object is to cultivate corn and rice ; and they are
ignorant of botany. One of the authors of these remarks, Captain Eckeberg, has published, in the
transactions of the academy of sciences of Stockholm, a treatise on the rural economy of this people ; and
Count Lasteyrie has collected what is known on the same subject. The British works, published after
different embassies, contain accounts of their modes of propagation, by inarching and local radication ;
of their dwarfing forest-trees, producing double-flowers, monstrous unions, and various other exertions,
in the way of conquering nature. It is a singular fact, that with all this practical skill, the Chinese do
not appear to be acquainted with the art of grafting, otherwise than by approach, nor with inoculation.
John Livingston, a corresponding member of the horticultural society at Macao, considers the Chinese
as entirely ignorant of the science both of horticulture and agriculture. They make no attempts to im-
prove on old practices, or spread newly introduced plants, proofs of which are given by referring to the
Pekin Gazette, " an official publication in which all notices relative to any variation or change in
their practices are made public," and to the circumstance of " potatoes and cabbages having been
cultivated in the neighbourhood of Macao for upwards of half a century, and although highly profitable
and productive, yet the method of growing them has not reached Canton, perhaps has not even ex-
tended five miles." It is impossible, this writer observes, to establish any distinction between the
agriculture and horticulture of the Chinese merely from the plan of cultivation, the same ground being
alternately cropped with grain and culinary esculents.
The culture 'of flowers and plants of ornament seems very general in China. The beautiful varieties
of camellia, azalea, rosa, chrysanthemum, and of various other genera, are well known natives of that
country.
480. Hot-houses are not unknown in China. Wathen (Journal of a voyage to China, &c.
1814.) describes the villa (fig. 38.). of Pon-qua-qua, a retired merchant and mandarin,
as containing a green-house (a), an aviary (b), a banquetting room open on one side ; a
garden with the walks bordered with porcelain pots of orange-trees and camellias ; and
an immense Banyan-tree (Ficus Benghalensis).
Sect. III. Gardening in Anglo-North America, or the United States and British
Provinces.
481. The use of gardens in North America is very general, though chiefly confined to
horticultural or useful productions. B. M'Mahon, in his American Kalendar, says,
" America has not yet made that rapid progress in gardening, ornamental planting, and
fanciful rural designs, which might naturally be expected from an intelligent, happy, and
independent people, possessed so universally of landed property, unoppressed by taxation
or tithes, and blest with consequent comfort and affluence." (Pref.)
M'Mahon is a seedsman in Philadelphia, and " has connected with the seed-trade a botanical, agricul-
tural, and horticultural book-store." His work is the first of the kind which has appeared in America,
and includes every department to be found in our kalendars. Ample instructions are given for growing
the pine, vine, melon, and other delicate fruits, and also for the forcing departments both of the flower
and kitchen gardens ; but we cannot gather from the work any thing as to the extent of American prac-
tice in these particulars. From this, and the few other American books on gardening, we submit what we
have been able to glean, as to the state of horticulture, botanic gardening, and timber-trees.
Book I. GARDENING IN ANGLO-NORTH AMERICA. 105
482. Horticulture. — William Coxe of Burlington in New Jersey, in his View of the
Cultivation of Fruit-trees (Philad. 1817), is of opinion, " that the numerous varieties of
American apples have proceeded from seeds brought there by their European ancestors •
and that none of the Indian orchards which have been discovered in America, are more
ancient than the first settlement of the Europeans on this continent."
The middle states of America, he says, " possess a climate eminently favorable to the production of the
finer liquor and table apples ; and the limits of that district of country which produces apples of the due
degree of richness and flavor for both purposes are the Mohawk river in New York, and the James river in
Virginia. Apples grow well in other places, but that exquisite flavor for which the Newton pippin and
Esopus Spitzenberg are so much admired, and which has given such high reputation to the cyder from the
Hewe'scrab, the white crab, the grey-house, winesop, and Harrison, can only be found within the limits
here described. Cold and heat, are equally necessary to the production of a fine apple, and neither must
predominate in too great a degree. Some European cyder fruits have recovered their reputation by being
transplanted to the more genial climate of America, where the growth of trees compared with Europe is as
five to three."
The peach is a native of South America ; in North America, Coxe says, it is subject to a malady, which
no remedy can cure, nor cultivation avert. This is a worm which destroys the roots and trunk of the tree.
The only paRiative is fresh soil. {Preface, p. 11.)
Plums and cherries are natives of the United States, and wood-cuts are given in Coxe's work of the prin-
cipal sorts of these fruits commonly cultivated, and which are chiefly those well known in Britain.
The vine, Dr. Dean observes (New England Georgical Dictionary, in loco Massachusetts, 1797), " may,
without doubt, be cultivated in every latitude of the North American states. They are wild in the neigh-
bourhood of Boston." He has known a good wine made from the juice of wild purple grapes ; and seen
excellent eating grapes produced in the American gardens, without any extraordinary culture.
The melon grows to a large size in the southern states, and ripens even in New England in the common
way of planting, but is not so large nor so early as when raised on dung.
Culinary vegetables, Kingdom states (America, &c. 1820), grow in the same perfection as in England, ex-
cepting the cauliflower and some species of beans. Water-melons, musk-melons, squashes, sweet potatoes,
cucumbers, &c. arrive at great perfection.
Those who wish to grow sugar must go south of 29§° ; cotton, south of 36° j and for corn the best latitude is
from 36° to 41°.
The first work after a settlement is to plant a peach and apple orchard, placing the trees alternately. The
peach, being short-lived, is soon removed, and its place covered by the branches of the apple-trees. {King-
dom, 5.) The seeds of pumpkins are scattered in the field, when planting the corn, and no further trouble is
necessary than throwing them into the waggon when ripe. They weigh from thirty to forty pounds each ;
and cattle and hogs are fond of them. In Maryland, Virginia, and the neighbouring provinces of the United
States, peaches are propagated invariably from the stone. The fruit is used for feeding hogs, and distilled for
brandy. In Virginia, the prickly pear abounds in the woods, and is reckoned a cooling, grateful fruit.
{Braddick in Hort. Trans, vol. ii.)
In Lower Canada, the fruit is neither remarkable for goodness nor cheapness, except strawberries and
raspberries, which are very abundant. Apples and pears are sent from Montreal to Quebec, and sell for
about the same price as in England. Oranges and lemons are imported from England, and are sometimes
very scarce. Gooseberries, plums, and melons are plentiful ; but currants, cherries, walnuts, and filberts
are scarce. {Kingdom, 97.).
Upper Canada is very fertile. At Montreal are extensive orchards. Here the sugar-maple is abundant,
and pierced for sugar when the sap begins to rise. A tree twenty inches in diameter will yield five pounds
of sugar annually, sometimes for thirty years. Pot and pearl ashes are made from the felled trees. Beech
yields at the rate of 2191bs. for lOOOlbs. of ashes, and most other trees less. Sun-flowers are abundant, but
oil is not extracted from them as in the United States. {Kingdom, 92.) A great variety of fruit-trees may be
had at the nursery-gardens at Montreal. The apples from thence are considered superior to any other. The
peach-trees are introduced into the orchards from York to Amherstburgh. Cherries, walnuts, chestnuts,
hickery, hazel, and filbert nuts grow wild ; as do gooseberries, strawberries, blueberries, cranberries, and
black currants.
483. Botanic gardening. — America is rich in botany, especially in trees. Dr. Hosack,
in the preface to his Hortus Elginensis, observes, " that, although much has been done by
the governments of Great Britain, France, Spain, Sweden, and Germany, in the investi-
gation of the vegetable productions of America ; although much has been accomplished
by the labors of Catesby, Kalm, Wangenheim, Schoepf, Walter, and the Michaux ;
and by our countrymen, Clayton, the Bartrams, Calden, Muhlenburg, Marshall, Cutler,
and the learned P. Barton of Pennsylvania, much yet remains to be done in this western
part of the globe." There were in America, at an early period, men who recommended
the necessity of instituting botanic gardens, as Lieutenant-Governor Calden and Dr.
Middleton of New York, in 1769; and, upon the revival of the medical school in
Columbia college, in 1792, a professor of botany was appointed, and Dr. Mitchel was
appointed professor. Dr. Hosack succeeded Dr. Mitchel, and the result was, first, the
latter professor's establishing a botanical garden at his own expense, and afterwards
government purchasing it of him for the benefit of the medical schools of New York, and
it is now known as the New York Botanic Garden.
484. The botanic garden of New York contains twenty acres ; the first catalogue was
published in 1806, and the second, in 1811, containing nearly 4000 species. {Statement
&c. as to the Elgin Botanical Garden, by Dr. Hosack, New York, 1811.)
485. The first American Flora appeared in 1816, by F. Pursh, a German botanist,
who spent nearly twelve years beyond the Atlantic in botanic travel, and in the manage-
ment of two botanic gardens, the last that of Elgin. From the preface to this work we
are enabled to give the names of the principal botanic gardens in the United States. In
British America there are none. The first gardens Pursh saw were the old established
gardens of M. Marshall, author of a small treatise on the forest-trees of North America.
These were rather on the decline. The botanic garden of J. and W. Bartram on the
banks of the Delaware, near Philadelphia, was founded by their father under the patron-
age of Dr. Fothergill. W. Bartram is author of travels in North and South Carolina,
106 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
and of an introduction to botany. The garden of \V. Hamilton, Esq. of Woodlands, is
one of the best in America ; that of Elgin has been already mentioned.
486. Forest-trees. — Michaux's work on the trees of America is the fruit of two voyages,
in 1802 and 1806. The number of trees which in America grow above thirty feet high,
which he has seen and describes, is one hundred and thirty-seven, of which eighty-five
are employed in the arts. In France there are only thirty-seven which rise to that height,
of which eighteen serve to form timber-plantations, and of these seven only are employed
in civil and marine constructions. Michaux acknowledges his obligations to W. Hamil-
ton, " an enlightened amateur of the sciences and arts," who pleases himself in uniting
at his magnificent residence at Woodlands, near Philadelphia, not only all the useful
vegetables of the United States, but those of every country of the world, which may offer
any interest in the arts or in medicine. (Introduction, 10.) From the Transactions of
the Society of Agriculture of New York, we learn, that hawthorn hedges and other live
fences are generally adopted in the cultivated districts ; but the time is not yet arrived
for forming timber-plantations.
Sect. IV. Gardening in Spanish North America, or Mexico.
487. The gardening of the Mexicans is described by the Abbe Clavigero, in his History of
Mexico. According to this author, when the Mexicans were brought into subjection to the
Calhuan and Tepanecan nations, and confined to the miserable little islands on the lake,
they ceased for some years to cultivate the land, because they had none until necessity and
industry together taught them to form moveable fields and gardens, which floated on the
waters of the lake. The mode of forming these of wicker-work, water-plants, and mud,
may be easily conceived. The boat or basis is commonly eight perches long by three
broad. They first cultivated the maize and useful plants only, but afterwards " there
were among them gardens of flowers and odoriferous plants, which were employed in
the worship of the gods, and served for the recreation of the nobles." At present they
cultivate flowers, and every sort of garden-herbs upon them, all of which thrive sur-
prisingly. In the largest gardens there is commonly a little tree, and even a little hut
to shelter the cultivator, and defend him from rain or the sun. When the owner of a
garden wishes to change his situation, to remove from a disagreeable neighbour, or come
nearer to his own family, he gets into his little vessel, and by his own strength alone, if
the garden is small, or with aid, if it be large, he tows it after him, and conducts it where
he pleases with the little tree and hut on it. That part of the lake where the gardens
are, is a place of infinite recreation, where the senses receive the highest possible grati-
fication. The Mexicans were extremely well skilled in the cultivation of kitchen and
other gardens, in which they planted, with great regularity and taste, fruit-trees, and
medicinal plants and flowers. The last of these were much in demand, bunches of
flowers being presented to persons of rank, kings, lords, and ambassadors, and also used
in temples and private oratories.
488. The royal gardens of Mexico and Tezcuco, and those of the Lords of Iztapalapan and
Huantepec, have been much celebrated. One, belonging to the Lord of Iztapalapan was
laid out in four squares, and planted with great variety of trees, through which a number
of roads and paths led, some formed by fruit-bearing trees, and others by espaliers of
flowering shrubs and aromatic plants. It was watered by canals, and had in the centre
a fish-pond four hundred yards in diameter, where innumerable water-fowl resorted.
Hernandez says, this garden contained many foreign trees. The garden of Huantepec
was six miles in circumference, watered by a river, planted with numerous species of trees
and plants beautifully disposed, along with pleasure-houses. Many foreign plants were
cultivated, and every kind of medicinal plant belonging to that clime, for the use of the
hospital which they founded there. Cortez, in a letter to Charles V. in 1522, told him
that this garden was the most extensive, the most beautiful, and most delightful which
had ever been beheld. Bernard Dias and other authors concur in the same opinion.
The Mexicans paid great attention to the preservation of woods, which supplied them
with timber and fuel. (History of Mexico, i. 379.)
489. A conventual garden at Mexico is described by Humboldt ( Voyage, Sec. liv. iii.
chap. 8.), in 1803, as one of the finest he had ever seen. The convent was a very pic-
turesque building, and in the garden were immense groves of orange-trees, peaches,
apples, cherries, and other fruit-trees of Europe.
490. The royal botanic garden, in the promenade (cours) of the vice-king's palace, Hum-
boldt describes as small, but extremely rich in vegetables, rare, or interesting for industry
and commerce.
491. The footing gardens, or chinampas, mentioned by the Abbe* Clavigero, he says still
exist. They are of two sorts ; the one mobile and blown here and there by the winds, and
the others fixed and united to the shore. The former alone merit the appellation of floating,
and they are diminishing day by day. He assigns to them the same origin as the Abbe'
Clavigero j but thinks it probable that nature also may have suggested the first idea,
Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH COLONIES, &c. 107
and gives instances of small pieces of surface netted with roots and covered with plants being
detached from the marshy shores of other American lakes, and floating about in the water.
The bean, pea, apple, artichoke, cauliflowers, and a great variety of other culinary plants
are cultivated on them. In the ninth chapter of Humboldt's work will be found an
ample account of the useful plants of Mexico. It is singular, that the potatoe, which
one would have imagined should have been introduced from the southern continent to
Mexico, should have been first carried there from Old Spain. It is not, Humboldt
says, a native of Peru, nor to be found between latitudes 12° and 50°. In Chili it has
been cultivated for a long series of ages, where there is a wild sort with bitter roots.
Sect. V. Gardening in South America.
492. Gardening appears to be little known in South America, excepting in the Euro-
pean colonies. It is the country, however, of some of our most valuable culinary pro-
ductions, as the potatoe ; of the most exquisite fruits, as the pine-apple and Cheremoya ;
and of many of our most beautiful flowers, as the dahlia. There is a species of Chili
pine {Araucaria), which is considered the largest tree in the world : it has an erect stem,
and the seeds are a farinaceous food, and as large as chestnuts. This tree, it is thought,
may yet be acclimated, and clothe our northern mountains. The whole of South
America is rich in vegetable productions, many of which are unknown in Europe ; but
there are now a number of collectors in that country, for the purposes of botany and
horticulture.
Sect. VI. Gardening in the British Colonies, and in other Foreign Settlements of
European Nations.
493. Gardening cannot be displayed to much advantage in distant and precanous ter-
ritorial apj)endages, where the object is most frequently to acquire the means of return-
ing to garden at home. In permanent settlements, however, such as the Cape of Good
Hope, Van Diemen's Land, &c. gardening will be resorted to as an art of necessity.
494. The gardening of any colony will always resemble that of the pare?it country. It
is evident, that wherever a people establish themselves, they will also establish, in part,
their arts or manners. All colonists carry with them the seeds of the useful vegetables,
which they have been accustomed to cultivate ; and subsequently they attempt to intro-
duce the more delicate or luxurious fruits and flowers.
495. The European governments have established colonial botanic gardens wherever their
utility has been made apparent ; and in this, as well as in the ornamental part of garden-
ing, it is but fair to state, that the French and Dutch have been before England in point of
time, as well as in point of excellence. The Dutch had a fine government garden at the
Cape of Good Hope, and another at Batavia in the middle of the seventeenth century.
The French had a garden in Cayenne, in 1630. The first colonial botanic garden esta-
blished by the English, was that of Jamaica, about 1780. It must also be confessed,
that our botanic gardens have hitherto been less useful to horticulture than the govern-
ment or residence-gardens, and the botanical gardens of the Dutch; because in these
last, useful plants are the principal objects ; whereas in ours, number of species is, or
seems to be, most attended to. Horticulture, in civilised countries, may be deemed suf-
ficiently protected and encouraged by its own immediate contributions to the wants and
desires of mankind ; but in barbarous countries every art requires protection at the first
establishment of a colony. Perhaps there is no way in which man in a civilised state
can promote the progress of rude society more, than by introducing new and useful fruits
and herbs. The numerous vegetables now used in the domestic economy of civilised
society have been collected from various and opposite parts of* the globe. Where would
be the enjoyments of a European table, if they depended on our native herbs and fruits?
Europe in this respect is under great obligations to Persia and Egypt ; and these coun-
tries, and many others of Asia, Africa, and America, are now in their turn receiving
great benefits from the colonies of Europeans who settle on them.
496. As examples of the use of gardening in colonisation, we may refer to the Cape of
Good Hope, which possesses at present all the best culinary productions and fruits of
Europe and Asia. Till 1660, that the Dutch established a colony there, it had no
other fruits than the chestnut, a nut like the wild almond, and what is called the wild plum ;
and no culinary plants but a sort of vetch. The first shipment of convicts was landed
at Sidney Cove in 1789, and since that period, every horticultural product of Britain has
been introduced there, and cultivated with one or two exceptions, in the greatest per-
fection.
497. The influence of gardening comforts, together with instruction, on uncivilised coun-
tries, both as to society and climate, and finally on the whole globe itself, cannot be forese&n.
The now trackless deserts of arid sand in Africa, may be destined at some future age to
be watered and cultivated by the superfluous population of the other quarters of the
world. The evaporation anil coolness produced by a surface cultivated chiefly by irri-
10S HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
gation, may effect a material change in the climate, and millions of human beings may
live and exert their energies where civilised man at present scarcely dares to tread.
498. Examples of British, Dutch, and French gardening, in different colonies, will be
found in the West Indies, East Indies, Ceylon, Cape of Good Hope, New South
Wales, Van Diemen's Land, Cayenne, and Malta.
499. West India Islands. The native products of these islands are various and ex-
cellent, and they have been greatly increased by fruits and spices, introduced from the
East Indies and other places. Among these it may be sufficient to mention the pine-
apple, bread-fruit, mangostan, durion and cinnamon. There is a large botanic garden
at St. Vincents, and others at Trinidad and Martinique, supported by their respective go-
vernments. There was formerly one of seventy acres in Jamaica, of which some particulars
deserve here to be recorded. " The botanic garden of Jamaica was originally begun by
J. Hinton, Esq., and afterwards bought by government, and enlarged so as to contain
seventy acres. One of the objects of its establishment was to preserve, without artificial
means, the production of various climates. Such a project could only be executed in a
tropical latitude, where the various elevations of the ground would regulate the required
temperature. The site chosen for this purpose is about seven miles from Kingston,
on the side of the Liguanea mountain, the summit of which is 3600 feet above the level
of the sea. Here, ascending from the base, are found the productions of the various
countries of the earth ; every change of situation represents a change of latitude, and the
whole surface of the mountain may be clothed with the appropriate vegetations of every
climate, from the pole to the equator. By means of this noble and useful establishment,
the vegetable productions of various climes have been naturalised to the soil, and the
plantations of Jamaica have been enriched with many valuable trees, shrubs, and plants,
which were heretofore unknown in the island ; of these may be mentioned cinnamon,
mangostan, mangoes, sago, bread-fruit, star-apple, camphor, gum-arabic, sassafras, &c.
introduced from a French ship captured in 1782." [Edwards s Jamaica, 188.) In the
year 1812, the whole was sold by the House of Assembly, for the small sum of
4000/. to an apothecary in Kingston. It is impossible to avoid regretting such a cir-
cumstance. Some account of the garden of St. Vincents will be found in the Trans-
actions of the Society of Arts. Pine-apple plants, and also ripe fruits, are frequently sent
from the West Indies to Europe, and arrive commonly in a fit state for planting and the
dessert.
500. East Indies. Bengal, the province longest under British subjection, resembles
Eoypt, in consisting of one immense plain of fertile soil, watered by the Ganges, which
overflows it annually. Calcutta, the capital, has been subject to the English since
1765, but it does not appear that much has been yet done by the East India Company,
in the way of gardening.
* In the park at Barrackpoor, about sixteen miles from the capital, are the unfinished arches of a house
begun bv the Marquis of Wellesley, but discontinued by the frugality of the Court of Directors. There is
also a menagerie, and not far distant the botanic garden. Very picturesque villas and cottages have
been formed by the British in most of the East Indian settlements. We may cite, as an example, Dr.
M'Kinnon's cottage (jig. 39.), in the neighbourhood 39
of Madras. It is thatched with palm-leaves.
Town-houses and large country-houses are com-
monly flat-roofed; and the roof shaded by an
awning, serves as a banquetting-place.
The botanic garden of Calcutta was founded in
1790, it is beautifully situated on the west bank of
the river, and gives to one of its bendings, the
name of Garden-reach. Above the garden there
is an extensive plantation of teak, a tree not a
native of this part of India, but which thrives well
here. This garden was under the direction of Dr.
Roxburgh, well known as the author of a work on
the plants of Coromandel. Maria Graham {Let-
ters from India) describes it as rich in palms, mi-
mosas, and parasitic plants, and as neatly kept
Seeds from this garden are sent annually to Kew
and other European gardens ; as well as to various
British settlements in the East, as Ceylon, &c.
The orchard of Bengal is what chiefly contributes
to attach the peasant to his native soil. He feels a
superstitious veneration for the trees planted by his ancestors, and derives comfort and profit from their
fruit Orchards of mango-trees diversify every part of this immense country; the palmira abounds in
Bahar The cocoa-nut thrives in those parts which are not remote from the tropic. I he date-tree
grows every where, but especially in Bahar. Plantations of the areca, or Betfel-palm, are common in the
central parts of the country. _ . , , ,
The culinary vegetables of Europe have all been introduced into India. Potatoes grown there are deemed
equal in quality to those of England. Asparagus, cauliflower, pease, and other esculent plants, are raised,
but they are comparatively tasteless.
The dessert of Europeans in Calcutta, is distinguished by a vast profusion of most beautiful fruits, pro-
cured at a verv 'moderate expense, such as pine-apples, plantains, mangoes, pomeloes or shadocks melons
of all sorts, oranges, custard-apples, guavas, peaches, and an endless variety of other orchard-fruits.
Forest-trees do not naturally abound in Bengal ; the teak-tree (Tectona grandis) is the oak of the East,
and grows in abundance in the hilly kingdoms of Birman and Begum, whence Calcutta is supplied for
the purposes of naval architecture. Whether it shall be found worth while to cultivate this tree in
Bengal, appears very doubtful. The bamboo is the timber used in the general economy of the country.
Hedges of native armed plants are occasionally used round gardens, orchards, and small" enclosures.
Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH COLONIES, &c.
109
501. Ceylon. All the productions of Hindostan are said to thrive here. General
Macdowal, with the assistance of Dr. Roxburgh of Calcutta, made a valuable collec-
tion of exotics, which he left at Columbo in 1804. He introduced peaches, grafted
and trained on espaliers, which bore at three years old. Gardeners, in hot climates,
Cordiner observes (Account of Ceylon, vol. ii. p. 387.), are much perplexed by the trees
which are deciduous in Europe, retaining their leaves all the year. Apples and aspara-
gus succeeded well in this climate. The country is rich in botany, and abounds in
palm-trees and plantains. Cordiner describes the cinnamon-groves as delightful.
" Nothing can exceed the luxury of riding through them in the cool hours of the morn-
ing, when the air is cool and the sweetness of the spring blended with the °-low of
summer. Every plant in the garden is at all times clothed with fresh and lively green,
and when the cinnamon laurels put forth their flame-colored leaves and delicate blossoms
the scenery is exquisitely beautiful. The fragrance, however, is not so powerful as
strangers are apt to imagine. The cinnamon-bark affords no scent when the trees are
growing in tranquillity, and it is only in a few places that the air is perfumed with the
delicious odor of other shrubs, the greater proportion of the flowers and blossoms of
India being entirely destitute of that quality. Gentle undulations in the ground, and
clumps of majestic trees, add to the picturesque appearance of the scene ; and a person
cannot move twenty yards into a grove without meeting a hundred species of beautiful
plants and flowers springing up spontaneously. Several roads for carriages make wind-
ing circuits in the woods, and numerous intersecting foot-paths penetrate the deepest
thickets. In sauntering amidst these groves, a botanist or a simple lover of nature may
experience the most supreme delight which the vegetable creation is capable of affording,
and the zoologist will not be less gratified by the variety, the number, and the strange-
ness of many of the animal kingdom." The Cingalese, as we have noticed (5.), lay
claim to the situation of paradise, and one of the animals peculiar to the country, the
Loris Ceylonicus, Fischeri {Jig. 40.), has been con-
sidered by some philosophers as aboriginal man.
(Cordiner s Ceylon, vol. ii. p. 421.) The agricul-
ture and gardening of the native Cingalese may be
considered as one art, the objects of culture being
edible roots, as the yam and grains, and spices, as
the rice and pepper. Ample details are given by
Dr. Davy in his Account, <£c. of Ceylon.
502. Cape of Good Hope. A very fine garden
was formed here by the Dutch about the middle of
the seventeenth century, which is described in
Lachmans Travels of the Jesuits (vol. i. let. 37.),
and thus noticed by Sir William Temple. " It
contained nineteen acres, was of an oblong figure,
very large extent, and divided into four quarters, by
long and cross walks, ranged with all sorts of
orange-trees, lemons, limes, and citrons ; each of
these four quarters is planted with the trees, fruits,-
flowers, and plants, that are native and proper to each of the four parts of the world ;
so as in this one inclosure are to be found the several gardens of Europe, Asia, Africa,
and America. There could not be, in my mind, a greater thought of a gardener, nor a
nobler idea of a garden, nor better suited or chosen for the climate." Father de Premare
says, " it is one of the most beautiful spectacles in the world ;" and indeed it is not easy
for a mere European traveller to conceive the magnificence of palm-trees and plantains
in their native climates. Whether this garden still exists, we have not been able to learn,
but as it doubtless contributed to introduce the horticultural productions of Europe to
this part of the globe, it deserves to be remembered with gratitude to its founders.
The only indigenous fruits of the Cape, as already observed (496.), are the chestnut, and two stone fruits.
Those that have been introduced into the colony are the grape, apple, cherry, plum, peach, nectarine,
apricot, fig, orange, lemon, citron, pomegranate, almond, mulberry, guava, melon, and in short all the
fruits esteemed by Europeans. No grapes of Europe are considered preferable to those of this colony.
The colony of Capetown consists chiefly of vine-growers. They are of French extraction, possess farms
of about 190 English acres, and the culture of the grape, with an elegant garden, generally occupies the
whole. The lands are surrounded and divided by oak and quince hedges ; and the vines, cultivated as in
France and Germany, have the appearance of plantations of raspberries. The Cape-market is richly
supplied from these gardens. Between Table Bay and False Bay, are the two farms producing the Con-
stantia wine. Here most of the above fruits thrive ; but gooseberries, currants, plums, and cherries do
not succeed at all
The ornamental plants of the Cape are well known ; to them we are indebted for almost all our heaths,
ixias, diosmas, pelargonums, and many other genera. (Kingdom's British Colonies, p. 81.)
503. New South Wales. There are two colonies established in this extensive territory
and its adjoining islands; the one at Sidney, in 1788, and the other at Van Diemen's
Land some years afterwards. The botanical riches of New South Wales, and the singu-
lar aspect of the native plants, are well known. There are gardeners and botanists esta-
110 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part 1.
blished in and near Sidney, who collect seeds for England, and other parts of Europe ;
and it is in contemplation to establish a government botanic garden there, which will
doubtless be of essential service in collecting and preserving native plants. The climate
and soil of both settlements are favorable for horticulture. Potatoes, cabbages, carrots,
parsnips, turnips, and every species of vegetable known in England, are produced
in this colony. The cauliflower and broccoli, and the pea, arrive to greater perfection
than in Europe ; but the bean and potatoe degenerate. The climate is too hot for the
bean, and the potatoe is only grown to advantage on new lands.
New South Wales is famed for the goodness and variety of its fruits ; peaches, apricots, nectarines,
oranges, grapes, pears, plums, tigs, pomegranates, raspberries, strawberries, and melons of all sorts, attain
the highest degree of maturity in the open air ; and even the pine-apple may be produced merely by the
aid of the common glass frame. The climate of Port Jackson, however, is not altogether congenial to the
growth of the apple, currant, and gooseberry, although the whole of these fruits are produced there, and
the apple in particular in very great abundance ; but it is decidedly inferior to the apple of Britain. In
Van Diemen's Land these fruits arrive at the greatest perfection; and as the climate of the country to
the westward of the Blue Mountains is equally cold, they will, without doubt, attain there an equal
degree of excellence. Of all the fruits which are thus enumerated, as being produced in the colony, the
peach is the most abundant and the most useful. The different varieties which have been already intro,
duced succeed one another in uninterrupted succession from the middle of November to the latter end of
March, thus filling up an interval of more than four months, and affording a wholesome and nutritious
article of food during one-third of the year. The tree thrives in all soils and situations, and its growth is
so rapid, that if you plant a stone, it will, in three years afterwards, bear an abundant crop. The fruit is
the food of hogs, and when thrown into heaps, and allowed to undergo a proper degree of fermentation,
is found to fatten them very rapidly. Cyder is also made from it; and the lees also fatten hogs.
{Kingdom's British Colonies, p. 264.)
504. Van Diemens Land. This settlement does not contain either such a variety or
abundance of fruit as the parent colony. The greater coldness of the climate
sufficiently accounts for the former deficiency, and the recency of its establishment
for the latter. The orange, citron, guava, loquat, pomegranate, and other fruits, which
attain the greatest perfection at Port Jackson, cannot be produced here without having
recourse to artifical means ; while others, as the peach, nectarine, grape, &c. only arrive
at a very inferior degree of maturity. On the other hand, the apple, currant, and goose-
berry, and indeed all those fruits for which the climate of New South Wales is too
warm, are raised here without difficulty. (Kingdom's British Colonies, p. 300.)
505. Cayenne. The French have a botanic garden, and several fine private gardens in
the fertile colony of Cayenne. A very interesting account of this colony and its pro-
ductions, natural and artificial, will be found in the Maison Rustique de Cayenne,
published by Prefontaine in 1763.
506. Malta. There is a small botanic garden on this island, supported by the govern-
ment; and a late governor, Sir A. Balls, is said (Letters from Malta, 1817) to have
established public gardens at every village for the employment of the poor, and the
dissemination of useful seeds and plants among the farmers. No success attended this
measure, from mismanagement, as it is said, in the curators. Great part of Malta was
originally little better than a bare limestone-rock ; but this rock is full of cracks or
vertical fissures, which are filled with calcareous soil washed down from the surface.
This is dug up by the inhabitants, and re-spread over the surface ; and by means of
irrigation and careful culture, the cotton-plant is grown as an article of general economy.
In the more fertile part of the island, the orange-tribe are grown, and the Maltese, or
red-fleshed orange, being a variety in much esteem, there is some demand for young
trees as articles of foreign commerce. These trees are more scientifically trained and
inoculated than those of Genoa.
BOOK II.
CARDENING CONSIDERED AS TO ITS PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE UNDER DIFFERENT
POLITICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL CIRCUMSTANCES.
507. Every art must be affected hy the government under' which it is exercised, either
directly by its laws and institutions, or indirectly by the state of society as modified by
their influence. Gardening and agriculture differ from other arts in being still more
affected by climates than by governments ; the influence of the latter is temporary or
accidental, while that of the former is absolute and unchangeable.
Chap. I.
Gardening as affected by different Forms of Government, Religions, and States of Society.
508. All governments may be reduced to tivo classes ; the primitive, or those where the
people are governed by the will or laws of one or a few persons independently of the
Book II. GARDENING UNDER DIFFERENT GOVERNMENTS. Ill
people ; and the rational, or those where they are governed by laws formed by a congre-
gated assemblage of their own body. The former are calculated for rude and ignorant
ages, when man, in a state of infancy, is governed by a king, as children are ruled by
their parents; the latter, for more enlightened times, when a people, like children
arrived at manhood, are capable of thinking for themselves and acting in concert.
509. Society is either fixed or free. In a fixed state, property is hereditary, and one
part of the people are perfectly independent, and the other dependent ; in a free state,
men may belong to either class, according to their talents and the chances of life. In
the former case, a man's condition in society depends on chance; in the latter on chance
and skill combined.
Sect. I. Gardening as affected by different Forvis of Govermnent and Religion.
510. Gardening as an art furnishing a part of the necessaries of life, may be practised
under any form of government ; and wherever there is some liberty and security of
property, its productions of necessity and comfort will ensure its use. Wherever
civilised man has a house, he will always have an accompanying spot for roots and
legumes ; and wherever he enjoys a farm, he will desire orchards or vineyards for
fruits or wine, and copse-woods and forest-trees for fuel and timber: shelter, shade,
and ornament will follow in due time. Under paternal forms of government, the taste
of the monarch will generally be indiscriminately followed by such of his subjects as
can indulge in it ; and thus fashion will assume the province of reason. Such a
government must be favorable or unfavorable to the arts, according to the taste of its
chief. Monarchs generally love splendor more than elegance or use ; and in gardening
are less likely to render its useful productions common among their subjects, than to
increase the luxurious enjoyments of a few wealthy courtiers. This was exemplified in
Louis XIV., who set the fashion not only in France but in Europe ; but never, in all
probability, added a foot of ground to the garden of a single cottager, or placed an
additional cabbage or potatoe on his table. Under republican governments , the first
tendency of public feeling is to economy, and consequently to discourage those arts, or
branches of arts, which minister to luxury. Gardening, under such circumstances,
will be practised as a useful art, rather than one of design and taste ; and more for its
substantial benefits and scientific objects, than for its extraordinary productions and
peculiar gratifications. In the beginning of the French revolution, we find the com-
pilers of the Encyclopaedia isee the vol. sur V Aratoire et Jardinage) holding light the
productions of forcing-houses, and the taste for double flowers. In America, the same
simplicity of taste prevails, and also in Switzerland.
511. Gardening in all its branches will be most advantageously displayed where the
people are free. The final tendency of every free government or society is to conglome-
rate property in irregular masses, as nature has distributed all her properties ; and this
irregularity is the most favorable for gardening both as a necessary, convenient, and
elegant art. A republican or representative government and a commercial people may
be reckoned a case highly favorable to the arts, of which Holland, Genoa, and Venice,
formerly, and this country, at present, may be adduced as examples. Under mixed
governments, where there is a representative body, and a first or executive magistrate, his
taste will naturally have considerable influence on that of the people, as in Charles the
Second's time in England; unless, as sometimes happens, the king or executive officer's
taste is behind that of the people, in which case if the people be free and enlightened, the
arts of design and taste will, as they ought, become a republic, governed by its own
laws. This last state has in some degree taken place in England since the accession of
the Brunswick line, a fine illustration of which is given by Eustace {Tour, i. 608.), in
comparing the taste exhibited in the royal palaces built or altered by this race, with that
displayed in the residences of private English gentlemen since the revolution.
512. The religion of a people is calculated to have some effect on their gardening. Those
religions whose offices are accompanied by splendor and show, and which have numerous
fetes and spectacles, will be favorable to the culture of flowers and plants of ornament ;
and those which forbid, at certain seasons, the use of animal food, will in some degree
encourage the production of fruits and culinary vegetables. Where those alternating
days of rest, of such antiquity in society and so conducive to the comfort of the
laboring classes, {Graham s Sabbath, Prefi) are to be spent wholly or partly in recreative
enjoyments, encouragement will be given to public gardens of different kinds ; but
where they are to be spent in a devotion founded in fear, and consequently gloomy and
austere in its offices, such a religion cannot be said to encourage gardening. The
religions of Italy and Scotland afford examples of each of these cases.
Sect. II. Gardening as affected by different States of Society.
513. In mixed states of society, where property is in few hands, and the population
consists chiefly of lords of the soil and of slaves, the immensely rich may accomplish
112
HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
<*reat designs, which shall astonish by their magnificence ; but taste among such a people
fs not likely to be refined ; works of art are only prized as marks of wealth ; their merit
is not understood, and therefore, declining in interest after the first burst of surprise, they
are soon viewed with indifference, and afterwards neglected or destroyed. Gardening,
in such circumstances, is not likely to be improved in any of its branches, nor the use of
gardens rendered general among any part of the population. Russia and Poland may
be referred to as examples.
514. In free states of society, where commerce is a leading pursuit, and property is irregu-
larly distributed among all classes ; where there are wealthy, rich, and thriving citizens,
and where the comforts of life are known and relished by every class, gardening is likely
to prosper in all its branches. The first-rate gardens of the wealthy will be an example
to the rich, act as a premium to operative gardeners and artists, and encourage commer-
cial gardens. The fine gardens displayed by the wealthy commercialist will act as a
stimulus to the independent gentleman, too apt to be stationary in his improvements.
The retiring tradesman will aspire to the same excellence as the merchant, and stimulate
him in his "turn. Cottage-gardens will be found real ornaments to the country, and
supply useful food and agreeable fruits to the laboring class of society, who, as they
become more enlightened, will prefer employing their leisure hours in this way, rather
than in grosser pleasures or habits. This was formerly the state of Holland, and is, in
some degree, at present, that of Britain.
515. In free states of society, where agriculture is chiefly followed, where property con-
tinues much divided, and mankind, as will always be the case under such circumstances,
are sober and rational, the useful branches of gardening will be generally practised
and much improved. Wholesome culinary vegetables will be enjoyed by all classes,
and ao-reeable fruits by most of the inhabitants. Switzerland may be referred to as an
example.
516. Times of peace and commercial prosperity, under any government or state ol society,
will be more favorable than their opposites. The long and flourishing peace of the two first
empires, Sir W. Temple observes, gave earlier rise and growth to learning and civilisation,
and all the consequences of them, in magnificence and elegancy of building and gardening ;
whereas Greece and Rome were almost perpetually engaged in quarrels and wars, either
abroad or at home, and so were busy in actions done under the sun, rather than those under
the shade.
517 In mixed states of society, wliere a part of the population are pnvdeged orders or
hereditary proprietors, and the rest partly free and partly dependent, gardening is likely
to be encouraged, more especially as an art of design. The proprietor of an entailed
territory may be said to enjoy a sort of tangible immortality ; for by establishing in his
person and estate a sort of local and corporeal connection between his ancestry and pos-
terity, he sees neither beginning nor ending to his life and property. Such a being is
anxious to distinguish his little reign by some permanent improvement ; and those which
are most likely to answer his purpose will be building or gardening. However distant
the expected benefits of his efforts, they are sure to be enjoyed ; and even if he exceeds
his income, and contracts debts which he cannot pay, he knows that the labor and pro-
perty of others, which he has embodied on his estate, will remain for its benefit, and that
posterity will give him credit for zeal and ambition. But partial rights of this sort are
much more injurious than beneficial to society, by giving the privileged party a legal
title to contract debts which he is not able to pay. They are remains of those feudal
or primitive institutions which, as mankind become enlightened, will be swept away,
with various other antiquated customs and absurdities, till man at last, whatever may be
the circumstances of fortune or family under which he may be ushered into society, will
be left to sink or rise in wealth and respect, according to his personal merits. Though
the nobility of Britain have fewer exclusive privileges than those on the continent, yet
there are not wanting instances of these privileges being abused ; and as an example of
a man creating sumptuous gardens and forming fine collections of plants, without being
able to pay for them, or liable to be put to personal inconvenience on that account, we
may refer to George, the third duke of Marlborough.
Chap. II.
Gardening as affected by different Climates, Habits of Life, and Manners.
518. All gardening is relative to climate and purjiose. It is obvious that gardening, in
so far as respects the culture of plants, must differ in different climates, some of which
will be found favorable for fruits, others for flowers, for culinary vegetables, and tor
timber-trees. Considered as an art of design, and as furnishing agreeable views, and
Book II. IN DIFFERENT CLIMATES. 113
scenes for exercise or recreation, it will be found to vary, not only with the climate, but
with the surface of the country, and the habits and manners of society.
Sect. I. Influence of Climate, in respect to Fruits, culinary Plants, Flowers, Timber-trees,
and horticultural Skill.
519. The gardening of every country must vary according to the climate; and the
practice of the art in one country cannot be applied to any other, unless that other greatly
resemble the former in climate. " Useful hints," Neill observes, " may no doubt be
occasionally drawn from observing the modes in other countries. But it is scarcely
necessary to remark, that in warm climates the practice must differ very widely from that
which obtains in the temperate or the cold. In the former, the plants which require to
be fostered in our stoves, either grow spontaneously, or are cultivated in the open fields,
while the greater part of our common pot-herbs refuse to flourish in sultry regions.
Again, the far northern countries of Europe, Sweden, Norway, and Russia, possess
peculiarities of climate : snow covers the soil throughout the winter, and the summers are
uninterruptedly bright and warm. Even in Britain, such is the difference of climate
between the favored countries of the south-west of England, and that part of the island
which lies to the north of the Cheviot Hills, that the same rules cannot be applied to both,
without very considerable modification. The horticulture of the north of France, of
Belgium, Holland, and Denmark, may, in general, be considered as approaching to
that of South Britain ; and these countries may frequently afford mutual lessons to each
other, each availing itself of the other's discoveries, and adopting its improvements."
520. The finest climate far fruits, according to Sir William Temple, is that of Assyria,
Media, and Persia. " Those noble fruits, the citron, the orange, and the lemon, are
the native product of those noble regions, and though they have been from thence trans-
planted and propagated in many parts of Europe, yet they have not arrived at such per-
fection in beauty, taste, or virtue, as in their native soil and climate." " The reason of
it can be no other than that of an excellent and proper soil being there extended under
the best climate for the production of all sorts of the best fruits ; which seems to be from
about twenty-five to about thirty-five degrees of latitude. Now the regions under this
climate in the present Persian empire (which comprehends most of the other two, called
anciently Assyria and Media,) are composed of many provinces, full of great and fertile
plains, bounded by high mountains, especially to the north ; watered naturally with many
rivers, and those, by art and labor, divided into many more and smaller streams, which
all conspire to form a country, in all circumstances, the most proper and agreeable for
the production of the best and noblest fruits. Whereas, if we survey the regions of the
western world, lying in the same latitude, between twenty-five and thirty-five degrees,
we shall find them extend either over the Mediterranean sea, the ocean, or the sandy
barren countries of Africa ; and that no part of the continent of Europe lies so southward
as thirty-five degrees ; which may serve to discover the true reason why the fruits of the
east have been always observed, and agreed to transcend those of the west." " Persia,"
Chardin observes, " is the first country of the world for beautiful and superb flowers,
properly so called." The same observation will apply to the whole of India ; but it is to
be observed, that the flowers of these and other hot and dry countries are less odoriferous
than in such as are temperate, and have a comparatively moist atmosphere. Moisture is
favorable for conveying all odors, or, at least, for strengthening their impression on the
olfactory nerves.
521. The most suitable climate for culinary or herbaceous vegetables is one temperate and
moist ; and in this respect Holland, England, and the more temperate parts of France
and Flanders are before the rest of Europe. Sir William Temple, who lived much in
Holland and the adjoining countries, says gardening, in his time, was there in the greatest
perfection. The second country in Europe for culinary gardening and flowers, appears
to us to be Lombardy ; and considering that it is highly favorable for fruits, it may, as
already observed, be considered the most propitious country in Europe for horticulture
and ornamental gardening. There appear to be also corresponding situations in America,
China, and New Holland, especially in the latter country which may one day become a
second America. Wherever the fruit of the gooseberry and strawberry, and the bulb of
the turnip and the head of the cabbage atuiin a good size, there the climate may be con-
sidered highly favorable to the growth of kitchen-crops, most kernel-fruits of Europe,
and florists' flowers ; but a warmer and drier climate is required for the richer stone-
fruits, and most of those of the torrid zone.
522. The most suitable climate for timber-trees, when durability is an object, is a dry
and rather elevated region. The resinous tribe produces the best timber in cold moun-
tainous regions in every part of the globe. The oak, the chestnut, and the mahogany,
delight in strong soils and moderate temperatures, such as skirt the bottoms of mountains.
In general, no species of timber is found to be durable whicli has been produced in low,
moist, warm situations.
114 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
523. Climates highly favorable for the productions of gardening, are often unfavorable
to thejn-ogress of the art. In Persia and some parts of America, where the finest peaches
are produced, the art of grafting is unknown or not practised ; and, in general, in the
hot countries, where melons, gourds, and other rapid-growing annuals so readily produce
their fruit, the culture of culinary leaves and legumes is neglected. In the West India
islands and great part of America, the gourd serves the purposes of the cabbage, turnip,
lettuce, and spinach, and with garlic, onions, and yams, constitutes their principal culi-
nary crops. Chardin, after enumerating the natural products of Persia, says, " we are
not to conclude from thence that they have the finest gardens in the world ; on the
contrary, by a very general rule, there, where nature has been most abundant and liberal
in her productions, art is proportionably rude and unknown ; for, nature having gardened
so well, almost nothing is left for art."
524. Climates a?id soils comparatively unfavorable for fruits and plants, are naturally
conducive to skill in gardening. A very variable and unsettled climate, Neill observes
{Gen. Report of Scotland, ch. ix.), tends to call into action all the powers of the mind,
and to produce habits of increasing attention ; and where a gardener is able to raise
tolerable crops, both of the more tender fruits and vegetables, in climates and situations
adverse to the production of either, be has doubtless more real merit in accomplishing
his object, even though the articles should be somewhat inferior in quality, than he who,
in a propitious soil and climate, raises them to the utmost perfection. Yet the merits of
such a gardener are often overlooked, and the master, through ignorance or indifference,
or a niggardly penuriousness of approbation, receives that as an effort of mechanical
routine, which is due to a rare union of science, skill, and indefatigable attention.
525. The climate and country of England, Sir W. Temple considers as highly favor-
able for gardening. " Perhaps few countries," he says, "are before us in the number
of our plants, and I believe none equals us in a variety of fruits, which may be justly
called good, and from the earliest cherry and strawberry to the last apples and pears,
may furnish every day of the circling year. For the taste and perfection of what we
esteem the best, I may truly say that the French , who have eaten my peaches and grapes
at Shene, in no very ill year, have generally concluded, that the last are as good as any
they have eaten in France on this side Fontainbleau : and the first as good as any they
have ate in Gascony ; I mean those which come from the stone, and are properly called
peaches, not those which are hard, and are termed pavies ; for these cannot grow in too
warm a climate, nor ever be good in a cold, and are better at Madrid than in Gascony
itself. Italians have agreed, my white figs to be as good as any of that sort in Italy,
which is the earlier kind of white fig there ; for in the latter kind and the blue, we cannot
come near the warm climates, no more than in the Frontignan or Muscat grape. My
orange-trees are as large as any I saw when I was young in France, except those of
Fontainbleau, or what I have since seen in the Low Countries, except some very old
ones of the Prince of Orange's ; as laden with flowers as can well be, as full of fruit as
I suffer or desire them, and as well tasted as are commonly brought over, except the
best sorts of Seville and Portugal. And thus much I could not but say in defence of
our climate, which is so much and so generally decried abroad. — The truth is, our
climate wants no heat to produce excellent fruits ; and the default of it is only the short
season of our heats and summers, by which many of the latter are left behind, and im-
perfect with us. But all such as are ripe before the end of August are, for aught I know,
as good with us as any where else. This makes me esteem the true regions of gardens
in England to be the compass of ten miles about London ; where the incidental warmth
of air, from the fires and steams of so vast a town, makes fruits, as well as corn, a great
deal forwarder than in Hampshire or Wiltshire, though more southward by a full degree."
Sect. II. Influence of Climate and Manners on Gardening, as an Art of Design and Taste.
526. Taste in gardening depends jointly on the state of society, and on climate. Since
the introduction of the modern or natural style of gardening into Britain, it has been a
common practice to condemn indiscriminately every other taste as unnatural and
absurd. If by unnatural, an allusion is made to the verdant scenery of uncultivated
nature, we allow that this is the case ; but we would ask, if for that reason, it follows
that ancient gardens were not as natural and reasonable in their day, as any of the man-
ners and customs of those times? Gardening, as a liberal art, is destined to create
scenes, in which both beauty and use are combined; admitting, therefore, that both
styles are alike convenient, to say that the modern only is beautiful, is to say that there
is only one sort of beauty adapted to gardening ; or that there is no beauty but that of
the picturesque ; or that all former ages, and every country, excepting Britain, is in a
state of barbarism with respect to this art. If we take the term natural in a more exten-
sive sense, and apply it to the climate, situation, condition, and manners of a people ;
and if we allow these to be natural, why may not their gardening be natural, as well as
their particular customs and dress ? The gardening we now condemn so unreservedly,
Book II. IN DIFFERENT CLIMATES. 115
has subsisted, as we have seen, from the earliest ages in warm climates; and still pre-
vails there, as well as in more temperate countries, whose inhabitants are not altogether
ignorant of the modern style. It may, therefore, be said to have grown up with man-
kind, and at all events must be perfectly suited to the wants and wishes of the inhabit-
ants of such countries.
527. The fitness and beauty of any style must depend on the purposes to which it is
applied, and the kind of rural beauty already prevalent in the country of its adoption.
The gardens of the east, we have every reason to believe, were used more as arbors or conservatories
are in this country, than as places of exercise and active enjoyment. The object was repose, indolent re-
creation, sedentary or luxurious enjoyment. To breathe the fresh air, shaded from a tropical sun ; to
inhale the odor of flowers ; to listen to the murmur of breezes or fountains ; to the singing of birds ; or to
observe the minute beauties of the surrounding foliage, were, and still continue to be, the ordinary class
of beauties desired in an eastern garden. A higher and more voluptuous kind, consisted in using it as a
banqueting-place, bath, or seraglio, as is still the case in Turkey and Persia ; in feasting the eyes with the
sight of dancing beauties ; in ravishing the ears with concerts of vocal or instrumental music, and in firing
every sense with wine. Exercise was incompatible with that languor of body, which is attendant on a
warm climate and a distant prospect ; inconsistent with security from wild beasts, and that privacy which
selfishness or jealousy might dictate. " The Persians," Chardin observes, " do not walk in gardens so
much as we do, but content themselves with a bare prospect, and breathing the fresh air. For this reason,
they set themselves down in some part of the garden at their first coming in, and never move from their
seats till they are going out of it." {Travels, ch. vi.) " Nothing surprises the people of the East Indies so
much as to see Europeans take pleasure in exercise. They arc astonished to see people walk who might
sit still." (Kinderley's Letters from the East Indies, p. 182.) Add to this, that the natural surface of warm
countries is generally so parched with heat, as to be far less agreeable to look on than the verdure of a
limited space, kept luxuriant by water. " Before the end of May," Uussel remarks, " the whole country
round Aleppo puts on so parched and barren an aspect, that one would scarcely think it capable of produc-
ing any thing but the very few plants which still have vigour enough to resist the extreme heats."
(UusseVs Aleppo, p. 13.) If to these we subjoin the use of fruit, and, what is common to every exertion of
man, a desire of obtaining applause for the employment of wealth and skill, we shall include every object
sought in an eastern garden. An eastern garden, therefore, appears to have been a collection of all those
beauties found scattered about in general nature, in order to adapt them to the use and enjoyment of
man.
528. The plan of an eastern garden ivas well calculated to attain the ends in view.
Moderate extent and immediate connection with the house, are necessary and obvious
ingredients in their design. The square form was adapted for the enclosure as the sim-
plest ; the trees ranged in rows, to afford continuity of shade ; and the walks laid out
parallel between them, to admit uninterrupted progress ; that walk parallel to, and close
under the house, as a raised platform or terrace, to give elevation and dignity to the
house, to give the master a commanding view of the garden, and to serve as a connecting
link between art and comparative nature. By leaving open plots or squares of turf in
the areas, formed by intersecting rows of trees, a free circulation of air would be faci-
litated ; and the same object, as Pliny informs us, is promoted by the quincunx, which
admits the breeze from every quarter of the compass more readily than any other dis-
position. A picturesque or natural arrangement would have stagnated the air, and
defeated one of the grand purposes in view. The same reasons would guide them in
their choice of spreading broad-leaved trees; and to thicken their boughs, or deprive
them of such branches as were too low, or tended to destroy the balance of the tree, the
pruning-knife would be occasionally applied. Water in every form suggests the idea
of coolness ; but agitated in cascades, fountains, or jets-d'eau, it is used to the best ad-
vantage, and the heat of the atmosphere is moderated in proportion to the evaporation
which takes place. In still ponds or basins it has another property, that of reflecting the
objects around it. Buildings, as arbors, aviaries, covered seats, banqueting-houses, baths,
and grottoes, would become requisite for their respective uses, and would abound in pro-
portion to the wealth or rank of the owner. Fruit-trees would be introduced in ap-
propriate situations for the sake of their fruit, and a choice of odoriferous flowers and
shrubs would fringe the margin of the walks, to admit of a more easy inspection of their
beauties, and nearer contact of their odors with the olfactory nerves ; they would also
be disposed in greater profusion, in curious knots or parterres near to the house, or in
front of the resting-places or banqueting-rooms. In time, even artificial objects of
value, as dials, statues, vases, and urns, would be added, in order to create as much
variety and interest in a small spot as was consistent with its utility. Such we have
found to be the general arrangement of eastern gardens ; and as there seems no more
obvious way of attaining the wants of those to whom they belonged, we may pronounce
it to be perfectly reasonable and natural.
529. As to the more extensive paradises or paries in which wild beasts were admitted, and
even whole regiments exercised, we have but few authentic particulars respecting them.
Those of Assyria must be regarded as royal extravagancies, cafculated to excite astonish-
ment and admiration at their magnitude, and the art and expense employed in their
construction ; and if any reliance is to be placed in the account given by ancient authors
of the hanging gardens of Babylon, their design will be found singularly to unite this
object with the minor beauties of the confined garden ; to combine the splendor of mag-
nificence with the delights of the justest feelings of nature. They were situated over,
or according to some, adjoining to King Nebuchadnezzar's palace, or on a platform raised
I 2
116
HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.
by lofty pillars, on the banks of the Euphrates, in the middle of the city of Babylon.
They are said to have contained groves, fountains, and, in short, every object which we
have mentioned, as appertaining to the more ordinary description of eastern gardens.
Their object was to gratify his Median queen, by that sort of verdant scenery and distant
prospect, to which she had been accustomed in the more romantic country of her birth.
The height, then, would give that commanding prospect of the water and shipping of
the Euphrates, and the city, as well as the gardens within and without its walls, which
she particularly desired. The air in that elevated region would be more cool than below ;
the noise and bustle of the city would cease to be offensive ; the whole would be more
exposed to breezes and winds ; and the mind, deriving so much enjoyment in so singu-
lar and elevated a situation, must have experienced emotions at once sublime and roman-
tic. But a faint idea of these gardens will be excited, by imagining the quadrangle of
Somerset House crowned with a portion of Kensington gardens ; or of the summer
garden of Petersburgh placed over the Kremlin in Moscow.
530. How and with ivhat propriety the eastern style came afterwards to be adopted
in Greece, Italy, France, and finally in England, is our next enquiry. The principle or
instinct of imitation, would be the first cause why the more distant nations, whether
colonies from the east, or returning travellers or conquerors, adopted this parent style.
This is so obvious, as to require no comment beyond what will be furnished by individual
enquiry into our earliest tastes, habits, and predilections in dress, amusements, furniture,
and other matters of common life. The next principle is that of use or fitness, which
would vary in application, proportionably to the distance and different circumstances of
the imitating country. Thus it would not exactly apply in Greece or Italy, where the
climate was more temperate, active exercise more congenial, and the habits of the
wealthy, for a long time at least, comparatively frugal. Add to this, that verdant land-
scapes, shade, breezes, rills, waterfalls, and lakes, with their accompaniments of odors,
murmurs, singing birds, reflections of objects, were more liberally distributed over the
face of general nature. The more active character of man in such countries would, in
time, also appropriate to their use from this natural abundance, a greater variety of
fruits and legumes.
531. The eastern style assumed a variation in its character under the Romans. The
necessarily different culture required for perfecting fruits and culinary vegetables in a
different climate, would give rise to the orchard and kitchen-garden. This would
simplify the objects of the ornamental garden, which would thus exhibit less a collection
of natural beauties, than the display of art, the convenience of taking exercise, here a
pleasure rather than a fatigue, and the gratifications of shade, cool breezes, and aromatic
odors. A prospect of the surrounding country was desired, because it was beautiful ;
and where, from various circumstances, it was interrupted by the garden or its boundary
fence, mounds or hills of earth were raised, and, in time, prospect-towers appended to
the houses. Greater extent would be required for more athletic recreations, and would
be indulged in also by the wealth and pride of the owner for obvious reasons. Abridg-
ment of°labor would suggest the use of the sheers, rather than the more tardy pruning
knife in thickening a row of trees. A row of low trees so thickened, would suggest the
idea of a row of °clipt shrubs. Hence at first hedges; and subsequently, when art and
expense had exhausted every beauty, and when the taste had become tired of repetition,
verdant sculpture would be invented, as affording novel, curious, and fantastic beauty,
bordering, as do all extremes, upon absurdity. A more extended and absolute appropri-
ation of territory, than what we may suppose to have taken place in the comparatively
rude countries of the east, would lead to agricultural pursuits, and these again would
give rise to the various arrangements of a Roman country-residence which we know to
have existed, and which it would be superfluous to describe. Various other circumstances
might be added ; but enough has been stated to show that the gardening of the Romans
was perfectly natural to them, under the circumstances in which they were placed ; it
suited their wants, and produced scenes which they found to be beautiful, and was there-
fore in the justest taste. To have imitated the scenery of nature, or studied picturesque
beauty in a garden, would have been merely adding a drop to the ocean of beauties
which surrounded them. Expense incurred for this purpose could never have pro-
cured applause to the owner, since the more like nature the production, the less would
it excite notice. All that was left for man to do, therefore, was to create those beauties
of art, convenience, and magnificence, which mark out his dwelling-place, and gratify
his pride and taste by their contrast with surrounding nature.
532. The gardening of the Romans ivas copied in France and Britain, with little vari-
ation beyond those dictated by necessity and the difference of climate. It was found to be
perfectly beautiful and agreeable ; and would have continued to prevail, had Britain con-
tinued in similar circumstances to those in which she was at the time of its introduction.
But such has been the progress of improvement in this country, that the general face of
nature became as it were an ancient garden, and every estate was laid out, bounded, and
Book II.
IN DIFFERENT CLIMATES.
117
subdivided, by stripes of wood, rows of trees, canals, ponds, walls, and hedges. The
credit or distinction to be obtained here, by continuing (o employ the ancient style, could
be no greater than what the Romans would have obtained by imitating nature. In their
case all the country was one scene of uncultivated, in ours it was one scene of cultivated,
beauty. In this state of things the modern style was adopted, not solely from a wish to
imitate the gardening of the Chinese, or a high degree of refinement in taste, but from
the steady operation of the same motives which produced and continued the ancient style,
— a desire of distinction.
533. The modern style of gardening is unsuitable to countries not generally under cul-
tivation. The English style cannot long please in such countries as Sweden, Poland,
and America, otherwise than from its novelty, or as giving rise to certain associations
with the people, whose name it bears. What delight or distinction can be produced by
the English style in Poland, for example, where the whole country is one forest, and
the cultivated spots only so many open glades, with the most irregular and picturesque
sylvan boundaries ? But let a proprietor there dispose of the scenery around his resi-
dence in the Roman or French manner ; let him display a fruit or kitchen garden
bounded by high stone walls ; a farm subdivided by clipped hedges and ditches ; and a
pleasure-ground of avenues, stars, circles, fountains, statues, temples, and prospect-
towers, and he will gratify every spectator. The view of so much art, industry, and
magnificence, amid so much wild and rude scenery, awake so many social ideas of com-
fort and happiness, and so much admiration at the wealth and skill employed, that a
mind of the greatest refinement and the justest taste would feel the highest sensation of
pleasure, and approve as much of such a country -residence in the wilds of Poland or
America, as he would of the most natural and picturesque residence of England, amid
its highly artificial scenery. Such is the dreariness of the public roads in Poland,
Sweden, and Lapland, that the stran-
ger-traveller hails as marks of civili-
sation (Jig' 41.) what in cultivated
countries would fill his mind with
horror.
534. The modern style is not an
improvement on the ancient manner,
but the substitute of one style for
another. Part of the prevailing an-
tipathy to the ancient style proceeds
from a generally entertained idea,
that the modern is an improvement
on it, in the same way as a modern plough is an improvement on the clumsy implements
of our ancestors ; but the truth is, the two styles are as essentially and entirely different
in principle, as painting and architecture, the one being an imitative, and the other an
inventive art. The more the ancient style is improved and perfected, the more it will
differ from the modern style ; and neither improvement nor neglect of the modern style
\\ ill ever bring it a step nearer the ancient manner.
Landscape-gardening agrees with ancient gardening in no other circumstance than as employing the same
materials. It is an imitative art, like painting or poetry, and is governed by the same laws. The ancient
style is an inventive and mixed art, like architecture, and governed by the same principles. The beauties
which architecture and geometric gardening aimed at, were those of art and utility, in which art was every
where avowed. The modern style of gardening, and the arts of poetry and painting, imitate nature ; and,
in doing so, the art employed is studiously concealed. Those arts, therefore, can never be compared,
whose means are so ditferent ; and to say that landscape-gardening is an improvement on geometric
gardening, is a similar misapplication of language, as to say that a lawn is an improvement of a corn-field,
because it is substituted in its place. It is absurd, therefore, to despise the ancient style, because it has
not the same beauties as the modern, to which it never aspired. It has beauties of a different kind, equally
perfect in their manner as those of the modern style, and equally desirable under certain circumstances. The
question therefore is not, whether we shall admit occasional specimens of obsolete gardening, for the sake
of antiquity, but whether we shall admit specimens of a different style, from that in general use, but equally
perfect in its kind. (Ed. Encyc. art. Landscape Gardening.)
535. An enlightened mind will derive pleasure front every style. " When I perceive a
man," observes Sir W. Bridges, " incapable of deriving pleasure from more than one
style of composition, and dogmatising on its exclusive merit, I pity his weakness and de-
spise his presumption. When he narrows his curiosity, either to what is old or what is new ;
when he confines his praise, either to the dead or to the living, though in both cases he is
ridiculous, perhaps his folly is more evinced in the last." [Centura Liieraria, vol. viii.
p. 214.) It is the privilege of the man, who has opened to his mind by observation and
study all the springs of pleasant association, to delight by turns in the rudeness of solitary
woods, in the cheerfulness of spreading plains, in the decorations of refined art, in the
magnificence of luxuriant wealth, in the activity of crowded ports, the industry of cities,
the pomp of spectacles, the pageantry of festivals. (Ed. Rev, 1X06.)
536. We may therefore conclude that gardening, as an art of design, must be considered
relatively to the climate arid situation of the country, and habits and manners of the
I 3
US
SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
people, where it is employed ; and that the ancient and modern styles, viewed in this
licrht, 'are each perfectly natural, and equally meriting adoption, according to relative
circumstances ; less than from any positive beauty or advantages of either manner. We
are consequently of opinion, that the ancient style, divested of some ingredients which
relate to warm climates, and purified from the extravagances of extremes in decoration,
would be in much better taste in some situations in the Highlands of Scotland, and the
south of Ireland, than the modern style ; and that this style cannot, for a long series of
years, afford anv other satisfaction in many parts of other countries than what arises from
the temporary interest of novelty and accidental association. It may never be altogether lost
sight of in subsequent arrangements ; but whenever the influence of fashion has subsided,
the beauties of the ancient style will be desired, as fulfilling better the objects in view, till
landed property, in these countries, becomes enclosed, subdivided, and cultivated, as it is
in England.
Sect. III. Of the Climate of Britain, in respect to Gardening.
537. Britain, France, Holland, and the north of Italy, are unquestionably the best coun-
tries of Europe for European gardening ; and of these, the best parts are such as combine
hills and plains, rocks, rivers, and prospects.
538. The preference, of Britain, as to government and civilisation, and its equality at
least as to soil and surface, will not be disputed. As to climate, Charles II. in reply to
some who were reviling it, said, he thought " that was the best climate where he could be
abroad in the air with pleasure, or at least without trouble and inconvenience, the most
davs of the year, and the most hours of the day;" and this he thought could be done
in England more than in any other country he knew of in Europe.
539? Gravel and turf. There are, says Sir William Temple, " besides the temper of our
climate, two things particular to us, that contribute much to the beauty and elegance of our
gardens which are, the gravel of our walks, and the fineness and almost perpetual greenness
of our turf. The first is not known any where else, which leaves all their dry walks, in
other countries, very unpleasant and uneasy. The other cannot be found in France or
in Holland as we have it, the soil not admitting that fineness of blade in Holland, nor
the sun that greenness in France, during most of the summer ; nor indeed is it to be
found but in the finest of our soils." _
540. Neatness and greenth, says Lord Walpole, " are so essential in my opinion to the
country, that in France, where I see nothing but chalk and dirty peasants, I seem in a
terrestrial purgatory, that is neither in town nor country. The face of England is so
beautiful that I do not believe Tempe or Arcadia were half so rural ; for both lying in
hot climates, must have wanted the moss of our lawns." (Letters, ccli. 1796.)
541. Tliai which prevents the gardening of Britain from attaining to a much higher degree
of perfection as an art of taste, is not any natural deficiencies in our climate or soil, nor
the want of mean, to make the most of them, but the want of taste in the proprietors ;
for after all that has been done and written, there appear to be few who have a just
relish for that sort of beauty in pleasure-grounds which is properly called picturesque,
or such as a painter might introduce in a picture. We do not allude to any objects or
arrangements which would interfere with utility ; but to such a disposition of forms as
painters call grouping, connection, harmony, and, above all, to that general result which
is called unity of expression or character.
PART II.
GARDENING CONSIDERED AS A SCIENCE.
542. Knowledge, in the infancy of every art, is necessarily confined to particulars, but
after long observation and experience, the mind begins to generalise facts, and this is the
first step°towards the foundation of theory, or science ; which is nothing more than the
substitution of rational principles of action, for habits founded on custom or prejudice.
A number of generalised facts accumulated, the next process of the mind is to classify
or systematise them ; this is the highest effort in the progress of knowledge ; and that
art will be the most perfectly understood as a science, in which the greatest number of
facts, or in other words, the most extensive range of experience and observation, is gene-
ralised and arranged in a connected system.
543. Unfortified by the light of science, the practical man has no other assurance for the
success of the future, than the experience of the past, and no resource for unforeseen
events but ordinary expedients ; he resorts to general rules and precepts, which direct
what is to be done every where, and on every occasion, instead of applying to principles
Book I. THE STUDY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 119
for particular instructions, adapted to peculiar cases, or singular purposes. Industry
may be baffled, and hope defeated, by a thousand contingencies from causes incident
to every process of art or operation of nature. By these the mere routine-practitioner
is deranged, or thrown off his guard ; whilst the man of science refers events to their
true causes, suggests the adaptation of measures to meet every case ; and knowing the
laws of nature to be immutable, he operates on her materials with confidence in the
result. Science alone, however, without practical experience, will not ensure success,
and may at first end in disappointment. But " where theoretical knowledge and practi-
cal skill," as D. Stewart observes, " are happily combined in the same person, the intel-
lectual power of man appears in its full perfection, and fits him equally to conduct with
a masterly hand the details of ordinary business, and to contend successfully with the
untried difficulties of new and hazardous situations." {Elements of the Philosophy of the
Human Mind, p. 232. 2d. edit.)
544. The science of every art must necessarily depend on the end or object for which that
art is jn-actised ; on the nature of the materials employed to procure or attain those ends ;
and on the nature of the agents made use of by human skill to operate on those mate-
rials. The object of the art of gardening is twofold : that of cultivating vegetables for
use or ornament in domestic or general economy ; and that of forming arrangements
of external scenery, beautiful as such, and suitable for personal recreation. The first
object, therefore, to be ascertained on this subject, should be the wants, desires, and taste
of that society for which the gardening is intended ; the 2d, the study of the vegetable
kingdom ; the 3d, the study of the natural agents of garden-culture ; the 4th, that of
the artificial agents of garden-culture ; and the 5th, that of the operations of garden-cul-
ture. All the operations of territorial cultivation are either mechanical or chemical ;
and must therefore depend on the laws which govern the common materials of our globe.
Those laws, or the manner and circumstances in which these materials operate on each
other, constitute the limit of human science ; for any attempt to go farther and discover
first causes, inevitably ends in disappointment.
The first branch of the science of gardening:, or the study of society and taste, may be considered as
ascertained by every individual, from his own observation and experience ; that is, from the circumstance
of his being himself a specimen of the society for the time being. This branch, therefore, docs not require
farther consideration in a work like the present.
The second and third branches, in ivhich gardening is considered as a science of chejnical agencies, are
important subjects of study, and admit of much improvement ; though unquestionably considerable pro-
gress has been made within the last lifty years, since the study of vegetable physiology and chemistry have
become more general ; and since these arts have been enriched by the discoveries of Mirbel, Keyser,
Knight, Lavoisier, Chaptal, and Davy ; and applied to agriculture and horticulture by Davy and Knight,
in England, and Du Hamel, Thouin, and others, in France.
The fourth and fifth branches, in which gardening is considered as a science of mechanical operations, may
be said to have partaken of the general progress of the age, and to have adopted various improvements
made in architecture and engineering, in so far as they were found applicable to either its useful or agree-
able destinations. Here, however, there is still great room for advancement, especially in the construction
of hot-houses, and the formation of walled gardens.
The last branch, in ivhich gardening is considered as a science of design and taste, is founded on principles
common to other arts, as to architecture and landscape-painting, whose ends are similar ; and here, though
its science has long been as much neglected as in the other branches, yet now it may be considered to be
fully ascertained and fixed by Alison, Wheatley, and Price ; and applied by Whcatley and Price, in Eng-
land, and Girardin and De Lisle, in France.
545. To knoiv the science of any one art perfectly, woidd require a knoivledge of all the
others ivhich bear relation to it, or serve in any way to explain the nature and influence of
its operations and arrangements. But this is more than can be expected from men in
general (Aubert, in his Cours de Phytologie, Paris, 1816, gives a table of twenty sciences
as related to Botany alone) ; what cannot be hoped for from practical men ; and what
would require in a systematic view of gardening like the present, treatises on most of the
other arts. It is preferable, in our opinion, to draw from other branches of know-
ledge, the explanations which they afford of particular operations or phenomena, that
come into notice in discussing what we have laid down as leading principles of garden-
ing. Thus, in place of treating of chemistry, we have merely drawn from that science
what belongs to the study of vegetables, soils, and manures, Sec. ; instead of a treatise
on the mechanical powers, we have merely given an explanation of the principles on
which each class of implements and machines operates ; and in place of treating of archi-
tecture and painting, we have merely discussed the subject of design and composition in
these arts ; the first as applicable to buildings and artificial dispositions of ground, and
the second as directing the formation of real scenery.
BOOK I.
THE STUDY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
546. Organised bodies are divided into two orders ,• those endowed with sentiment, or
a consciousnesss of their existence, and those deprived of that sensibility. The study of
I 4
120 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
the former is designated zoology ; that of the latter, botany or phytology. In the latter
science, modern botanists have introduced the following subdivisions : — 1. Systematic
botany ; in which plants are studied apart, as distinct beings, and considered in respect
to their resemblances, differences, nomenclature, and classification. 2. Vegetable ana-
tomy and physiology ; or the study of plants as living beings, in which is considered
the form of their organs, and their mode of nourishment and of multiplying themselves.
3. Botanical geography ; in which plants are considered relatively to climate, surface,
soil, country, habitation, &c. 4. Applied botany ; in which vegetables are considered
with respect to the wants of man and other animals ; and which includes the study
of the medical and economical properties of plants ; the means by which man procures
such as he wants, either by searching for them in a wild state or by cultivation.
This last department of the science may be considered as including agriculture and
gardening ; but these are parts of it so vast and important as to form separate branches
of study. Conformably to this view of the subject, we have here considered the study of
plants as to history, glossology, phytography, taxonomy, organology, anatomy, chemis-
try, physiology, pathology, geography, and culture.
Chap. I.
Origin, Progress, and present Stale of the Study of Plants.
547. The study of plants may be regarded as coeval urith the creation of man, because they
are in a great measure indispensable to the support of animal life. The first stage in the
progress of this study would be that in which the attention of the human mind was di-
rected to the discrimination of spontaneous vegetables, as fit for food. A second stage,
that in which men began to direct their attention to useful vegetables, as capable of
furnishing, by means of cultivation, an increased supply proportioned to the wants of
population. Then it was that agriculture, in the proper sense of the word, would com-
mence in society. A third stage was that in which plants began to be regarded as fur-
nishing not only necessaries, but comforts ; and from this period, whenever it happened,
may be dated the origin of horticulture. A fourth stage was that in wliich plants began
to be considered as furnishing, not merely comforts, but luxuries. Odors and beautiful
flowers would be prized ; and hence the origin of floriculture.
In taking a rapid view of the progress of the study of plants among the ancients and moderns, we pass
over the fabulous history of the Greeks, and commence with Solomon, who appears to have written a trea-
tise on vegetables somewhere about the year B. C. 1004. This work is lost ; and the next name in order is
Thales, in B. C. 604. To him succeeded the celebrated Pythagoras, about B. C. 550, who is believed to
have prohibited his disciples the use of beans, on account of a supposed identity of origin between beans and
human flesh. He is also said to have written a treatise on onions. Anaxagoras, another Greek philoso-
pher of this period, maintained that the seeds of all vegetables are lodged in the atmosphere ; from whence
they descend, along with the rain and dews into the earth, where they mingle with the soil, and spring up
into plants. Empedocles is said to have attributed sexes, desires, and passions to plants ; and Democritus
wrote a treatise on their smells. Hippocrates, about the year B. C. 409, introduced a new and enlightened
system of medical study, a subject intimately connected with that of plants ; and his contemporary,
Crategas, wrote a book on botany, of which some fragments lately existed in the imperial library at
Vienna. Aristotle, about B. C. 3o0, wrote a scientific work on plants, which, though also lost, is quoted
by contemporaries, and has thus obtained for its author the title of father of natural history, as well as
prince of metaphysicians. His disciple, Theophrastus, about B. C. 300, wrote on plants ; he described 500
species, and endeavours to account for the phenomena of vegetation.
Soon after Theophrastus, the Greek empire began to decline, and with it the study of plants. Botany,
with the other arts and sciences, migrated to Italy, in which it made some progress, as we may see by the
writings of Pliny, Virgil, and other georgical authors of the Augustan age. Those Roman writers, how-
ever, that can be considered strictly botanical, are only Dioscorides and Pliny. The work of the fonaer,
is a body of materia medica; that of the latter, Rousseau considers as a body cf receipts. Nothing is
known of the state of botany during the dark ages.
On the revival of the arts in the beginning of the fifteenth century, one of the first fruits it produced was
the introduction of figures from wooden cuts, by Brunsfelsius of Mayence, in Germany. His Histona
Plantation, published in the beginning of the sixteenth century, excited the emulation of other botanists ;
and soon after followed his countrymen, Bock, Cordus, Fuschius, Dodonsus, and Clusius. Matthiolus
was the first Italian, Delachamp and Bauhin the first Frenchmen, and Turner and Gerarde the first
Englishmen who caught the flame.
But though prints had been introduced, method was wanting, without whicli all study of natural history
must be of the most imperfect and limited kind. Gesner, a native of Zurich, in Switzerland, made the
first attempt at arranging plants into classes, orders, and genera, about the middle of the sixteenth cen-
tury. Cffisalpinus, a native of Tuscany, presented a similar arrangement at the same time, without know-
ing any thing of that of Gesner : a common occurrence in the history of inventions, and a proof that the
general state of botanical science rendered such an invention necessary. After this period the study of
botany proceeded with rapid strides ; and herbariums and copper-plates of plants were invented by
Columna of Naples.
Botanic gardens were established about the middle of the sixteenth century, first in Italy (90.), in
1533, and afterwards in France (183.), Germany (216*.), and England (372.), before the completion of the
sixteenth century. This circumstance contributed, in an astonishing degree, to the progress of the study
of plants, and procured the patronage of the wealthy.
Botany declined or was stationary, for the greatest part of the sixteenth century ; but revived, owing, as
it is thought, to a new direction given to the spirit of philosophical enquiry, by the illustrious Bacon. This
wonderful philosopher explored and developed the true foundations of human knowledge, with a sagacity
and penetration unparalleled in the history of mankind. He dared to disengage himself from the fetters
of academical authority, condemned the visionary speculations of the schools, and recommended the sub-
stitution of analytical and inductive investigation^ proclaiming truth to be but the image of nature.
Book I. THE STUDY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 121
The structure of plants, and the phenomena of vegetable life, began to attract attention in the seventeenth
century, 9000 years after it had been first attempted by Theophrastus. Malpighi, an Italian, and Grew,
an Englishman, carried on this study at the same time, unknown to each other; the result of their inves-
tigations were communicated to the scientific world, towards the end of the seventeenth century, remov-
ing in great part the veil which had hitherto enveloped the phenomena of vegetation. The plan which
these philosophers pursued, was that of experiment recommended by Bacon ; the result may be men-
tioned as the first fruits of his philosophy.
548. About the end of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth century, different
methods or systems for arranging and naming plants were produced by Herman and
Boerhaave, of Leyden ; Rivinus and others, in Germany ; Tournefort and Magnol, in
France ; and Morrison and Ray, in England. Of these systems and nomenclatures,
that of Tournefort was the most generally followed, of which we may give, as an instance,
the first six editions of Miller's Gardener s and Botanist's Dictionary. Tournefort's
system depended chiefly on the corolla ; but when the plants of America began to be
introduced, to them it was found impracticable in its application. All the other methods
were in different degrees defective, and it was not till the appearance of Linnteus that
this perplexity was removed.
549. LinncBits founded what is called the sexual system, deducing his rules of method
from incontrovertible principles ; establishing, in his Philosophica Pota?iica, laws of
generic and specific distinction, and rules of legitimate definition. This simplicity of
system, perspicuity of arrangement, and precision of language, has elevated botany to
the high rank it now holds in the scale of human science ; allured to the study of plants
men of the most distinguished abilities; and excited that ardor for botanical investigation
which characterises the present age. This new system, as founded on the sexes of plants,
naturally led Linnams to the study of the structure and phenomena of vegetables, and
tiiis effected at last a close and intimate union between systematic and physiological
botany. The propriety and advantage of this union are evident, since a thorough know-
ledge of plants involves both studies. The doctrines of Linna;us soon procured fol-
lowers in every country ; but the most distinguished of his immediate disciples, were
Kalm, Hasselquist, Lading, and Kcenig, all of whom travelled in pursuit of new plants,
under the auspices of their great master. Of his more remote disciples, may be named
as most distinguished, Gmelin, Oeder, Hedwig, Gasrtner, Lamarck, and Sir James
Edward Smith, the founder and president of the Linnocan Society of London, and pro-
prietor of the whole of the Linncean Herbarium ; from whose meritorious labors, botany
has derived and is still deriving important advantages.
Tlie study of physiological botany, however, was less attended to than that of methodical arrangement
by Linnaeus and his immediate disciples; and indeed, it would have been too much to have expected an
equal progress in both, by him who had made so astonishing an improvement in the one department. To
the names of Grew and Malpighi, in physiological botany, may be added, in addition to that of IinnseiU,
Hales, Bonnet, Du Hamsl, Hedwig, Spallanzani, and especially Priestley. This philosopher first brought
the aid of pneumatic chemistry to this study, which, under the direction of such men as Ingenhouse,
Senebier, and Sassure, has done more to illustrate the phenomena of vegetation, than all the other means
of investigation put together. If we add to these the ingenious hints and speculations of Darwin, in his
Botanic Garden, and in Phytologia ; the masterly experiments of Knight, given in the Philosophical
Transactions ; the vegetable physiology of Mirbel and Keyser ; with the systematic view of the whole sub-
ject by Keith, in his Introduction to Vegetable Physiology j we may assert with the latter writer,
" that our knowledge of the physiology of vegetables, may now be regarded as resting upon the foundation
of a body of the most incontrovertible facts, and assuming a degree of importance inferior only to that of
the physiology of animals." Such may be considered the present state of physiological botany.
550. The chief improvement which has been made in the systematic department since the
days of Linnceus, consists in the approximations that have been made to a method of ar-
rangement, founded on a more extended view of the relations of plants than is taken
in the Linna?an, or artificial system. By this system, which is designated natural, as
founded on the whole of the natural properties of the plant, the vegetable kingdom is thrown
into groups, and whoever knows any one plant in that group, will have some general idea
of the appearance and qualities of the whole. The use of such a classification for such as
already know plants individually, is therefore obviously great, though for discovering the
names of particular species, it is in its present state less convenient than the Linnaan sys-
tem, for owing to the small number of plants which are yet known to botanists, the groups
or classes of the natural method are far from being perfect.
551. The first scheme for a natural method of arranging plants was communicated to the
public by Linnxus in his Fragments of a Natural Method, published in 1738. The next
person who successfully traced the affinities of plants, was B. Jussieu, of Paris. In 1759,
he displayed his method in the arrangement of the plants in the royal gardens of Trianon,
near Paris. Afterwards, Michael Adanson, a pupil of Jussieu, who had travelled through
part of Africa, examined all the published systems, and paid the greatest attention to the
natural affinities of vegetables, published a very learned and useful work, Fam'dles des
Plantes, in 176:3. But it is to A. L. Jussieu, of the National Institute, nephew of the
elder Jussieu, that the science of natural affinities owes most ; and his Genera Plantarum,
published in 1789, is considered "the most learned botanical work that has appeared since
the Species Plantarum of Linnaaus, and the most useful to those who study the philosophy
(SS SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part IL
of botanical arrangement." Ventenat has lately published a commentary on the writings
of A. L. Jussieu ; and this author himself is now publishing a Species Plantarum, arranged
according to his method. Professor Decandolle, of Geneva, considered one of the first
French botanists, is also a follower of this system, in which he has made some improve-
ments (T/ieorie de la Botanique, 1817), and he also is occupied with a Specks Plantarum,
arranged according to his own improvements.
552. Botanical geography, or the knowledge of the places where plants grow (habita-
tiones plajitarum), and the causes which influence their distribution over the globe, was
totally neglected by the ancients. Clusius is the only botanist who before the eighteenth
century took any pains to indicate the native countries of plants. Bauhin and Tournefort
often neglected it. Linnasus is the first who gave the idea of indicating it in general
works on botany, and his Floras of Sweden and Lapland are models of their kind in this
respect. Since this period many excellent Floras have appeared, among which the Flora
Britannica, by Sir J. E. Smith, and the Flora Franqaise, by Professor Decandolle, may
be mentioned as examples. The first grand effort at generalising the subject, was made
by Humboldt, in his Essai sur la Geographic des Plants, &c. 1811. This essay is rich in
facts, and filled, like all the works of this philosopher, with new and ingenious views of
nature. In a subsequent work, De Distributione Plantarum, 1815, he has more especially
examined the influence of elevation of surface on vegetation. Professor Decandolle, has
also given some views relatively to the subject, in his Flora Franqaise, and R. Brown,
one of the first botanists in this country, in Remarks on the Botany of Terra Australis, and
on the Plants of Congo. On the whole, however, this branch of botany, the most import-
ant for agriculture and gardening, and without some knowledge of which, naturalisation,
and even culture, must go on by mere hazard, may be regarded as still in its infancy, »
553. With respect to applied botany, its history would involve that of medicine, agricul-
ture, gardening, and other mixed and mechanical arts. Plants, it may be observed, have in
every age but the present, formed the chief articles of the materia medica of all countries.
At present the mineral kingdom is chiefly resorted to by the practitioners of the healing
art in Europe ; but plants retain their ground in other countries ; and fashion, which en-
ters into every thing, may change, after exercising a certain degree of influence. The
universal use of the vegetable kingdom in the dietetics of every country ; in the arts of
clothing, architecture, and, in short, in almost every branch of industry, need not be en-
larged on.
554. Fossil botany, as studied from the impressions of plants found in the secondary
strata of the earth, has only lately begun to attract attention ; but the essays of Schlot-
theim, Knor, Martin, Faujas de St. Fond, and Parkinson's Essay on Organic Remains,
deserve to be mentioned.
Chap. II.
> Glossology, or the Names of the Parts of Plants.
555. All the arts and sciences require to express, with brevity and perspicuity, a crowd of
ideas unused in common language, and unknown to the greater part of men. Whence that
multitude of terms, or technical turns, given to ordinary words which the public turn
often into ridicule, because they do not feel the use of them, but which all those are
obliged to make use of, who apply themselves to any study whatever. Botany having to
describe an immense number of beings, and each of these beings having a great variety of
organs, requires a great variety of terms. Nearly all botanists are agreed as to these
terms ; and in order that they may be universally understood and remain unchanged in
meaning, they are taken from a dead or fixed language.
556. A plant in flower, surveyed externally, may be perceived to be composed of a variety
of obvious parts, such as the root, the stem, the branch, the leaf, the flower, the fruit, and
perhaps the seed ; and other parts less obvious, as buds, prickles, tendrils, hairs, glands,
&c. These, with their modifications, and all the relative circumstances which enter into
the botanical description of a plant, form the subject of glossology, the details of which,
involving the definition of some hundreds of terms, are here omitted ; because to those
conversant with them it would be of little use, and those who have them still to learn will
find it more convenient to have recourse to some elementary work, where most of them
are illustrated by figures. (See Smith's Introduction to Botany, Grammar of Botany*
and similar works.)
Book I. NAMES OF CLASSES, ORDERS, AND GENERA. 123
Chap. III.
Phytography, or the Nomenclature and DescrijUion of Plants.
557. The whole vegetable kingdom is divided into classes, orders, genera, species, and
varieties. A class is distinguished by some character which is common to many plants ;
an order is distinguished by having some character limited to a few plants belonging to a
class ; a still more limited coincidence constitutes a genus ; and each individual of a
genus, which continues unchanged when raised from seed, is called a species. A variety
is formed by an accidental deviation from the specific character, and easily returns by seed
to the particular species from which it arose.
558. Before botany became a regular science, plants were named as individual beings,
without regard to any relation which they had to one another. But from the great num-
ber of names to be retained on the memory, and the obvious affinities existing among
certain individuals or natural families, some method was soon found necessary, and it
was then deemed requisite to give such composite names as might recall to mind some-
thing of the individuals to which they were applied. Thus we have Anagalis flore cccruleo.
Mespilus aculeata pyrifolia, &c. But in the end the length of these phrases became in-
convenient ; and Linnaeus, struck with this inconvenience, proposed that the names of
plants should henceforth consist of two words only, the one the generic or family name,
and the other the specific or individual name.
559. The names of classes and orders were originally primitive, or without meaning, as
the Grasses of Tragus, Poppies of Bauhin, &c. ; and afterwards so compounded as to be
long and complex, as the Folloplostemonopetalcp, Eleutheromacrastemones, &c. of Wachen-
dorf. Linnajus decided, that the names of classes and orders should consist of a single
word, and that word not simple or primitive, but expressive of a certain character or
characters, found in all the plants which compose it.
560. In applying the names to plants, three rules are laid down by botanists : 1st, That the
languages chosen should be fixed and universal, as the Greek and Latin ; 2d, That these
languages should be used according to the general laws of grammar, and compound
words always composed from the same language, and not of entire words, &c. ; 3d, That
the first who discovers a being, and enregisters it in the catalogue of nature, has the right
of giving it a name ; and that that name ought to be received and admitted by naturalists,
unless it belong to a being already existing, or transgress the rules of nomenclature.
Ever)' one that discovers a new plant may not be able to enregister it according to these
laws, and in that case has no right to give it his name ; but the botanist who enregisters
it, and who is in truth the discoverer, may give it the name of the finder, if he chooses.
We shall notice this subject in the order of names of classes and orders, of genera, of
species, of varieties and subvarieties, descriptions of plants, dried plants or herbariums,
and methods of study.
Sect. I. Names of Classes and Orders.
561. The names of the classes and orders of Linnams and Jussieu, being exclusively
used at the present time, we shall pass over those of the earlier botanists.
562. The names of the Linncean classes and orders are, as far as practicable, expressive
of some common character belonging to all the plants which compose them, and consist
only of one word for the class, and another for the order, both compounded from the
Greek. There are exceptions, however, to the first rule in several of the classes
of the sexual system, as in Icosandria, Moncecia, Diacia, which contain plants that
have not the circumstances expressed in the title. Richard (Nouv. Elem. de Pol.
1819) has given some new names, which he proposes to substitute for the least perfect of
those fixed on by Linnams, but they are not likely to be generally received, at least in
this country.
563. The names of natural orders may be taken from such genera as may serve to re-
call the general relations of each tribe or order. The name of the order and generic
name, however, are at no time to be precisely the same j from the manifest impropriety
and confusion of arranging a thing under itself. Thus in the natural method of Linnaeus,
the order Palma? has no genus of that name. In the method of Jussieu, the name of an
order is composed from the name of one of the most characteristic genera of that order,
as Rosacece, a natural order of dicotyledonous plants, containing the well known genus
Bosa, &c. ; and while the name of an order is terminated by two syllables, that of a sub-
order is terminated by one only ; as Rosacea:, Rosce ; Ranunculacete, Ranuncula.
Sect. II. Names of Genera.
564. Names from the Greek or Latin are exclusively admitted by modern botanists, all
others being esteemed barbarous. Without this rule we should be overwhelmed, not only
124 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
with a torrent of uncouth and unmanageable words, but we should be puzzled where to
fix our choice, as the same plant may have fifty different original denominations in differ-
ent parts of the world, and we might happen to choose one by which it is least known.
There are however some exceptions, such as Acacia, Alisma, which are of Celtic origin,
and jEruo, AkhemUla, derived from the Arabic.
565. Such names as indicate some striking peculiarity in the genus are to be preferred :
as Glycyrrhiza, a sweet root, for the liquorice ; Amaranthus, without decay, for an ever-
lasting flower ; Helianthus, a sun-flower ; Lithospermum, a stony seed ; Eriocalia, a
flower with a singularly woolly base or cup ; Origanum, an ornamental mountain plant ;
Hemerocallis, beauty of a day; Arenaria, a plant that inhabits sandy places; and Gypso-
phila, one that loves a chalky soil. Such as mark the botanical character of the genus,
when they can be obtained for a nondescript plant, are peculiarly desirable ; as Cerato-
petalum, from the branched horn-like petals ; Lasiopetalum, from the very singularly-
woolly corolla ; Calceolaria, from the shoe-like figure of the same part ; Concilium, from
the exact resemblance of its fruit to a bivalve shell.
566. To dedicate certain pla?its to the honor of distinguished perso?is has been customary
in all ao-es. Thus Euphorbia commemorates the physician of Juba a Moorish prince,
and Gentiana immortalises a king of Illyria. The scientific botanists of modern times
have adopted the same mov'.e of preserving the memory of benefactors to their science ;
and though the honor may have been sometimes extended too far, that is no argument
for its total abrogation. Some uncouth names thus unavoidably deform our botanical
books ; but this is often effaced by the merits of their owners, and it is allowable to model
them into grace as much as possible. Thus the elegant Tournefort made Gundelia, from
Gundelscheimer ; which induced Sir J. E. Smith to choose Goodenia, for his friend Dr.
Goodenough, though it has, when too late, been suggested that Goodenovia might have
been preferable. Some difficulty has arisen respecting French botanists on account of
the additional names by which their grandeur, or at least their vanity, was displayed
during the existence of the monarchy. Hence Pittonia was applied to the plant conse-
crated0 to Pitton de Tournefort; but Linnaeus preferred the name by which alone he was
known out of his country, or in learned language, and called the same genus Tourne-
fortia.
567. A fanciful analogy between botanists and the plants named after them has been
made by Linnaeus in the Crilica Botanica. Thus Bauhinia, after the two distinguished
brothers John and Gaspard Bauhin, has a two-lobed or twin leaf. Scheuchzeria, a grassy
alpine plant, commemorates the two Scheuchzers, one of whom excelled in the knowledge
of alpine productions, the other in that of grasses. Borstenia, with its obsolete flowers,
devoid of all beauty, alludes to the antiquated and uncouth book of Dorstenius. Her-
■nandia, an American plant, the most beautiful of all trees in its foliage, but furnished
with trifling blossoms, bears the name of a botanist highly favored by fortune, and al-
lowed an ample salary for the purpose of investigating the natural history of the Western
world, but whose labors have not answered the expense. On the contrary, Magnolia,
with its noble leaves and flowers, and Dilenia, with its beautiful blossoms and fruit,
serve to immortalise two of the most meritorious among botanists. Linncea, a de-
pressed abject Lapland plant, long overlooked, flowering at an early age, was named by
Gronovius after its prototype Linnaeus.
Sect. III. Names of Species.
568. Specif c natnes should be formed on similar principles to the generic ones; but some
exceptions are allowed, not only without inconvenience, but with great advantage.
Such as express the essential specific character are unexceptionable, as Banksia serrata,
integrifolia, dentata, &c. ; but perhaps those which express something equally certain,
but not comprehended in that character, are still more useful, as conveying additional
information, like Ixora alba and coccinea, Scleranthus annuus and perennis, Alctris fra-
grans, Saxifraga cernua, Sec. ; for which reason it is often useful, that vernacular names
should not be mere translations of the Latin ones. Comparative appellations are very
good, as Banksia eric folia, Andromeda salicifolia, Saxifraga bryoides, Milium cimicinum,
Eh/mus Hystrix, Pedicularis Sceptrum. Names which express the local situations of
different species are excellent, such as Melampyrum arvense, pratense, nemorositm and
sylvaticum, Carex arenaria, uliginosa and sylvatica, as well as aquatica, maritima,
rupestris, dlpina, nivalis, used for many plants. But names derived from particular
countries or districts are liable to much exception, few plants being sufficiently local to
justify their use. Thus Ligusticum cornubiense is found not only in Cornwall, but in
Portugal, Italy, and Greece; Schwenkia americana grows in Guinea as well as in
South America. Such therefore, though suffered to remain on the authority of
Linnams, will seldom or never be imitated by any judicious writer, unless Trollius
eurapemu and asiaticus may justify our naming the third species of that genus, lately
brought from America, americanus. The use of a plant is often commodiously ex-
Book I. NAMES OF SPECIES AND VARIETIES. 125
pressed in its specific name, as Brassica oleracca, Papavcr somniferum, Inocarpus cdulis ;
so is likewise its time of flowering, as Primula veris, Leucojum vernum, cestivum, and
autumnale, and Helleborus hyemalis.
569. When a plant has been erroneously made a distinct genus, the name so applied to it
may be retained for a specific appellation, as Lathrcca Phelypcca, and Bartsia Gymnan-
dra ; which may also be practised when a plant has been celebrated, either in botanical,
medical, or any other history, by a particular name, as Origanum Bictamnus, Artemisia
Dracunculus, Laurus Cinnamomum, Selinum Carvifol'm, Carica Papaya. In either case
the specific name stands as a substantive, retaining its own gender and termination, and
must begin with a capital letter.
570. A specific name is occasionally adapted to some historical fact belonging to the plants
or to the person whose name it bears, as Linncea borealis, from the great botanist of
the north ; Murraa exotica, after one of his favorite pupils, a foreigner ; B 'rowed 'Ha
demissa and elata, from a botanist of humble origin and character, who afterwards became
a lofty bishop. In like manner Buffonia tenuifolia, is well known to be a satire on the
slender botanical pretensions of the great French zoologist.
571. Names sanctioned by general use are for the most part held sacred among botanists.
The study of natural history is, from the multitude of objects with which it is conver-
sant, necessarily so encumbered widi names, that students require every possible assist-
ance to facilitate the attainment of those names, and have a just right to complain of
every needless impediment. The names established throughout the works of Linnaeus,
are become current coin, nor can they be altered without great inconvenience. Those
who alter names, often for the worse, according to arbitrary rules of their own, or in
order to aim at consequence, which Uiey cannot otherwise attain, are best treated with
silent neglect. When, however, solid discoveries and improvements are made in the
science ; when species or genera have been confounded by Linnaeus himself, and new
ones require to be separated from them, the latter must necessarily receive appropriate
appellations ; as also when a totally wrong and absurd name has by mistake been given,
as Begonia capensis. In such cases names must give place to things, and alterations
proceeding from such causes must be submitted to. [Smith's Introduction, ch. 22.)
Sect. IV. Names of Varieties and Subvarieties.
572. The names which botanists give to varieties are of the simplest description ; they
always convey an idea of the variation which has taken place, and are used in addition
to the specific name. Thus we have Caltha palustris, the species, and palustris Jlorc
pleno, the double-flowered caltha, &c. As a series of species are commonly numbered
1, 2, 3, &c. so the varieties of a species, are generally, for distinction sake, designated
by the letters of the Greek alphabet, thus : Brassica oleracea, the species ; a. Capitata,
the first species ; )8. Bubra, the second species ; y. Sabauda ; 5. Sabellica, &c.
573. Subvarieties of plants are accidental modifications of varieties of a very temporary
and fluctuating nature. They are generally produced by culture, and are more espe-
cially known in garden-fruits, culinary vegetables, and what are called florists' flowers.
The differences among subvarieties are generally so slight, or so difficult to define, as
not to admit of the application of scientific names. Botanists, therefore, pay no
attention to them ; but gardeners, to whom they are of considerable importance, have
found it necessary in some way or other to distinguish them, and they generally apply
the name of the person or place, by whom or where, they were originated. Tims Pyrus
malus is the crab or apple, P. malus var. domestica, the cultivated apple. Pyrus
malus var. domestica subvar. Downton pippin, apple raised from seed at Downton.
P. m. v. d. subvar. Kirk's fame, &c. Brassica oleracea var. capitata, common white
cabbage. B. o. var. c. subvar. Battersea early common cabbage, an early variety
raised at Battersea. Dianthus caryophyllus is the clove pink. D. c. var. flore pleno
is the carnation. Dian. cary. var. fi. pi. subvar. Hogg's seedling, a variety of carnation
raised by Hogg. D. c. fl. pi. subvar. Lady Jane Grey, a variety of carnation named
after Lady Jane Grey. A refinement on this sort of nomenclature consists in adding
the name of the person who originated the subvariety, to the name of the person or
place after whom or which it was named ; thus, Hogg's Lady Jane Grey, Duncan's
Cheshire hero, &c. " To raise a fine new variety of any florist's flower, to name it after
some great personage, and with that name to couple your own, is the greatest honor,
says Emmerton (Treatise on the Auricula), which a florist can aspire to."
574. Na7nes of subvarieties which indicate something of their properties are to be preferred,
as Black July-grape, June-eating-apple, &c. ; or such as indicate the place or time where
or when they were originated or abound, as Deptford onion, Claremont nuptials primrose,
or the Afflicted queen carnation. Such names convey ideas which may prove useful
as to the qualities of the variety : thus the first and second names convey some idea of
the time of ripening ; the third, some idea of the soil and climate in which the plant
thrives ; the fourth and fifth, the date, and consequently the age of the variety.
126
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
40
-"=- Deciduous tree.
*T_ Evergreen tree.
jif Deciduous spiry-topt tree.
JLl Erergr. spiry-topt tree.
*■£* Deciduous shrub.
3aL Evergreen shrub
I
„j£» Twining shrub.
i
Climbing shrub.
^^£ Trailing shrub,
fftff Crcepuig shrub.
&£?i. Under-shrub.
i^K^ Perennial grass.
i
_3Xm Trviiung perennial.
i
-j^. Climliing perennial.
SA^/ Trailing perennial.
^~ j Creeping perennial.
,\ Bulbous perennial.
-ohJ Tuberous perennial.
~7f Fusiform perennial.
fry Annual.
j^r, Biennial.
4
_JjR/ Annual grass.
tScitanunous plant.
-y$V Aquatic.
/fjT Parasite.
\^ Succulent.
I Bark-store.
I Dry-stove.
I ■ Grcn-huse.
) Frame.
|<^j Bark stove deciduous tree.
lw> Dry -stove deciduous shrub.
\*& Green-house aquatic.
I £' f"ru»i- shrub.
Sect. V. Descriptions cf Plants.
515. Plants are described by the use of language alone, or
by language and figures, models, or dried plants conjoined. The
description of plants may be either abridged or complete. The
shortest mode of abridgment is that employed in botanical
catalogues, as in those of Donn or of Sweet. A complete
description, according to Decandolle, ought to proceed in the
following order : —
1 . The admitted name.
2. The characteristic phrase.
3. The synonyms.
4. The description, comprehending the
organs, beginning with the root.
o. The" history, that is, the country, du-
ration, station, habitual time of foliation and
exfoliation, of flowering, and of ripening the
seed.
6. Application, which includes the cul-
ture and uses.
". Critical or incidental observations.
576. Descriptions are, in general, written in Latin, the names
in the nominative, and followed by epithets which mark their
modifications, and which are not united by a verb, unless that
becomes necessary to explain any circumstance which is not
provided for in the ordinary form of the terms. Doubts as
to the received ideas on the plant described, or any other mis-
cellaneous matters, are to be placed under the last article.
577. Collections of botanical descriptions may be of different
sorts, as
1. Monographs, or descriptions of one
genus, tribe, or class, as Lindley's Mono-
graphia Rosarum.
2. Floras, or an enumeration of the plants
of any one district or country, as Smith's
Flora Britannica.
5. Gardens, or an enumeration, descrip-
tive or nominal, of the plants cultivated
in any one garden, as Aiton's Hortus
Ketvensis.
•1. General norks, in which all known
plants are described, as Willdenow's Species
Plantarum, and Persoon's Synopsis Species
Plantarum.
All these classes of books may be with or
without plates or figures; and these again,
may be of part or of the whole plant, and
colored or plain, &c. Some botanists have
substituted dried specimens for figures, which
is approved of in cases of difficult tribes or
genera ; as in the grasses, ferns, geraniums,
ericas, &c.
578. Collections of descriptions of plants in what are called
gardens or catalogues, form one of the most useful kinds of
botanical books for the practical gardener. The most complete
of these hitherto published is the Hortus Suburbamis Londinensis
of R. Sweet ; but this, as well as all other works of the kind,
admit of being rendered much more descriptive by a more ex-
tensive use of abbreviated terms, and even by the use of picto-
rial signs, (fig. 45.) Sweet's Hortus gives the Linnsean and
natural class and order, systematic and English name, authority,
habitation in the garden, time of flowering, year of introduction,
and reference to engraved figures ; but there might be added
on the same page, the height of the plant, color of the flower,
time of ripening the seed or fruit, soil, mode of propagation,
and the natural habitation of such as are natives. Instead
of the usual mark ( \i ) for a ligneous plant, pictorial types
might be introduced to indicate whether it was a tree or shrub,
deciduous or ever-green, spiry topt, a palm, climbing, twining
or trailing, &c. ; and instead of the common sign for a per-
ennial (11), biennial (£), or annual (0), something of
the natural character of the plant might be similarly indi-
cated. A single line of a catalogue formed on this principle
would expand into a long paragraph of ideas in the mind of the
botanist or gardener, and might easily be rendered a Species
Plantarum, by introducing short specific characters in single
lines on the page opposite the catalogue lines, as in Galpine's
Compendium of the British Flora. It might farther, by sub-
joining notes to all the useful or remarkable species at the
bottom of every page, be rendered a history of plants, includ-
ing their uses in the arts and manufactures, and their culture
in agriculture or gardening. Such an Encyclopedia of Plants*
with other improvements, we, with competent assistance, have
sometime since commenced, and hope soon to submit to the
public.
Book 1. FORMATION OF HERBARIUMS. 127
Sect. VI. Of 'forming and preserving Herbariums.
579. Dried pla?itsfar surjyass either draivings or descriptions in giving complete ideas of
their appearance. When plants are well dried, the original forms and positions of even
their minutest parts, though not their colors, may at any time be restored by immersion
in hot water. By this means the productions of the most distant and various countries,
such as no garden could possibly supply, are brought together at once under our eyes,
at any season of the year.
580. The mode or state in which plants'are preserved, is generally desiccation, accom-
panied by pressing. Some persons, Sir J. E. Smith observes, recommend the preservation
of specimens in weak spirits of wine, and this mode is by far the most eligible for such as
are very juicy ; but it totally destroys their colors, and often renders their parts less fit
for examination, than by the process of drying. It is, besides, incommodious for frequent
study, and a very expensive and bulky way of making an herbarium.
581. The greater part of plants dry with facility between the leaves of books, or other papa;
the smoother" the better. If there be plenty of paper, they often dry best without
shifting ; but if the specimens are crowded, they must be taken out frequently, and the
paper dried before they are replaced. The great point to be attended to is, that the
process should meet with no check. Several vegetables are so tenacious of their vital
principle, that they will grow between papers ; the consequence of which is, a destruc-
tion of their proper habit and colors. It is necessary to destroy the life of such, either
by immersion in boiling water, or by the application of a hot iron, such as is used for
linen, after which they are easily dried. The practice of applying such an iron, as some
persons do, with great labor and perseverance, till the plants are quite dry, and all
their parts incorporated into a smooth flat mass is not approved of. This renders them
unfit for subsequent examination, and destroys their natural habit, the most important
thing to be preserved. Even in spreading plants between papers, we should refrain
from that precise and artificial disposition of their branches, leaves, and other parts,
which takes away from their natural aspect, except for the purpose of displaying the
internal parts of some one or two of their flowers, for ready observation. The most
approved method of pressing. is by a box or frame, with a bottom of cloth or leather,
like a square sieve. In this, coarse sand or small shot may be placed, in any quantity.
Very little pressing is required in drying specimens ; what is found necessary should
be applied equally to every part of the bundle under the operation, and this can only be
done by the use of an equalising press of granulated matter, of compressed air, or of a
bag of water.
Dried specimens arc kept in herbariums in various ways : sometimes loose between leaves of paper ; at
other times wholly gummed or glued to paper, but most generally attached by one or more transverse slips
of paper, glued on one end and pinned at the other, so that such specimens can readily be taken out,
examined, and replaced. On account of the aptitude of the leaves and other parts of dried plants to drop
off,
and recommended
* many glue them entirely, and such seems to be the method adopted by Linna?us, and rec
by Sir J. E. Smith. " Dried specimens," the professor observes, " are best preserved by being fastened,
with weak carpenter's glue, to paper, so that they may be turned over without damage. Thick and heavy-
stalks require the additional support of a few transverse strips of paper, to bind them more firmly down.
A half sheet, of a convenient folio size, should be allotted to each species, and all the species of a genus
may be placed in one or more whole sheets or folios. On the outside of the latter should be written the
name of the genus, while the name of every species, with its place of growth, time of gathering, the finder's
name, or any other concise piece of information, may be inscribed on its appropriate paper. This is the
plan of the Linnxan herbarium." . -..-. -
In arranging dried specimens, the most simple and obvious guide is that of the order of their flowering,
or that in which they are gathered, and this mav be adopted during the summer season ; but afterwards
thev ou»ht to be put into some scientific method, either natural or artificial. They may be kept in a
cabinet, consisting of a collection of drawers for each order ; and the relative as well as absolute size of
these drawers will depend on the proposed extent of the collection, as whether of British plants only, of
bardy plants onlv, or of all plants introduced to this country. In the chapter on vegetable geography will
be found data for the size of the drawers under every case.
The flingi 'cannot in general be dried so as to retain the habit and character of the vegetating plant;
but this defect is supplied by models, of which excellent collections are prepared for sale by the Sowcrby
family, well known for their botanical works.
The perfect preservation of an herbarium is much impeded from the attacks of insects. A little beetle,
called Pt'inus fir. is more especially the pest of collectors, laying its eggs in the germens or receptacles of
flowers as well as on the more solid parts, which arc speedily devoured by the maggots when hatched, and
by their devastations, paper and plants are alike involved in ruin. The most bitter and acrid tribes, as
euphorbia gentiana, prunus, the svngencsious class, and especially willows, are preferred by these vermin.
The last-mentioned family can scarcely be thoroughly dried before it is devoured. Ferns are scarcely ever
attacked and grasses but seldom. To remedy this inconvenience, a solution of corrosive sublimate of
mercury 'in rectified spirits of wine, about two drams to a pint, with a little camphor, will be found per-
fectly efficacious. It is easily applied with a camel-hair pencil when the specimens are perfectly dry, not
before • and if they are not too tender, it is best done before they are pasted, as the spirit extracts a yellow
dye from many plants, and stains the paper. A few drops of this solution should be mixed with the glue
used for pasting. This application not only destroys or keeps off all vermin, but it greatly revives the colors
of most plants, giving the collection a most pleasing air of freshness and neatness. After several years'
experience, no inconvenience has been found from it whatever, nor can any dried plants be long preserved
The herbarium is best kept in a dry room without a constant fire. Linna?us had a stone building for his
museum remote from his dwelling-house, into which neither fire nor candle was ever admitted, yet
nothing was more free than his collection from the injuries of dampness, or other causes of decay.
{Smith's Introduction, ch. 24.)
128 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
Sect. VII. Of Methods of Study.
582. There are two methods of acquiring botanical knowledge, analogous to those by which
languages are acquired. The first is the natural method, which begins with the great and
obvious classes of vegetables, and distinguishes trees, grasses, &c. ; next individuals among
these ; and afterwards their parts or organs. This knowledge is acquired insensibly, as
one acquires 1 is mother-tongue. The second is the artificial method, and begins with
the parts of plants, as the leaves, roots, &c, ascending to nomenclature and classification,
and is acquired by particular study, aided by books or instructors, as one acquires a dead
or foreign language. This method is the fittest for such as wish to attain a thorough
knowledge of plants, so as to be able to describe them ; the other mode is easier, and the
best suited for cultivators, whose object does not go beyond that of understanding their
descriptions, and studying their physiology, history, and application.
An easy and expeditious mode for gardeners to know plants and study the vegetable kingdom is as
follows : —
Begin, by acquiring the names of a great number of individuals. Supposing the plants growing m a
named collection, or that you have any person to tell you their names : then take any old book, and begin
at any point (in preference the beginning) of the collection, border, or field, and taking a leaf from the
plant whose name you wish to know, put it between the two first leaves of the book, writing the name
with a pencil, if you are gathering from a named collection, or if not, merely write a number, and get the
name inserted by your instructor afterwards. Gather, say a dozen the first day, carry the book in your
pocket, and fix these names in vour memory, associated with the form and color of the leaves, by
repeatedly turning to them during" the moments of leisure of one dav. Then, the second day, proceed to
the plants, and endeavour to apply the names to the entire plant. To assist you, take them in the order
in which you gathered them, and refer to the book when your memory fails. To aid in recollecting the
botanic names, endeavour, after vou have gathered the leaves, either by books or your instructor, to learn
the etymology of the name, and something of the history of the plant, &c. Attach the leaves by two
transverse cuts in the paper, or bv any simple process, so as the first set may not fall out when you are
collecting a second. Having fixe'd the first fasciculus in your memory, form a second, which you may in-
crease according to your capacitv of remembering. Proceed as before during the second day ; and the
beginning of the third dav, begin at your first station, and recall to memory the names acquired during
both the first and second dav. In this way go on till you have acquired the names of the great majority
of the plants in the garden or neighbourhood where you are situated. Nothing is more easily remembered
than a word when it is associated with some visible object, «uch as a leaf or a plant ; and the more names
of plants we know, the more easv does it become to add to our stock of them. A person who knows only
ten plants will require a greater effort of memory to recollect two more, than one who knows a thousand
will to remember an additional two hundred. That gardener must have little desire to learn who cannot,
in two or three weeks, acquire the names of a thousand plants, if already arranged. If to be collected in
the fields, it is not easv getting a thousand leaves or specimens together ; but, in general, every gardener
requires to charge his memory with the names and ideas or images, of between five hundred and one
thousand plants ; as being those in general cultivation as agricultural plants, forest-trees, and field-shrubs,
horticultural plants, plants of ornament, and those requiring eradication as weeds.
To acquire the glossology, cut a leaf or other part from the plants indicated in any elementary work
plants, whose class, &c. 'is designated in a catalogue. Begin with class 1, order 1. On looking at any pro-
per catalogue, such as Sweet's or Donn's, you will find that there are but few plants in this class, and only
one British example which flowers in May. Unless you take that month, therefore, or enjoy the advan-
tages of inspecting hot-house plants, you can do nothing with this class. Proceed to the next order, and so
on, examining as manv flowers as possible in each class and order, in connection with the descriptions, as
given in your elementary guide, in order that you may be perfectly familiarised with all the classes, and
the whole or the greater number of the orders.
Study the descriptions of plants, with the plants before you. For this purpose, procure any good Species
Plantarum
Britannic a
Miller's Dictionary, in which last are short descripti
practice, collecting an herbarium, and writing the complete description of each specimen under it, till all
the parts of plants are familiar to vou. When that is the case, you will be able, on a plant's being presented
to you which vou never saw before, to discover (that is, if it be in flower) first its class and order, and next,
by 'the aid of proper books, its generic and specific name; and this, as far as respects the names of plants,
is* to attain the object in view. .
But to know the name of an object is not to knoiv its nature ; therefore having stored up a great many
names in your memorv, and become familiarised with the plants by which you are surrounded, and with
the art of'discovering'the names of such as may be brought to you, by the Linnajan method ; the next
thing is to study plants according to their natural affinities, by referring them to their natural orders, and
observing the properties common to each order. Then proceed to study their anatomy, chemistry, and
phvsiologv ; and lastlv, their history and application. For these purposes Smith's Introduction to Botany,
Keith's Vegetable Physiology, and Willdenow's Species Plantarum, may be reckoned standard works.
Books of figures, such as Sowerby's Exotic and English Botany, or Curtis's Magazine, are eminently useful
for the first department, but thev can only come into the hands of a few. Those who understand French
will find the elementary works of Decandolle, Richard, and Girardin, of a superior description. The
Elc7)i:nts of Decandolle and Sprengel, lately translated, is also a valuable work.
Chaf. IV.
Taxonomy, or the Classification cf Plants.
583. Without some arrangement, the mind of man ivoidd be unequal to the task of ac-
quiring even an imperfect knowledge of the various objects of nature. Accordingly, in
every science, attempts have been made to classify the different objects that it embraces,
and "these attempts have been founded on various principles. Some have adopted arti-
Book I.
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.
129
ficial characters ; others have endeavoured to detect the natural relations of the beings
to be arranged, and thus to ascertain a connection by which the whole may be asso-
ciated. In the progress of zoology and phytology, the fundamental organs on which
to found an artificial arrangement have been finally agreed on. In both, those which
are essential, and which discover the greatest variety, form the basis of classification.
Animals are found to differ most from each other in the organs of nutrition, and plants
in the organs of reproduction.
584. Two kinds of methods have been adopted in arranging vegetables ; the natural and
the artificial. A natural method is that which, in its distribution, retains all the classes
or groups obviously alike ; that is, such into which no plants enter that are not connected
by numerous relations, or that can be disjoined without doing a manifest violence to
nature. An artificial method is that whose classes are not natural, because they collect
together several genera of plants which are not connected by numerous relations, although
they agree in the characteristic mark or marks, assigned to that particular class or assem-
blage to which they belong. An artificial method is easier than the natural, as in the
latter it is nature, in the former the writer, who prescribes the rules and orders to be ob-
served in distribution. Hence, likewise, as nature is ever uniform, there can be only
one natural method : whereas artificial methods may be multiplied almost ad infinitum,
according to the several different relations under which bodies are viewed.
585. The object of both methods is to promote our knowledge of the vegetable kingdom :
the natural method, by generalising facts and ideas ; and the artificial method, by faci-
litating the knowledge of plants as individual objects. The merits of the former method
consist in the perfection with which plants are grouped together in natural families or
orders, and these families grouped among themselves ; the merits of the latter consist in
the perfection with which plants are arranged according to certain marks by which their
names may be discovered. Plants arranged according to the natural method may be com-
pared to words arranged according to their roots or derivations ; arranged according to
an artificial method, they may be compared to words in a dictionary. Linnams has oiven
the most beautiful artificial system that has ever been bestowed by genius on mankind ;
and Jussieu has, with unrivalled ability, exhibited the natural affinities of the vegetable
kingdom. The following Tables exhibit an outline of both methods : —
586. According to the Linn-san Method all Vegetables are furnished with Flowers, which
are eitlier
Visible,
Stamina and pointal in the same flower,
"Male and female organs distinct,
fStamina not united either above or below,
Generally of equal length.
I.v Number. Classes.
One, - 1. Monandria.
Two, - 2. Diandria,
Three, - 3. Triandria,
Four, t. Tetrandria,
Five, - -
Six,
Seven, -
Eight,
Nine, - -
Ten,
Twelve, - -
Many, frequently twenty,"!
attached to the calyx, -y
Many, generally upwards off
twenty, not attached to>-
L the calyx, - -3
.Of unequal length,
r Two long, and two short, -
5. Pcntandria, -
14.
1."
I Four long, and two short,
.Stamina united,
pay the filaments, into one body, 16*.
into two bodies, 17.
< into many bodies, 18.
I by the anthers or tops, into a"! ,q
I "cylinder, -3
Male organs (stamina) attached t
to, and standing upon the fc- 5- 20.
male (pistilluml, - -3
.Stamina and pointal in different flowers,
"on the same plant, - - 21.
on different plants, - 22,
on the same or different plants T
along with hermaphrodite > 2,3
L flowers. . . -3
Or lie concealed from view, and cannot")
be distinctly described, - -3*
24.
Hcxandria,
Heptandria, -
Ocfandria,
ErmeandnOy -
Decandrla,
Dodecandria, -
Icosandria,
Poli/a ndria, -
Didynamia, -
TctradynamM,
Monadc/pf/iti, -
Diadetpfca,
Po/yadrtp/ua, -
Syngcih'sia,
Gynandria, -
Moncccia,
Dhccia,
Polygamia,
Cryptogamia,
K
Examples.
Ginger, turmeric.
Jessamine, privet, olive.
Valerian, iris, grasses.
Scabious, teazel, holly. .
f Bell-flower, bind-weed, mullein, thorn-
\ apple.
Snowdrop, tulip, aloe.
Horse-chestnut.
Indian-cress, heath.
Bay, rhubarb.
Fraxinella, rue, lychnis.
Purslane, house-leek.
Peach, medlar, apple, rose, cinquefoil.
CHerb-christopher, poppy, larkspur, co-
\ lumbinc.
("Savory, hyssop, ground-ivy, balm, fox-
i glove.
CScurvy-grass, candy-tuft, water-cress,
(. stock woad.
Geranium, mallow tribe.
Fumitory, milk-wort.
Orange, chocolate-r.ut.
("Compound flowers, as dandelion, thistle,
}_ tansey.
Orchis, ladies'-slipper, birth-wort.
Mulberry, nettle, oak, fir.
Willow, hop, juniper.
White hellebore, pellitory, orach, fig.
Ferns, mosses, mushrooms, flags.
190
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
ia
16.
587. According to the Method of Jussieu all Vegetables are furnished
are either
Classes.
f Pistils nume- ~)
rous, and sta- C i . -8.
mens oppo- €
Thalami- site, - - - J
flora? Pistils solitary, O
with dis- or adhering h
tinct pe- together, - 3
tals in- *j Ovary solitary,!
serted in placenta cen- r
"Dicoty- the re- tral, - - - 3
ledoneae, ceptacle, Fruit in scat- "I
having tered cells,
the calyx «4 but joined on j*
and co- J the same
rolla dis- I base, - - - J
tinct, - Pistils free, or more or less! .
adhering together, always £ -
inserted in the calyx, - - 3
Stamens adhering to a co-!
rolla, which is not attached r
to the.calyx, 3
Calyx and corolla forming only a single") 7. Monochla-
envelope, '-J mydea?,
CotyledoneaD ;
furnished
with two or
more cotyle-
dons, or seed-
lobes, - -
5. Calyciflora?, 36.
6. Corolliflora?, 16.
] * {
with Seeds, which
Orders.
r Ranunculacea?,
< Magnoliaceae,
C &c.
C Papaveracea?,
t Crucifera?, &c.
f Caryophyllea?,
\ Lines, &c.
Simaroubea?,
Ochriaceas.
Terebintacea?,
Leguminosa?,
&c.
Oleina?, Jasmi-
nea?, Sec.
Plumbaginea?,
Plantaginea?, &c.
Monocotyle-
donea? ; fur-
nished with
only one co-
tyledon, or
seed-lobe, -
In which the fructification is visible, 8. Phanerogamea?, 18. f "' C^^jdea?*te °"
In which the fructification is concealed, 9. Cryptogamea?,
c C Naiadeaj, Marsi-
* (_ liacea?, &c.
With leafy expansions, and known
sexes,
| 10. Foliacea?, - 2. £
Musci, Hepa-
tica?.
Acotyledo-
nea? ; vege-
table beings
composed of
a cellular tis-
sue unprovi-
ded with ves-
sels, and of
which the
embryo is
witho'ut coty-
ledons,
The names of the classes are of very little consequence in this method, and the number of orders is not
to be considered as fixed. That part of a system so new and so comprehensive necessarily admits of much
improvement by perfecting the groups, the progress to which will more frequently be attained by subdi-
viding than by uniting. The names of the orders indicate at the same time examples of each, as
Ranunculacea?, Ranunculus, kc.
Without leafy expansions, and not of) „ . , .. , C ^tameae, Hypo-
known sexes, - - - - - j 1L APhyUe*, - * j xylenes, Agan-
■* C cea?, AlgEe.
Sect. I. The Hortus Britannicus arranged according to the Linneean System.
588. The plants grown in Britain, whether native or exotic, are thus arranged according
to the Linneean system. The genera, of which there are species natives of the country, are
here marked (*), for the sake of those who may wish to arrange a herbarium or growing
collection of indigenous plants according to this method. The authorities followed are,
Sweet's Hort. Suburb. Land. 1818, and Smith's Comp. Flora Brit. 1816.
which, having but two stamens, is separated from its natural
family in the third class. 1 Gen. 2 Sp.
3. Trigynia. It contains of Piperacea, Piper. 1 Gen. 28 Sp.
Class III. Trtandria. Stamens 3. Orders 5.
1. Monogynia. Valeriana is placed here because most of its
species have three stamens. Here also we find the sword-
leaved plants, Iris, Gladiolus, Ixia, &o, also Crocus, and
numerous grass-lite plants, Schanus, Cyperus, Scirpus, &c. —
It contains of Dipsacea, * Valeriana, Fedia; of Nyctaginea,
Oxybaphus ; of Terebiniacea, Cneorum, Comocladia ; of
Cucurbitacea, Melothria ; of Caryophyllea, Ortegia, Lceflin-
gia ; of Chenopodea, Polycnemum ; of Acerina, Hippocratea ;
of Iridea, *Crocus, Trichonema, Geissorhiza, Hesperantha,
Sparaxis, *Ixia, Anomatheca, Tritonia, Watsonia, Gladio-
lus, Meiasphaerula, Antholyza, Babiana, Aristea, Witsenia,
Lapevrousia, Moraea, *Iris, Marica, Pardanthus ; of Ccnn-
■melinea, Commelina, Aneilema, Callisia ; of Pontederea,
Leptanthus ; of Hamodoracea, Wachendorfia, Xjphidium,
Dilatris, Hasmodorum ; of Resfiacea, Xyris ; of Cyperacea,
Mari.-cus, Kvllinea, *Cyperus, Isolepis, *Scirpus, EKocharis,
Rhvnchospofa, *Scho2nus, Cladium, Trichophorum, *Eri-
ophorum ; of Graminea, *Nardus, Lygeum, Comucopiae,
Cenchrus, *Sesleria, Limnetis. 56 Gen. 346 Sp.
2. Digynia. This important order consists of the true Grasses.
Their habit is more easily perceived than defined ; their
value, as furnishing herbage for cattle, and grain for man, is
sufficiently obvious. No "poisonous plant is found among
them, except the Lolium temuUntum,&ziA to be intoxicating
and pernicious in bread. Their genera are not easily defined.
Linnaeus, Jussieu, and most botanists, pay regard to the
"Class I. Monandria. Stamen 1. Containing only two Orders.
1. Monogynia. Style 1. Containing of the natural order of
Jussieu, Cannea, the genera Canna, Maranta, Thalia, Phry-
nium ; of the beautiful order Scitaminea, Hedychium, Al-
pinia, Hellenia, Zingiber, Elettaria, Costus, Kasmpferia,
Amomum, Curcuma, Globba ; of Juncea, Philydrum ; of
Onagraria, Lopezia ; of Nyctagines, Boerhaavia ; of Cheno-
podea, Pollichia; *Salicomia; of Naiades, *Hippuris.
20 Gen. 65 Sp.
2. Digynia. Styles 2. Containing of Chenopodea, Corisper-
mum, Blitum ; of Naiades, * Callitriche. 5 Gen. 5 Sp.
Class II. Diandria. Stamens 2. Orders 3.
1. Monogynia. This, the most natural and numerous order,
comprehends the elegant and fragrant Jasmines, the Jas-
mine, Lilac, Olive, &c. ; also Veronica, and a few labiate
flowers with naked seeds, as Salvia, Rosemary, Sec. natural
allies of the fourteenth class ; but having only two stamens,
they are necessarily ranged here in the artificial system It
contains of Jasminea, Nyctanthes, Jasminium ; of Oleina,
*Ligustrum, Olea, Notelaea, Chionanthus, Linociera,
Ornus, Syringa ; of Bignoniacea, Catalpa; of Thymelea,
Pimelea ; of Onagraria, Fontanesia, * Circaea ; of Scrophu-
larina, * Veronica, Gratiola, Schwenkia, Calceolaria ;
Acanthacea, Elyrraria, Justicia, Eranthemum ; of Lenli-
Maria, *Pinguicula, *Utricularia ; of Verbenacea, Galipea;
Ghinia, Stachytarpheta ; of Labiate, * Lycopus, Amethystea,
Cunila, Ziziphora, Hedeoma, Monarda, Rosmarinus,
* Salvia, Collinsonia ; of Dipsaccce, Morina ; of Rosacea,
Acnena. 36 Gen. 276 Sp.
2. Digynia, consists only oi Gramincce , *Anthoxanthum, a grass
Book I.
LINN.EAN HORTUS BRITANNICUS.
131
number of florets in each splkelet ; but tn Antndo this Is of
no moment. Magnificent and valuable works on this family
have been published in Germany by the calibrated Schreber
and by Dr. Host. The Fl. Unrca also is rich in this depart-
ment, to which the late Dr. Sibthorp paid great attention.
Much is to be expected from scientific agriculturists; but
natme so absolutely, in general, accommodates each grass to
its own soil and station, that nothing is more difficult than
to overcome their habits, insomuch th.it few grasses can be
generally cultivated at plea-ure — It contains of Gmmtnar,
Trichodium, Sporobolus, ♦Agrostis, * Knappia, Ferotis,
♦Polypogon, ♦Stipa, Trisetuni, *Avena, *Bromus, *Fes-
tuca, *Tritiium, *Secale, *Hordeum, ♦Elymus, ♦Lolium,
Koeleria, Ghceria, ♦Foa, Triodia, Calamagrootis, ♦Arundo,
*Aira, *MeUca, Echinaria, Lappago, Eleusine, Chrysurus,
*Cynosurus, Beckmannia, *Dactylis, Uniola, ♦Briza, Cyno-
doii, *Mihum, ♦ Lagurus, *Alopecurus, *Phleum, Crypsis,
♦l'halaris, Tozettia, Paspalum, Digitaria, *Panicum, Ortho-
pogon, Pennisetum, Saccharum, Rotbollia, Michrochloa,
Leersia. 50 Gen. 314 Sp.
o. Trigynia is chiefly composed of Uttle pink-like plants, or,
CaryophyUea; as HolaUewn — Tilhcu museusa has the number
proj>er to this order, but the rest of the genus bears every
part of the fructification in fours. This, in Linnaean lan-
guage, is expressed by saying the flow er of Tillcea is quadri-
'idiis, four cleft, and T. mutcota excludes, or lays aside one
fourth of the fructification. — It contains of Restiacar, *Eri-
ocaulou ; of Portulacex, *Montia ; of Polygoneoe, Kcenigia ;
of Chrynphyllex, *Holosteum, *Polycarpon, Mollugo, Minu-
artia, Oueria, Lechea. 9 Gen. 12 Sp.
Class IV. Tctrandria. Stamens 4. Orders 3.
1. Miimgjfm'il A very numerous and :arious order, of which
the Proteacca: make a conspicuous part ; Plantago, remark-
able for its capsuia circumscista, a membranous capsule,
separating by a complete circular fissure into two parts, as
in Centuncutus, Rubin, and others of its natural order, whose
stipulation is remarkable, and the curious Epintcdium, are
found here. — It contains of Protcacew, Petropnila, Isopogon,
Protea, Leucospermum, Mimetes, Serruria, Nivenia, Soro-
cephalus, Spatalla, Persoonia, Grevillea, Hakea, Lambertia,
Xylomelum, Telopea, Lomatia, Rhopala, Banksia, Dry-
andra ; of Globutarite, Globularia, Adina; of Ruhiacea,
Cephalanthus ; of Dipsucex, "Dipsacus, "Scabiosa, Knautia ;
of Nyctaginea; Allionia, Onercularia, Cryptospermum ; of
Rubiatea, Spermacoce. "Snerardia, *Asperula, Houstonia,
•Galium, Crucianella, *Rubia, Catesbaea, Ixora, Pavetta,
Bouvardia, Siderodeiuirum, Chomelia, Mitchella, Coccocyp-
silum, Manettia, Oldenlandia ; of Ruiacex, Zieria; of Soui-
nacex, Witheringia ; of Jasminea, Penaea ; of
Curtisia ; of Loranlliacea, Chloranthus ; of Verbenacea',
/Egiphila, Callicarpa; of Ericea, Blaeria; of Scrophularina,
Buddlea, Scoparia ; of Gentianex, Exacum, Sebaea, Frasera ;
of Planiaginex, *Plantago ; of Primulacex, Centunculus ; of
Rosacex, *Sanguisorba, *Alehemilla ; of Vites, Cissus ; of
Berberides, Epimedium ; of Caprrfolia; *Cornus ; of Terebin-
tatea, Fagara, Ptelea ; of Onagraria, Ludwigia, Isnardia;
of Salicaria, Ammannia; of Hydrocharidta, *Trapa; of
Urticea, Dorstenia ; of Aroidea:, Pothos; of Elxagiii, Elae-
agnus ; of Suntalaceix, Santalum ; of Thymelea, Stru-
thiola ; of Chenopodex, Kivina, Camphorosma. 78 Gen.
420 Sp.
2. Digynia. It contains of CaryophyUea, Buffonia ; of
.... Hamamelis ; of Papaveratex, Hypecoum. 3 Gen.
5Sp.
3. Telragynia. It contains of Rhamni, Myginda, ♦Ilex, some-
times furnished with a few barren flowers; cf Boraginex,
Coldenia ; of Alismacex, ♦Potamogeton ; of Naiades, *Rup-
pia ; of CaryophyUea, ♦Sagina, Mcenchia ; of Sempervivx,
♦ Tillaaa; of' Linea, ♦Radiola. 9 Gen. 35 Sp.
Class V. Pentandria. A very large class. Stamens 5.
Orders 6.
1. Monogynia. 1 Style. One of the largest and most important
orders of the whole system It contains of Boraginex, He-
liotropium, ♦ Myosotis, Lappula, *Lithospermum, Batschia,
Onosmodium, ♦Anchusa, * Cynoglossum, *Pulmonaria,
♦Symphytum, Cerinthe, Onosma, *Borago, Trichodesma,
♦Asperugo, ♦ Lycopsis, *Echium, Tournefortia, Cordia,
Bourreria, Ehretia, Hydrophyllum, Ellisia ; Nolana ? of
Primuiacea, Aretia, Androsace, *Primula, Cortusa, Solda-
nella, Dodecatheon, •Cyclamen, *Hottonia, ♦Lysimachia,
♦Anagallis, *Samolus, Coris, Diapensia, Pyxidanthera ;
of Ericea, Cyrilla, Brossaea; of Rhodorucea, ♦Azalea; of
Epucridex, Sprengelia, Andersonia, Lysinema, Epacris, Jlo-
notoca, I.eucopogon, Stenanthera, Astroloma, Styphelia ; of
Plum/iaginea, Plumbago ; of Coavoivulacex, *Convolvulus,
Calystegia, Ipoma-a, Retzia ; of Bignorriacea, Cobcea; of
Polemimiucea, *Polemonium, Phlox, Ipomopsis, Caldasia ;
of Butineriacca, Lasiopetalum ; of Galax; of
of Thymelej; Scopolia ; of Campanulucia, Lightfootia,
♦ Campanula, Roella, Phyteuma, Trachelium, Jasione,
♦Lobelia, Cyphia ; of Goodenovitz, Goodenia, Euthales,
Scaevola, Dampiera; of Rubiacea, Cinchona, Pinckneya,
MussaEnda, Portlandia, Genipa, (iardenia, Oxyanthus,
Randia, M'ebera, Erithalis, Morinda, Nauclea, Cephaelis,
Hamellia, Rondeletia, Macrocnemum, Vanguiera, Dentella,
Serissa, Psychotria, Coftea, Chiococca, Pa^deria, Plocama ;
of Caprijiil'w, *l,onicura, Symphoria, Diervilla, Triosteum,
♦Hedera; of Comhrrtaceix, Conocarpus of Sautalacea,
Thesium ; of Nyctagineoe, MirabUis ; of Solanca, Raraonda,
♦Verbascum, *Uatura, Brugmansia, *Uyoscyamus, Moo-
tiana, Mandragora, *Atropa, Solandra, PhysaliB, Nicandra,
Solanum, Capsicum, Cestrum, Vestia, Lycium ; of Myr-
thiea; Ardisia ; of Sapotex, Jacquinia, Acbjras, I
phyllum, Sideroxylon, hersalisia, Bumelia ; of Verbenacar;
Tectona; of Rhamni, Elfeodendrum, *Rhamnus, Zlrrobus,
Celastrus, Senacia, *Euonymus, Hovenia, Ceanothus, 1'oma-
derrii, Phylica ? Brunia, Staavia, Plectronia ; of Diosmete,
Adenandra, Barosma, Diosma, Agf.thrwma; of Pittosporea:,
Calodendrum, Bursaria, Billardiera, 1'itUjsporum, Ilea ; of
Melia t Cedrela, Leea ; of Terebintaceoe, Mangifera ; of
Rosacea; HirteUa; of Cacti, *Ribes; of Viles, Vitis ; of
Cucurbitaceir, Gronovia; of Geranixl *Impatiens; of I'm-
bMij'ertz, Lagoccia ; of Portu/acar, Claytonia; of Violar,
*Viola, Ionidium ; of Mutator, Heliconia, Strelitzia ; of
Amaranthaceti; Gomphrena, Philoxerus, Achyranthes, Pu-
nalla, Deertngta, Celosta, Lestibudcsia, Altemantiiera, /Evua,
Illecebrum, Paronychia, Anychia, Mollia ; of Cheiiojiudew,
Chenolea ; of Salicaria; *Glaux; of Gcntianea; *Menjan-
tliea, *\Tillarsia, Logania, Spigelia, Lisianthus, *Chironia,
Sabbatia, Erythrsea, Eustoma; of Malracea; Buttmria,
Ayenia ; of Apoeynae, Strychnos, Gelsemium, Rauwolfia,
Carissa, Arduma, Cerbera, Allamanda, *\'uica, N'erium,
A\'rightia, Echiies, Kluiocarpus, Plumeria, Cameraria, Ta-
l>eni;emontaiia, Amsonia. 209 Gen. lOhO Sji.
2. Digynia. 2 Styles. — It contains of Aiiucynae, Apocym.m,
Melodmus ; Asciepiatlca; Periploca, Hemidesmus, " Seca-
mone, Microloma, Sarcostemma, Da;mia, Cynanchuin,
Oxystelma, Gymnema, Calotropis, Xysmalobium, Gompho-
carpus, *Asclepias, Gonolobus, Pergularia, Marsdenia,
Hoya, Stapelia, Piaranthus, Huemia, Caralluma ; of Ama-
ranthatea:, Hemiaria ; of Chenopudea; *Chenopodium, *Beta,
♦Salsola, Kochia, Anabasis, Bosea; of Amentacea; *Ulmus ;
of Sazifragea; Heuchera ; of CarynphylUa; \elezia ; of (.<«-
tianea, *Swertia, *Gentiana ; of Convulculucea; Falkia,
Dichondra, Evolvulus, Hydrolea, *Cuscuta; of Rubiucca;
Phyllis; of A ratio; Cussonia.
Umbelliferte. These are mostly herbaceous ; the qualities
of such as grow on dry ground are aromatic, while the aqua-
tic species are among the most deadly poisons ; according to
the remark of Linnaeus, who detected the cause of a dreadful
disorder among horned cattle in Lapland, in their eating
young leaves of Cicuia rirosa, under water. — It contains
♦Eryngium, *Hydrocotyle, Spananthe, *Sanicula, *Astran-
tia, *Bupleurum, *Echinophora, Hasselquistia,*Tordylium,
♦Caucalis, Artedia, Daucus, Yisnaga, *Ammi, *Bunium,
♦Conium, *Selinum, *Athamanta, Peucedanum, *t rith-
mum, Cachrys, Ferula, Laserpitium, *Heracleum, *Ligus-
ticum, *Angelica, *8ium, *Sison, Bubon, *Cuminum,
♦Ginanthe, *Phellandrium, *Cicuta, *.Ethusa, Meum,
♦ Coriandrum, Myrrhis, * Scandix, Oliveria, Anthriscus,
♦ChaBrophyllum, *Imperatoria, Seseli, Thapsia, *Pastinaca,
♦Smyrnium, *Anethum, *Carum, *PimpinelJa, *Apium,
♦-Egopodium. 93 Gen. 487 Sp.
3. Tngynia. It contains of Terebintacea, Rhus, Spathelia ; of
Caprifoliw, *Vibumum, *Sambucus ; of Rhamni, Cassfne,
Staphylea ; of Portulucea, *Tamarix, Turnera, Telephium,
Corrigiola, Portulacaria ; of Euphorbia; Xylophylla ; of (a-
ryophyllea, Phamaceum, Drypis ; of Chenopodea, Basella.
15 Gen. 85 Sp.
4. Tettagynin. It contains of Capparidcs t *Pamassia. 1 Gen.
3 Sp.
5. Peniagynia. It contains of Aralitt, Aralia; of Plumbaginea:,
♦Armeria, *Statice, a beautiful maritime genus, with a kind
of everlasting calyx; of Caryophyllea: t *Linum; of Cuppa-
rides f *Drosera ; of Portulacea; Gisekia ; of Sempemiea;
Larochea, Crassula, a numerous succulent genus ; of Tilia
cea, M anemia ; of Meliacea, Commersonia ; of Rosacea;
♦Sibbaldia. 11 Gen. 131 Sp.
6. Polygynia. It contains of Ranuncidacect, *Myosurus, a
remarkable instance of few stamens (though they often ex-
ceed five) to a multitude of pistils; alio Ceratocephalus,
Zanthorhiza. 3 Gen. 3 Sp.
Class VI. Hexandria. Stamens 6. Orders 4.
1. Monogynia. This, as usual, is the most numerous. The
Liliaceous family, with or without a spatha, called by Lin-
naeus the nobles of the vegetable kingdom, constitute its
most splendid ornament. The beautiful White Lily is
commonly chosen bv popular writers to exemplify the sta-
mens and pistils. It contains of Panledereee , Pontedera ;
of Musacete, Musa, Urania ; of Bromelia; Bromelia, Pitcaimia,
Tillandsia, Agave, Furcrcea; of Commeliticte, Tradescantia ;
of Asphodelea:, Eucomis, Aphyllanthes, Sowerbaea, *Allium,
Albuca, Xanthorrhoea, Thysanotus, Eriospermum, Gagea,
♦Omithogalum, *Scilla, ?.Iassonia, *Asphodelus, *Anthe-
ricum, Arthropodium, Phalangium, Chlorophytum, Cassia,
♦ Narthecium, Dianella, Eustrephus, *As])aragus, Drimia,
Uropetalon, * Hyacinthus, Muscari, Lachenalia, Dracaena,
Phylloma, Phormium, Hypoxis, Curculigo, Cyanella ; of
AnuiryUidea', Haemanthus, *Galanthus, *Leucojum, Stru-
niaria, Crinum, Cyrtanthus, Brunsvigia, Amaryllis, ♦Nar-
cissus, Pancratium, Eucrosia, Doryanthes, Gethyllis; of
Hemerocallidea- , Blandfordia, Agapanthus, ♦Hemerocallis,
Aletris, Tritoma, Veltheimia, Polianthes, Sanseviera,
Tulbagia, Brodiaea ? Aloe; of Lilia:, ♦Fritillaria, ♦Lilium,
♦Tulipa, Alstrcemeria, Gloriosa, Yucca, Erythronium,
Uvularia ; of Mtlanihacae, Bulbocodium ; of Bromeliaceai,
Buonapartea; of Uerbcridca:, Diphylleia, Nandina; of Smila-
tea, Streptopus, ♦Convallaria, Smilacina, ♦Polygonatum,
Ophiopogon ; of Hanuidoracea', Lophiola, Lanaria, Anigo-
zanthos ; of Berberidea; Leontice, Caulophyllum, ♦Berberis ;
of Aroidea, ♦Acorus, Orontium, Tupistra, Peliosanthes ;
Tacca ? of Palmcc, Corypha, Licuala, 1 hrinax, Calamus ; of
Juncew, ♦Juncus, ♦Luzula; of Rhamni, Prinos ; of Rubiaceit,
Hillia, Richardia; of Campanulacea:, Canarina ; of Caryo-
vliylha; Frankenia ; of SiUicarnc, *Peplis; of Grandma,
Bambusa, Ehrharta. 106 Gen. 730 Sp.
2. Digynia has but few genera It contains of Graminea,
Oryza, the Rice, of which there now seems to be more than
one species ; of Conxdvulacca, Falkia ; of Polygonta; Atra-
phaxis. 3 Gen. 4 Sp.
3. Trigynia. It contains of Polygonea, ♦Rumex ; of Jnnceal
Flagellaria ; of Alismacea-, ♦Scheuchzeria, ♦Triglochin ; of
Melanthacea, ♦Tolieldia, Melanthium, *Colchicum, Helo-
nias, Nolina; of SmKaouB t Myrslphyflum, Medeola, Tril-
lium; of Naiades, Aponogeton ; of Palma:, Sabal. 14 Gen.
175 Sp.
1. Polygynia, It contains of Menispermca, 'VVendlandia ; of
Hydrocharidea', Damosonium ; of Alitmacta, *Actinocarpus,
♦AlUma. 4 Gen. 9 Sp.
Class VII. Heptandria. Stamens 7. Orders \.
1. Monogynia. It contains of Prhmdacca!, *Trientalis ; of
Pedicidures, Disandra ; of Nydcginar, l'isonia; of Chenopodea ,
♦ 1'etiveria; of Accra-, .lEsculus; of Jonesia; of
Aroidea:, Dracontium, Calla. S Gen. 21 Sp.
% Digynia. It contains of Poriulacea, Limeum. 1 Gen. 1 Sp.
3. Tetragynia. It contains of Naiades, ♦Saururus. 1 Gen.
1 Sp.
4. Heptagynia. It contains of Sempcrviva, Septas. 1 Gen-
3 Sp.
K2
132
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
0: a- VIII. Odandria. Stamens 8. Orders 4.
i. Monogynia. A very various and rich order, consisting of
the well known Tronaolioii, o- Nasturtium, whose original
Latin name, given from the flavor of the plant, like garden-
cresses, is now become its English one in every body's mouth.
The elegant and fanciful Linnaean appellation, equivalent to
a trophy plant, alludes to its use for decorating bowers, and
the resemblance of its peltate leaves to shields, as well as
of its flowers to golden helmets, pierced through and
through, and stained with blood. Epilobium, with its allies,
makes a beautiful part of this order ; but above all are con-
spicuous the favorite Fuchsia, the American genus V'acci-
nium ; the immense and most elegant genus Erica, so
abundant in southern Africa, but not known in America ;
and the fragrant Daphne, of which last the Levant possesses
many charming species. — It contains of Gerania f Tropaeo-
lum; of Mdastomacea, Osbeckia, Rhexia ; of Onagraria,
*(Enofhera, Gaura, *Epilobium ; of Salicaria, Grislea,
Lawsonia ; of Melanlhacea, Roxburghia ; of Tremandrea,
Tetratheca ; of Myrtacea, Jambolifera ; of Diosinea,
Cornea, Boronia ; of Sapotea, Mimusops ; of Sapindi,
Omitrophe, Dimocarpus, Melicocca, Blighia, Ephielis, Koel-
reuteria ? of Melia, Guarea ; of Terebiniacea, Amyris ; Do-
donaea ? of Aurantia, Ximenia; of Santalacea, Fuchsia,
Memecvlin ; of Myrtacea, Baeckia; of Gentianea, *Chlora ; of
Campanulacex, Miehauxia; of Papaveracea, Jeffersonia ,- of
Ericea, *< txveoccus, Calluna, *Enca ; of Rhodoracea, *Men-
zie=ia; of Thymdea, Lagetta, *Daphne, Dirca, Gnidia, Stei-
lera, Passerina, Lachnaea. 41 Gen. 1G3 Sp.
2. Digynia has a few plants, but little known ; among them
are Galena africana, and Moehringia muscosa. The former
belongs to Chenopodea, and the latter to Caryophyllea.
2 Gen. 2 Sp. . . .
3. Trigynia. Polygonum is a genus whose species curler m
the number of their stamens and styles, and yet none can
be more natural. Here therefore the Linnaean system claims
our indulgence. Paidlinia and Cardiospermum are more con-
stant. — ft contains of Polygonea, *Polygonum, Coccoloba ;
of Sapindi, Paullinia, Seriana, Cardiospermum, Sapindus.
6 Gen. 50 Sp. .''...
4. Tdragynia. Here we find the curious Pans and Adoxa.—
It contains of Sempervivee, Calanchoe, Bryophyllum ; of
Smilacea, *Paris ; of Saxifrage)?, *Adoxa ; of Caryophyllea,
Elatine ; of Onagraria, Haloragis ; of Vdicea, Forskohlea.
7 Gen. 10 Sp.
Class IX. Enneandria. Stamens 9. Orders 3.
1. Monogynia. Here we find the precious genus Laurus, in-
cluding the Cinnamon, Bay, Sassafras, Camphor, and many
other noble plants.— It contains of Laurina, Laurus; of
Terebiniacea, Anacardium ; of Polygonea, Eriogonum.
5 Gen. 20 Sp.
2. Trigynia. It contains of Polygonea;, Rheum. 1 Gen.
7 Sp^
3. Bexagynia. Containing of Butomea, * Butomus. 1 Gen.
1 Sp.
Class X. Decandria. Stamens 10. Orders 5.
1. Monogynia. A numerous and fine assemblage, beginning
with a tribe of flowers more or less correctly papilionaceous
and leguminous. — It contains of Leguminoso?, Edwardsia,
Sophora, Ormosia, Anagvris, Thermopsis, Virgilia, Cyclopia,
Baptisia, Podalvria, Chorizema, Podolobium, Oxylobium,
Callistachvs, Brachvsema, Gompholobium, Burtonia, Jack-
sonia, Virainaria, Sphaerolobium, Aotus, Dilhvynia, Eutaxia,
Sclerothamnus, Gastrolobium, Euchilus, Pultenaea, Davie-
sia, Mirbelia, Cercis, Bauhinia, Hymenasa, Cynometra,
Cassia, Cathartocarpus, Parkinsonia, Poinciana, Caesalpinia,
Guilandina, Hyperanthera, Hoffmanseggia, Adenanthera,
Cadia, ProsopisJ Haamatoxylon, Copaifera, Schotia ; of Ru-
iacea, Guaiacum, Zygophyllum, Fagonia, Tribulus, Dictam-
nus, Ruta; of Diosmea Crowea; of Solanacea, Codon; of
Ericea, Monotropa ; of Droseracea, Dionaea ; of
Garuga ; of Samydea, Samyda ; of Guttifera', Gomphia ; of
Magnolia? Quassia; of Aurantia, Limonia, Murraya.Cookia;
of Malpighiacea, Gaertnera ; of Melia, Trichilia, Ekebergia,
Hevnea,"Melia, Swietenia ; of Onagraria, Jussieua; of Com-
bretaeeie, Getonia, Quisqualis ; of Thymdea, Dais ; of Mela-
rtomacea, MelastorrTa ; of Salicaria, Acisanthera; of Rhodora-
cea, Kalmia, Ledum, Rhodora, *Rhododendron, Ep^sea;
of Ericea, *Vaccinium, *Andromeda, Enkianthus, Gaul-
theria, *Arbutus, Clethra, Mylocaryum, *Pyrola, Chima-
phila; of Santalacea, Bucida; 'of Sapotea? Jnocarpus; of
Ebenacea, Styrax. 92 Gen. 443 Sp.
2. Digynia. Here we find Saxifraga, remarkable for having
the germen inferior, half inferior, and superior, in different
species It contains of Ebenacea, Royena ; of Porttdacea,
Trianthema, Scleranthus; of Cunoniaceae, Cunonia; of Saxi-
fragea, Hydrangea, * Chryso>T>lenium, * Saxifraga, Tiarella,
Mitella; of Caryophyllei, Gvpsophila, *Saponaria, * Di-
anthus. 12 Gen.' 160 Sp.
3. Trigynia. Contains of Caryophyllea, * Cucubalus, * Silene,
* Stellaria, *Arenaria, *Cherleria; of Polygonea, Brun-
nichia; of Ranunculacea, Garidella; of Malpighiacea, Mal-
pighia, Banisteria ? 9 Gen. 15S Sp.
4. Pentagynia. Containing of Terebiniacea ? Averrhoa ; Spon-
dias ; of Semperviva, * Cotyledon, * Sedum, Penthorum ;
of Gerania f Grielum, ' * Oxalis ; of Caryophyllea,
* Agrostemma, * Lychnis, * Cerastium, * Spergula. 1 Gen.
6 Sp.
5. Decagynia. Containing of Chenopodea, Phytolacca. 11 Gen.
164 Sp.
Class XI. Dodecandria. Stamens 12 to 19. Orders 6.
1. Monogynia. A rather numerous and very various order,
with scarcelv any natural affinity between the genera. Some
of them have twelve, others fifteen or more stamens, which
should be mentioned in their characters. — It contains of-
Aristolochia, * Asarum ; of Papaveracea, Bocconia ; of Sa-
potea, Bassia ; of Melasiomacea, Blakea ; of Rlwdoracea, Be-
jaria; of Guttifera, Garcinia ; of Ebenacea, Halesia ; of
Myrtacea, Decumaria ; of Rhamnea, Aristotelia ; of Mdia,
Canella ; of Capparidea, CraUeva ; of Tiliaceie, Triumfetta ;
of Rutacea, Peganum ; of Ericea; t Hudsonia ; of Ficoidea,
Nitraria; of Portulacea, Porrulaca, Talinum, Anacamp-
seros ; of Salicaria, * Lvthrum, Cuphea ; of Malvacea,
Kleinhofia. 22 Gen. 54 Sp.
2. Digynia. Containing of Cunoriiacea, Calllcoma ; of Tilirecr,
Heliocarpus ; of Rosacea, * Agrimonia. 3 Gen. 8 Sp.
3. Trigynia. Containing of Capparidea 1 * Reseda ; of Eu-
phorbia, * Euphorbia; of Ebenacea, Visnea. 3 Gen.
159 Sp.
4. Tetragynia. Containing of Polygonea, Calligonum. 1 Gen.
ISp.
5. Pentagynia. Containing of Ficoidea, Glinus. 1 Gen. 1 Sp.
6. Dodecagynia. Containing of Semperviva, *Sempervivum.
1 Gen. 17 Sp.
Class XII. Icosandria. Stamens 20 or more, inserted into
the Calyx. Orders 3.
1. Monogynia consists of fine trees, bearing for the most part
stone-fruits, as the Peach, Plum, Cherry, &c. though the
leaves and other parts are bitter, acrid, and sometimes very
dangerous, owing to a peculiar essential oil, known by its
bitter-almond flavor. The Myrtle tribe, so plentiful in New
Holland, is another natural order, comprehended chiefly
under Icosandria Monogynia, abounding in a fragrant and
w holesome aromatic oil. — It contains of Cadi, Cactus,
Rhipsalis ; of Loasea, Bartonia ; of Myrtacea, Philadelphus,
Leptospermum, Fabricia, Metrosideros, Psidium, Eugenia,
Caryophyllus, Myrtus, Calyptranthes, Eucalyptus, Punica ;
of Rosacea, Amvgdalus, * Prunus, Armeniaca, Chryso-
balanus. 18 Gen." 178 Sp.
2. Di- Pentagynia. In this order it is most convenient to in-
clude such plants as have from two to five styles, and
occasionally, from accidental luxuriance only, one or two
more. Pyrus is an example of it. Spiraa stands here,
most of its species having five styles, though some have a
much greater number. Here is Mesembryanthemum, a vast
and brilliant exotic genus, of a succulent habit, abound-
ing in alkaline salt It contains of Rosacea, Waldsteinia,
* Mespilus, * Pyrus, * Cydonia, * Spiraea ; of Ficoidea,
Sesuvium, Tetragonia, IVIesembryanthemum, Aizoon. 9
Gen. 303 Sp.
3. Polygynia. An entirely natural order of genuine Rosaceous
flowers. Here we find Rosa, Rubus, Fragaria, Potentilla,
TormentiUa, Geurn, Dryas, and Comarum, all elegant plants,
agreeing in the astringent qualities of their roots, bark and
foliage, and in their generally eatable, always innocent fruit.
The vegetable kingdom does not afford a more satisfactory
example of a natural order, composed of natural genera,
than this ; and Linnaeus has well illustrated it in the Flora
Lappoidca It contains of Rosacea, *Rosa, *Rubus, Dali-
barda, *Fragaria, *Comarum, *Potentilla, *TormentiUa,
*Geum, *Dryas, Calycanthus. 10 Gen. 240 Sp.
Class XIII. Pclyandria. Stamens numerous, inserted into
the Receptacle. Orders 5.
1. Monogynia. The genera of this order form a numerous
and various assemblage of handsome plants, but many are
of a suspected quality. Among them are the Poppv, the
Caper-shrub, the Sanguinaria canadensis, remarkable for its
orange juice, like our Celandine; also the beautiful genus
Cistus, with its copious but short-lived flowers, some of
which have irritable stamens; and the splendid aquatic
tribe of Aymphaa — It contains of Capparidea; Capparis ;
Marcgravia ? of Ranunculacea, *Actaea ; of Papareracea,
Sanguinaria, Podophyllum, * Chelidornum, *Glaucium,
*Papaver, Argemone ; of Sarracenia ; of
Nymphaacea, *Xymph8ea, Xuphar, Euryale ; of Tiliacea,
Bixa, Sloanea, Aubletia, Sparmannia, Muntingia, Grewia,
*Tilia, Corchorus ; of Guttifera, Grias, Calophyllum, Mam-
mea, Ochna, Elaeocarpus ; of Myrtacea, Alangium ; of Lo-
asea, Mentzelia; of Salicaria, Lagerstroemia ; of Aurantia,
.<Egle ; of Cisti, Cistus, *Helianthemum. 32 Gen. 161 Sp.
2. Digynia. Containing of Bunoniacea, Bauera ; of Amentacea,
Fothergilla ; of Magnolia t Curatella ; of Ranunculacea,
Paeonia. 4 Gen. 21 Sp.
3. Trigynia. Containing of Dilleniacea, Hibbertia ; of Ranun-
culacea, *Delphiniuro, Aconitum. 5 Gen. 56 Sp.
4. Pentagynia. Containing of Ranunculacea, Cimicifuga,
*Aquilegia, Xigella; of Ficoidea, Reaumuria. 4 Gen. 18 Sp.
5. Polygynia. An order for the most part natural, compre-
hending some fine exotic trees, as Dillenia, Liriodendron, the
Tulip-tree, the noble Magnolia, &c. To these succeed a
family of plants, either herbaceous or climbing, of great
elegance, but of acrid and dangerous qualities, as Anemone,
in a single state the most lovely, in a double one the most
splendid ornament of our parterres in the spring ; Atragene
and Clematis, so graceful for bowers; Thalidrum, Adonis,
Ranunculus, Trollius, Helleborus and Caltha, all conspicuous
in our gardens or meadows, which, with a few less familiar,
close this class — It contains of Xymphaacea, Nelumbium ;
of Dilleniacea, Dillenia; Magnolincea, Liriodendron, Mag-
nolia, Michelia; of Annona, Uvaria, Illicium, Annona,
Porcelia, Xylopia ; of Ranunculacea', *Hepatica, *Anemone,
♦Pulsatilla, Atragene, *Clematis, *Thalictrum, *Adonis,
Knowltonia, *Ficaria, *Ranunculus, *Trollius, Isopyrum,
Eranthis, *Helleborus, Coptis, *Caltha, Hydropeltis", Hy-
drastis. 28 Gen. 185 Sp.
Class XIV. Didynamia. Stamens 2 long and 2 short. Or-
ders 2, each on the whole very natural.
1 . Gymnospennia. Seeds naked, in the bottom of the calyx,
four, except in Ph ryma, which has a solitary seed. Corolla
monopetalous and irregular, a little inflated at the base, and
holding honey, without any particular nectary. Stamens in
two pairs, incurved, with the style between them, so that
the impregnation rarely fails. The plants of this order are
mostly aromatic, and none, we believe, poisonous. The
calvx is either in five nearly equal segments, or two-lipped.
Most of the genera afford excellent essential characters,
taken frequently from the corolla, or from some other part.
— It contains of Labiata, *Ajuga, Anisomeles, *Teucrium,
Westringia, Satureja, Thymbra, Hyssopus, Pycnanthemum,
* Xepeta, Elsholtzia, Lavandula, Sideritis, Bystropogon,
*Mentha, Perilla, Hyptis, Lepechinia, *Glechoma, *La-
mium, *Galeopsis, *Galeobdolon, * Betonica, *Stachys,
*Ballota, *Marrubium, *Leonurus, Phlomis, Leucas, Le-
onotis, Moluccella, *Clinopodium, *Origanum, *Thymus,
Acynos, Calamintha, Melissa, Dracoceuhalum, *Melittis,
Ocymum, Plectranthus, Trichoste'na, Prostanthera, ♦Scu-
tellaria, *Prunella, Cleonia, Prasium, Fhrvma; of Yerbe-
benacea, Selago. 48 Gen. 279 Sp.
Book I.
LINN^AN HOilTUS BRITANNICUS.
133
2. Angiospermia. Reeds In a capsule, and generally very nume-
rous. The plants of this order have the greatest passible
affinity with some families in Pentandria Monogynia . Some
species even vary from one class to the other, as Bignonia
radicans, and Antirrhinum Linaria, in which the irregular
corolla becomes regular, and the four unequal stamens are
changed to five equal ones ; nor does this depend, as has been
asserted, on the action of any extraneous pollen upon the
stigmas of the parent plant, neither are the seeds always
abortive. No method of arrangement, natural or artificial,
could provide against such anomalies as these, and therefore
imperfections must be expected in every system. — Jt con-
tains of Verbenacea, Hebenstretia, Clerodendrum, Volka-
meria, Holmskioldia, Vitex, Cornutia, Hosta, Gmelina,
Petraa, Citharexylum, Duranta, Lantana, Spielmannia,
Zapania, Priva, Aloysia, *Verbena ; of M.yoporina-, Mvopo-
rum, Stenochilus, Bontia, Avicennia ; of Pedulinw, Peda-
lium ; of Bignoniacea; Bignonia, Sesamum, Tourrettia, Mar-
tinia ; of Gesnerea, Gloxinia, Gesneria ; of Orobanchea-, *La-
thra\a, *Orobanche ; of Acanihacea>, Acanthus, Thunbergia,
Barleria, Ruellia, Blechum, Aphelandra, Crossandra ; of
Scrophuhiriiuv, Limosella, Browallia, Stemodia, Mams, Lin-
dernia, Hcrpestis, Capraria, Teedia, Besleria, Trevirana,
Columnea, Russelia, Dodartia, Halleria, l\limulus, Horne-
mannia, *I)igitalis, *Scrophularia, Penstemon, Chelone,
Celsia, Alonsoa, Maurandia, Cymbaria, Nemesia, Anarrhi-
num, *Antirrhinum, * Linaria ; of Pediculareu-, *Gerardia,
*Pedicularis, Melampyrum, *Khinanthus, Bartsia, Cas-
tilleja, *Euphrasia, Buchnera, Manulea, Erinus, *Sibthorpi ;
of Solanea; ? Brunfelsia, Crescentia, Anthocercis ; of Capri-
frtite, *Lmnsea; of Rutacea, IMelianthus. 81 Gen. 346 Sp.
Class XV. Tetradynamia. Stamens 4 long and 2 short.
Orders 2, perfectly natural. Flowers cruciform
1. Siliculosa. Fruit a roundish pod, or pouch. In some
genera it is entire, as Drain ; in others notched, as Thlaspi,
and Iberis It contains of Crucifcra;, *C'akile, *Crambe,
*Myagrum, Euclidium, Rapistrum, Bunias, *Coronopus,
Biscutella, Peltaria, Clyneola, *Isatis, Succowia, Vella,
Anastatica, iEthioneraa,. *Thlaspi, *Hutchinsia, *Tees-
dalia, *lberis, *Lepidium,*Cochlearia, *Suhulana-, *I)raba,
Petrocallis, Camelina, *Alyssum, Farsetia, Vesicaria, Lu-
naria, Ricotia. 30 Gen. Vki Sp.
2. Siliquosa. Fruit a very long pod. Some genera have a
calyx clausus, its leaves slightly cohering by their sides, as
Raphanus, and Cheiranthus. Others have a spreading or
gaping calyx, as Car'danrine, and Sisymbrium.
Cleome is a very irregular genus, allied in habit, and even
in the number of stamens of several species, to the Polyan-
dria Monogynia. Its fruit, moreover, is a capsule of one
cell, not the real two-celled pod of this order. Most of its
species are foetid and very poisonous, whereas scarcely any
plants properly belonging to this class are remarkably noxious.
Sir J. E. Smith has great doubts concerning the disease
called Rapliania, attributed by Linnaeus to the seeds of Ra-
phanus Raphanislrum.
The cruciform plants are vulgarly called antiscorbutic, and
supposed to be of an alkalescent nature. Their essential oil,
which is generally obtainable in very small quantities by dis-
tillation, smells like volatile alkali, and is of a very acrid
quality. Hence the foetid scent of water in which cabbages,
or other plants of this tribe, have been boiled.
It contains of Crucife'rce, Heliophila, *Cardamine, *Ara-
bis, Macropodium, *Turritis, *Barbarea, f Nasturtium,
*Sisymbrium, *Erysimum, Notoceras, *Cheiranthus, *Ma-
thiol'a, Alalcomia, *Hesperis, Erucaria, *Brassica, *Sinapis,
*Raphanus, Chorispermum ; of Capparidece, Cleome. 20 Gen.
164 Sp.
Class XVI. Monadelphia. Stamens united by their filaments
into one tube. Orders 8, distinguished by the number of
their stamens.
1. Triamlria. This order contains the singular Cape plant
Aphyteia, consisting of a large flower and succulent fruit,
springing immediately from the root, without stem or leaves.
— It contains of Leguminoso?, Tamarindus ; of Irideo?, Pa-
tersonia, Ferraria, Tigridia, Galaxia. 5 Gen. 11 Sp.
2. Pentandria. Containing of Tiliacea;, W'altheria, Her-
mannia ; of Malvacea, Melochia, Melhania, Ochroma ; of
Passifloreas, Passiflora ; of Geraniaceas, *Erodium. 7 Gen.
92 Sp.
3. Beptandria. Contains of Gcraniacea, Pelargonium. 1 Gen.
175 Sp.
4. Octanilria. Contains of Meliee, Aitonia. 1 Gen. 1 Sp.
5. Decandria. Contains of Geraniacea, *Geranium ; ofLegumi-
nosie, Brownea. 2 Gen. 41 Sp.
6. Dodecandria. Contains of Gcraniacae, Monsonia; of Malvaceae,
Hclicteres, Dumbeya, Pentapetes, Pterospermum. 5 Gen.
13 Sp.
7. Polyandria, a very numerous and magnificent order, com-
prising, of Malvacew, Carolinea, Adansonia, Bombax, La-
gunea, Napa-a, Sida, Cristaria, Palavia, Malachra, ♦Al-
thaea, * Malva, * Lavatera, Ruizia, Malope, Kitaibelia,
Urena, Gossvpium, Hibiscus, Pavonia, Achania, Myrodia,
Gordonia ; of Tiliacea, Stuartia; of Aurantiw, Camellia; of
Murtacete, Barringtonia, Gustavia; of Careya. 27 Gen.
210 Sp.
Class XVII. Diadclphia. Stamens united by their filaments
into two parcels, both sometimes cohering at the base.
Orders 1, distinguished by the number of their stamens.
Flowers almost universally papilionaceous.
1. Pentandria. Containing of Scrophttlarina>, Monnieria; of
Legaminoste, Petalostemum. 2 Gen. 5 Sp.
-J. Hexamlna. Containing of Papaveracae, Corydalis, Cysti-
capnoS] *Fumaria. 3 Gen. 19 Sp.
3. Odandria. Containing of Polygalca, *Polygala, Securideca.
2 Gen.2 9 Sp.
4. Decamlria is by far the most numerous, as well as natural
order of this class, consequently the genera are difficult to
characterise.
The genera are arranged in sections, variously charac-
terised.
(a) Stamens all united, that is, all in one set ; as Spartium.
(b) Stigma downy, without the character of the preceding
section ; as Pi-iiim.
(<■) Legume imperfectly divided into two cells, always, as in ail
the following, without the character of the preceding sec-
tions ; as Astragalus.
{it) Legume rvtth scarcity more than oneseed ; as Psoralca.
ic) Legume composed oj singlc-valved joints, which are rarely
solitary : as Hedysarum.
{f) Legume of one cell, >■ itli scverul seals ; as Melilotus.
Leguminous plants are rarely noxious to the larger tribes
of animals, though some species of Galega intoxicate fish.
The seeds of Cytisus Laburnum have of late been found
violently emetic, and those of Lathyrus sativus have been
supposed at Florence to soften the bones, and cause death ;
we know of no other similar instances in this class, which is
one of the most abundant in valuable esculent plants. The
negroes have a notion that the beautiful little scarlet and
black seeds of Abrus precatorius, so frequently used for neck-
laces, are extremely poisonous, insomuch that half of one is
sufficient to kill a man. This is totally incredible. Linnaeus
however asserts, Sir J. E. Smith thinks, rather too abso-
lutely, that " among all the leguminous or papilionaceous
tribe, there is no deleterious plant to be found."
It contains of Legumimisa, Nissolia, Dalbergia, Pongamia,
Pterocarpus, Amerimnum, Dipterix, Abrus, Erythrina,
Butea, Piscidia,.Borbonia, *Spartium, *Genista, Lebeckia,
Rafnia, Aspalathus, Sarcophyllum, Stauracanthus, *Ulex,
Arnorpha, l'latylobium, Bossiaea, Scottia, Templetonia,
Goodia, Loddigesia, Wiborgia, Crotalaria, Hovea, *Ononis,
♦Anthyllis, Arachis, Lupinus, Carpopogon, Phaseolus, Do-
lichos, Stizolobimn, Glycine, Apios, Kennedia, Cylista, Cli-
toria, Galactia, *Pisum, Ochrus, *C*robus, Lathyrus, *V'icia,
*Ervum, *Cicer, Liparia, Cytisus, Mullera, (ieoffroya, Ro-
binia, Colutea, Swainsona, Sutherlandia, Lessertia, Gly-
cyrrhiza, Sesbana, Coronilla, *Omithopus, *Hjj>pocrepis,
Scorpiurus, Smitliia, JEschynomene, Ilallia, Lespedeza,
*Hedysarum, Zornia, Flemingia, Indigofera, Tephrosia,
(Jalega, Phaca, Oxytropis, *Astragalus, Biserula, Dalea,
Psoralea, Melilotus, Lupinaster, *Trifolium, *Lotus, Do-
ryenium, Trigonella, *Medicago. 88 Gen. 800 Sp.
Class XVIII. Polyadelphia. Stamens united by their fila-
ments into more than two parcels. Orders 3, distinguished
by the number or insertion of their stamens, which last
particular Linnaeus here overlooked.
1. Decandria. Ten stamens. Contains of Malvacea?, the Theo-
broma, or Chocolate-nut-tree. 1 Gen. 2 Sp.
2. Dodecandria. Stamens, or rather anthers, from twelve to
twenty, or twenty five, their filaments unconnected with the
calyx It contains of Malvacca, Bubroma, Abroma. 2 Gen.
3S'p.
3. Icosandria. Stamens numerous, their filaments inserted
(in several parcels) into the calyx It contains of Myrtacea-,
Melaleuca, Tristania; Calothamnus, Beaufortia. 4 Gen.
32 Sp.
4. Polyandria. Stamens very numerous, unconnected with the
calyx It contains of Ebenaceor, Hopea ; of Auranteoe, Ci-
trus ; of Gutlifenr, Xanthochymus ; of Hypericiiue, *Hy ■
pericum, Ascyrum. 5 Gen. 0'5 Sp.
Class XIX. Syngenesia. Anthers united into a tube. Flowers
compound. Orders 5.
This being truly a natural class, its orders are most of them
equally so, though some are liable to exceptions.
1. Polygamic o?qualis. In this each floret, taken separately, is
perfect or united, being furnished with its own perfect stamens
and pistil, and capable of bringing its seed to maturity with-
out the assistance of any other floret. The order consists of
three sections.
(a) Florets all ligulate, or strap shaped, called by Toumefort
semijlosculous. These flowers are generally yellow, sometimes
blue, very rarely reddish. They expand in a morning, and
close towards noon or in cloudy weather. Their herbage is
commonly milky and bitter; as in Leontodon, Tiragopogon,
Hieracium, and Cichorium.
(b) Flowers globose, generally uniform and regular, their
florets all tubular, Jive-d: ft, and spreading; as Carduus.
(c) Flowers discoid, their fiords all tubular, regular, crowded,
and parallel, forming a surface nearly Jlat, or cxadly conical.
Their color is most generally yellow, in some cases pink.
Santolina and Ridens are examples of this section.
It contains of Ciihoracea', Geropogon, * Tragopogon, Troxi-
mon, Arnopogon, Scorzonera, Picridium, * Sonchus, * Lac-
tuca, Chondrilla, *Prenanthes, * Leontodon, *Apargia,
* Thrincia, * Picris, * Hieracium, *Crepis, * Helminthia,
Tolpis, Andryala, Rothia, Krigia, Hyoseris, Hedypnois,
Seriola, * Hipochaeris, * Lapsana, Zacintha, Rhagadiolus,
Catananche, * Cichorium, Scolymus; of Cynarocephaloe
♦Arctium, *Serratula, *Carduus, *Cnicus, *Onopordum,
Berardia, Cynara, Carlina, Atractylis, Acarna, Stokesia
Stobaea, Carthamus, Stahelina, Pteronia ; of Corymbifcra:
Vernonia, Liatris, Mikania, *Eupatorium, Ageratum, Stevia,
Cephalophora, Hymenopappus, Melananthera, Marshallia,
Spilanthes, *Bidens, Lagasca, Lavenia, Cacalia, Kleinia,
Ethulia, Piqueria, *Chrysocoraa, Tarchonanthus, Calea,
lluinea, Bassinia, Caesulia, Ixodia, *Santolina, Anthanasia,
ll.ikamita, Pentzia. 74 Gen. 274 Sp.
2. Polygarma tuperflua. Florets of the disk perfect or united ;
those of the margin furnished with pistils only ; but all pro-
ducing perfect seed.
(a) Dtscoid, the florets of the margin being obsolete or in-
conspicuous, from the smallness or peculiar form of the
corolla; as Artemisia.
(b) Ligulate, two-lipped, of which Perdicium, a rare exotic
genus, is the only instance.
(c) Radiant, the marginal florets ligulate, forming spreading,
conspicuous rays ; as in Bcllis. This seems an approach of
the third section of the former order towards what is equi-
valent to becoming double in other tribes. Accordingly,
the Anthemi.i nobi/is, with Chrysanthemum, Leucanthemum,
and some others, occasionally have their whole disk changed
to ligulate florets, destitute of stamens, and consequently
abortive. Such are actually called double flowers in this
class, and very properly. Many exotic species so circum-
stanced are met with in gardens. A very few strange anoma-
lies occur in this section ; one, SigesbccJeia, having but three
stamens, instead of five, the otherwise universal number in
the class ; and Tustilage hyhrida, as well as Paradoxa of Ret-
] zius, having distinct anthers. Nature therefore, even in this
. most natural class, is not quite without exceptions
K 3
134
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
It contains of Oorymb!f?m, *TanaceRim, *ArtemfeJa,
*Gnaphalium, Xerauthcmum, Eliclirysum.Carpesium, Bac-
charis, *Convza, Madia, *Erigeron. *Tussilago, *Seneclo,
*Aster, *Soli"dago, *Cineraria, *Inula, Grindelia/Podolepis,
Arnica, Doronicum, Perdicium.Tetragonotheca, Ximenesia,
Helenium, *Bellis, (Bellium, Dahlia, Tagetes, Heterosper-
mum, Schkuhria, Pectis, Leysera, Relhania, Zinnia, *Chry-
santhemum, *Pyrethrum, *Matricaria, Boltonia, Lidbeckia,
Cenia, Cotula, Grangea, Anacyclus, *Anthemis, Sanvitalia,
♦Achillea, Balbisia, Amellus, Starkea, Eclipta, Chrysan-
thellum, Siegesbeckia, Verbesina, Synedrella, Galinsogea,
Acmella, Zaluzania, Pascalia, Heliopsis, Buphthalmum.
60 Gen. 673 Sp.
3. Polysomia frustanea. Florets of the disk, as in the preceding,
perfect or united ; those of the margin neuter, or destitute of
pistils as well as of stamens ; only some few genera having the
rudiments of pistils in their radiant florets. This order is,
still more evidently than the last, analogous to double flowers
of other classes It contains of Corymbifira, Helianthus,
Galardia, Rudbeckia, Cosmea, Coreopsis Osmites, Pallasia,
Sclerocarpus, CuUumia, Berckheya, Didelta, Gorteria, Ga-
zania, Crvptostemma, Arctotheca, Sphenogyne; of Cynaro-
cephala, Zcegea, *Centaurea, Galactites. 19 Gen. 177 Sp.
4. Polygamia necessaria. Florets of the disk furnished with
stamens only; those of the margin or radius, only with pistils ;
so that both' are necessary to each other. — It contains of Co-
rymliifera, Milleria, Flaveria, Baltimora, Silphmm, Aleina,
Polymnia, Melampodium, Chaptalia, Calendula, Arctotis,
Osteospermum, Othonna, Hippia, Gymnostyles, Psiadia,
Eriocephalus, Filago, Micropus, Partheniura, Iva. 20 Gen.
100 Sp. . ,
5. Polysomia segregate! . Several flowers, either simple or com-
pound, but with united tubular anthers, and with a partial
calyx, all included in one general calyx. — It contains of Co-
rymbifera, Elephantopus, ffidera, Stcebe, Nauenburgia; of
Cunarocephala ? Sphaeranthus, Eehinops, Rolandra, Brotera,
Gundelia. 10 Gen. 17 Sp.
Class XX. Gynandria. Stamens inserted either upon the
style or germen. Orders 3.
1. Monandria. Stamen, or sessile anther, ona only. — It con-
tains of Orehidece, *Orchis, Gymnadenia, *Aceras, *Hermi-
nium, Habenaria, Bartholina, Serapias, *Ophrys, *Satyrium,
Disa, Ptervgodium, Disperis, Goody era, Neottia, Ponthieva,
Diurus, Thelvmitra, *Listera, Epipactis, Pogonia, Caladenia,
Glossodia, Pterostylis, Caleya, Calopogon, Arethusa, Bletia,
Geodorum, Calypso, Malaxis, Corallorrhiza, Isochilus, Or-
nithidium, Stelis, Pleurothallis,Octomeria,Aerides, Cryptar-
rhena, Dendrobium, Gomesa, Cymbidium, Brassia, Onci-
dium, Cyrtopodium, Brassavola, Broughtonia, Epidendrum,
Vanilla. 48 Gen. 122 Sp.
2. Diandria. Containing of Orchidea, *Cypripedium ; of Stylx-
dea, Stylidium ; of Urticea t Gunnera. 3 Gen. 10 Sp.
3. Hexandria. Containing of AristoUichia, * Aristolochia.
lGen. 19 Sp.
Class XXI. Monastic Stamens and pistils in separate flowers,
but both growing on the same individual plant. Orders 9.
1. Monandria. Contains of Naiades, Zannichellia, *Chara ; of
Chenopodea, Ceratocarpus ; of Urticea, Artocarpus; of Casua-
rinea, Casuarina. 5 Gen. 16 Sp.
2. Diandria. Contains of Cucurbitacea, Anguria; of Naiades,
*Lemna. 2 Gen. 5 Sp.
3. Triandria. Contains of Typhina, *Typha, *Sparganium ;
of Graminea, Zea, Tripsacum, Coix, Olyra; of Cyperacea,
*Carex; of Amentacea, Comptonia; of Chenopodea, Axyris;
of Euplwrbiacea, Tragia; of Laurina, Hernandia. 11 Gen.
101 Sp.
4. Tetrandria. Contains of Rhamni t Aucuba; of Diosmea,
Empleumm; of Onagraria, Serpicula ; of Plantaginea, *Lit-
torella; of Amentacea, *Alnus; of Euplwrbiacea, Cicca,
*Buxus, Pachysandra; of Chenopodea, Biotis; of Urticea,
*Urtica, Bcehmeria, Morus. 12 Gen. 41 Sp.
5. Pentandria. Contains of Menispennea ? Schisandra; ofCorym.
biferaf Xephelium, Xanthium, Ambrosia, Franseria; Cucur-
bitacea, Lima; Amaranihacca, Amaranthus. 7 Gen. 48. Sp.
C. Hexandria. Contains of Graminea, Zizania, Pharus; of Ru-
biacea, Guettarda; of Palirug, Cocos, Bactris, Elate, Sagus.
7 Gen. 11 Sp.
7. Polyandria. Stamens more than seven. Contains of A aiade3,
*Ceratophvllum, *Myriophyllum ; of Alismacea, *Sagittaria ;
of Begonia'cea, Begonia; of Euplwrbiacea, Acidotcn; of Co-
nifers, Salisburia ; of Graminea, Pariana ; of Urticea:, The-
lygonum; of Rosacea, *Poterium; of Terebintacea, Juglans;
of Amentacea, *Ouercus, *Fagus, *Castanea, *Betula, *Car-
pinus, Ostrva, *'Corylus, Platanus, Liquidambar; of Ariodea,
*Arum, Caladiumf of Palma, Caryota. 22 Gen. 189 Sp.
8. Monadelphia. Contains of Palma, Areca; of Conifera,
* Pinus, Thuja, Cupressus, Podocarpus ; of Euplwrbiacea,
Plukenetia, Dalechampia, Acalypha, Croton, Jatropha, Rici-
nus, Omphalea, Hippomane, Sapium, Phyllanthus, Stillixigia,
Aleurites, Hura; of Slerculiacea, Sterculia; of Malpighiacea,
Heretiera ; of Cucurbitacea, Trichosanthes, Momordica, Cu-
curbita, Cucumis, *Bryonia, Sicyos. 26 Gen. 158 Sp.
9 Gynandria. Contains of Euplwrbiacea, Andrachne. 1 Gen.
lSp.
Class XXII. Diacia. Stamens and pistils in separate flowers,
situated on two separate plants. Orders 13.
1. Monandria. Contains of Pandanea, Pandanus. 1 Gen.
4 Sp.
2. Diandria. Contains of Urticea, Cecropia; of Amentacea,
*Salix; of Euphorlnucea , Bona. 3 Gen. 87 Sp.
3. Triandria. Contains of Ericea f *Empetrum ; of Terebinta-
cea,'Stilago; of Santalacea ? Osyris ; of «e^'u«><r, Willdenovia,
Restio, Elegia; of Palma, Pho-nix. 7 Gen. 12 Sp.
4. Tetrandia. Contains of Rubiacca, Anthospermum ; of
Trophis, Schajfteria, Picramnia ; of Terebintacea, Antidesma;
of Onagraria, Montinia; of Loranthacca, *Viscum; ofTere-
hi ntacea, Brucea; of Urticea, Broussonetia ; of Eltragm, Hip-
pophas; of Amentacea, *Myrica ; of Proteacea, Aulax, Leuco-
dendron. 13 Gen. 46 Sp.
5. Pentandria. Contains of Terebintacea, Pistacia, Zanthoxy-
lum; of Euph»rbittcea, Securinega; of^?«tfrairfA«c<M;,Iresine;
of Clienoiiodetc, *Spinacia, Acnida; of Urticea, *Cannabis,
*Humulus. 8(ien. 18 Sp. •
6. Hexandria. Contains oi Smilactx, Smilax; *Tamus? of
Dfoscortna, Rajanla, Dloscorea; of Elenacea,yiaba ; of Palma,
Elals, Chamaedorea, Borassus. 8 Gen. 56 Sp.
7. Octandria. Stamens 8. Contains of Amentacea, *Populus ;
of Semperviva, *Rhodiola. 2 Gen. 1.5 Sp.
8. Enneandria. Stamens 9. Contains of Euplwrbiacea, *Mer
curialis; of Hydrocharidea, *Hydrocharis. 2 Gen. 6 Sp.
9. Decandria. Stamens 10. Contains of Cucurbitacea t Carica ;
of Leguminosa, Gyrnnocladus ; of Euplwrbiacea, Kiggelaria;
of Terebintacea, Schinu1? ; of Coriaria. .5 Gen. 9 Sp.
10. Dodecandria. Stamens 11. Contains of Hydrocharidea,
*Stratiotes; of Euplwrbiacea, Hyoenanche; of Terebintacea,
Euclea, Datisca ; ot Menispennea, Menispermum, Cocculus,
6 Gen. 12 Sp.
11. Icosandria. Stamens 12. Contains of Tiliacea, Flacourtia ;
of Gelonium, Rottlera. 3 Gen. 6 Sp.
12. Polyandria. Stamens numerous. Contains of
Trewia; of Ebenacea, Embryopteris ; of Rosacea, Clirforlia;
of Cycadea, Cycas, Zamia. 5 Gen. 26 Sp.
13. Monadelphia. Stamens united. Contains of Conifera,
Araucaria, *Juniperus, *Taxus, *Ephedra; of Menispennea,
Cissampelos; of Euplwrbiacea, Exccecaria, Adelia; of
Loureira, Nepenthts ; of Myristicea, Myristica; of Smilaccaf
*Ruscus; of Palma, Batania. 12 Gen. 40 Sp.
14. Gynandria. Stamens inserted in the style. Contains of
Euplwrbiacea, Cluytia. 1 Gen. 8 Sp.
Class XXIII. Polygamic. Stamens and pistils separate in
some flowers, united in others, either on the same plant or on
two or three distinct ones; such difference in the essential
organs being moreover accompanied with a diversity in the
accessory parts of the flowers. Orders 2.
1. Monatia. United flowers accompanied with barren or fer-
tile, or both, all on one plant It contains of Musacea, Musa ;
of.Ue/i/HMrtcso-jVeratrum ; of Graminea, Andropogon, Chloris,
Penicillaria, Sorghum, *Holcus, Ischaemum, /Egilops, Mani-
suris ; of Rubiacea, Valantia; of . Urticea, *Parietaria; of
Chenopodea, *Atriplex, Rhagodia; of Combretacea, Termina-
lia; of Santalacea, Fusanus; of Proteacea, Brabejum ; of
Feronia ; of Terebintacea, Ailanthus ; of Guttifera,
Clusia; of Apocynea, Ophioxylon; of Acerina, *Acer; of
Amentacea, Celtis; of Rhamni? Gouania; of Umbellifera,
Hermas ; of Leguminosa, Inga, Mimosa, Schrankia, Desman-
thus, Acacia; of Palma, Rhapis. 31 Gen. 204 Sp.
2. Ditecia. The different flowers on two different plants.
Contains of Leguminosa, Gleditschia, Ceratonia; of Oleimr,
*Fraxinus ; of Brosimum ; of Terebintacea, Hamil-
tonia ; of Laurophyllus ; of Ebenacea, Diospyros ;
of Myrsinea, Myrsine; of Santalacea ? Nyssa; of Terebintacea,
Bursera; of Umbel! if era f Arctopus; of Aralia, Panax; of
Urticea, Ficus ; of Palma, Chamaerops. 14 Gen. 76 Sp.
Class XXIV. Cryptogamia. Stamens and pistils either not
well ascertained, or not to be numbered with any certainty.
Orders 10.
1. Gonopti rides. Fructification in a terminal catkin. Contains
of Euuisetacea, *Equisetum. 1 Gen. 7 Sp.
2. Stachyopterides. tructification in a spike. Contains of Ly-
copodinea, *Lycopodium , Psilorum ; of Filices, *Ophioglos-
sum, *Botrychium. 4 Gen. 18 Sp.
3. Puropterides. Capsules opening by a pore. Contains of Fi-
lices, Marattia. 1 Gen. 1 Sp.
4. Filices. Fructification on the back, summit, or near the
base of the frond This order contains of Filices, Acrosti-
chum, Hemionitis, Meniscium, Grammitis, *Polypodium,
*\Voodsia, Nephrodium, Allantodia, *Aspidium, *Asple-
nium, *Scolopendrium, Diplazium, *Pteris, 'V'ittaria, Ono-
clea,*Blechnum, Woodwardia, Boodia, *Atliantum, Cheil-
anthes, Lonchitis, Davallia, Dicksonia, Cyathea, *Tricho-
manes, *Hymenophyllum. 26 Gen. 150 Sp.
5. Hydropterides. Fructification nearly radical. Contains of
llarsileacea, *Isoetes, *Pilularia. 2 Gen. 2 Sp.
6. Schisnuitopterides. Fructification in branched spikes. Con-
tains of Filices, Lygodium, Anemia, *Osmunda. 3 Gen. 9 Sp.
7. Musci. Mosses." These are really herbs with distinct leaves,
and frequently as distinct a stem It contains of the natural
order of the same name, and described in Smith's Flora Bri-
tannica, *Andraea, *Bartramia, *Bryum, *Buxbaumia,
*Encalynta, *Fontinalis, *Funaria, *Grimmia, *Gymnosto-
mum, *Hookeria, *Hypnum, *Mnium, *Neckera, *Ortho-
trichum, *Phascum, *Polytrichum, *Pterogonium, Sphag-
num, *Splachnum, *Tetraphis, *Tortula, * Trichosto-
mum, and numerous others, amounting by estimate to 460 Sp.
(See Turner's Historia Musccnrum.)
8. Hepatica. Liverworts. Of these the herbage is commonly
frondose, the fructification originating from what is at the
same time both leaf and stem. This character, however,
proves less absolute than one founded on their capsules, which
differ essentially from those of the preceding order in having
nothing like a lid or operculum. The corolla, or veil, of some
of the genera is like that of Mosses, but usually bursts at the
top. The barren flowers in some are similar to the stamens
of the last-mentioned plants, as in Jungernumnia (see Hooker's
Monograph of this genus) ; in others they are of some peculiar
conformation, as in Marchaniia, where they are imbedded in
a disk like the seeds of lichens, in a maimer so contrary to all
analogy, that botanists can scarcely agree which are the barren
and which the fertile flowers of this genus. Linnaeus com-
prehended this order under the following one, to which,
says Sir J. E. Smith, it is most assuredly far less akin than to
the foregoing. British species estimated at S5.
9. Alga. Flags. In this order the herbage is frondose, some-
times a mere crust, sometimes of a leathery or gelatinous tex-
ture. The seeds are imbedded, either in the frond itself, or in
some peculiar receptacle. The barren flowers are but im-
perfectly known. The aquatic or submersed Alga form a dis-
tinct and peculiar tribe. Some of these abound in fresh water,
others in the sea, whence the latter are commonly denomin-
ated sea-weeds. British species 18.
10. Lido nes. Herbage frondose and leathery ; seeds generally
in the frond. This order was included by Linnxus under the
former one. Estimated number of British species 373.
11. Fungi. Mushrooms. These cannot properly be said to
have any herbage. Their substance is fleshy, generally of
quick growth ana short duration, differing in firmness, from
a watery pulp to a leathery or even woody texture. By some
naturalists they have been thought of an animal nature, chiefly
because of their fcetid scent in decay, and because little white
Book I.
JUSSIEUEAN HORTUS BRITANNICUS.
135
bodies like eggs are found in them at that period. But these
are truly the eggs of flies, laid there by the parent insect, and
destined to produce a brood of maggots, to feed on the decay -
ing fungus, as on a dead carcase, Ellis's beautiful discoveries,
relative to corals and their inhabiting polypes, led to the
strange analogical hypothesis that these insects formed the
fungus, which Munchausen and others have asserted. Some
have thought fungi were composed of the sap of corrupted
wood, transmuted into a new sort of being ; an idea as unphilo-
sophical as the former, and unsupported by any semblance of
truth. Dryander, Schoeffer, and Hedwig have, on much better
grounds, asserted their vegetable nature, detected their seeds,
and in many cases explained their parts of fructification. In
fact they propagate their species as regularly as any other or-
Sect. II. The Hortus Britannicus arranged according to the Jussieuean System.
589. The plants groivn in Britain, xuhether native or exotic, are thus arranged according
to the system of Jussieu. The genera, of which there are species natives of the country,
are marked thus (*), for the sake of those who may wish to arrange a herbarium or grow-
ing collection of indigenous plants according to this method. The authorities followed
are, Sweet's Hortus. Sub. Lond. 1818, and Smith's Comp. Flora Brit. 1816.
ganlsed beings, though, like others, subject to varieties. Their
sequestered and obscure habitations, their short duration,
their mutability of form and substance, render them indeed
more difficult of investigation than common plants, but there
is no reason to suppose them less perfect, or less accurately
defined. Splendid and accurate works, illustrative of this
order, have been given to the world by Schoeffer, Bulliard,
and Sowerby, which are the more useful, as the generality of
fungi cannot well be preserved. The most distinguished
writer upon them, indeed the only good systematic one, is
Pevsoon, who has moreover supplied us with some exquisite
figures. See his Synopsis Mcthodica Fungorum. Estimated
number of species, natives of Britain, 800.
Class I. Dicotyledonbje. Thalamiflora, sect. 1. with nu-
merous pistils, and stamens opposite to the petals. Five
Orders.
Order 1. Ranunculacta, contains of Pent. Polyg. *Myosurus,
Ceratocephalus, Zanthorhiza; of Decand. Trtgy. Garidella;
of Polyand. Monog. *Actaea ; of Polyarul. Digy. *Poeonia ; of
Polyand. Trig. Delphinium, Aconirum ; of Polyand. Pentag.
Cimicifuga, *AquilegiaNigella; of Polyand. Polyg Hepatica,
♦Anemone, Pulsatilla, Atragene, *Clematis, *Thalictrum,
*Adonis, Rnowltonia, *Ficaria, *Ranunculus, *Trollius,
Isopvrum, Eranthis, *Helleborus, Coptis, *Caltha, Hydro-
peltis, Hydrastis. 29 Gen. 214 Sp.
2. Magtwliacea, contains Decand. Monogynia. Quassia ? ofPo-
luand. Digy. Curatella ? of Polyand. Tng. Hibbertia? of Po-
lyand. Polyg. Dillenia ? lllicium, Magnolia, Michelia. 8 Gen.
26 Sp.
3. Annonea, or Anonacea, contains of Polyand. Polyg. Uvaria,
Annona, Porcelia, Xylopia. 4 Gen. 16 Sp.
4. Menitpermea, contains of Hept. Polyg. YV'endlandia ; ofiUo-
nacia Pent. Schizandra ; of Diac. Dodccan. Menispermum,
Cocculus ; of Diac. Monad. Cissampelos. 5 Gen. 11 Sp.
5. Berberides, or Berberidea, contains of Tetrand. Monog. *Epi-
medium ; of Tetrand. Digy. Hamamelis ; of Hexand. Monog.
Leontice, Caullophyllum,'*Berberis. 5 Gen. 11 Sp.
Class II. Dicotyledonbje. Thalamiflora, sect. 2. with
pistils solitary, or adhering together, placentas equal. Six
Orders.
Order 1. Papavaracea* , contains of Tetrand. Digy. Hypecoum ;
of Octand. Monog. Jeffersonia ; of Dodecand. Monog. Bocconia ;
of Polyand. Monog. Sanguinaria, Podophyllum, *Chelido-
nium, *Glaucium, *Papaver, Argemone ; of Diadelph.
Hexand. Corydalis, Cystycapnos, *Fumaria. 12 Gen. 46
Sp.
2. Nymphaacea, of Polyand. Monogyn. *Nymphaea, *Nuphar,
KuryaSe ; Polyand. Polygyn. Nelumbium. 4 Gen. 20 Sp.
3. Crucifera, contains of Tetradynamia, Silicidosa, *Cakile,
*Crambe, Myagrum, Euclidium, *Rapistrum, *Bunias,
♦Coronopus, Biscutella, Peltaria, Clypeola, Isatis, Succowia,
*Vella, Anastatica, jEthionema, *Thlaspi, *Hutchinsia,
♦ Teesdalia, Iberis, Lepidium, *Cochlearia, *Subularia,
*Draba, Petrocallis, *Camelina, Alyssum, Farsetia, Vesi-
caria, Lunaria, Ricotia; of Tetrady. Si'ftau.Heliophila, *Car-
damine, * Arabis, Macropodium, *Turritis, * Barbarea,
♦Nasturtium, *Sisvmbrium,*Erysimum, Notoceras, *Cheir-
anthus, *Mathiola, Malcomia, *'Hesperis, Erucaria, *Bras-
sica, *Sinapis, Kaphanus, Chorispermum. 49 Gen. 281 Sp.
4. Capparides, or Capparidea, contains of Pentand. Tetragy.
♦Pamassia? of Pentand. Pentagy. *Drosera; of Dodecand.
Monogy. Crataeva; of Dodecand. Trig. * Reseda; of Polyand.
Monog. Capparis, Marcgravia? of Tetradyn. Siliquosa, Cleome.
7 Gen. 51 Sp.
5. Passiflorea, contains of Monadelph. Pentand. Passiflora.
1 Gen. 24 Sp.
6. Violea, or Violacea, contains of Pentand. Monogy. *Viola,
Ionidium. 2 Gen. 41 Sp.
7. Cisti, or Cistinte, contains of Polyand. Monogyn. Cisrus, *He-
lianthemum. 2 Gen. 66 Sp.
Class III. Dicotyledoneje. Thalamiflora;, sect. 3. with
ovary solitary, placenta central. Sixteen Orders.
Order 1. Cart/ophyllea, contains of Triand. Monogyn. Ortegia,
Lceflingia; ot Triand. Trigyn. *Holosteum, Polycarpon,
Mollugo, Minuartia, Queria, Lechea; of Tetrand. Digyn.
Buffonia; of Tetrand. Tetragy. *Sagina, Mcenchia; of Pen-
tand. Digyn. Velezia, Pharnaceum ; of Pentand. Trigyn.
Drypis; of Pen/and. Pentagyn. *Linum ; of Hexand. Mono-
gyn. *Frankenia? Odand." Monogyn. Mcchringia; "of Octand.
Tetragyn. *Elatine; of Decand. Digyn. Gypsophila, *Sapo-
naria, *Dianthus ; of Decand. Trigyn. *Cucubalus, *Silcne,
*Stellaria, *Arenaria, *Cherleria; of Decand. Pentagyn.
♦Agrostemma, *Lychnis, *Cerastium, *Spergula. 30 Gen.
289 Sp.
2. Malvacea, contains of Pentand. Monogy. Ruttnena, Ayenia;
of Decand. Monngyn. Kleinhofia; of Monadelph. Pentand.
Melhania, Ochroma ; of Monadelph. Dodecand. Helicteres,
Dombeva, Pentapetes, Pterospermum ; of Monadelph. Poly.
Adansonia, Bombax, Lagunoa, Napaea, Sida, Cristaria, Pa-
lavia, Malachra, *Althaea,*Malva, *Lavatera, Ruizia, Ma-
lope, Kitaibelia, Urena, Gossynium, Hibiscus, Pavonia,
Achania, Myrodia, Gordonia^ of Polyadelph. Decand. Bu-
broma, Abroma. 35 Gen. 217 Sp.
3. Sterculiacca, contains of Monacia. Monadelph. Sterculia.
1 Gen. 5 Sp.
4. Tiliacea, contains of Pentand. Pentagy. Mahemia; ot Dode-
cand. Monogy. Triumfetta ; of Dodecand. Disyn. Heliocarpus;
of Polyandr.' Monogyn. Bixa, Sloania, Aubletia, Sparmannia,
Muntingia, Grewia, Tilia, Corchorus ; of Monadelph. Pen-
tandr. Waltheria? Hermannia ? of Monadelph. Polyand.
Stuartia; of Diarc. Icosandr. Flacourtia. 15 Gen. SO Sp.
5. Sapindi, or Sapindacea, contains of Octand. Monogy. Orni-
trophe, Dimocarpus, Melicocca, Blighia, Ephielis? Keel-
reuteria ; of Octand. . Trigy. PaulUnia, Seriana, Cardio-
spermum, Sapindus. 10 Gen. 20 Sp.
6. Acerea, contains of Triandr. Monogyn. Hippocratea ; of
Heptand. Monogyn. yEsculus; of Polygam. Monac. *Acer.
3 Gen. 24 Sp.
7. Majpighiacca?, contains of Decandr. Monogyn. Gaerrnera; of
Decandr. Trigyn. Malpighia, Bannisteria. "3 Gen. 27 Sp.
8. Pittospereax contains of Pentand. Monogyn. Bursaria, Bil-
lardiera, Pittosporum. 3 Gen. 10 Sp.
9. Hypericins, contains of Polyadelph. Polyand. *Hypericum,
Ascyrum. 2 Gen. 54 Sp.
10. Guttifera, contains of Decandr. Monogyn. Gomphia; of Do-
decandr. Monogyn. Garcinia ; of Polyandr. Monogyn. Grias,
Calophyllum, Mammea, Ochna? El'ceocarpus ? ot Pelygam.
Moiuec. Clusia. S Gen. 15 Sp.
11. Vitcs, contains of Tetrandr. Monogyn. Cissus; of Pentand.
Monogyn. Vitis. 2 Gen. 21 Sp.
12. Gerania, or Geraniacca, contains of Pentand. Monogyn.
*Impatiens ? of Octandr. Monogy. Tropceolum ? of Decandr.
Pentagy. *Oxalis; of Monadelph. Pentand. *Erodium ; of
Monadelph. Heptand. Pelargonium; of Monadelph. Decandr.
♦Geranium; of Monadelph. Dodecand. Monsonia. 7 Gen.
314 Sp.
13. Metia, or Meliacea, contains of Pentand. Monogyn. Cedrella ?
Leea ; of Octandr. Monogy. Gaurea; of Decand. Monogyn.
Trichilia, Ekebergia, Heynea, Melia, Swietenia ; of Dode-
cand. Monogy. Canella; of Monadelph. Octandr. Aitonia.
10 Gen. 16 Sp.
14. Aurantia, or Hesperidea, contains of Octandr. Monogyn.
Ximenia ; of Decand. Monog. Limonia, Murraya, Cookia ;
of Polyand. Monogyn. iEgle; of Monadelph. Polyand. Ca-
mellia; of Polyadelph. Polyand. Cirrus. 7 Gen. 21 Sp.
15. Rtdacea, contains of Decandr. Monogy. Guiaicum, Zygo-
phyllum, Fagonia, Tribulus, Dictamrrus, Ruta, of Dode-
candr. Monogy. Peganum ; of Didynam. Angiosp. Melian-
thus ? 8 Gen'. 2S Sp.
16. Diosmeee, contains of Pentandr. Monogy. Adenandra, Ba-
rosma, Diosma, Agathosma ; of Octandr. Monogy. Corraea ;
of Motuec. Tetrandr. Empleurum. 6 Gen. 32 Sp.
Class IV. Dicotyledons.^. Thalamiflora, sect. 4. with
• fruit in scattered cells, but joined on the same base. Two
Orders, but no examples in British Gardens.
Class V. Dicotyledontje. Calyciflora', with petals free, or
more or less adhering together, always inserted in the calyx.
Thirty-two Orders.
Order 1. Terebintacea, contains of Triandr. Monogy. Cneorum,
Comocladia; of Tetrand. Monogy. Fagara, Monetia ; of Pen-
tand. Moiwgy. Mangifera ; of Pentandr. Trigt/n. Rhus,
Spathelia; of Octandr. Monogy. Amyris, Dodonaea ? of En-
neandr. Monogy. Anacardium ; of Decandr. Pentagyn. Aver-
rhoa, Spondias ; of Monac. Polyandr. Juglans ; of Dieec.
Tetrandr. Brucea ; of Diac. Pentandr. Pistaiia ; Zanthoxy-
lum ; of Dia-c. Decandr. Schinus ; of Polygam. Mona-c.
Ailanthus; of Polygam. Diac. Bursera. 19 Gen. 75 Sp.
2. Rhamvi, or Rhamnece, contains of Tetrandr. Tetragyn. My-
ginda, *Ilex; of Pentand. Monogyn. Elaeodendrum, *Rham-
nus, Zizvphus, Celastrus, Sena'cia, *Euonymus, Hovenia,
Ceanothiis, Pomaderris, Phylica, Brunia ? Staavia, Plectro-
nia; of Pentandr. Trigy. Cassine, Staphylea; of Hexandr.
Monogyn. Prinos; of Moiuec. Tetrandr. Aucuba ; of Polygam.
Memac. Gouania. 20 Gen. 126 Sp.
3. Leguminostt, contains of Decandr. Monogyn. Edwardsia,
Sophora, Orraosia, Anagyris, Thermopsis, Virgilia, Cyclopia,
Baptisia, Podalyria, Criorizema, Podolobium, Oxylobium,
Callistachys, Brachysema, Gompholobium, Burtonia, Jack-
sonia, Viminaria, Sphcerolobium, Aotns, Dillwynia, Eutaxia,
Sclerothamnus, Gastrolobium, Euchilus, Pultenia, Daviesia,
Mirbelia, Cercis, Bauhinia, Hymenaa, Cynometra, Cassia,
Cathartocarpus, Parkinsonia, Poinciana, Cassalpinia, Guilan-
dina, Hvperanthera, Hoft'manseggia, Adenanthera, Cadia,
Prosopis," Hasmatoxylon, Copaifera, Schotia ; of Monadelph.
Triandr. Tamarindus; of Diadelph. Pentandr. Petaloste-
mum ; of Diadelph. Octandr. Securidaca ; of Diadelph. De-
candr. Nissolia, Dalbergia, Pongamia, Pterocarpus, Ame-
rimnum, Dipterix, Abrus, Erythrina, Butea, Piscidia,
Borbonia, *Spartium, *Genista, I-ebeckia, Raffnia, Aspa-
lathiLs, Sarconhvllum, Stauracanthus, *Ulex, Amorpha,
Platylobium, Boadsa, Pcottm, Templetonia, Goodia, Lod-
digesia, Wiborgia, Crotalaria, Hovea, *Ononis, *Anthyllisy
Arachis, Lupinus, Carpopogon, Phaseolus, Dolichos, Stizolo-
bium, Glycine, Apios, K'ennwlia, (^yUsta, Clitoria, Galactia,
*Pisum, "Ochrus, *Orobus, *I.athyrus, *Vicia, *Ervum,
Cicer, Liparia, Cytisus, IMullera, Geoffroya, Robinia, Colu-
tea, Swainsonia, Sutherlandia, Lessertia, Glycyrhiza, Ses-
bana, Coronilla, *Ornithopus, *Hippocrepis, Scorpiurus,
Smithia, /Eschynomene, Hallia, Lespedeza, *Hedysarum,
Zomia, I'lemingia, Galega, Indigofera, Tephrosia, Phaca,
*Oxytrophis, *Astragalns, Biscrrula, Dalea, Psorabla, *Meli-
K 4
136
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
k>tt»s, Luplnaster, *TrtfbItum, Lotus, Dorycnlum, Trigrmella,
Medicago ; of Dime. Decandr. Gymnocladus ; of Polygam.
Motuec. Inga, Mimosa, Schrankia, Desmanthus, Acacia; of
Polygam. Dure. Gleditschia, Ceratonia. 145 Gen. 1085 Sp.
4. Rosacea;, contains of Diandr. Monogy. Acaena ; of Tetrand.
Monogy. *Sanguisorba, *Alchemilla; of Pentatitl. Monogy.
Hirtelia ; of Pentand. Pentagyn. *Sibbaldia ; of Dodecandr.
D'gyn. *Agrimonia; of Icosandr. Monogy. Amygdalus ;
*Prunus, Armeniaca, Chrysobalanus, Waldsteinia, *Mespi-
lus, *Pyrus, Cydonia, *Spiraea ; of leosatidr. Polygam.
*Rosa, *Rubus, Dalibarda, *Fragaria, *L'omanim, *P6ten-
tilla, *Tormentilla, *Geum, *Dryas, Calycanthus ? of
Motuec. Polyandr. *Poterium ; of Dicec. Polyandr. Clittbrtia.
27 Gen. 516 Sp.
5. Salicaria; contains of Tetrand. Monogy. Ammannia ; of
Pentatulr. Monogy. *Glaux ; of Hexand. ^Monogy. *Peplis ; of
Octand. Monogy. Grislea, Lawsonia ; of Decand. Monogy.
Acisanthera; "of Dodeeand. Monogy. *Lythrum, Cuphaea; of
Polyaml. Monogy. I.agerstrfr-mia. g Gen. 23 Sp.
6. Melastoma, or Melastomacete, contains of Vctandr. Monogy.
Osbeckia, Rhexia; of Deeand. Monogy. Melastoma; of Do-
decaiul. Monogy. Blakea. 4 Gen. 24 Sp.
7. Myrti, or Myrtacea; contains of Octandr. Monogyn. Baeckia ;
of Dodeeand. Monogy. Becumaria ; of Icosandr. Monogyn.
Philadelphus, Leptospermum, Fabricia, Metrosideros, Psi-
clium, Eugenia, Caryophyllus, lUyrtus, Calyptranthes, Eu-
calyptus, Funica ; of Polyandr. Monogyn. Alangium ; of
Monadelph. Polyandr. Barringtonia, Gusta'-ia ; of Polyadelph.
Icosandr. Melaleuca, Tristania, Calothamnus, Beaufortia.
20 Gen. 121 Sp.
8. Combretacem, contains of Pentandr. Monogy. Conocarpus ; of
Decandr. Monogy. Combretum, Getonia, Quisqualis; of Poly-
gam. Motuec. Terminalia. 5 Gen. 10 Sp."
9. Cucnrbiiaceie, contains of Triand. Monogyn. Melothria ; of
Pentand. Monogyn. Gronovia ; of Moncec. Diand. Anguria ;
of Moiureia Pe'tdand. I.ufFa ; of Mona-cia Monadetph. Tricho-
santhes, Momordica, Cucurbita, Cucumis, *Bryonia, Sicyos ;
of Dicecia Occam!. Carica. 11 Gen. 48 Sp.
10. Loas, a-, contains of Icosajid. Monogyn. Bartonia; of Poly -
and. Mwiogyn. Mentzelia. 2 Gen. 4 Sp.
1 1 . Oiuigrarue, contains of Monand. Monogyn. Lopezia ; of
Diand' Monogyn. Circaea ; of Tetradyn. Monogy. Ludwigia,
Isnardia; of Octand. Mono;. *(Enothera, Gaura, *Epilo-
bium ; of Octand. Tetragy. Haloragis ; of Decand. Monogyn.
Jussieua; of Dicecia Tetrand. Montinia. 10 Gen. 51 Sp.
12. FicoUece, contains of Dodecandr. Monog. Nitraria; of Do-
decandr. Pentagyn. Glinus; of Icosandr. Pentagyn. Sesuvium,
Tetragonia, Mesembryanthenmm, Aizoon; of Polyand. Pen-
tagyn. Reaumuria. 7 Gen. 229 Sp.
13. Semperviva", contains of Tetrandr. Tctragyn. Tillaea ; of
Pentandr. Pen'agyn. Larochea, Crassula ; of Heptand. Hep-
tag. Septas ; of Octandr. Tctragyn. Calanchoe, Bryophyllum ;
of Decand. Pentag. *Cotyledon, *Sedura, Penthorum ; of
Decaiul. Decagyn. *Sempervivum ; of Di&cia Pentandr.
*Rhodiola. 11 Gen. 126 Sp.
14. PortulacexB, contains of Tetrand. Tetragyn. *Montia ; of
Pentandr. Monogy. Olaytonia ; of Pentandr. Trigyn. *Ta-
marix, Turnera, Telephium, *Corrigiola, Portulacaria ; of
Pentandr. Pentagyn. Gisekia ; of Heptand. Digyn. Limeum ;
of Decandr. Digyn. Trianthema, *ScIeranthus ; of Dodeeand.
Monogyn. Portulaca, Talinum, Anacampseros. 14 Gen.
39 Sp.
15. Cacti, contains of Pentand. Monogyn. Ribes; of Icosandr.
Monogyn. Cactus, Rhipsalis. 3 Gen. 81 Sp.
16. Saxifrageee, contains of Pentand. Monogyn. Itea ; of Pen-
tawl. Digitn. Heuchera ; of Octandr. Tetragy. *Adoxa ; of
Decandr. Digyn. Hvdrangea; *Chrysosplenium, *Saxifraga,
Tiarella, Mitella. "8 Gen. 94 Sp.
17. Cunoniacdg, contains of Decandr. Digyn. Cunonia; of Do-
decan. Digyn. Callicoma, Bauera. 2 Gen. 3 Sp.
IS. Arali.c, or Araliacea', contains of Pentandr. Digi/n. Cusso-
nia ; of Pentandr. Pentagyn. Aralia ; of Polygam. Disc.
Panax. 3 Gen. 12 Sp.
19. Caprifvlete, contains of Tetrandr. Monogyn. *Cornus; of
Pentand. Monogy. Lonicera, Syraphorea, Diervilla, Trios-
teum, *Hedera ; of Pentand. Trigyn. *Viburnum, *Sam-
bucus ; of Didynnm. Angicsp. *Lirmaea; of D'wscia Tetran.
*Viscum. 10 (ien. 60 Sp.
20. Umbellijera, contains of Pentandr. Monog. Lagoecia ; of
Pentand. Digyn. *Krvngium, *Hydroctyle, Spanaiithe, *Sa-
nicula, Astrantia, *BupIeurum, *Echfnophora, Hasselquis-
tia, Tordylium, *Caucalis, Artedia, *Daucus, Visnaga,
Amrni, *Bunju!n, *Conium, *Selinum,*At]iamanta, *Peu-
cda:ium, *Crithmum, Caclvrys, Ferula, Laserpitium, *He-
racleum, *Li^u-sticiHn, *Angelica, *Sium, *Sison, Bubon,
Cuminum, *iEnanthe, *Phellandrium, *Cicuta, *^Ethusa,
*Meum, *Coriandrum, *Myrrhis, *Scandix, Oliveria, *.Vn-
thriscus, *Ch:rrophyllum, *Imperatoria, Seseli, Thapsia,
*Pastinaca, *Smymiura, *Anethum, *Carum, *Pimpi-
nella, *Arium, *.Egopodium ; of Poly gam. Mona-cia, Her-
nias; of Polygam. Duecia, Arctopus ? 54 (ien. 282 Sp.
21. Corymbiferie, contains of Syngenes. Polygam. JEqvalis,
Vernonia, Lratris, Mikania, ^Exipatoriuin, Ageratum,
Stevia, Cephalophora, Hymenopappus, Melananthera, Mar-
shailia, Siiilanthes, *Bidens, Lagasca, Lavenia, Cacalia,
Kleinia, Ethulia, Piqueria, *rhrysocoraa, Tarchonanthus,
Calea, Humia, Caesulea, Jxodia, *SantoUna, Athanasia,
Balsamita, Pentzia ; of Sygenes. Polygam. Superflua, *Ta-
nacetum, *Artemeaa, *Gnaphalium, Xer.-.mhennun, Heli-
chrysum, Carpesum, liaccharis, *Conyza, ^.Lidia^Erigeron,
*Tussilago, *Senecio,*Aster, *Solidago,*Cineraria, *lnula,
Grindelia, Podolepis, Arnica, *Doronicum, Perdicium, Te-
tvagonotbfca, Ximensia,Helenium,*Bellis, Bellium, Dahlia,
Tagetes, Hetero^pcrmum, Schkuhria, Pectis, I eysera, Rrl-
hania, Zinnia, *('hrysantheimnn, *Pyrethruin, *.Alatricaria,
pKiltonia, Lidbeckia, Cenia, Cotula, Grang^a, Anacyclus,
*Axrthemis, Sanvitalia, ^Achillea, Balbisia, A melius, St.ir-
kia, Eclipta, Clivy .anthelhim, Siege>beckia, Syndrella, (>al-
ir.gsnga, Acmella, Zaluzania, Pascalia, Heliopsis, Buj:hthal-
m'um ; of Syngenes. Polygam. Frtutan. Helianthus, (ialardia,
Rudbeckia, Cosmea, Coreopsis, Osmites, Pallasia, Sclerocar-
pus, C'.ullumia, Berckheya, Didelta, Gortevia, Gazania,
Crfptosternma, Arctotlieca, Sphenogyne; of Syngen. /'. I,
gam. Neeessar. Millexia, Flaveria, Baltiraora, Sylphium,
Alcina, Polymoia, Melar haptalia, *Calendula,
Arcb mum, Qthonna, Hippia, Gymn
Edpcephalus, *Filago, Micropus, Partheniuirij Iva ; of
Nauenbergia ; .of Moncec. Pentandr. Nepheleum, Xanthium,
Ambrosia, Franseria. 131 Gen. 99S Sp.
22. Rubiacete, contains of Tetrandr. Monogy. Cephalanthus,
Spermaeoce, *Sberardia, *Asperula, Houstonia, *Gallium,
Crucianella, Catesbaea, Ixora, Pavetta, Bouvardia, Sidero-
dendron, Chomelia, Mitchella, Coccocypsilum, IManettia; of
Pentandr. Monogy. Cinchona, Pinckueya, Mussaenda, Port-
landia, Genipa, Gardenia, Oxyanthus, Randea, A\rebera,
Erithalis, Morinda, Xauclea, Cephaalis, Hamellia, Ronde-
k-tia, JIacronemum, Vanguiera, Dentella, Serissa, Psycho-
tria, CofTea, Chiococca, Psederia, Plocama ; of Pentandr.
Digyn. Phyllis ; of Hexand. Monogyn. Hillia, Richardia ; of
Moncec. tiexandr. Guettarda ; of Dia;c. Tetrandr. Antho-
spermum ; of Polygam. Moncec. *Vralantia. 47 Gen.
145 Sp.
23. Cynarocephal(e, contains of Syngenes. Polyg. JEqualis,
*Arctium, *Serratula, *Carduus, *Cnicus, *Onopordum,
Berardia, Cynara, *Carlina, Atractylis, Acarna, Stokesia,
Stobcea, Carthamus, Stashelina, Pteronia ; of Syngenes.
Polygam. Frustan. Zoegea, *Centaurea, Galactites, of1 Syn-
fenes. Polygam. Segrega. Sphaeranthus, Echinops, Rolandra,
irotera, Gundelia. 23 Gen. 221 Sp.
24. Dipsaceo?, contains of Diandr. Monogyn. IMorina ; of Triand.
Monogy. *Valeriana, Fedia ; of Tetrand. Monog. *Dipsacus,
*Scabiosa, Knautia. 6 Gen. 70 Sp.
25. Gentianea', contains of Tetrandr. Monogy. *Exacum, Se-
baea, Frasera ; of Pentandr. Monogyn. *Menyanthes, *Vi|-
larsia, Logania, Spjgelia, Lisianthus, *Chironia, Sabbatia,
*Erythraea, Eustoma; of Pentandr. Digyn. *Sweitia, *Gen-
tiana ; of Octandr. Monogy. *Chlora. 15 Gen. 21 Sp.
26. Cichoracew, contains of Syngen. Polygam. JEqualis, Gero-
pogon, *Tragopogon, Troxlmon, Arnopogon, *Scorzonera,
Pieridjum, *Sonchus, *Lactuca, Chondrilla, *Prenanthes,
*Leontodon, *Apargia, *Thrincia, *Picris, *Hieracium,
*Crepis, Helminthia, Tolpis, Andryala, Rothia, Krigia,
*Hyoseris, *Hedypnois, Seriola, *Hypochaeris, *Lapsana,
Zacintha, Rhagadiolus, Catananche, *Cichorium, Scolymus.
31 Gen. 214 Sp.
27. Campanulacea', contains of Pentandr. Monogy. Lightfootia,
♦Campanula, Roella, *Phyteuma, *Trachelium, *Jasione,
*Lobelia ; of Hexand. Monogyn. Canarina ; of Octandr.
Monogyn. Michauxia. 9 Gen. 118 Sp.
2S. Stylideaj, contains of Gynandr. Diand. Stylidium. 1 Gen.
3 Sp.
29. Rhodoracea, contains cf Pentandr. Monogyn. *Azalea,
*Menziesia; of Decandr. Monogyn- Kalmia, Ledum, Rho-
dora, Rhododendron, Epigaea ; of Dodeeand. Mcnogyn. Bejaria.
8 Gen. 40 Sp.
30. Goodenovia; contains of Pentandr. Monogyn. Goodenia, Eu-
thales, ScaeTola, Dampiera. 4 Gen. 8 Sp.
31. Ericece, contains of Tetrand. Monogy. Blaeria ; of Pen-
tand. Monogyn. Cyrilla, Brossaea ; of Octand. Monog. *Oxy-
coccus, *Cailuna, *Erica ; of Decandr. Monog. *Vaccinium,
*Andromeda, Enkianthus, Gaultheria, *Arbutus, Clethra,
Mylocarium, *PyroIa, Chimaphila; of Dodeeand. Monogyn.
Hudsonia ; of Diasc. Triaiuir. *Empetrum. 19 Gen.
410 Sp.
32. Epacridea, contains of Pentandr. Monogy. Sprengelia, An-
dersonia, Lysinema, Epacris, jMonotoca, teucopogou, Stenan-
thera, Astroloma, Styphelia. 9 Gen. 20 Sp.
Cl<Ass VI. Dicotyt.edoxeje. Cordifloro?, with stamens ad-
hering to a corolla, which is not attached to the calyx.
Twenty-two Orders.
Order 1. Myrsinea, contains of Pentandr. Monogyn. Ardisia ; of
Polygam. Diac. Myrsine. 2 Gen. 11 Sp.
2. Sapotete, contains of Pentandr. Monogyn. Jacquinia, Achras,
Chry>opliillum, Sideroxylon, Sersalisia, Bumelia ; of Octand.
Monogyn. Mimusops; of Decandr. Monogyn. Inocarpus; of
Dodecandr. Monog. Bassia. 9 Gen. 22 Sp.
3. Ebenacea, of Decandr. Digyn. Royena; of Dodecandr.
Monogy. Halesia; of Dodectiiulr. Trigyn. Visnea; of Poly-
adelph. Polyandr. Hopea; of Dieec Hexand. Maba ; of Diac.
Pi •h/un. Embr\ opteris ; of Polygam. Diccc. Diospyros. 8 Gen.
27 Sp.
4. Oleina, contains of Diandr. Monogyn. *Ligustrum, Olea, X'o-
telaea, Chionanthus, Linociera, Ornus, *Syringa ; of Poly-
gam. Diac. *Fraxinus. 8 Gen. 40 Sp.
5. Jasminae. contains of Diand. Monogyn. X'yctanthes, Jasmi-
num. 2 Gen. 14. Sp.
6. Verbenacete, contains of Diandr. Monog. Ghinia, Stachytar-
pheta ; of Tetrand. Monogyn. iEgiphila, Callicarpa ; of Pen-
tand. Monogyn. Tectona ; of Didynam.Gymnosperm. Selago; of
Didy&tfB, Angiosperm. Hebenstretia, Clerodendrum, Volka-
meria,. lloknskioldia, Vitex, Comutia, Hosta, Gmelina, Pe-
traea, Citharexylum, Duranta, Lantana, Spielmannia, Zapa-
nia, Priva, Aloysia, *Verbena. 23 Gen. 96 Sp.
7. Asclepiadece, contains of Pentand. Digyn. Periploca, Hemides-
mus, Secamone, Microloma, Sarcostemma, Daemia, Cynan-
chum, Oxystelma, Gymnema, Calotropis, Xismalobium,
Gomphocarpus, Asclepias, Gonolobus, Pergularia, Marsdenia,
Hova, Stapelia, Piaranthus, Huernia, Caralluma. 21 Gen.
126" Sp.
8. Apocynece, contains of Pentandr. Monogyn. Strychnos, Geles-
mium, Rauwolfia, Carissa, Arduina, Cerbera, Allamanda,
Vinca, Nerium, \\'rightia, Echites, Ichnocarpus, Plumeria,
Cameraria, Tabernaemonta, Amsonia; of Pentand. Digyn.
Apocvnum, Melodinus; of Polygam. Moncec. Ophioxylon.
19 Gen. 61 Sp.
9. Bigmmiacea, contains of Diandr. Monogyn. Catalpa; of Pen-
tandr. Monogyn. Coboea; of Didynam. Angiosperm. Bignonia,
Sesamum ? Pentstemon, Chelone, Tourrettia ? Martynia ?
Gloxinia? Gesneria? 10 (ien. 49 Sp.
10. Pedalhue, contains of Didynam. Angios. Pedalium. 1 Gen.
ISp.
11. Polemoniacea', contains of Pentandr. Monog. *Polemonium,
Phlox, Ipomopsis. 3 Gen. 22 Sp.
12. Conifli-ulacea', contains of Pentandr. Monogy. *Convolvulus,
*Calystegia, Ipomcea, Retzia ; of Pen'ivd. Digy. Falkia, Di-
chondra, Evohulus, Hydrolea, *Cuscuta. 9 Gen. 91 Sp.
15. Boruginea,t contains of Pentand. Monogyn. Coldenia, Helio-
tropiam, *Myo-otis, *Lappula, *Lithospermium, BntM'lua,
Onosmodium,*Anchusa,*Cyiioglossum,*Pnlmonaria,S»iii-
phytum, Cerinthf, Onosmn. *Borago. Trichodesma, >-'A>pe-
rugo, *Lycopsia, ^Echium, TouniLt'ortia, Cordia, Bourreria,
Ehretia, Hydrophyllum, Elisia, Xolana. 25 Gen. 145 Sp.
Book I.
JUSSIEUEAN HORTUS TRITANNICUS.
is:
1 1. Sotancce, contains of Pentandr. Monogy. Ramondia, *Verbas-
cum, *Datura, Brugmansia, *Hyoscyamus, Nicotiana, Man-
dragora, *Atropa, Solandra, Physalis, Nicandra, *Sola-
lmiii, Capsicum, Oestrum, *Lycium, Vestra; of Didynam.
Angiosperm. Brundfelsia ? Cresctntia, Anthocercis. 19 Gen.
175 Sp.
15. Scrophularinte, contains of Diand. Monogyn, *Veroruca,
*Gratiula, Schwenkia, Calceolaria ; of Tetrand. Monogyn,
Buddlea, Soparia ; of Didynam. Angiosperm. * l.imosella,
Browallia, Stcmodia, Mazus, Lindernia, Herpestis, Capraria,
Teedia, Besleria, Trevirana, Columnea, Rnsselia, Dodartia,
Halleria, Mirnulus,Hornemannia,*Digitahs, *ScrophuIari;.,
Celsia, Alonsoa, Maurandia, Cymbaria, Nemesis, Anar-
rhinum, *Antirrhinum, *Linaria, Gerardia, *Fedicularis,
*Melampyrum, *Rhinanthus, *Bartsia, Castilleja, *Eu-
phrasia, Buchnera, Manulea, Erinus, Sibthorpia, Disandra.
15 Gen. 248 Sp.
16. Orobanchea, contains of Didynam. Angiosperm. *Lathrtea,
*Orobanche. 2 Gen. 7 Sp.
17. Laitiuta, contains of Diand. Monogyn. *Lycopus, Amethy-
stea, Cunila, Zi/.iphora, Hedeoma< iUonarda, Rosmarinus,
Salvia, Collinsonia; of Didynam. Gymnotperm. *Ajuga, Ani-
someles, *Teucrium, Westringia, Saturga, Thymbra, ll\ ■■-
SOjros, Pycnanthemum, *Nepeta, Elsholtzia, Lavandula,
SideTitis,Bystropogon,*Mentna, Peril la, Eiyptis, Lepechinia,
*Glechoma, *I,annum, *Galeopsis, *Galeobdolon, *Beto-
nica, *Stachy>,* Ballot a, *M ami nium,*l.eonurus, PhlomiS,
I.eucas, I.eonotis, Moluccella, *Clinopodium, *Origanurn,
♦Thymus, *Acynos,*Oalamintha, Melissa, Dracocephalum,
Melittis, Ocymum, Pleclranthus, Prostantlura, *SouH -Maria,
* Prunella, I'leonia, Prasiura, Phrytna. .57 Gen. 4'J5 Sp.
is. Myoporina, contains of Didynam. Angiotp. Myopoium,
Stenocnilus, Bontia, Avicennia. 4 Gen. 11 Sp.
19. Acanthacea, contains o£ Diandr. Monogyn. Elytraria, Justi-
< ia, Eranfheinum ; of Didynam, Angiosperm, Acanthus,
Thunbergia, Barleria, Ruellia, Blechuin, Aphelandra, Cros-
sandra. 10 Gen. 61 Sp.
SO. Lentibularia!, contains of Diandr. Monogyn. *Pinguicula,
*Ulricu!aria. 2 Gen. 8 Sp.
21. I'rimtilarcr, contains at Tetrand. Monogy. *Centunculus ;
of Pentand. Monogyn. Aretia, Androsace, *Primula, Cortusa,
Soldanella, Dodecatheon, *Cyclamen, *Hottonia, *Lysima-
chia, *Anagallis, *Samolus, I'oris ; of Heptand. Monogyn,
*Trientalis, Diapensia, Pyxidanthera. 16 Gen. C8 Sp.
24. Globulariat, contains of Tetrand. Monogyn. Globularia, Adina.
2 Gen. 7 Sp.
Ciass VII. Dicotyledone.'e. Monoclilamydea, in which the
Calyx and the Corolla form only a single envelope. Seventeen
( hrders.
Order 1. Plumbaginecc, contains of Pentand. Monogyn, Plum-
bago; a£ Perdandr. Pentagy. *Armeria, *Statite. 3 Gen.
44 Sp.
1. Plaittaginea, contains of Pentand. Monogy. *riantago; of
Monac. Tetrand. *Littorella. 2 Gen. 5S Sp.
3. Xyctaginca, contains of Monarul. Monogy. Boerhavia ; of
Triand. Monogy, Oxybaphus ; of Tetrand. Monogyn. Allionia,
Opercularia, Cryptospermum ; of Pentand. Monogy. Jlirabilis ;
Of Heptundr. Monogyn. Pisonia. 7 Gen. IS Sp.
4. Amaranthacee, contains of Pentand. Monogy. Gomphrena,
riiiloxerus, Acbyranthes, Pupaha, Dieringia, Celosia, Lesti-
budesia, Altemantliera, Mrua, *Illecebruin, Paronychia,
Anvchia, Mollia; of Pentand. Digyn. *Herniaria; of Monac.
Pentand. *Amaranthus ; of Diac. Hexutuir. Iresine. 16 Gen.
78 Sp.
5. Chenopodeas, contains of Diandr. Monogy. *Salicornia ; of
Diand. Digyn, Onrispermum, *Blitum ; of Triand. Monogyn.
1'olycnemum j of Tetrandr. Tetrug. Rivina, Camphorosma;
of Petandr. Monogyn, Chenolea ; of Pentand r. Digyn, *Cheno-
fiodium, *Beta, *Salsola, Kochia, Anabasis, Bosea; of Pen-
landr.Tetragyn. Basella; of Heptundr. Monogyn. l'etiveria;
of Odandr.Dtgyn. Galenia; of Deeundr. Decagyn. Phytolacca;
of Monac. Monandr, Ceratocarpus ; of Monac. Triandr. Axy-
ris ; of Monac. Diotis; of Diac. Pentundr. Spinacia; of Poly-
t'rtm. Monac *.\ triplex, Rhagodia. 23 Gen. 100 Sp.
6. Pohfgonca, contains of Triand. Trigyn. Koenigia'; of
Hexandr. Digyn. Atraphaxis, of He.rand. Trigyn. Rumex ;
of Octand. Trigyn. *Polygonum, Coccoloba; of F.niuund.
Monogyn. Enogomun ; of Enneand. Trigyn, Rheum ; of
Dteanar, Trigyn. Brunnichia; of Dodecandr. Tetragyn. Calli-
gonum. y Gen. 80 Sp.
7. Laurina, contains of Enneandr. Monogyn. Laurus; of
Monac. Tetrand. llernandia ? 2 Gen. IS Sp.
8. M>iristieiiue, contains of Diac. Monadelpli. ilvristica. 1 Gen.
2 Sp.
9. /V.-.Y.HYvr, contains of Tetrand. Monogyn. Tetrophila, Iso-
pogon, Protea, Lencospermum, Mimetes, Serruria, Nivenia,
Sorocephalus, Spatalla, Persoonia, Grevillea, Hakea, Lam-
bertia, Xylomelam, Telopea, Lomatia, Rbopala, Banksia,
Drvandra; of Dtec Tetrandr. Aulax, I.eucadendron ; of
Polygam. Monac. Brabejum. 22 Gen. 191 Sp.
1(1. ThymeUa, contains of Diandr. Monogyn. Timelea ; of
Tetrandr. Monogyn, Strutbiola; of Octandr. Monogyn, I.n-
getta, *Daphne, Dirca, Gnidia, Stellera, Passerina, Lachnea;
of Deeundr. Monogyn. Dais. Ill Gen. 17 S|i.
11. Sanialaaa, contains of Triand. Monogyn. Santalum; of
Pentundr. Monogyn, *Thesium ; of Octandr. Monogyn.
Fuchsia, Memecylon; of Deeandr. Monogyn, Budda; «>f
Diac. Triandr. Osyris; of Polygam. Monac. Pusanus, Nysga.
S Gen. 17 Sp.
12. Eleagncw, contains of Tetrand. Monogyn. Eleagnus; of
Dia-c. Tetrand. Hippophae. 2 Gen. (i Sp.
13. AristolochUc, contains of Dodecandr. Monogyn. *Asanira ; of
Gynamlr. Hexandr. ^Aristolochia. 2 (Jen. 22 Sp.
14. ' Euphorbiacea, contains of Pentundr. Trigyn. Xylophila ; of
Drtdeennd. Trigyn. *Euphorhia; of Monac. Triandr. Tragia J
of Mature. Tetrandr, Cicca, *Buius, Pachysandra; of Monac.
Monadelph. Plukenetia, Dalecbampia, Acalypha, Croton, .Ta-
tropha, Rkinus, Omphalea, Hippomane, Baphim, Phyllan-
thus, Stillingia, Aleurites, Hura ; of Di Borya;of
Diac. Pentand, Securinega; of Diac. Bmuandr. *Mer-
curialis ; of Diac- Deeundr. Kiggelaria ; of Diac, Mi
Kccaria, Adelia ; of Diac. Oynand. Cluytia. 26 (ien.
22H Sp.
15. Vtticta, contains of Diandr. Trigy. Piper: of Tetrandr.
Monogy. Dorstenia; of Octandr. Tetragyn. l-'oi kohiea ; of
Oytuind. Driand. Gunnel a; of Monac. Monand. Arte
of Monac. Tetrand. * Urtica, Boehmeria, Morus ; of Monac.
Polyandr. Thelygonum ; of Diac. Diandr. Cecropia ; of
Diwc. Pentandr. Cannabis, *Humulus ; of Polygam. Monac.
*Parietaria ; of PtJyg. Dkecia, Ficus. 14 Gen. 103 Sp.
16. Amentaceat, contains of Pentand, Digyn. Ulmus; of Po-
lyandr. Digyn. Fothergilla ; of Monac. Triandr. Comptonia;
of Monac. Tetrand. *Alnus ; of Monac Polyand. *()uercus,
*Fag\is, Castanea, *Betula, *Carpinus, Ostrva, *Corylus,
Platanus, Liquid ambar ; of Diac. Diandr, *Salix; of Diac.
Octand. *PupuJu.s ; of Polygam, Monac. Celtis. 16 Gen.
Vj\ Sp.
17. Cuaifcrcr, contains of Monac. Monand, Ca.uarina, *Pinus,
Thuja, Cupressus, Podocarpus ; of Diac. Moiwdelpli. Arau-
caria, *Juniperus, *Taxus, Ephedra. 9 Gen. 71 Sp.
Class VIII. BfowOCOTYUBDORBat. Pliauerogamca; ox Plants,
with one Seed-lobe, in which the fructification is \isibk.
Tuentv-Hve Orders.
Order 1. Oucadea, contains of Diac. Polyand. Cvcas, Zamia.
2 Gen. 13 Sp.
2. Hydrocharideov , contains of Tetrand. Monogyn. Trapa ; of
Heptundr. Monogyn. Damasonium ; of fitiec. Bnneandr.
* Hvdrocharis; of Diac. Dodecund. * Stratiotes. 4 (ien.
1 Sp.
5. ludotneee, of Enneand. Hexagyn. *Butomus. 1 Gen.
1 Sp.
4. Alismaccff, contains of Pentandr. Monogyn. *Potamogcton ;
of Hexaiul. Trigyn. *Scheuchzeria, *Triglochin ; of Hexandr.
Potyg. Actinocarpns, *Alisma; of Monac. Polyandr. *Sa-
gittaria. 6 Gen. 30 Sp.
5. Ordudem, contains of Gynand. Monandr. *Orchis, *(5ymna-
denia, *Aceras, *Herniinium, *Habenaria, l<artholina,*St-
rajfiias, *Ophr\s, *Satyrium, Disa, Pterygcdium, Dispeiis,
*Goodvera, *.\eo!tia, Ponthieva, Diurus, Thelymitra, *J.is-
tera, *E]'ipactis, Pogonia, Caledonia, Glossodia, Pterostylis.
Caleya, Calopogon, Axethnsa, Bletia, Geodorum, Calypso,
*Malaxis, *Corallhorrhi/a, lsochilus, Ornithodium, Stelis,
Pleurothallis, Octomeria, Aerides, Cryptarrhena, Dendro-
bium,Gomesa,('yr.ibidium, Bra.ssia,Oncklium, Cyrtopodium,
Brassavola, Broughtunia, Epidendrum, Vanilla; of Gynand.
Diandr. *Cypripedium. 49 Gen. 12S S)p.
C. Musacea, contains of Pentandr. Monogyn. Heliconia, Stre-
litzia ; of Hexund. Monogyn. Musa, Urania. 4 Gen. 14 Sp.
7. Iridea, contains of Triandr. Monogyn. *('rocus, *Tricno-
nema, (ieissorhiza, Hesperantha, Sparaxis, lxia, .'noma-
theca, Tritcnia, Watsonia, Gladiolus, Melasphserula, An-
tholyza, Babiana, ^\ristea, Witsenia, Lapeyrousia, Moraea,
*Iris, Marica, Pardanthus ; of Monadelph. Triandr. Pater-
sonia, Ferraria, Tigridia, Galaxia. 24 Gen. 224 Sp.
S. Hcemodoracea, contains of Triand. Monogyn, Wachendorfia,
Xijihidium, Dilatris, Ha:modorum ; at Hexandr, Monogyn,
Lophiola, Lanaria, Anigozanthus. 7 Gen. 13 Sp.
9. Amaryllidea;, contains of Hexand. Monogyn. Haemanthus,
*Galanthus, Leucojum, Strumaria, Crinum, Cyrtanthus,
Brunsvigia, Amaryllis, *Narcissus, Pancratium, Eucrosia,
Doryanthes, Gethyllis. 13 Gen. 170 Sp.
10. Hemerocallidea; contains of Hexandr. Monogyn. Blandfordia,
Hemerocallis, AletrLs, Tritoma, Vellheimia, Polianthes,
Sanseviera, Tulbagia, Brodoea, A loe. 11 Gen. 110 Sp.
11. Dioscoritae, contains of Diac. Hexand. Rajania, Dioscoria.
2 Gen. 9 Sp.
12. Smilacea; contains of Hexand. Monogyn. Streptopus, *Con
vallaria, Smilacina, *Polygonatum, OpJtuopogon ; of Hexandr.
Trigyn. Myrsiphyllum? Medeola, Trillium; of Octand.
Tetragyn. *Paris ; of Diac. Hexandr. Smilax, *Tamus ; of
Monac. Monadelph, *Ruscus. 12 Gen. 59 Sp.
13. Liliie, or Liliacea, contains of Hexandr. Monogyn. *Fri-
tillaria, I.ilium, *Tulipa, Erythronium, Gloriosa, Alstrce-
meria, Uvularia, Yucca. 8 Gen. 57 Sp.
14. Bromelea-, contains of Hexandr. Monogyn. Bromelia, Pit-
cairnia, Tiilandsia, Agave, Furcrcea, Buonanartea. 6 Gen.
39 Sp.
15. Atphodelea, contains of Hexandr. Monogyn, rontederia ?
Eucomis, Aphyllanthes, Sowerbsea, *Allrum, Aibnca, Xan-
thorrh;ea, 'I hysanotus, Eriospermum, *(iagea, A()rnithoga-
lum, *Si ilia ; Massonia, Asphodelus, Antbericum, Arthro-
podium, Phalangium, ChlorophyUnn, Ceesia, *Narthecium,
Dianella, Eustnphus, Asparagus, Drimia, Uuropetalun,
*Hyacinthus, *MBScari, Lachenaua, Draceena, Pnylloma,
Phormium, llypoxis, Curculigo, t'vanella. 53 Gen.
273 Sp.
16. MelaidhucciT, contains of Hexandr, Monogyn, Bulbocodium,
of Hexand. Trigyn, *Toiieldia, Melanthium, *Colchicura,
Helonias, NoUna; of Polygam. Monac. Veratrum. 7 Gen.
51 Sp.
17. Jut:cca>, contains of Diandr. Monogyn. Fhihdrum; of
Hexand. Monogyn. *.Iuncus, *Luzula ; of Hexand. Trigyn.
Flagellaria? 4 Gen. 50 Sp.
18. Restiacea, contains of Triand. Monogyn. Xyris; of Triandr.
Trigyn, *Eriocaulon; of Ui<rc. Triandr. Wilfdenovia, Restio,
Elegia. 5 Gen. 7 Sp.
19. Commclinea?, contains of Triandr. Monogyn. Commelina,
Aneilema, Callisia; of Hexandr. Monoiry. Tradescantia.
4 den. 22 Sp.
20. Palma, contains of Hexandr. Monngi/n. Corvpha, Lic-
ouala, Thrinax, Calamus; of Hexandr. Trigyn, Sabal; of
Monac Hexandr. Cocus, Bactris, Elate, Sagus; of Monac.
Polyandr. Caryota; of Monac Monadelph. Areca; of Diac.
Trtandr, Phoenix; of Diac. Hexandr. Elais, Chameedorea,
Borassus; of Diac. Monadelph, I.atania, of Polygam. Rha-
phis ; of Polygam. Diac. (hama?rops. IS Gen. 2'j Sp.
21. Canneir, contains of Monand, Monogyn, Carina, Maranta,
Thalia, Phrynium. 4 (Jen. 15 Sp.
22. Pundw.uc, contains of Diac. Monand. Fandanus. 1 Gen.
4 Sp.
23. Seitaminra, contains of Monandr. Monogyn. Hedyrhium,
Alpinia, Hellenia, Zin/iber, Eletlaria, Costus, Ka:mpieria,
Amomum, Curcuma, Globba. 10 (ien. 35 Sp.
24. Cyperacea, contains of Triandr. Monogyn, *]\Iariscus,
KylHngia, *Cyperus, [salepis, *Scirpus, Eleocharis, *Byn-
chospora, *Schocnus, *('ladium, *Trichophorum, *Eriop'ho-
ruin ; of Monmc, Triandr. (arex. 12 (ien. 133 Sp.
25. Aroidea; contains of Tetrand. Monogyn, Pathos; of Hexand,
Monogyn. £Acorus, Orontinm, Tupistra, Tacca; of Hntand.
Wonogyn. Dracootiura, ('alia; of Monac. Triandr. *Typha,
*Sparganium; <>i Monac. Polyand. *Arum, Caladium.
11 Gen. 61 8p.
138
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
26. Graminece, contains of Dvmdr Digyn. ♦Anthoxanthum;
pogon, *Stipa, Trisetum, *Avena, *Bromu^+Fcstuca,*Tri-
ticum, ♦Secale, ♦Hordeum, *Elymus, *Lolium, Kzeleria,
♦Glyceria, *Poa, *Triodia, *Calamagrostis, * Amndo, * Aira,
*Melica,' Echinaria, Lappago, Eleusine, Chrysurus, *Cyno-
sunis, Beckmannia, ♦Dactylis, Uniola, *Briza, ♦Cynodon,
♦Milium, *Lagurus, *Alopecurus, *Phleum, Crypsis, *Pha-
laris, Torrettia, Paspalium, Digitaria, Panicum, Orthopogon,
♦Pennisetum, Saccharuin, ♦Rottbollia, jUichrochloa, I.eer-
sia; of Hexandr. Monngyn. Bambusa, Ehrharta ; of Hexandr.
Digyn. Oryza ; of Monixc. Tnandr. Zea, Tripsacum, Coix,
Ol.ira; of ftuuc. Hexandr. Zizania, Pharus; of Potygam.
JKorupc. Andropogon, Chloris, Penicillaria, Sorghum, *Hol-
cus, IschEEinum, iEgilops, Manisuris. 74 Gen. 577 Sp.
Class IX. Monocotyledon-e/e. Cryptogamea, in which the
fructification is concealed, unknown, or irregular. Five
Orders.
Order 1. Naiadca, contains of Monandr. Monngyn. *Hlppuris;
of Diandr. Digyn. ♦Calitriche; of Tetrand. Tetragyn. *Rup-
pia; of Hexandr. Trigifn. Aponogeton ; of Hepiand. Te-
tragyn. Saururus ; of ploneec. Monandr. * Zannichelia,
♦Chara; of Moncec. Diand. *Lemna; of Monxtc. Pulyand.
*Ceratophyllum,*Myriophyllum. 10 Gen. 23 Sp.
2. Equisetacea?, contains of Cryptog. Gonopterid. ♦Equisetum.
1 Gen. 7 Sp.
5. Marsiliacea, contains of Cryptogam. Hydropterid. ♦Isoetes,
♦ Pilularia. 2 Gen. 2 Sp.
4. Lyeopodineas, contains or Cryptogam. Stackyopterid. *Lycopo
dium, Psilotum. 2 Gen. 12 Sp.
5. Filices, contains of Cryptogam. Stackyopterid. *Ophioglossum,
*Botrychium ; of Crypto. Poropterid. Marattia; of Cryptog.
SchUmutopterid. Lvgodjum, Anemia, *Osmunda ; of Cryptog-
Filic. AcTOSticum, Hemionitis, Meniscium, Grammitis, *Fo-
lypodium, Allantodia, *Aspidum, *Asplenium, ♦Scolopen-
drium, Diplazium, *Pteris, Vittaria, Onoclea, ♦Blechnum,
Woodwardia, Doodia, ♦Adiantum, Cheilanthes, Lonchitis,
Davallia, Dicksonia, Cyathea, ♦Trichomanes, ♦Hymenc-
phyllum. 32 Gen. 139 Sp.
Chap. V.
Vegetable Organology, or the external Structure of Plants.
590. Vegetables are reducible to classes, according as they are distinguished by a structure,
or organisation, more complicated or more simple ; or, according as they are found to be
formed with or without certain parts or organs entering into the general idea of the plant.
The former constitute what may be denominated perfect plants, and form a class compre-
hending the principal mass of the vegetable kingdom. The latter constitute what may be
denominated imperfect plants, and form a class comprehending all such vegetables as are
not included in the foregoing class. Such is the arrangement of Keith, from whose
work, as by far the best for general purposes, we have chiefly extracted this and the
three following chapters.
oect. I. Perfect Plants.
591. The parts of perfect plants may be distributed into conservative and reproductive, as
corresponding to their respective functions in the economy of vegetation.
Subsect. 1. Conservative Organs.
592. The conservative organs are such as are absolutely necessary to the growth and
preservation of the plant, including the root, trunk, branch, leaf, and frond.
The root is the principal organ of nutrition.
The trunk constitutes the principal bulk of the individual.
The branches are the divisions of the trunk, originating generally in the upper extremity, but often also
along the sides.
The leaf is a temporary part of the plant, issuing generally from numerous points towards the extremi-
ties of the branches, but sometimes also immediately from the stem or root, and distinguishable by the
sight or touch into an upper and under surface, a base and an apex, with a midrib and lateral nerves.
The frond is to be regarded as a compound of several of the parts already described ; it consists of a
union or incorporation of the leaf, leaf-stalk, and branch or stem, forming as it were but one organ, of
which the constituent parts do not separate spontaneously from one another by means of the fracture of
any natural joint, as in the case of plants in general, but adhere together even in their decay.
Subsect. 2. Conservative Appendages.
593. The conservative appendages are accessory or supernumerary parts found to accom-
pany the conservative organs occasionally, but not invariably.
Gems, or buds, are organised substances issuing from the surface of the plant, and containing the rudi-
ments of new and additional parts which they protrude; or the rudiments of new individuals which they
constitute by detaching themselves ultimately from the parent plant, and fixing themselves in the soil.
Glands are small and minute substances of various different forms, found chiefly on the surface of the
leaf and petiole, but often also on the other parts of the plant, and supposed to be organs of secretion.
The tendril is a thread-shaped and generally spiral process issuing from the stem, branch, or petiole, and
sometimes even from the expansion of the leaf itself, being an organ by which plants of weak and climb-
ing stems attach themselves to other plants, or other substances for support ; for which purpose it seems
to be well fitted by nature, the tendril being much stronger than a branch of the same size.
The stipnlce are small and foliaceous appendages accompanying the real leaves, and assuming the ap-
pearance of leaves in miniature.
Ramenta are thin, oblong, and strap-shaped appendages of a brownish color, issuing from the surface
of the plant, and somewhat resembling the stipula, but not necessarily accompanying the leaves. The
term, which literally signifies bits of chips or shavings, seems to have been employed by Linnseus to de-
note the small and scattered scales that are frequently found on the stems of vegetables, originating in the
bark, and giving it a rough or chopped appearance. Hence a branch or stem that is covered with thin and
dry scales or flaps is said to be ramentaceous, as in the case of tamarix gallica.
The armature consists of such accessory and auxiliary parts as seem to have been intended by nature to
defend the plant against the attacks of animals.
The pubescence is a general term, including under it all sorts of vegetable down or hairiness, with which
the surface of the plant may be covered, finer or less formidable than the armature.
Anornalies. There are several other appendages proper to conservative organs, which are so totally dif-
ferent from all the foregoing, that they cannot be classed with any of them ; and so very circumscribed in
their occurrence, that they do not yet seem to have been designated by any peculiar appellation. The
Book I.
STRUCTURE OF PERFECT PLANTS.
139
first anomaly, as affects
the conservative appen-
dages, occurs in dioncea
muscipula, or Venus's fly-
trap (Jig.'io. a). A second is
that which occurs in sarra-
cenia purpurea, or purple
sidesaddle-flower (A). A
third, which is still more
singular, occurs in ne-
penthes distillatoria (c).
The last anomaly is that
of a small globular and
membranaceous bag, at-
tached as an appendage
to the roots and leaves of
some of the aquatics. It
is confined only to a few
g?nera, but is to be seen
in great abundance on the
roots or leaves of the seve-
ral species of utricularia
inhabiting the ponds and
ditches of this country;
and on the leaves of ald'rovanda vesiculosa, an inhabitant of the marshes of Italy. In utricultTrfa vulgaris
this appendage is pear-shaped, compressed, with an open border at the small end furnished with several
slender fibres originating in the margin, and containing a transparent and watery fluid, and a small bubble
of air, by means of which it seems to acquire a buoyancy that suspends it in the water.
Subsect. 3. Rqjroductive Organs.
594. The reproductive organs are such parts of the plant as are essential to its propaga-
tion, corresponding in extent to the fructification of Linnaeus, which he has elegantly
defined to be a temporary part of the vegetable, whose object is the reproduction of the
species, terminating the old individual, and beginning the new. It includes the flower
with its immediate accompaniments or peculiarities, the flower-stalk, receptacle, and
inflorescence, together with the ovary or fruit.
The flower, like the leaf, is a temporary part of the plant, issuing generally from the extremity of the
branches, but sometimes also from the root, stem, and even leaf, being the apparatus destined by nature
for the production of the fruit, and being also distinguishable, for the most part, by the brilliancy of its
coloring or the sweetness of its smell. It has been happily styled by Pliny, the joy of plants, " flos
gaudium arborum ;" of which the lily, the tulip, and the rose, are magnificent examples.
The flower-stalk is a partial trunk or stem, supporting one or more flowers, if the flowers are not sessile,
and issuing from the root, stem, branch, or petiole, and sometimes even from the leaf. It is considered by
botanists as comprehending two different species, the scape and peduncle.
The receptacle is the seat of the flower, and point of union between the different parts of the flower, or
between the flower and the plant, whether immediate and sessile, or mediate and supported upon a
flower-stalk. Some botanists have considered it as a part of the flower itself, thongh this view of the sub-
ject is not entirely correct ; but it is at any rate a part of the fructification, and cannot possibly be wanting
in the case of any flower whatever. Like the flower-stalk, it has been discriminated by botanists into two
different species, which are not indeed designated by proper names, but characterised by the appellations
of the proper receptacle, and the common receptacle.
The inflorescence is the peculiar mode of aggregation in which flowers are arranged or distributed upon
the plant, whence it is called sometimes also the mode of flowering.
Tne fruit In the progress of fructification, when the several organs of the flower have discharged their
respective functions, the petals, the stamens, the style, and often the calyx, wither and fall. The ovary
alone remains attached to the plant, and swells and expands till it reaches maturity. It is now denominated
the fruit But at the period of its complete developement it also detaches itself from (he plant and drops
into the bosom of the earth, containing and protecting the embryo of the future vegetable. The fruit then
is the ripened ovary and the parts which it contains. In popular language the term is confined chiefly to
such fruits as are esculent, as the apple, the peach, and the cherry, or perhaps to the esculent part only ;
but with the botanist the matured ovary of every flower, with the parts contained, constitutes the fruit
Subsect. 4. Reproductive Appendages.
595. Various additional and supernumerary parts, not at all essential to their consti-
tution, because not always present, are often found attending the reproductive organs.
Many of them are precisely of the same character with that of the conservative appen-
dages, except that they are of a finer and more delicate texture. Such are the glands,
down, pubescence, hairs, thorns, or prickles, with one or other of which the parts of the
fructification are occasionally furnished. But others are altogether peculiar to the repro-
ductive organs, and are to be regarded as constituting, in the strict acceptation of the
term, true reproductive appendages. Some of them are found to be proper to the flower,
and others to the fruit.
The appendages proper to the flower are the involucre, spathe, and bracte, generally designated by the
appellation of floral leaves, as being leaf-like substances situated near the flower, though different in their
color, form, or substance, from the real leaves of the plant ; together with the nectary, and several other
minute organs presumed to be nectaries, though not certainly known to be so.
Appendages of the fruit. When the flower with its appendages has fallen, the ovary, which is still
immature, is left attached to the plant, to complete the object of the fructification in the ripening of the
contained seed. If it is left without any extraneous or supernumerary appendage, which is a case that
often occurs as in the cherry, apricot, and currant, the fruit is said to be naked. The naked fruit, how-
ever is not to be confounded with the naked seed, from which it is altogether distinct. For it is the want
of a 'conspicuous pericarp that constitutes the naked seed ; but it is the want ot an additional integument
enveloping the pericarp, that constitutes the naked fruit. But all parts of the flower are not always deci-
140
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
duous and it often happens that one or other of them still continues to accompany the pericarp or seed
both in its ripening and ripened state, constituting its appendage, and covering it either wholly or in part,
or adhering to it in one shape or other.
Sect. II. Imperfect Plants.
596. Plants apparently defective in one or other of the more conspicuous parts or
organs, whether conservative or reproductive, are denominated imperfect. Lin-
meus characterised them by the appellation of eryptogamous plants, because their
organs of fructification are not yet detected, or are so very minute as to require the aid of
the microscope to render them visible ; and in the system of Jussieu they are included
in the monocotvledonea? and acotyledoneas, composing the cryptogamea? of the former,
and the whole of the latter division. As in the perfect plants, so in the imperfect plants,
the eye readily recognises traces of a similitude or dissimilitude of external habit and
deportment characterising the different individuals of which they consist, and suggesting
also the idea of distinct tribes or families. And upon this principle different botanists
have instituted different divisions, more or less extensive, according to their own peculiar
views of the subject. But one of the most generally adopted divisions of imperfect
plants is that by which they are distributed into the natural orders of filices, equisitaceae,
lycopodinese, musci, hepaticag, alga?, lichenae, and fungi. Dillenius, Micheli,
Bulliard, Hedwig, and Acharius, have rendered themselves illustrious by the study of
these tribes.
Subsect. 1. Filices, Equisitacecc, and Lycopodinea.
597. The filices, equisitacece, and lycopodinece, are for the most part herbaceous, and
die down to the ground in the winter, but they are furnished with a perennial root, from
which there annually issues a frond bearing the fructification. The favorite habitations of
many of them are heaths and uncultivated grounds, where they are found intermixed with
furze and brambles ; but the habitations of such as are the most luxuriant in their growth,
are moist and fertile spots, in shady and retired situations, as on mossy dripping rocks, or
by fountains and rills of water. Some of them will thrive even on the dry and barren
rock, or in the chinks and fissures of walls ; and others only in wet and marshy situations
where they are half immersed in water.
Subsect. 2. Musci.
598. The mosses are a tribe of imperfect plants of a small and diminutive size, consisting
often merely of a root, surmounted with a tuft of minute leaves, from the centre of which
the fructification springs, but furnished for the most part with a stem and branches, on
which the leaves are closely imbricated, and the fructification terminal or lateral. They are
perennials and herbaceous, approaching to shrubby ; or annuals, though rarely so, and
wholly herbaceous, the perennials being also evergreens. Their most favorite habit-
ations are bleak and barren soils, such as mountains, heaths, woods, where they are
found, not only rooted in the earth, but attached also to the roots and trunks of trees,
and even to the llinty rock ; or immersed in bogs and ditches, or floating, though fixed by
the roots, in streams of running water. As they affect the most barren soils, so they
thrive best also in the coldest and wettest seasons. In the drought of summer they
wither and languish ; but in the more moderate temperature of autumn they begin to
recruit, so that even the chilling cold of winter that deprives other plants of their verdure
and foliage, and threatens destruction to the greater part of vegetables, tends but to refresh
and revise the family of the mosses. (Jig. 44.) Hence their capacity of retaining moisture
for a great length of time without discovering any tendency to putrefaction, and of recover-
ing their verdure when moistened with water, even after having been completely dried, and
kept in a dried state for many years. From the extreme minuteness of their parts, they
are apt to be overlooked by the superficial observer, or disregarded by the novice in
Book I.
STRUCTURE OF IMPERFECT PLANTS.
141
botany, who is attracted perhaps only by what is specious in the plant or flower, but who,
when the desire of botanical knowledge shall have inspired him with a relish for micro-
scopical observation, will And the study of the mosses to be no less interesting than that
of the more perfect plants, and the form and texture of their parts to be no less beautiful
and elegant than that of the most gaudy flowers. (Jig. 44.)
Subsect. 3. Hepaticcc.
599. The hepatlcce are a tribe of small and herbaceous plants resembling the mosses, but
chiefly constituting fronds, and producing their fruit in a capsule that splits into longi-
tudinal valves. The name is derived from a Greek word signifying die liver, because
perhaps some of them were formerly employed as a remedy in diseases of the liver ; or
because some of them exhibit, in their general aspect, a slight resemblance to the lobes
of the liver. In their habitations, they affect for the most part the same sort of situations
as the mosses, being found chiefly in wet and shady spots, by the sides of springs and
ditches, or on the shelving brinks of rivulets, or on the trunks of trees. Like the mosses,
they thrive best also in cold and damp weather, and recover their verdure, though dried,
if moistened again with water. The hepaticae and the mosses are indeed so nearly al-
lied, that they have generally been regarded as constituting but one family, and classed
together accordingly ; the latter under the title of musci frondosi, and the former under
that of musci hepatici. Such was the division even of Hedwig ; but later botanists have
found it to be more consonant to the principles of sound and scientific arrangement,
to separate the hepaticae from the mosses altogether, and to convert them into a distinct
tribe.
Subsect. 4. Algce and Lichence.
600. The term algce, or sea-weeds, among modern botanists, includes not merely marine
and many other immersed plants, but also a great variety of plants that are not even
aquatics. All the algjfi, or, according to the Jussieuean terminology, algea?, however,
agree in the common character of having their herbage frondose, or but rarely admitting
of the distinction of root, stem, and leaf, and their fructification imbedded either in the
substance of the frond itself, or in some peculiar and generally sessile receptacle. The
algeae were formerly divided into the six following genera, lichen, tremella, fucus, ulva,
conferva, byssus ; but now the genus lichen forms an order of itself.
601. The utility of the algce is obviously very considerable, whether we regard them as
furnishing an article of animal food, or as applicable to medicine and the arts. The
fucus edulis, and several other fuci, are eaten and much relished by many people, whether
raw or dressed, and it is likely that some of them are fed upon by various species of fish.
The fucus lichenoides (Turner, c. 118.) is now believed to be the chief material of the
edible nests of the East India swallows, which are so much esteemed for soups, that they
sell in China for their weight in gold. When disengaged from their place of growth and
thrown upon the sea-shore, the European alga? are often collected by the farmer and used
as manure. They are often also employed in the preparation of dyes, as well as in the
lucrative manufacture of kelp, a commodity of the most indispensable utility in the im-
portant arts of making soap and glass.
602. The utility of the lichence is also worthy
of notice. The lichen rangiferinus (fig. 45.)
forms the principal nourishment of the rein-deer
during the cold months of winter, when all other
herbage fails. The lichen islandicus is eaten
by the Icelanders instead of bread, or used in
the preparation of broths, and like the lichen
pulmonarius, has been lately found to be bene-
ficial in consumptive affections. Many of them
are also employed in the preparation of some of
our finest dyes, or pigments ; and it is from the
lichen parellus that the chemical analysist ob-
tains his litmus. The lichens and the mosses
seem instituted by nature to provide for the uni-
versal diffusion of vegetable life over the whole
surface of the terrestrial globe. The powdery
and tuberculous lichens attach themselves even
to the bare and solid rock. Having reached
the maturity of their species, they die and are converted into a fine earth, which forms a
soil for the leathery lichens. These again decay and moulder into dust in their turn ;
and the depth of soil, which is thus augmented, is now capable of nourishing and support-
ing other tribes of vegetables. The seeds of the mosses lodge in it, and spring up into
142
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
plants, augmenting also by their decay the quantity of soil, and preparing it for the sup-
port of plants of a more luxuriant growth, so that in the revolution of ages even the sur
face of the barren rock is covered with a soil capable of supporting the loftiest trees.
Subsect. 5. Fungi.
603. The fungi are a tribe of plants whose herbage is a frond of a fleshy or pulpy texture,
quick in its growth, and fugacious in its duration, and bearing seeds or gems in an appro-
priate and exposed membrane, or containing them interspersed throughout its mass. But
this rule is not without its exceptions ; for many of the fungi are converted, during the
process of vegetation, or rather when their vegetation is over, into a tough, leathery, and
even woody substance, which gives them a permanency beyond that of their congeners,
and a trait of character that is not included in the above definition. They are also a tribe
of plants that may be regarded as
46
the lowest in the vegetable scale,
exhibiting a considerable resem-
blance to the tribe of zoophites, and
thus forming the connecting link
between the vegetable and animal
kingdoms. The habitations they
affect are very various, many of them
vegetating only on the surface of the
earth ( fig. 46. a), and some of them
even buried under it ; others on
stumps and trunks of rotten trees'(6) ;
others on decayed fruit; others on
damp and wet walls ; and others on
animal ordure.
Conservative organs. Many of the fungi are altogether destitute of any conspicuous root, being attached
to some appropriate basis of support merely by means of a large and flattened surface. The frond is often
merely a thin, flat, and leathery sort of substance, adhering to a basis of support by means of the whole of
its under-surface, as in the boleti. In others it is globular and sitting, as in lycoperdon ; and in others, it
is bell-shaped and sitting, as in nidularia.
Reproductive organs. In fungi furnished with gills and a curtain, if the inner surface of the curtain is
carefully examined with a good magnifier, before the time of its natural detachment from the stipe or
pileus, there will be found adhering to it a number of fine and delicate threads supporting small globules ;
and in such as have no curtain the same sort of substances may be found adhering to the edge of the
pileus. These Hedwig regards as stamens. If the gills are next examined in the same manner and about
the same time, there will be found sitting on their edge or surface a multitude of small, tender, and cylin-
drical substances, some of which are surmounted with a small globule, and others not. These he regards
as being probably the styles and summits. Similar substances may be detected on the other genera of
fungi also. But from the extreme minuteness of their parts, and from their strong similitude to the down
with which the finer organs of vegetables are generally covered, it is easy to perceive how very difficult it
must be to decide upon their true character.
604. Uses of the fungi. The powder of the lycoperdons is said to be an excellent
styptic ; and is remarkable also for its property of strongly repelling moisture. If a basin
is' filled with water, and a little of the powder strewed upon the surface so as to cover it
thinly, the hand may be plunged into it and thrust down to the bottom without being
wetted with a single drop of water. Several of the boleti, when dried, afford a very use-
ful tinder ; and several of the agarics and tubers are used as articles of food, or as ingre-
dients in the preparation of seasoning. The truffle is much esteemed for the rich and
delicate flavor which it imparts to soups and sauces ; and the mushroom for its esculent
property, and utility in the preparation of ketchup.
Chap. VI.
Vegetable Anatomy, or tlie internal Structure of Plants.
605. The organs of plants discoverable by external examination, are themselves reducible
to component organs, which are again resolvable into constituent and primary organs.
These are called the decomposite, the composite, and the elementary.
Sect. I. Decomposite Orgajis.
606. The decomposite organs constitute the vegetable individual, and are distinguishable
by external examination ; to the dissection of which we will now proceed, taking them in
the retrograde order of the seed, pericarp, flower, leaf, gem, and caudex, or branch, stem,
and root, with their decomposite appendages.
607. The seed. The mass of the seed consists of two principal parts, distinguishable without much difficulty;
namely, the integuments and nucleus, or embryo and its envelopes. The integuments proper to the seed
Book I.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF PLANTS.
143
are two in number, an exterior integument and an interior Integument ; which arc sometimes, however,
enveloped by the additional integument constituting an appendage of the seed, under the title of the
pellicle or seminal epidermis. The exterior integument, or testa, is the original cuticle' of the nucleus, not
detachable in the early stages of its growth, but detachable at the period of the maturity of the fruit,
when it is generally of a membranaceous or leathery texture ; though sometimes soft and fleshy, and
sometimes crustaceous and bony. It may be very easily distinguished in the transverse or longitudinal
section of the garden-bean or any other large seed, and may be also easily detached by the aid of a little
manipulation. The interior integument, or sub-testa, lines the exterior integument, or testa, and immedi-
ately envelopes the nucleus, deriving its origin from the interior portion of the umbilical cord, which, after
perforating the testa, disperses into a multiplicity of ramifications connected by a fine membrane, and
forms the interior integument. Like the testa, to which indeed it adheres, it may be easily distinguished
in the garden-bean {fig. 47.), or in a ripe walnut ; in which last it is a fine transparent and net-like mem-
brane.
608. The nucleus is that part of the seed which is
contained within the proper integuments, consisting
of the albumen with the vitellus, when present, and
embryo. The albumen is an organ resembling in its
consistence the white of an egg, and forming, in most
cases, the exterior portion of the nucleus, but always
separable from the interior or remaining portion.
The vitellus is an organ of a fleshy but firm contex-
ture, situated, when present, between the albumen
and embryo ; to the former of which it is attached
only by adhesion, but to the latter by incorporation
of substance, so as to be inseparable from it, except
by force. The embryo {fig. 47. a) which is the last and
most essential part of the seed and final object of the
fructification, as being the germ of the future plant,
is a small and often very minute organ, enclosed
within the albumen and occupying the centre of the seed. The cotyledon or seed-lobe (A), is that portion
of the embryo, that encloses and protects the plantlet, and springs up during the process of germination
into what is usually denominated the seminal leaf, if the lobe is solitary; or seminal leaves, if there are
more lobes than one. In the former case the seed is said to be monocotyledonous ; in the latter case, it
is said to be dicotyledonous. Dicotyledonous seeds, which constitute by far the majority of seeds, are
well exemplified in the garden-bean. A3 there are some seeds whose cotyledon consists of one lobe only,
falling short of the general number, so there are also a few whose cotyledon is divisible into several lobes,
exceeding the general number. They have been denominated polycotyledonous seeds, and are exempli-
fied in the case of lepidium sativum or common garden-cress, in which the lobes are six in number ; as in
that also of the different species of the genus pinus, in which they vary from three to twelve. But
although by far the greater number of seeds are furnished with two cotyledons, or with a cotyledon divi-
sible or not divisible into several lobes, there is also a considerable proportion in which the cotyledon is
altogether wanting, or at least believed to be wanting by botanists in general. These, according to
Gartner, are exemplified in the fuci, ferns, and fungi, the embryo being merely a germinating cicatrice
imbedded in the surface of a vitellus which forms the mass of the seed. But Hedwig, to whose opinions
on this subject much deference is also due, maintains that the seeds of the plants in question are furnished
with cotyledons as well as those of other plants, and that no seed whatever is without them. This is a
case, however, in which the general opinion of botanists is against him, as may be seen from the many
systems founded upon the presence, or absence, or number of the cotyledons, and exemplified, as we have
seen, in that of the great and justly celebrated Jussieu, whose primary divisions are those of acotyledonous,
monocotyledonous, and dicotyledonous plants, the polycotyledonous being thought to be too few in num-
ber to constitute a separate division. It should be recollected, however, that the above divisions were
instituted at a time when the subject had not yet undergone any thing like a rigorous scrutiny, that
already many changes have been found necessary, and that future investigations will in all probability
point out the necessity of more. In watching the germination of fern-seed, Mirbel observed some sub-
stances which he regards as cotyledons, and so far supports the position of Hedwig. The plantlet, or future
plant in miniature, is the interior and essential portion of the embryo, and seat of vegetable life. In some
seeds it is so minute as to be scarcely perceptible ; while in others it is so large as to be divisible into dis-
tinct parts, as in the garden-bean.
609. The pericarp, which in different species of fruit assumes so many varieties of contexture, acquires its
several aspects, not so much from a diversity of substance as of modification. The valves of the capsule,
but particularly the partitions by which it is divided into cells, are composed of a thin and skinny mem-
brane, or of an epidermis covering a pulp more or less indurated, and interspersed with longitudinal fibres.
The capsule of the mosses is composed of a double and net-like membrane, enclosed within a fine epider-
mis. The pome is composed of a fine but double epidermis, or, according to Knight, of two skins, enclosing
a soft and fleshy pulp, with bundles of longitudinal fibres passing through it, contiguous to, and in the
direction of, its longitudinal axis. The valves of the legume are composed of an epidermis enclosing a
firm but fleshy pulp, lined for the most part with a skinny membrane, and of bundles of longitudinal fibres,
forming the seam. The nutshell, whether hard or bony, or flexible and leathery, is composed of a pulp
more or less highly indurated, interspersed with longitudinal fibres, and covered with an epidermis. The
drupe is composed of an epidermis enclosing a fleshy pulp, which is sometimes so interwoven with a mul-
tiplicity of longitudinal fibres as to seem to consist wholly of threads, as in the cocoa-nut. The berry is
composed of a very fine epidermis enclosing a soft and juicy pulp. The scales of the strobile are composed
of a tough and leathery epidermis, enclosing a spongy but often highly indurated pulp interspersed with
longitudinal fibres that pervade also the axis.
610. The flower-Stalk, <>r peduncle supporting the flower, which is a prolongation of the stem or branch, or
rather a partial stem attached to it, if carefully dissected with the assistance of a good glass, will be found
to consist of the following several parts : — 1st, An epidermis, or external envelope ; 2dly, A parenchyma,
or soft and pulpy mass ; odly, Bundles of longitudinal threads or fibres, originating in the stem or branch,
and passing throughout the whole extent of the parenchyma. The several organs of the flower are merely
prolongations of the component parts of the flower-stalk, though each organ does not always contain the
whole of such component parts, or at least not under the same modifications. The epidermis, however,
and parenchyma are common to them all ; but the longitudinal threads or fibres are seldom if ever to be
found except in the calyx or corolla.
611. The leafstalk, or petiole supporting the leaf, which is a prolongation of the branch or stem, or rather
a partial stem attached to'it, exhibits upon dissection the same sort of structure as the peduncle, namely, an
epidermis, a pulp or parenchyma, and bundles of longitudinal threads or fibres.
612. Gems. There exist among the different tribes of vegetables four distinct species of gems, two peculiar
to perfect plants, the bud and bulb, and two peculiar to imperfect plants, the propago and gongylus ; the
latter being denominated simple gems, because furnished with a single envelope only ; and the former being
denominated compound gems, because furnished with more than a single envelope.
144
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
Budi are composed externally of a number of spoon-shaped
scales overlapping one another, and converging towards a point
in the apex, and often cemented together by means of a gluti-
nous or mucilaginous substance exuding from their surface. If
these scales are stripped off and dissected under the microscope,
thev will be found to consist, like the leaves or divisions of the
calyx, of an epidermis enclosing a pulp interspersed with a net-
work of fibres, but unaccompanied with longitudinal threads.
If the scales of a leaf- bud are taken and stripped off, and the
remaining part carefully opened up, it will be found to consist
of the rudiments of a young branch terminated by a bunch of
incipient leaves imbedded in a white and cottony down, being
minute but complete in all their parts and proportions, and
folded or rolled up in the bud in a peculiar and determinate
manner.
The
Bulbs, which are either radical or cauUnary, exhibit in their
extemal structure, or in a part of their internal structure that
is easily detected, several distinct varieties, some being solid,
some coated, and some scaly ; but all protruding in the process
of vegetation the stem, leaf, and flower, peculiar to their
species.
The propago, which is a simple gem, peculiar to some genera
of imperfect plants, and exemplified by Gsertner in the lichens,
consists of a small and pulpy mass forming a granule of no regu-
lar shape, sometimes naked, and sometimes covered with an
envelope, which is a fine epidermis.
The gongylus, which is also a simple j»em peculiar to some
genera of imperfect plants, and exemplified by Gaertner in the
fuci, consists of a slightly indurated pulp moulded into a small
and globular granule of a firm and solid contexture, and invested
with an epidermis.
613. The term caudex, in its present application, is to be understood as including the whole mass or body
both of the trunk and root, as distinct from the temporary parts of the plant, or parts already investi-
gated ; and as comprehending both the caudex ascendens, and caudex descendens of Linna?us, or the
trunk and its divisions, with the root and its divisions. In opening up and dissecting the caudex, whether
ascending or descending, the dissector will soon discover that its internal structure, like its external aspect
or habit, is materiallv different in different tribes of plants.
614. The first general mode of the internal structure of the caudex is that
in which an epidermis encloses merely a homogeneous mass of pulp or
slender ribre,which forms the principal boidy of the caudex, and becomes some-
what indurated with age, though not woody, without discovering any further
variety of component parts. This, Mirbel 'observes, is the simplest mode of
internal structure existing among vegetables ; it is exemplified in the lower
orders of frondose and imperfect plants, particularly the alga? and fungi.
615. The second general mode of internal structure of the caudex is that in
which an epidermis encloses two or more substances, or assemblages of
substances, totally heterogeneous in their character. A very common va-
riety of this mode is that in which an epidermis or bark encloses a soft and
pulpy mass, interspersed with a number of longitudinal nerves or fibres, or
bundles of fibres, extending from the base to the apex, and disposed in a
peculiarity of manner characteristic of a tribe or genus. This mode pre-
vails chiefly in herbaceous and annual or biennial plants, (fig. 48.)
pulp being ' solid, as in apsidium filix-mass, and tubular, as in the garden
parsnep or common hemlock. A second variety of this mode is that in which
a strong and often thick bark encloses a circular layer of longitudinal fibres,
or several such circular and concentric layers, interwoven with thin transverse and
divergent layers of pulp, so as to form a firm and compact cylinder, in the centre of
which is lodged a pulp or pith. This mode is best exemplified in trees and shrubs
(fi°: 49. \ though it is also applicable to many plants whose texture is chiefly or
almost wholly herbaceous, forming as it were the connecting fink between such
plants as are parelv herbaceous on the one hand, and such as are purely woody on
the other. In the latter case the wood is perfect ; in the former case it is imperfect.
The wood being imperfect in the root of the beet, the common bramble, and burdock;
and perfect in the oak or alder.
616. The appendages of the plant, whether conservative or reproductive, exhibit
nothing in their internal structure that is at all essentially different from that of the
organs that have been already described.
Sect. II. Composite Organs.
617. From the preceding analysis, it appears the decomposite organs are reducible to
one or other of the several following substances, namely, epidermis, pulp, pith, cortical
layers, ligneous layers, and vegetable fibre. These now remain to be further analysed, under
the title of composite organs, as being still compound, with a view to reach the ultimate
and elementary organs of the vegetable subject.
618 Structure of the vegetable epidermis. The epidermis of the vegetable, which, from its resemblance
to that of the animal, has been designated by the same name, is the external envelope or integument of
the plant, extending over the whole surface, and covering the root, stem, branches, leaves, flower, and
fruit, with their appendages ; the summit of the pistil only excepted. But although it is extended oyer
the whole surface of the plant, it is not of equal consistence throughout. In the root and trunk it is a
tough and leathery membrane, or it is a crust of considerable thickness, forming a notable portion of the
bark, and assuming some peculiar shade of color ; while in the leaves, flowers, and tender shoots, it is a
fine, colorless, and transparent film, when detached; and when adherent, it is always tinged with some
pecuhar shade, which it borrows from the parts immediately beneath it. Du Hamel, Saussure, Hedwig,
Comparetti, Bauer, and others, have examined the epidermis, and, according to their descriptions, it is
represented as consisting of at least two if not more layers, which in the stem of many plants, are very
easily distinguished, particularly in that of the paper-birch, the bark of which may, perhaps, be regarded
as a succession of individual cuticles.
619. The pulp is a soft and juicy substance, constituting the principal mass of succulent plants, and a notable
pronortion of many parts even of woody plants. It constitutes the principal mass of many of the fungi and
fuci, and of herbaceous plants in general. Of those phvtologists who have described the pulp, Mirbel is con-
sidered the most accurate. He compares it to clusters of small and hexagonal cells or bladders, con-
taining for the most part a colored juice, and formed apparently of the foldings and doublings of a fine
and delicate membrane, in which no traces of organisation are to be distinguished. In the trunk of what
are called dicotyledonous plants, he regards the pulp, or cellular tissue, as consisting of two distinct
portions which he designates bv the respective appellations of the herbaceous tissue, and the parenchyma.
The former is the exterior portion of the cellular tissue, of which the cells always contain a resinous and
colored juice, that communicates its peculiar tinge to the epidermis. The latter is the interior portion of the
tissue composed also of cells, but differing from those of the herbaceous tissue in contain
apparatus of hexagonal cells or vesicles, and a contained juice, whether colorless or colored, the union of
which substances forms a true pulp.
Book I.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF PLANTS.
]45
620. The pith, as has been already shown, is a soft and spongy, but often succulent
substance, occupying the centre of the root, stem, and branches, and extending in
the direction of their longitudinal axis, in which it is enclosed as in a tube. The
structure of the pith is precisely similar to that of the pulp, being composed of an
assemblage of hexagonal cells containing a watery and colorless juice, or of cellular
tissue and a parenchyma.
621. The cortical layers, or interior and concentric layers, constituting the mass
of the bark, are situated immediately under the cellular integument, where such
integument exists, and where not, immediately under the epidermis ; or they are
themselves external. They are distinguishable chiefly in the bark of woody plants,
but particularly in that of the lime-tree. They are composed of two elementary
parts — bundles of longitudinal fibres constituting a network {fig. 50.), and amass
of pulp more or less indurated, filling up the meshes. The innermost of the
layers is denominated the liber, and was used by the ancients to write on
before the invention of paper. It is the finest and most delicate of them all,
and often most beautifully reticulated {fig. 51. a), and varied by bundles of
longitudinal fibre (6). But the liber of daphne lagetto is remarkable
beyond that of all other plants for the beauty and delicacy of its network,
which is not inferior to that of the finest lace, and at the same time so
very soft and flexible that in countries of which the tree is a native the
lace of the liber is often made to supply the place of a neckcloth. If the
cortical layers are injured or destroyed by accident, the part destroyed is
again regenerated, and the wound healed up without a scar. But if the
wound penetrates beyond the liber, the part destroyed is no longer rege-
nerated. Or if a tree is bent so as to break part of the cortical fibres, and
then propped up in its former position, the fractured fibres will again unite.
Or if a portion of the stem is entirely decorticated and covered with a piece
of bark, even from another tree, the two different barks will unite. Hence
the practicability of ascertaining how far the liber extends. And hence also the
origin of grafting, which is always effected by a union ox the liber of the
graft and stock.
622. The ligneous layers, or layers constituting the wood, occupy the
intermediate portion of the stem between the bark and pith ; and are
distinguishable into two different sorts — concentric layers and divergent
layers, {fig. 50.)
623. The concentric layers, which constitute by far the greater part of the mass of the wood, are suffi-
ciently conspicuous for the purpose of exemplification on the surface of a horizontal section of most trunks
or branches, as on that of the oak and elm. But though they are generally described as being con-
centric, they are not always strictly so. For they are often found to extend more on the one side of
the axis of the stem or branch, than on the other. Some authors say the excess is on the north side, but
others say it is on the south side. The former account for it by telling us it is because the north side is
sheltered from the sun ; and the latter by telling us it is because the south side is sheltered from the cold ;
and thus from the operation of contrary causes alleging the same effect, which has been also thought to
be sufficiently striking and uniform to serve as a sort of compass, by which the bewildered traveller
might safely steer his course, even in the recesses of the most extensive forest. But Du Hamel
has exposed the futility of this notion, by showing that the excess is sometimes on the one side of the
axis, and sometimes on the other, according to the accidental situation of the great roots and branches ;
a thick root or branch producing a proportionally thick layer of wood on the side of the stem from which
it issues. The layers are indeed sometimes more in number on the one side than on the other, as well
as thicker. But this is the exception, and not the rule. They are thickest, however, on the side on
which they are fewest, though not of the same thickness throughout. Du Hamel, after counting twenty
layers on the one side of the transverse section of the trunk of an oak, found only fourteen on the other.
But the fourteen exceeded the twenty in thickness by one fourth part. But the layers thus discoverable
on the horizontal section of the trunk are not all of an equal consistency throughout, there being an
evident diminution in their degree of solidity from the centre, where they are hardest, to the circum-
ference, where they are softest. The outermost layer, which is the softest of all, is denominated the
alburnum, perhaps from its being of a brighter white than any of the other lavers, either of wood or bark ;
from which character, as well as from its softer texture, it is also easily distinguished, though in the
case of some plants, as in that of the poplar and lime-tree, this peculiarity of character is not very ap-
parent. From the peculiarity of external character, however, which it possesses in general, it was at one
time thought to be a substance essentially different from that of the layers which it invests. The ancients,
whose phytological opinions were often very whimsical, supposed it to be something analogous to the fat
of animals, and intended perhaps to serve as a sort of nutriment to the plant in winter. But it is now
known to be merely wood in a less condensed state, being yet lighter and softer than the interior layers,
but acquiring strength and solidity with age. It does not, however, acquire its utmost degree of solidity
till after a number of years, as is plain from the regular gradation observable in the solidity of the different
layers. But if a tree is barked a year before it is cut down, then the alburnum is converted into wood
in the course of that year.
624. The divergent layers which intersect the concentric layers in a transverse direction, constitute also a
considerable proportion of the wood, as may be seen in a "horizontal section of the fir or birch, or of
almost any woody plant, on the surface of which they present an appearance like that of the radii of a
circle.
625. The structure of the concentric layers will be. found to consist of several smaller and component
layers, which are themselves composed of layers -mailer still, till at last they are incapable of farther
division. The concentric layers are composed of longitudinal fibres, generally forming a network ; and
the divergent layers, of parallel threads or fibres of cellular tissue, extending in a transverse direction,
and filling up the interstices of the network ; the two sets of fibres being interwoven and interlaced
together, so as to form a firm and compact body in the matured layers ; and thus corresponding exactly
to the description given of them by Grew and Malpighi, in which the longitudinal fibres are compared to
the warp, and the transverse fibres to the woof of a web.
62(i. The structure of the stc/>>. in plants that are purely herbaceous, and in the herbaceous parts of
woody plants, is distinguished by a number of notable and often insulated fibres passing longitudinally
throughout its whole extent, as in the stipe of apsidium filix-mass, or leaf-stalk of the alder. These
fibres, when viewed superficially, appear to be merely individuals, but when inspected minutelv, and
under the microscope, they prove to be groups or bundles of fibres smaller and minuter still, 'firmly
cemented together, and forming in the aggregate a strong and ela^ic thread ; but capable of being split
into a number of component fibres, till at last you can divide them no longer. If the fibres of the bark
are separated by the destruction of a part, the part is again regenerated, and the fibres are again united,
without leaving behind them any traces of a wound. But if the fibres of the wood are separated by the
destruction of a part, the part is never regenerated, and the fibres are never united.
146
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
Sect. III. Elementary or Vascular Organs.
627. From the previous analysis of the composite organs it appears they are all ulti-
mately reducible to fibres, cellular tissue with or without parenchyma, and reticulated mem-
brane, which we must consequently regard as being, under one modification or other, the
ultimate and elementary organs of which the whole mass of the plant is composed. If it
is asked of what the elementary organs are themselves composed, the reply is, they are
composed, as appears from the same analysis, of a fine, colorless, and transparent mem-
brane, in which the eye, aided by the assistance even of the best glasses, can discover no
traces whatever of organisation ; which membrane we must also regard as constituting
the ultimate and fundamental fabric of the elementary organs themselves, and by conse-
quence of the whole of the vegetable body. It has been asked by some phytologists
whether or not plants are furnished with vessels analogous to the blood-vessels of the
animal system. But if it is admitted that plants contain fluids in motion, which cannot
possibly be denied, it will follow, as an unavoidable consequence, that they are furnished
with vessels conducting or containing such fluids. If the stem of a plant of marigold is
divided by means of a transverse section, the divided extremities of the longitudinal fibres,
arranged in a circular row immediately within the bark, will be distinctly perceived, and
their tubular structure demonstrated by means of the orifices which they present, particu-
larly when the stem has begun to wither. The same sort of structure may be observed
in the stem of cucurbitaceous plants also, particularly in that of the gourd, in which there
are besides discoverable several sets of longitudinal tubes situated near the centre, and
of considerable diameter. Regarding it, therefore, as certain that plants are furnished with
longitudinal tubes, as well as with cells or utricles for the purpose of conveying or contain-
ino°their alimentary juices, we proceed to the specific illustration of both, together with
their peculiarities and appendages.
628 The utricles are the fine and membranous vessels constituting the cellular tissue of the pith and pulp
already described, whether of the plant, flower, or fruit. Individually they resemble oblong bladders in-
flated in the middle, as in the case of some plants; or circular or hexagonal cells, as in the case of
others Collectively they have been compared to an assemblage of threads of contiguous bladders or
vesicles, or to the bubbles that are found on the surface of liquor in a state of fermentation.
629 The tubes are the vessels formed by the cavities of the longitudinal fibres, whether as occurring m the
stem "of herbaceous plants, or in the foot-stalk of the leaf and flower, or in the composition of the cortical
and ligneous layers, or by longitudinal openings pervading the pulp itself, as in the case of the vine They
have generally been characterised under the denominations of proper vessels, lymphatics, and trachea?.
But as this is rather a premature reference to their different uses, which is besides not altogether correct,
we shall adopt, with a little alteration, the denominations introduced by Mirbel, as arising from fheir
form or structure. The first and primary division founded upon this principle is that by which they are
distributed into large tubes and small tubes. .-«_-*«_.«■ t u^
630. The large tubes are tubes distinguishable by the superior width of the diameter which they present on
the horizontal section of the several parts of the plant
Simple tubes ( fig-. 52.) are the largest of all the large
tubes, and are formed of a thin and entire membrane,
without any percemible disruption of continuity, and
are found chiefly in the bark, though not confined to
it, as they are to be met with also in the alburnum
and matured wood, as well as in the fibres of herb-
aceous plants. .
Porou* tubes resemble the simple tubes in their
general aspect ; but differ from thern in being pierced
with small holes or pores, which are often distributed
in regular and parallel rows. They are found in
most abundance in woody plants, and particularly in
wood that is firm and compact, like that of the oak ;
but they do not, like the simple tubes, seem destined
to conta'in am- oily or resinous juice.
Spiral tubes are fine, transparent, and thread-
like substances, occasionally interspersed with the
other tubes of the plant, Dut distinguished from them
by being twisted from right to left, or from left to
right, in the form of a corkscrew. They occur in
most abundance in herbaceous plants, particularly
in aquatics.
False spiral tabes are tubes apparently spiral on a
slight inspection, but which, upon minute examine
ation, are found to derive their appearance merely
from their being cut transversely by parallel fissures.
Mixed tubes are tubes combining in one individual
two or more of the foregoing varieties. Jtirbel exem-
plifies them in the case of the butomus umbellatus,
in which the porous tubes, spiral tubes, and false
spiral tubes, are often to be met with united in one.
631. The small tubes are tubes composed of a succession of elongated cells united,
like those of the cellular tissue. Individually they may be compared to the stem of the
grasses, which is formed of several internodia, separated by transverse diaphragms ; and
collectively to a united assemblage of parallel and collateral reeds.
632 Pores are small and minute openings of various shapes and dimensions, that seem to be destined to the
absorption, transmission, or exhalation of fluids. They are distinguishable into the following two sorts :
perceptible pores and imperceptible pores. The perceptible pores are either external or internal, and are
the apertures described by Hedwig as discoverable in the network constituting the epidermis. The /??/-
perceptiile pores are pores that are not distinguishable by the eye, unless assisted with the best glasses ;
but they are known to exist by the evidence of experiment, and have lately been ably delineated and de-
scribed by A. T. Thomson, in his Lectures on Botany. (Vol. i. p. 609.)
633 Gaps, according to Mirbel, are empty, but often regular and symmetrical spaces formed in the in-
terior of the plant by means of a partial disruption of the membrane constituting the tubes or utricles.
In the leaves of herbaceous plants the gaps are often interrupted by transverse diaphragms formed of a
portion of the cellular tissue which still remains entire, as may be seen in the transparent structure of the
leaves of typha and many other plants. Transverse gaps are said to be observable also in the bark of some
plants, though very rarely. ..,.,, j - » ,
634 There are various appendages connected with the elementary organs, such as internal glands, internal
pubescence, &c. : the latter occurs in dissecting the leaf or flower-stalk of nympheea lutea.
Book' I. PRIMARY PRINCIPLES OF PLANTS. H7
Chap. VII.
Vegetable Chemistry, or primary Principles of Plants.
635. As plants are not merely organised beings, but beings endowed with a species of
life, absorbing nourishment from the soil in which they grow, and assimilating it to their
own substance by means of the functions and operations of their different organs, it is
plain that no progress can be made in the explication of the phenomena of vegetable
life, and no distinct conception formed of the rationale of vegetation, without some
specific knowledge of the primary principles of vegetables, and of their mutual action
upon one another. The latter requisite presupposes a competent acquaintance with the
elements of chemistry ; and the former points out the necessity of a strict and scrupu-
lous analysis of the several compound ingredients constituting the fabric of the plant,
or contained within it.
636. If the object of the experimenter is merely that of extracting such compound
ingredients as may be known to exist in the plant, the necessary apparatus is simple,
and the process easy. But if it is that of ascertaining the primary and radical principles
of which the compound ingredients are themselves composed, the apparatus is then com-
plicated, and the process extremely difficult, requiring much time and labor, and much
previous practice in analytical research. But whatever may be the object of analysis, or
particular view of the experimenter, the processes which he employs are either mechanical
or chemical.
637. The mechanical jn-ocesses are such as are effected by the agency of mechanical
powers, and are often indeed the operation of natural causes ; hence the origin of gums
and other spontaneous exudations. But the substances thus obtained do not always
flow sufficiently fast to satisfy the wants or necessities of man. And men have conse-
quently contrived to accelerate the operations of nature by means of artificial aid in the
application of the wimble or axe, widening the passages which the extravasated fluid has
forced, or opening up new ones. But it more frequently happens that the process
employed is wholly artificial, and altogether effected without the operation of natural
causes. When the juices are enclosed in vesicles lodged in parts that are isolated, or
may easily be isolated, the vesicles may be opened by means of rasps or graters, and the
juices expressed by the hand, or by some other fit instrument. Thus the volatile oil may
be obtained that is lodged in the rind of the lemon. When the substance to be ex-
tracted lies more deeply concealed in the plant, or in parts which cannot be easily de-
tached from the rest, it may then become necessary to pound or bruise the whole, or a
great part of the plant, and to subject it, thus modified, to the action of the press. Thus
seeds are sometimes treated to express their essential oils. And if by the action of bruis-
ing or pressing heterogeneous ingredients have been mixed together, they may generally
be separated with considerable accuracy by means of decantation, when the substances
held in suspension have been precipitated. Thus the acid of lemons, oranges, goose-
berries, and other fruits, may be obtained in considerable purity, when the mucilage that
was mixed with them has subsided.
638. The chemical processes are such as are effected by the agency of chemical powers,
and may be reduced to the following : distillation, combustion, the action of water, the
action of acids and alkalies, the action of oils and alcohols, and lastly fermentation. They
are much more intricate in their nature than the mechanical processes, as well as more
difficult in their application.
639. Of the jwoducts of vegetable analysis, as obtained by the foregoing processes,
some consist of several heretogeneous substances, and are consequently compound, as
being capable of further decomposition ; and some consist of one individual substance
only, and are consequently simple, as being incapable of further decomposition.
Sect. I. Compound Products.
640. The compound products of analysis are very numerous in themselves, and much
diversified in their qualities. They are gum, sugar, starch, gluten, albumen, fibrina,
extract, tannin, coloring matter, bitter principle, narcotic principle, acids, oils, wax,
resins, gum resins, balsams, camphor, caoutchouc, cork, woody fibre, sap, proper juice,
charcoal, ashes, alkalies, earths, metallic oxides.
G41. Gu?n is an exudation that issues spontaneously from the surface of a variety of plants, in the str.te of a
clear, viscid, and tasteless fluid, that gradually hardens upon being exposed to the action of the atmosphere,
and condenses into a solid mass. It issues copiously from many fruit-trees, but especially from such as
produce stone-fruit, as the plum and cherry-tree. From plants or parts of plants containing it, but not dis-
charging it by spontaneous exudation, it may be obtained by the process of maceration in water. It has
been found by chemists to consist of several varieties, known by the names of gum arabic, gum tragacanth,
cherry-tree gum, and mucilage. Gum arabic, which is the most plentiful of all the gums, is the produce
of the mimosa nilotica, a native of the interior of Africa and of Arabia ; whence its name. When pure, it
is colorless and transparent, though sometimes it is tinged with yellow, varying in its specific gravity
from 1300 to 1490. (Davy's Jgric. Chan., lect. iii.) It is insoluble in alcohol ; but is readily soluble in
L 2
148
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Paut II.
water ; and if the solution is exposed to the action of the atmosphere, the water is gradually evaporated,
and the gum again left in a solid mass. According to the analysis of Gay Lussac and Thenard, it consists
of the following elements, in the following proportions, 1U0 parts being the integer: carbon 42-2o; oxy-
gen 5084; hydrogen 6-93 ; saline and> earthy matter a small quantity; total 100. Gum tragacanth is
the produce of the astragalus tragacantha, a thorny shrub that grows in the islands of the Levant. It is
less transparent than gum arabic, and not so easily dissolved in water. Cherry-tree gum is obtained
from the prunus avium, and other species of the same genus, and in general from all trees with stone-
fruit, from which it exudes spontaneously and in great abundance. It differs from gum arabic and tra-
gacanth in its concreting in larger masses, and being more easily melted. Mucilage is found chiefly in
the roots and leaves of plants, particularly such as are bulbous and succulent ; the bulbs of the hyacinth
and leaves of the marshmallow. It is found also in flax-seed, and in many of the lichens, and is to be
obtained only by maceration in water, from which it is separated by means of sulphuric acid.
The uses of gum are considerable. In all its varieties it is capable of being used as an article of food,
and is highly nutritive, though not very palatable. It is also employed in the arts, particularly in calico-
printing, in which the printer makes choice of it to give consistency to his colors, and to prevent them
from spreading. The botanist often uses it to fix his specimens upon paper, for which purpose it is very
well adapted. It forms likewise an ingredient in ink ; and in medicine it fonns the basis of many mix-
tures, in which its influence is sedative and emollient.
642. Sugar is the produce of the saccharum officinarum. (Jig. 53.)
The canes or stems of the plant, when ripe, are bruised between the
rollers of a mill, and the expressed juice is collected and put into large
boilers, in which it is mixed with a small quantity of quicklime, or
strong ley of ashes, to neutralise its acid, and is then made to boil.
The scum which gathers on the top during the process of boiling is
carefully cleared away ; anil when the juice has been boiled down to
the consistence of a syrup, it is drawn off and allowed to cool in vessels
which are placed above a cistern, and perforated with small holes,
through which the impure and liquid part, known by the name of mo-
lasses, escapes ; while the remaining part is converted into a mass of
small and hard granules of a brownish or whitish color, known by the
designation of raw sugar, which, when imported into Europe, is further
purified by an additional process, and converted by filtration or crystal-
lisation into what is called loaf sugar, or refined sugar, or candied
sugar. Sugar thus obtained has a sweet and luscious taste, but is
without smell. According to Dr. Thomson its specific caloric is T086, its
specific gravity 14045; and its constituent elements are oxygen 647;
carbon 27 '5; hydrogen 7"8; total 100". The juice of the acer sacchari-
num, or American maple, yields sugar in such considerable abundance
as to make it an object with the North American farmer to manufac-
ture it for his own use. A hole is bored in the trunk of the vegetating
tree early in the spring, for the purpose of extracting the sap; of
which a tree of ordinary size, that is, of from two to three feet in dia-
meter, will yield from one hundred and fifty to two hundred pints and upwards, in a good season. The
sap, when thus obtained and neutralised by lime, deposits, by evaporation, crystals of sugar in the pro-
portion of about a pound of sugar to forty pints of sap. It is not materially different in its properties
from that of the sugar-cane. The juice of the grape, when ripe, yields also a sugar by evaporation and
the action of pot-ashes, which is known by the appellation of the sugar of grapes, and has been lately
employed in France as a substitute for colonial sugar, though it is not so sweet or agreeable to the taste.
The root of beta vulgaris, or common beet, yields also, by boiling and evaporation, a sugar which is dis-
tinguished by a peculiar and slightly bitter taste, owing perhaps to the presence of a bitter extractive
matter which has been found to be one of the constituents of the beet. Sugar has been extracted from
the following vegetables also, or from their productions : from the sap of the birch, sycamore, bamboo,
maize, parsnep, cow-parsnep, American aloe, dulse, walnut-tree, and cocoa-nut-tree ; from the fruit of
the common arbutus, and other sweet-tasted fruits ; from the roots of the turnip, carrot, and parsley ;
from the flower of the euxine rhododendron ; and from the nectary of most other flowers.
643. The utility of sugar, as an aliment is well known ; and it is as much relished by many animals as
by man. By bees it is sipped from the flowers of plants, under the modification of nectar, and converted
into honey ; and also seems to be relished by many insects, even in its concrete state ; as it is also by many
birds. By man it is now regarded as being altogether indispensable, and though used chiefly to give a
relish or seasoning to food, is itself highly nutritive. It is also of much utility in medicine, and cele-
brated for its anodyne and antiseptic qualities, as well as thought to be peculiarly efficacious in preventing
diseases by worms.
644. Starch. If a quantity of wheaten flower is made into a paste with water, and kneaded and
washed under the action of a jet, till the water runs off colorless, part of it will be found to have been
taken up and to be still held in suspension by the water, which will, by-and-by, deposit a sediment that
may be separated by decantation. This sediment is starch, which may be obtained also immediately from
the grain itself, by means of a process well known to the manufacturer, who renders it finally fit for the
market by washing and edulcorating it with water, and afterwards drying it by a moderate heat. Starch,
when thrown upon red-hot iron, burns with a kind of explosion, and leaves scarcely any residuum behind.
It has been found by the analysis of Gay Lussac and Thenard, to be composed of carbon 43-55 ; oxygen
49'68 ; hydrogen 677 ; total 100\ This result is not very widely different from that of the analysis of
sugar, into which, it seems, starch may be converted by diminishing the proportion of its carbon, and
increasing that of its oxygen and hydrogen. This change is exemplified in the case of the malting of
barley, which contains a great proportion of starch, and which absorbs during the process a quantity of
oxygen, and evolves a quantity of carbonic acid ; and accordingly part of it is converted into sugar.
Perhaps it is exemplified also in the case of the freezing of potatoes, which acquire in consequence a sweet
and sugary taste, and are known to contain a great deal of starch, which may be obtained as follows : let
the potatoes be taken and grated down to a pulp, and the pulp placed upon a fine sieve, and water made
to pass through it : the water will be found to have carried off' with it an infinite number of particles,
which it will afterwards deposit in the form of a fine powder, separable by decantation ; which powder is
starch, possessing all the essential properties of wheaten starch. It may be obtained from the pith of
several species of palms growing in the Moluccas and several other East Indian islands, by the following
process : the stem, being first cut into pieces of five or six feet in length, is split longitudinally so as to
expose the pith, which is now taken out and pounded, and mixed with cold water, which after being
well stirred up, deposits at length a sediment that is separated by decantation, and is the starch which
the pith contained, or the sago of the shops.
645. Salop is also a species of starch that is prepared, in the countries of the East, from the root of the
orchis morio, mascula, bifolia, and pyramidalis, and in the isle of Portland, from the arum maculatum.
So also is cassava, which is prepared from the root of jatropha manihot, a native of America, the ex-
pressed juice of which is a deadly poison, used by the Indians to poison their arrows ; but the sediment
which it deposits is a starch that is manufactured into bread, retaining nothing of the deleterious property
of the juice ; and so also is sowans, which is prepared from the husk of oats, as obtained in the process
of grinding.
Book I. COMPOUND PRODUCTS OF PLANTS. 149
616. According to Parmentier, starch may be extracted from a number qf plants i as arctutm lappa,
atropa belladonna, polygonum bistorta, bryoniaalba, colchicum autuinnalc, spiraea filipendula, ranunculus
bulbosus, scrophularia nodosa, sambucus ebulus and nigra, orchis morio ami mascula, impcratoria ostru-
thium, hyoscyamus niger, rumex obtusifolius, acutus, and aquaticus, arum maculatum, iris pseudacorus
and fceticlissima, orobus tuberosus, bunium bulbocastanum. It is found also in the following seeds :
wheat, barley, oats, rice, maize, millet-seed, chestnut, horse-chestnut, peas, beans, acorns.
647. Starch is an extremely nutritive substance, and forms one of the principal ingredients in almost all
articles of vegetable food used, whether by man or the inferior animals. The latter feed upon it in the
state in which nature presents it ; but man prepares and purines it so as to render it pleasing to his taste,
and uses it under the various mollifications of bread, pastry, or confectionary. Its utility is also consider.
able in medicine and in the arts ; in the preparation of anodyne and strengthening medicaments, and in
the composition of cements; in the clearing and stiffening of linen; and in the manufacture of hair-
powder.
648. Gluten is that part of the paste formed from the flour of wheat that remains unaffected by the
water after all the starch contained in it has been washed off. It is a tough and elastic substance, of a
dull white color, without taste, but of a very peculiar smell. It is soluble in the acids and alkalies, but
insoluble in water and in alcohol. Gluten has been detected, under one modification or other, in a very
considerable number of vegetables or vegetable substances, as well as in the flour of wheat. Kouelle, the
younger, showed that it exists in the green fecula of plants ; and Proust found it in the following grains
and fri.it> ; peas, beans, barley, rye, acorns, chestnuts, horse-chestnuts, apples, quinces, alder-berries,
grapes. He tound it also in the leaves of rue, cabbage, cresses, hemlock, borage, and saffron, and in the
petals of the rose.
(>49. Gluten is one of the most important of all vegetable substances, as being the principle that rentiers
the flour of wheat so tit for forming bread, by its occasioning the panary fermentation, and making the
bread light and porous. It is used also as a cement, and capable of being used as a varnish, and a ground
for paint.
690. Albumen, which is a thick, glary, and tasteless fluid, resembling the white of an unboiled egg, is a
substance that has been but lately proved to exist in the vegetable kingdom. Its existence was first an-
nounced by Fourcroy, and finally demonstrated by the experiments of Vauquelin on the dried juice of the
papaw-tree. It is nearly related to animal gluten, and the elements of its composition are, carbon 52-883 ;
oxygen 23'872 ; hydrogen 7'540 ; nitrogen 15.705 ; total 100. Albumen has not been found in such
abundance in any other plant, as in the plant above specified. But it has been found to exist in mush-
rooms, and some other of the fungi. And the juice of the fruit of hibiscus esculentus, a West Indian plant,
is said to contain such a proportion of it as to render it fit to be employed as a substitute for the white of
eggs, in clarifying the juice of the sugar-cane. Almonds also, and other kernels from which emulsions are
made, have been found to contain a substance possessing the properties of curd, which resembles albumen
very crosely.
651, Fibrina is a peculiar substance which chemists extract from the blood and muscles of animals. This
substance constitutes the fibrous part of the muscles, and resembles gluten in its appearance and elasticity.
A substance possessing the same properties has been detected by Vauquelin in the juice of the papaw-tree,
which is called vegetable fibrina.
fi52. Extract. When vegetable substances are macerated in water, a considerable portion of them is
dissolved; and if the water is again evaporated, the substance held in solution may be obtained in a sepa-
rate state. This substance is denominated extract. But it is evident that extract thus obtained will not
be precisely the same principle in every different plant, but will vary in its character according to the
species producing it, or the soil in which the plant has grown, or some other accidental cause. Its dis-
tinguishing properties are the following : it is soluble in water as it is obtained from the vegetable, but
becomes afterwards insoluble in consequence of the absorption of oxygen from the atmosphere. It is solu-
ble in alcohol ; and it unites with alkalies, and forms compounds which are soluble in water. When
distilled it yields an acid fluid impregnated with ammonia, and seems to be composed principally of hydro-
gen, oxygen, carbon, and a little nitrogen. Extract, or the extractive principle, is found in a greater
or less proportion in almost all plants whatever, and is very generally an ingredient of the sap and bark,
particularly in barks of an astringent taste. But still it is not exactly the same in all individual plants,
even when separated as much as possible from extraneous substances. It may, therefore, be regarded as
constituting several different species, of which the following are the most remarkable : —
Extract ofcalec'ut. This extract is obtained from an infu- Extract qfquuvjuina. This extract was obtained by Four-
sion of the wood or powder of catechu in cold water. Its eroy, by evaporating a decoction of the bark of the quinquina
color is a pale brown ; audits taste slightly astringent. It is of St. DAmingo in water, and again dissolving it in alcohol,
precipitated from its solution l>v nitrate of lead, and yields which finally deposited by evaporation the peculiar extractive,
bv distillation carbonic and carburetted hydrogene gas, leaving It is insoluble in cold water, but very soluble in boiling water;
a porous charcoal. its color is brown, and its taste bitter. It is precipitated from
Extract af senna. This extract is obtained from an infu- its solution by lime-water, in the form of a red powder ; and
sion of the dried leaves of cassia senna in alcohol. The color when dry it is black and brittle, breaking with a polished
of the infusion is brownish, the taste slightly bitter, and the fracture.
sou 11 aromatic. It is precipitated from its solution by the Extract ofsajfron. This extract is obtained in great abun-
muriatic and oxvmuriatic acids ; and when thrown on burning dance from the summits of the pistils of crocus sativus, which
coals consumes, with a thick smoke and aromatic odor, leaving are almost wholly soluble in water,
behind a spongy charcoal.
653. Extracts were formerly much employed in medicine ; though their efficacy seems to have been
overrated. But a circumstance of much more importance to society is that of their utility in the art of
dyeing. By far the greater part of colors used in dyeing are obtained from vegetable extracts, which
have a strong affinity to the fibres of cotton or linen, with which they enter into a combination that is
rendered still stronger by the intervention of mordants.
(xA. Coloring matter. The beauty and variety of the coloring of vegetables, chemists have ascribed to
the modifications of a peculiar substance which they denominate the coloring principle, and which they
have accordingly endeavored to isolate and extract ; first, by means of maceration or boiling in water,
and then by precipitating it from its solution. The chemical properties of coloring matter seem to be as
yet but imperfectly known, though they have been considerably elucidated by the investigations of Be*r-
tholet, Chaptal, and others. Its affinities to oxygen, alkalies, earths, metallic oxides, and cloths fabri-
cated, whether of animal or vegetable substances, such as wool or flax, seem to be among its most striking
characteristics. But its affinity to animal substances is stronger than its affinity to vegetable substances ;
and hence wool and silk assume a deeper die, and retain it longer than cotton or linen. Coloring matter
exhibits a great variety of different tints, as it occurs in different species of plants ; and as it combines
with oxygen, which it absorbs from the atmosphere, it assumes a deeper shade ; but it loses at the same
time a portion of its hydrogen, and becomes insoluble in water ; and thus it indicates its relation to ex-
tract. Fourcroy reduced colors to the four following sorts ; extractive colors, oxygenated colors, carbo-
nated colors, and hydrogenated colors ; the first being soluble in water, and requiring the aid of saline or
metallic mordants to fix them upon cloth ; the second being insoluble in water, as altered by the absorp-
tion of oxygen, and requiring no mordant to fix them upon cloth ; the third containing in their compo-
sition a great proportion of carbon, but soluble in alkalies; and the fourth containing a great proportion
of resin, but soluble in oils and alcohol. But the simplest mode of arrangement is that by which the dif,
ferent species of coloring matter are classed according to their effect in the art of dyeing. The principal
and fundamental colors in this art are the blue, the red, the yellow, and the brown.
I, 3
150
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
G55. The. finest of all vegetable blues is that which is known by
the name of indigo. It is the produce of the indigofera tinctoria,
.Lin., a shrub which is cultivated for the sake of the dye it
affords, in Mexico and the East Indies. The plant reaches
maturity in about six months, when its leaves are gathered
and immersed in vessels filled with water till fermentation
takes place. The water then becomes opaque and green, ex-
haling an odor like that of volatile alkali, aid evolving bubbles
of carbonic acid gas. When the fermentation has been con-
tinued long enough, the liquid is decanted and put into other
vessels, where it is agitated till blue Hakes begin to appear.
Water is now poured in, and the flakes are prec.pitated in the
form of a blue powdery sediment, which is obtained by de-
capitation ; and which, after being made up into small lumps
and dried in the shade, is the indigo of the ^hops. It is insolu-
ble in water, though slightly soluble in alcohol. But its true
solvent is sulphuric acid, with which it forms a fine blue dye,
known by the name of liquid blue, it arrbrds by distillation
carbonic acid gas, water, ammenia, ?ome oily and acid matter,
and much charcoal ; whence its constituent principles are
most probably carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
Indigo may be procured also from several other plants be>ides
indigui'era tinctoria, and particularly from isatis tinctoria or
woad, a plant indigenous to Britain, and thought to be the
plant with the juice of which the ancient Britons stained their
naked bodies, to make them look terrible to their enemies. If
this plant is digested in alcohol, and the solution evaporated,
white crystalline grains, somewhat resembling starch, will be
left behind; which grains are indigo, becoming gradually
blue by the action of the atmosphere. The blue color of in-
digo therefore is owing to its combination with oxygen.
656. The principal red colurs are such as are found* to exist in the
root, stem, or flower, of the five following plants : rubra tinc-
torum, lichen roccella and parellus, carthamus tinctorius,
caesalpinia crista, and haamatoxylon campeehianum.
657. Ydloiv, which is a color of very frequent occurrence
among vegetables, and the most permanentamong flowers, is ex-
tracted for the purpose of dyeing, from a variety of plants. It is
extracted from the reseda luteola, Lin., by the decoction of its
dried stems. The coloring matter is precipitated by means
of alum, and is much used in dyeing wool, silk, and cotton.
It is also obtained from the morus tinctoria, bixa orellana, or
659. Tannin. If a quantity of pounded nut-galls, or bruised seeds of the grape, is taken and dissolved in
cold water, and the solution evaporated to dryness, there will be left behind a brittle and yellowish sub-
stance of a highly astringent taste, which substance is tannin, or the tanning principle. It is soluble both
in water and alcohol, but insoluble in ether. With the salts of iron it strikes a black. And when a so-
lution of gelatine is mixed with an aqueous solution of tannin, the tannin and gelatine fall down in com-
bination, and form an insoluble precipitate. When tannin is subjected to the process of distillation, it
yields charcoal, carbonic acid, and inflammable gases, with a minute quantity of volatile alkali, and seems
accordingly to consist of the same elements with extract, from which, however, it is distinguished by the
peculiar property of its action upon gelatine. Tannin may be obtained from a great variety of other veget-
ables also, as well as those already enumerated, but chiefly from their bark ; and of barks, chiefly from
those that are astringent to the taste. The following table exhibits a general view of the relative value
of different species of barks, as ascertained by Sir Humphry Davy. It gives the average obtained from
4801b. of the entire bark of a middle-sized tree of the several different species, taken in the spring, when
the quantity of tannin is the largest.
amotta (J'a;. 54.), serratula tinctoria, genista tinctoria, rhus
cotinus, rhamnus infectorius, and quercus tinctoria, or quer-
citron, the bark of which last affords a rich and permanent
yellow that is at present much in use.
65S. The brorvn evloring matter qf vegetal'cs is very abundant ,
particularly in astringent plants. It is obtained from the root of
the walnut-tree, and rind of the walnut ; as also from the
sumac and alder, but chiefly from nut gills, which are ex-
crescences formed upon the leaves of a sjiecies of quercus,
indigenous to the south of Europe, in consequence of the punc-
ture of insects. The best in quality are brought from the
Levant. They are sharp and bitter to the taste, and extremely
astringent ; and soluble in water by decoction when ground or
gratedto a powder. The decoction strikes, with the solution
of iron, a deep black, that forms the basis of ink, and of most
dark colors used in dyeing cloths.
Oak -
Spanish chestnut
Leicester willow (large)
Elm -
Common willow (large)
Ash -
lb.
Beech 10
Horse-chestnut - - 9
Sycamore - - - - - 11
Lombardy poplar - - - 1 5
Birch 8
Hazel 14
Black thorn
Coppice oak
Inner rind of oak-bark
Oak cut in autumn
Larch cut in autumn
lb.
- 16
660. Tannin is of the very first utility in its ajrplkation to medicine and the arts ; being regarded by chemists
as the general principle of astringency. The medical virtues of Peruvian bark, so celebrated as a febrifuge
and antiseptic, are supposed to depend upon the quantity and quality of its tannin. In consequence of its
peculiar property of forming an insoluble compound with gelatine, the hides of animals are converted into
leather, by the important art of tanning. The bark of the oak-tree, which contains tannin in great
abundance, is that which is most generally used by the tanner. The hides to be tanned are prepared for
the process by steeping them in lime-wate'r, and scraping off the hair and cuticle. They are then soaked
first in weaker infusions, and afterwards in stronger infusions of the bark, till at last they are completely
impregnated. This process requires a period of from ten to eighteen months, if the hides are thick ; and
four or five pounds of bark are "necessary on an average to form one pound of leather.
661. Bitter principle. The taste of many vegetables, such as those employed in medicine, is extremely
bitter. The cuassia of the shops, the roots of common gentian, the bark and wood of common broom, the
calyx and floral leaves of the hop, and the leaves and flowers of chamomile, may be quoted as examples.
This bitter taste has been thought to be owing to the presence of a peculiar substance, different from every
other vegetable substance, and has been distinguished by the name of the bitter principle. When water
has been digested for some time over quassia, its color becomes yellow, and its taste intensely bitter ; and
if it is evaporated to dryness, it leaves behind a substance of a brownish yellow, with a slight degree of
transparency, that continues for a time ductile, but becomes afterwards brittle. This substance Dr.
Thomson regards as the bitter principle in a state of purity. It is soluble in water and in alcohol ; but the
solution is not much affected by re-agents. Nitrate of silver and acetate of lead are the only two that
occasion a precipitate. The bitter principle is of great importance, not only in the practice of medicine,
but also in the art of brewing ; its influence being that of checking fermentation, preserving the fermented
liquor, and when the bitter of the hop is used, communicating a peculiar and agreeable flavor. The
bitter principle appears to consist principally of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with a little nitrogen.
662. Narcotic principle. There is a species of medical preparations known by the name of narcotics, which
They are
stem
.-hich
chemists'have agreed to designate'by the name of the narcotic principle. It exists in great abundance in
opium, which is the concrete juice of papaver album, or the white poppy, from which it is obtained pure,
in the form of white crystals. It is soluble in boiling water and in alcohol, as well as in all acid menstrua ;
and it appears that the'action of opium on the animal subject depends on this principle. When d; tilled
it emits white vapors, which are condensed into a yellow oil. Some water and carbonate of ammonia pass
into a receiver ; and at last carbonic acid gas, ammonia, and carburetted hydrogen, are disengaged, and
a bulky charcoal left behind. Many other vegetable substances besides opium, possess naro
though they have not yet been minutely analysed. The following are the mostremarkable : the inspis-
s tted juice of lettuce, which resembles opium much in its appearance, is obtained by the same means, and
possesses the same medical virtues ; the leaves of atropa belladonna, ordeadlj nightshade, and indeed the
Book ].
COMPOUND PRODUCTS OF PLANTS.
151
whole plant ; the leaves of digitalis purpurea, or foxglove ; and lastly, the following plants, hyoscyamus
niger, conium maculatum, datura stramonium, and sedum palustre, with many others belonging to the
Linnaean natural order of Luridae.
6631 Acids. Acids are a class of substances that may be distinguished by their exciting on the palate
the sensation of sourness. They exist, not only in the animal and mineral, but also in the vegetable
kingdom ; and such of them as are peculiar to vegetables have been denominated vegetable acids. Of
acids peculiar to vegetables chemists enumerate the following : the oxalic, acetic, citric, malic, gallic,
tartaric, benzoic, and prussic, which exist ready formed in the juices or organs of the plant, and are ac-
cordingly denominated native acids ; together with the mucous, pyromucous, pyrotartarous, pyrolignous,
camphoric, and suberic, which do not exist ready formed in the plant, and are hence denominated arti-
licial acids. They are consequently not within the scope of the object of the present work.
664. Oxalic acid. If the expressed juice of the oxalis aceto-
sclia is left to evaporate slowly, it deposits small crystals of
a yellowish color and saltish taste, which are known by the
name of the acidulum of sorrel, that is, a salt with excess of
acid, from which the acid may be obtained pure by processes
well known to- the chemist. It is not used in medicine or
the arts, except in its state of acidulum, in which it is em-
ployed to make a sort of lemonade, and to discharge stains
of ink. It has been found also in oxalis corniculata, gera-
nium acidum, in the several species of rumex, and in the
pubescence of cicer arietinum.
665. Acetic acid. The acetic acid, or vinegar, which is ge-
nerally manufactured from wine in a certain stage of ferment-
ation, has been found also ready formed in the sap of several
trees, as analysed by Vauquelin ; and also in the acid juice
of the cicer arietinum, of which it forms a constituent part.
It was obtained also by Scheele from the sap of the sam-
bucus nigra ; and is consequently to be regarded as a native
vegetable acid. It is distinguished from other vegetable adds
by its forming soluble salts with the alkalies and earths.
666. Citric acid. Citric acid is the acid that exists in the juice
of lemon. Its taste is very sour in a state of purity, but ex-
ceedingly pleasant when diluted with water. By a red heat it
yields carDbnic acid gas and carbonated hydrogene gas, and is
reduced to a charcoal ; nitric acid converts it into oxalic and
acetic acid, and with lime it forms a salt insoluble in water.
It lias been found unmixed with other acids in the following
vegetable substances : in the juice of oranges and lemons, and
in the berries of vaccinium oxycoccus, and vitis idaa, prunus
padus, solatium dulcamara, and rosa canina. Ithasbeen found
also in many other fruits, mixed with other acids.
667. Malic add. Malic acid is found chiefly in the juice of un-
ripe apples, whence it derives its name, lint it is found also in
tlie juice of barberries, alderberries, gooseberries, plums, and
common house-leek.
668. Gallic acid. Gallic acid, as it is obtained in the greatest
abundance, so it derives its name from the nut-gall, from
which it may be extracted by exposing a quantity of the powder
of nut-galls to a moderate heat in a glass retort ; and the acid
will sublime and form crystals of an octahedral figure. Its
taste is austere and astringent. It strongly reddens veget-
able blues. It is soluble both in water and alcohol ; and is dis-
tinguished by its property of communicating to solutions of iron
a deep purple color. When exposed to a gentle heat it sub-
limes without alteration, but a strong heat decomposes it.
Nitric acid converts it into the malic and oxalic, acids. It is
of great utility in the art of dyeing, and forms the basis of all
black colors, and of colors with a dark ground. It forms also
the basis of ink ; and chemists use it as a test to detect the
presence of iron.
669. Tartaric acid. If wine is kept for alength of time in a cask
or other close vessel, a sediment is precipitated which adheres
to the sides or bottom, and forms a crust known by the name
of tartar, which is a combination of potass and a peculiar acid
in excess. The compound is tartarite of potass, and the acid,
in its state of purity, is the tartaric acid. It is characterised
by the property of its forming with potass a salt that is soluble
with difficulty. It has been found in the following vegetable
substances also: in the pulp of tamarinds, in the juice of the
grape, and mulberries, sorrel, and sumac ; and the roots of
triticum repens, and leontodon taraxacum. It is not much
used except among chemists. But the tartarite from which
it is usually obtained is well known for its medical virtues under
the name of cream of tartar.
670. Benzuic acid. From the styrax benzoin there exudes a
resinous substance, known in the shops by the name of benzoin,
and in which the benzoic acid is contained. It is distinguished
from the other acids by its aromatic odor and extreme volatility.
It has been obtained also from the balsams of tolu and storax ;
and is used hi pharmacy, in the preparation of boluses and elec-
tuaries.
671. Prussic acid. Theprussic acid is generally classed among
the animal acids, because it is obtained in the greatest abund-
ance from animal substances. But it has been proved to exist
in vegetable substances also, and is procured by distilling laurel
leaves, or the kernels of the peach and cherry, or bitter almonds.
When pure it exists in the form of a colorless fluid, with an odor
resembling that of peach-tree blossoms. It does not redden
vegetable blues. But it is characterised by its property of
forming a bluish-green precipitate, when it is poured, with a litt lc
alkali added to it, into solutions containing iron.
67-. It appears f hat all vegetable acids contain carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, in one proportion or other ;
and that the prussic acid contains also a portion of nitrogen. The gallic acid contains more of carbon
than any other vegetable acid, and the oxalic more of oxygen.
t>73. Vegetable oils are of two kinds, the fixed and the volatile The former are not suddenly affected by
the application of heat ; the latter are very inflammable.
t">74. Fixed oils. Fixed oils are but seldom found, except in the seeds of plants, and chiefly in such as
are dicotyledonous. They are found also, though rarely, in the pulp of fleshy fruits, as in that of the olive,
which yields the most abundant and valuable species of all fixed oils. But dicotyledonous seeds which
contain oil, contain also at the same time a quantity of mucilage and fecula, and form, when bruised in
water, a mild and milky fluid, known by the name of emulsion. And on this account they are sometimes
denominated emulsive seeds. Some seeds yield their oil merely by means of pressure, though it is often
necessary to reduce them first of all to a sort of pulp, by means of pounding them in a mortar. Others
require to be exposed to the action of heat, which is applied to them by means of pressure between warm
plates of tin, or of the vapor of boiling water, or of roasting before they are subjected to the press. Fixed
oil, when pure, is generally a thick and viscous fluid, of a mild or insipid taste, and without smell. But it
is never entirely without some color, which is for the most part green or yellow. Its specific gravity is to
water as 9"403 to l'OOO. It is insoluble in water. It is decomposed by the acids, but with the alkalies it
forms soap. When exposed to the atmosphere it becomes inspissated and opaque, and assumes a white
color and a resemblance to fat. This is in consequence of the absorption of oxygen ; but owing to the
appearance of a quantity of water in oil that is exposed to the action of the air, it has been thought that
the oxygen absorbed by it is not yet perhaps assimilated to its substance. When exposed to cold it con-
geals and crystallises, or assumes a solid and granular form; but not till the thermometer has indicated a
degree considerably below the freezing point. When exposed to the action of heat it is not volatilised till
it begins to boil, which is at 600° of Fahrenheit. By distillation it is converted into water, carbonic acid,
and carburctted hydrogene gas, and charcoal ; the product of its combustion is nearly the same ; and hence
it is a compound of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Fixed oils are generally divided into two sorts, fat
oils and drying oils. The former are readily inspissated by the action of the air, and converted into a sort
of fat. The latter are capable of being dried by the action of the air, and converted into a firm and trans-
parent substance.
675. The principal species of fat oils are the following : —
Olive oil, which is expressed from the pulpy part of the fruit
of olea europea. Thefruit is first broken in a mill, and reduced
to a sort of paste. It is then subjected to the action of a press,
and the oil which is now easily stparated swims on the ton of the
water in the vessel beneath. It is manufactured chiefly in
France and in Italy, and is much used throughout Europe in-
stead of butter, and to give a seasoning to food.
Oil qf almond* , which is extracted from the fruit of the amvg-
dalus communis or common almond. The almonds are first
well rubbed or shook in a coarse bag or sack, to separate a bitter
powder which covers their epidermis. They are then pounded
676. The principal species of drying oils are linseed-oil, nut-oil, poppy-oil, and hempseed-oil.
Linseed-oil is obtained from the seeds of flax, which are ge-
nerally roasted before they are subjected to any other process,
for tbepurpose of drying up their mucilage and separating more
oil.
Nut-oil is extracted from the fruit of corylus avellana, orju-
glans regia. The kernel is first slightly roasted, and the oil
then expressed. It is used in paintings of a coarser sort ; and
also in the seasoning of food by many of the inhabitants of the
middle departments of France ; but i*. is apt to become rancid.
L 4
to a paste in mortars of marble, which is afterwards subjected
to the action of a press; and the oil is now obtained as in the
case of the olive.
Rapeseed-oil, which is extracted from the brassica napus and
campestris. It is less fixed and less liable to become rancid
than the two former, and is manufactured chiefly in Flanders.
Ot7 of lichen, which is extracted from the fruit of the guilandina
mohringa, common in Egypt and Africa. It is apt to become
rancid ; but it is without odor, and is, on this account, much
used in perfumery.
Poppy-oil is extracted from the seeds of papaver somniferum,
which is cultivated in France ami Holland Eat this purpose. It
is clear and transparent, and dries readily : and when pure it
is without taste or odor. It is used for the same purposes as
the olive-oil, for which it i; often sold, and possesses nothing of
the narcotic properties of the poppy.
tlentpteed-oil is extracted from the seed of the hemp. It has
a harsh and disagreeeble taste, and is used bj painters in this
country, and very extensively for food in Russia.
152
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
677. Volatile ails. Volatile oils, which are known also by the name of essential oils, are of very common
occurrence in the vegetable kingdom, and are found in almost all the different organs of the plant. They
are found in many roots, to which they communicate a fragrant and aromatic odor, with a taste somewhat
acrid. The roots of inula helenium, genista canariensis, and a variety of other plants, contain essential
oils. They are found also in the bark of laurus cinnamomum, of laurus sassafras, and pinus ; in the leaves
of labiate plants, such as mint, rosemary, marjoram ; and of the odorous umbelliferas, such as chervil,
fennel, angelica j and of plants with compound flowers, such as wormwood. They are found also in the
flower itself, as in the flowers of chamomile, and the rose ; and in the fruit, as in that of pepper and ginger,
and in the external integuments of many seeds, but never in the cotyledon. They are extracted by means
of expression or distillation, and are extremely numerous ; and perhaps every plant possessing a peculiar
odor possesses also a peculiar and volatile oil. The aroma of plants, therefore, or the substance from which
they derive their odor, and which is cognisable only by the sense of smell, is perhaps merely the more
volatile and evaporable part of their volatile oil, disengaging itself from its combinations. Volatile oils
are characterised by their strong and aromatic odor, and rather acrid taste. They are soluble in alcohol,
but are not readily converted into soaps by alkalies. They are very inflammable, and are volatilised by a
gentle heat. Like fixed oils, their specific gravity is generally less than that of water, on the surface of
which they will float ; though in some cases it is found to be greater than that of water, in which they
consequently sink. They are much in request on account of their agreeable taste and odor, and are pre-
pared and sold by apothecaries and perfumers, under the name of distilled waters or essences ; as well as
emploved also in the manufacture of varnishes and pigments.
678. Wax. On the upper surface of the leaves of many trees there may often be observed a sort of var-
nish, which, when separated by certain chemical processes, is found to possess all the properties of bees'-
wax, and is consequently a vegetable wax. It exudes, however, from several other parts of the plant
besides the leaf, and assumes a more waxy and concrete form, as from the catkins of the poplar, the alder,
and the fir ; from the fruit of the myrica cerifera and croton sebiferum ; but particularly from the anthera;
of the flowers, from which it is probable that the bees extract it unaltered. It was the opinion of Reaumur,
however, that the pollen undergoes a digestive process in the stomach of the bee before it is converted into
wax, though a late wrriter on the subject endeavours to prove that the wax is elaborated from the honey
bees' wax is indeed somewhat aromatic, and its color yellow. But this is evidently owing to some foreign
substance with which it is mixed, because it loses its smell and color by means of bleaching, and becomes
oerfectly white. This is done merely by drawing it out into thin stripes, and exposing it for some time to
the atmosphere. Bleached wax is not affected by the air. Its specific gravity is 0-9600. It is insoluble in
water, and in alcohol. It combines with the fixed oils, and forms with them a composition known by the
name of cerate. It combines also with the fixed alkalies, and forms with them a compound possessing
the properties of common soap. The acids have but little action on it, and for this reason it is useful as a
lute to confine them, or to prevent them from injuring cork. When heat is applied to wax it becomes
soft, and melts at the temperature of 142° if unbleached, and of 155° if bleached, into a colorless and trans-
parent fluid, which, as the temperature diminishes, concretes again and resumes its former appearance.
At a higher temperature it boils and evaporates, and the vapor may be set on fire by the application of red
heat. Hence its utility in making candles. And hence an explication of the singular phenomenon ob-
servable in the dictamnus fraxinella. This plant is fragrant, and the odor which it diffuses around forms
a partial and temporary atmosphere, which is inflammable ; for if a lighted candle or other ignited body
is brought near to the" plant, especially in the time of drought, its atmosphere immediately takes fire.
This phenomenon was first observed by'the daughter of the celebrated Linnaeus, and is explained by sup-
posing the partial and temporary atmosphere to contain a proportion of wax exuded from the plant, and
afterwards reduced to vapor by the action of the sun. The result of its combustion in oxygene gas was,
according to Lavoisier, carbonic acid and water, in such proportion as to lead him to conclude that 100
parts of wax are composed of 82"28 of carbon and 1772 of hydrogen. But owing to the little action of
acids upon it, there seems reason to believe that it contains also oxygen as an ingredient.
679. Wax possesses all the essential properties of a fixed oil. But fixed oils have the property of becom-
ing concrete, and of assuming a waxy appearance when long exposed to the air, in consequence as it seems,
of the absorption of oxygen. Wax therefore may be considered as a fixed oil rendered concrete, perhaps
by the absorption of oxygen during the progress of vegetation. But if this theory is just, the wax may be
expected to occur in a considerable variety of states according to its degree of oxygenation ; and this is ac-
cordingly the case. Sometimes it has the consistency of butter, and is denominated butter of wax, as
butter of coco, butter of galam. Sometimes its consistency is greater, and then it is denominated tallow,
as tallow of croton ; and when it has assumed its last degree of consistency, it then takes the appellation of
wax. The following are its principal species : butter of cacao, butter of coco, butter of nutmeg, tallow of
croton, and wax of myrtle.
fiSO. The butter of aicao is extracted from the seeds of the theobroma cacao or chocolate plant
(Jig. 55.), either by boiling them in water, or by subjecting them to the action of the press after
having exposed them to the v:.por of boiling water.
Butter of «>co is found in the fruit of the cocos nucifera or coco-nut-tree. It is expressed
from the 'pulp of the nut, and is even said to separate from i t when in a fluid state, as cream sepa-
rates from milk.
Butter of nutmeg is obtained from the seeds of the myristica officinalis, or nutmeg-tree.
Tallow of croton is obtained from the fruit of the croton sebiferum.
The wax of myrtle is obtained from the berry of the myrica cerifera.
681. Resins. Resins are volatile oils, rendered concrete by means of the
absorption of oxygen, or rather perhaps by the abstraction of part of their
hydrogen. They have a slight degree of transparency, and their color is
generally yellowish. Their taste is somewhat acrid; but they are without
smell when pure. Their specific gravity varies from 1D180 to 1'2289. They
are non-conductors of electricity, and when excited by friction their electri-
city is negative. The species of resins are numerous.
fiS'i. Rosin is a species of resin, of which there are several varie- size, which are piled to-
ties From different species of the pine, larch, and fir-tree,
there exudes a juice which concretes in the form of tears. Its
extrication is generally aided by m»ans of incisions, and it re-
ceives different appellations, according to the species from
which it is obtained. If it is obtained from the pinus syl-
vestris, it is denominated common turpentine; from pinus larix,
I"l'«!i ■' turpentine : from amyris balsamea, balsam of Canada. It
consists of two ingredients, oil of turpentine and ro4n. The
oil is extricated by distillation, and the rosin remains behind.
If the distillation is continued to dryness, the residuum is
common rosin or colophonium ; but if water is mixed with it
while yet fluid, and incorporated by violent agitation, the resi-
duum is yellow rosin. The yellow rosin is the most ductile,
and the most generally used in the arts.
683. Pitch unit tcr are manufactured from the resinous juice;
ef the fir. The trunk is cut or cleft into pieces of a conven ient
gether in heaps, and co-
vered with turf. They are
then set on fire, and the
resinous juice which is thus
extricated, being prevented
from escaping in a volatile state by means of the turf, is
precipitated and collected in a vessel beneath. It is partly con
verted into an empyreumatic oil, and is now tar, which, by
being further inspissated, is converted into pitch.
Mastich is extracted from the pistacia Isntiscus.
Sandarach is obtained from the juniperis communis, by spon-
taneous exudation.
F.lemi is extracted from the amyris elemifera.
Tacamliac is the produce of the fagara octandra and 'jiopulus
balsamifera.
Labdanum is obtained from the cistus creticus. .
Book I. COMPOUND PRODUCTS OF PLANTS. 153
684. Opobalsamum,or balmofGilead, which has been so much 6S7. Copal is the produce of the rhuscopallinum, a tree which
famed for its medical virtues, is the produce of the amyris is found in North America.
Gileadensis, a shrub which grows in Judaja and in Arabia ; but Anime', is obtained from the hymenaeacoubaril,or locust-tree,
it is so much valued by the Turks that its importation is pro- a native of North America.
Libited. This is the balm of Gilead so much celebrated in Luc is the produce of the croton lacciferum, a native of the
Scripture. Pliny says it was first brought to Home by the East Indies.
generals of Vespasian. It is obtained in a liquid state from 6\SS. Bloom. Upon theepidermis of the leaves and fruit of cer-
incisions made in the bark, and is somewhat bitter tothe taste. tain species of plants, there is tobefoundafine,soft, and glaucous
6S5. Copaiva, or balsam .rf'copaira, is obtained from the co- powder. It is particularly observable upon cabbage-leaves, and
paifera officinalis. upon plums, to which it communicates a peculiar shade. It
Dragon's blood is obtained from the draccena draco, pterocar- is known to gardeners by the name of bloom. It is easily rub-
pus draco, and calamus rotang. bed off by the fingers ; and when viewed under the microscope,
Gvuuae is the produce of the guaiacum officinale. seems to be composed of small opaque and unpolished grai fides,
Bolaiio Bau resin, the produce of the acarois resin ifera, a native somewhat similar to the powder of starch ; but with a high
of New Holland, and found in great abundance about Botany magnifying power it appears transparent. When rubbed off,
Bay. it is again re-produced, though slowly. It resists the action
686. Green resin constitutes the coloring matter of the leaves of of dews and rains, and is consequently insoluble in water.
trees, and of almost all vegetables. It is insoluble in water, but But it is soluble in spirits of wine; from which circuni-
soluble in alcohol. When treated with oxymuriatic acid, it as- stance it has been suspected, with some probability, to be a
sumes the color of a withered leaf, and exhibits the resinous resin,
properties more distinctly.
t
689. The use of resins in the arts is very considerable ; but their medical virtues are* not quite so
great as has been generally supposed. They are employed in the, arts of painting, varnishing, embalm-
ing, and perfumery ; and they furnish us with two of the most important of all materials to a naval
power, pitch and tar.
690. Gum-resins. This term is employed to denote a class of vegetable substances, which have been
regarded by chemists as consisting of gum and resin. They are generally contained in the proper vessels
of the plant, whether in the root, stem, branches, leaves, flowers, or fruit. But there is this remarkable
difference between resins and gum-resins, that the latter have never been known, like the former, to
exude spontaneously from the plant. They are obtained by means of bruising the parts containing thtm,
anil expressing the juice, which is always in the state of an emulsion, generally white, but sometimes
of a different color ; or they are obtained by means of incisions from which the juice Hows. This juice,
which is the proper juice of the plant, is then exposed to the action of the sun, by which, in warm cli-
mates, it is condensed and inspissated, and converted into the gum-resin of commerce. Gum-resins, in
their solid state, are brittle, and less transparent than rosins. They have generally a strong smell, which
is sometimes alliaceous, and a bitter and nauseous taste. They are partially soluble both in water and in
alcohol. When heated, they do not melt like the resins, nor are they so combustible. But they swell
and soften by heat, and at last burn away with a flame. By distillation they yield volatile oil, ammonia
combined with an acid, and have a bulky charcoal. The principal species of gum-resins which have been
hitherto applied to any useful puq:>ose are : —
Galbanvm, obtained from the stem of the bubon galbanum. Arabia. Bruce says it belongs to the genus mimosa; buthowever
Ammoniac, brought from Africa in the form of small tears; this maybe, myrrh is the juice of the plant concreted in the
the plant which yields it is thought to be a species of ferula. form of tears. Its color is yellow, its odor strong but agree*
Scammont), the produce of the convolvulus scammonia. able, and its taste bitter; it is employed in medieine, and is
Upoponar, obtained from thepastinaca opoponax. esteemed an excellent stomachic.
Euphorbium, the produce of the euphorbia officinalis; its 692. Assajh'tiilu, a substance which is well known for its strong
taste is caustic ; it is considered as a poison, but is occasionally and fetid smell, is obtained from the ferula assafuetida. At four
employed in medicine. years old the plant is dug up by the root. The root is then
Oliliinum is obtained from the juniperus lycia, which grows cleaned, and the extremity cut off; a milky juice exudes which
in Arabia, particularly by the borders of the Red Sea. It is is collected; and when it ceases to flow another portion is cut
the frankincence of the ancients. It exudes from incisions off, and more juice extricated. The process is continued till the
made in the tree, and concretes into masses about the size of a root is exhausted. The juice which has been collected soon
chestnut. concretes, and constitutes assafcetida. It is brought to Europe
Sagapenum is supposed to be obtained from the ferula in small agglutinated grains of different colors, white, red,
persica. yellow. It is hard, but brittle. Its taste is bitter, and it«
Gamboge, or gumgutt, the produce of the mangostana cam- smell Insufferably fetid ; the Indians use it as a seasoning for
uogia. their food, and call it the food of the gods. In Europe, it is
691. Myrrh, the plant yielding which grows in Abyssinia and used in medicine as an antispasmodic.
093. Balsams. The substances known by the name of balsams are resins united to the benzoic acid.
They are obtained by means of incisions made in the bark, from which a viscous juice exudes, which is
ing concrete. They i
part of their acid; they are soluble in the alkalies and nitric acid. When heated they melt and swell,
evolving a white and odorous smoke. The principal of the balsams are the following : benzoin, storax,
styrax, "balsam of tolu, balsam of Peru.
Benzoin is the produce of the stvrax benzoin. Balsam qftolv is obtained from the toluifcra balsamum.
Storax is obtained from the styrax officinale. Bottom of Peru is obtained from the myroxylon perui-
Sfyrax is a semi-fluid juice, the produce of a tree said to be ferum.
cultivated in Arabia.
694. Camphor. The substance known by the name of camphor ks obtained from the root and stem of
the laurus camphora, by distillation. When pure it is a white brittle substance, forming octagonal crystals
or square plates. Its taste is hot and acrid ; its odor strong but aromatic ; its specific gravity 0"9887. when
broke into small fragments and put into water, on the surface of which it swims, a singular pheno-
menon ensues. The water surrounding the fragments is immediately put into commotion, advancing and
retiring in little waves, and attacking the fragments with violence. The minuter fragments are driven
backwards and forwards upon the surface as if impelled by contrary winds. If a drop of oil is let fall on
the surface of the water it produces an immediate calm. This phenomena has been attributed to elec-
tricity. Fourcroy thinks it is merely the effect of the affinities of the camphor, water, and air, entering
into combination. Though camphor is obtained chiefly from the laurus camphora, yet it is known to
exist in a great many other plants, particularly labiate plants, and has been extracted from the roots of
zedoary, sassafras, thyme, rosemary, and lavender.
695 Caoutchouc. The substance denominated caoutchouc was first introduced into Europe about the
beginning of the eighteenth century. But from a use to which it is very generally applied of rubbing out
the marks made upon paper by a black-lead pencil, it is better known to most people in this country by the
name of Indian rubber. It is obtained chiefly from ha>vea caoutchouc and jatropha elastica, trees indi-
genous to South America ; but it has been obtained also from several trees which grow in the East Indies,
such as ficus indicus, artocarpus integrifolia, and urceola elastica. If an incision is made into the bark of
any of these plants a milky juice exudes, which, when exposed to the air, concretes and forms caoutchouc.
As the object of the natives in collecting it had been originally to form it into vessels for their own use, it
it is generally made to concrete in the form of bags or bottles. This is done by applying the juice, when
fluid, in thin layers to a mould of dry clay, and then leaving it to concrete in the sun or by the lire. A
second layer is added to the first, and others in succession, till the vessel acquires the thickness that is
wanted. The mould is then broken and the vessel fit for use, and iu this state it is generally brought into
Europe. It lias been brought, however, even in its milky state, by being confined from the action of the
air. If the milky juice is exposed to the air, an elastic pellicle is formed on the surface. If it is confined
154
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
in a vessel containing oxygene gas, the pellicle is formed sooner. If oxymuriatic acid is poured into the
milky juice, the caoutchouc precipitates immediately. This renders it probable that the formation of the
caoutchouc is owing to the absorption of oxygen. Caoutchouc, when pure, is of a white coior, without
taste and without smell. The black color of the caoutchouc of commerce is owing to the method of dry-
ing the different layers upon the moulds on which they are spread. They are dried by being exposed to
smoke. The black'color of the caoutchouc, therefore, is owing to the smoke or soot alternating with its
different layers. It is soft and pliable like leather, and extremely elastic, so that it may be stretched to a
very great length, and still recover its former size. Its specific gravity is 0'933d. Gough, of Manchester,
has made some curious and important experiments on the connection between the temperature of caout-
chouc and its elasticity, from which it results that ductility as well as fluidity is owing to latent heat.
Caoutchouc is not altered by exposure to the air. It is perfectly insoluble in water ; but if boiled in water
for some time its edges become so soft that they will cement, if pressed and kept for a while closely toge-
ther. It is insoluble in alcohol, but soluble in ether. It is soluble also in volatile oils and in alkalies.
And from the action operated upon by acids it is thought to be composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxy-
gen, and azote. It seems to exist in a great variety of plants combined with other ingredients. It
may be separated from resins bv alcohol. It may be separated from the berries of the misseltoe by means
of water, and from other vegetable substances by" other processes. It is said to be contained both in opium
and in mastic. But from these substances it cannot be extracted in sufficient quantities to make it worth
the labor. It is applied to a great many useful purposes both in medicine and the arts, to which, from
its great pliability and elasticity, it is uncommonly well adapted. In the countries where it is produced
the natives make" boots and shoes of it, and often use it by way of candle.
696. Cork. The substance known by the name of cork is the outer and exfoliated bark of the quercus
suber or cork-tree, a species of oak that grows in great abundance in France, Spain, and Italy. But to
prevent its natural exfoliation, which is always irregular, and to disengage it in convenient portions, a longi-
tudinal incision is made in the bark from the root to the top of the stem ; and a transverse and circular in-
cision at each extremitv. The outer laver, which is cork, is then stripped off, and to flatten and reduce
it to sheets it is put into water and loaded with weights. The tree continues to thrive, though it is thus
stripped of its cork once in two or three years. Cork is a light, soft, and elastic substance, distinguished
by the following properties : — Its color is a sort of light tan. It is very inflammable, and bums with a
bright white flame, leaving a black and bulky charcoal behind. When distilled it yields a small quantity
of ammonia. Nitric acid corrodes and dissolves it, changing its color to yellow, and finally decomposes it,
converting it partly into an acid, and partly into a soft substance resembling wax or resin. The acid
which is thus formed is denominated the suberic acid, and has been proved by the experiments of La-
grange to be an acid of a peculiar nature. It seems probable that cork exists in the bark of some other
trees also, as well as the quercus suber. The bark of the ulmus suberosa assumes something of the exter-
nal appearance of cork, which it resembles in its thickness, softness, and elasticity, and in its loose and
porous texture, as well as also in its chemical properties. Fourcroy seems, indeed, to regard the epider-
mis of all trees whatever to be a sort of cork, but does not say on what grounds his opinion is founded.
697. Woody fibre. The principal body of the root, stem, and branches of trees, is designated by the
appellation of wood. But the term is too general for the purpose of analytical distinction, as the part
designated by it often includes the greater part of the substances that have been already enumerated. It
remains, therefore, to be ascertained whether there exists in the plant any individual substance different
from those already described, and constituting more immediately the fabric of the wood. If a piece of
wood is well dried and digested, first in water and'then in alcohol, or such other solvent as shall produce
no violent effects upon the insoluble parts ; and if the digestion is continued till the liquid is no longer
colored, and dissolves no more of the substance of the plant, there remains behind a sort of vegetable
skeleton, which constitutes the basis of the wood, and which has been denominated woody fibre. It is
composed of bundles of longitudinal threads, which are divisible into others still smaller. It is somewhat
transparent. It is without taste and smell, and is not altered by exposure to the atmosphere. It is inso-
luble in water and alcohol ; but the fixed alkalies decompose it with the assistance of heat. When heated
in the open air it blackens without melting or frothing, and exhales a thick smoke and pungent odor,
leaving a charcoal that retains the form of the original mass. When distilled in a retort it yields an em-
pvreumatic oil, carburetted hydrogene gas, carbonic acid, and a portion of ammonia, according to Four-
croy, indicating the presence of nitrogen as constituting one of its elementary principles ; and yet this
ingredient does not appear in the result of the later analysis of Gay Lussac, and Thenard, which is, car-
bon, 5253 ; oxygen, 41 78; hydrogen, 5.69; total 100.
698. Charcoal. When wood is burnt with a smothered flame, the volatile parts are driven off by
the heat, and there remains behind a substance exhibiting the exact form, and even the several layers of
the original mass. This process is denominated charring, and the substance obtained, charcoal. As it is
the woodv fibre alone which resists the action of heat, while the other parts of the plant are dissipated, it
is plain that charcoal must be the residuum of woody fibre, and that the quantity of the one must depend
upon the quantity of the other, if thev are not rather to be considered as the same. Charcoal may be ob-
tained from almost all parts of the plant, whether solid or fluid. It often escapes, however, during com-
bustion, under the form of carbonic acid, of which it constitutes one of the elements. From a variety of
experiments made en different plants and on their different parts, it appears that the green parts contain
a greater proportion of charcoal than the rest. But this proportion is found to diminish in autumn, when
the green parts begin to be deprived of their glutinous and extractive juice. The wood contains more
charcoal than the alburnum, the bark more than both. But this last result is not constant in all plants,
because the bark is not a homogeneous substance, the outer parts being affected by the air and the inner
parts not. The wood of the quercus robur, separated from the alburnum, yielded from l(X) parts of its dried
substance 1975 of charcoal ; the alburnum, 17 "5 ; the bark, 26 ; leaves gathered in May, 80; in Septem-
ber, 26. But the quantity of charcoal differs also in different plants, as well as in different parts of the
same. According to the experiments of Mushet, 100 parts of the following trees afforded as follows : —
Lignum ^'itse
Mahogany
Laburnum
Chestnut
Oak - - - -
American black birch
•26-8
2.V4
1 !•.->
23-2
22-6
'21-4
Walnut 20-6
HoUv 19-9
Beech 10-9
American maple - 19-9
Elm .... 19-5
Norway fir
Sallow
Ash
Birch
Scotch pine
19-2
1S-4
17-9
17-4
16-4
(599. 2
newly m
lie properties of charcoal are insolubility in water, of which however it absorbs a portion when
x..ade, as also of atmospheric air. It is incapable of putrefaction. It is not altered by the most
violentheat that can he applied, if all air and moisture are excluded; but when heated to about 800 it
burns in atmospheric air or oxygene gas, and if pure, without leaving any residuum. It is regarded by
Chemists as being a triple compound, of which the ingredients are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Char-
coal is of great utility both to the chemist and artist as a fuel for heating furnaces, as well as for a variety
of other purposes. It is an excellent filter for purifying water. It is a very good tooth -powder ; and is
also an indispensable ingredient in the important manufacture of gunpowder.
7(K) The sap. If the branch of a vine is cut asunder early in the spring, before the leaves have begun
to expand a clear and colorless fluid will issue from the wound, which gardeners denominate the tears
of the vine It is. merelv, however, the ascending sap, and may be procured from almost any other plant
by the same or similar means, and at the same season ; but particularly from the maple, birch, and walnut-
tree by means of boring a hole in the trunk. It issues chiefly from the porous and mixed tubes of the
Book I. COMPOUND PRODUCTS OF PLANTS. 155
alburnum ; though sometimes it does not flow freely till the bore is carried to the centre. A small branch
of a vine lias been known to yield from twelve to sixteen ounces, in the space of twenty-four hours. A
maple-tree of moderate size yields about 200 pints in a season, as has been already stated ; and a birch-
tree has been known to yield in the course of the bleeding-season, a quantity equal to its own weight. In
the sap of fagus sylvatica, Vauquelin found the following ingredients : —Water, acetate of lime, with excess
of acid, acetate of potass, gallic acid, tannin, mucous and extractive matter, and acetate of alumia. In
1039 parts of the sap of the ulmus campestris, he found 1027 parts of water and volatile matter, 9-240 of ace-
tate or' potass, 1.060 of vegetable matter, 0.79b" of carbonate of lime, besides some slight indications of the
presence of sulphuric and muriatic acids; and at a later period of the season he found the vegetable mat-
ter increased, and the carbonate of lime and acetate of potass diminished. From the above experiments,
therefore, as well as from those of other chemists, it is plain that the sap consists of a great variety of ingre-
dients, differing in different species of plants ; though there is too little known concerning it to warrant
the deduction of any general conclusions, as the number of plants whose sap has been hitherto analysed is
yet but very limited. It is the grand and principal source of vegetable aliment, and may be regarded as
being somewhat analogous to the blood of animals. It is not made use of by man, at least in its natural
state. But there are trees, such as the birch, whose sap may be manufactured into a very pleasant wine ;
and it is well known that the sap of the American maple-tree yields a considerable quantity of sugar.
701. The proper juice. When the sap has received its last degree of elaboration from the different or-
gans through which it has to pass, it is converted into a peculiar fluid, called the proper juice. This fluid
may tie distinguished from the sap by means of its color, which is generally green, as in periwinkle ; or red,
as in logwood; or white, as in spurge; or yellow, as in celandine; from the two last of which it may rea-
dily be obtained by breaking the stem asunder, as it will then exude from the fracture. Its principal s:eat is
in the bark, where it occupies the simple tubes ; but sometimes it is situated between the bark and wood,
as in the juniper-tree ; or in the leaf, as in the greater part of herbs ; or it is diffused throughout the whole
plant, as in the fir and hemlock; in which case, either the proper juice mixes with the sap, or the vessels
containing it have ramifications so fine as to be altogether imperceptible. It is not, however, the same in
all plants, nor even in the different parts of the same plant. In the cherry-tree it is mucilaginous ; in the
pine it is resinous ; in spurge -and celandine it is caustic, though resembling in appearance an emulsion.
In many plants the proper juice of the bark is different from that of the flower; and the proper juice of
the fruit different from both. Its appearance under the microscope, according to Senebier, is that of an
assemblage of small globules connected by small and prism-shaped substances placed between them. If
this juice could be obtained in a state of purity, its analysis would throw a considerable degree of light
upon the subject of vegetation. But it seems impracticable to extract it without a mixture of sap. Sene-
bier analysed the milky juice of euphorbia cyparissias, of which he had procured a small quantity consi-
derably pure, though its pungency was so great as to occasion an inflammation of the eyes to the person
employed to procure it. It mixed readily with water, to which it communicated its color. When left ex-
posed to the air a slight precipitation ensued ; and when allowed to evaporate a thin and opaque crust
remained behind. Alcohol coagulated it into small globules. Ether dissolved it entirely, as did also oil of
turpentine. Sulphuric acid changed its color to black ; nitric acid to green. The most accurate experi-
ments on the subject are those of Chaptal. When oxymuriatic acid was poured into the peculiar juice of
euphorbia, a very copious white precipitate fell down, which, when washed and dried, had the appear-
ance of starch, and was not altered by keepiilg. Alcohol, aided by heat, dissolved two thirds of it, which
the addition of water again precipitated. They had all the properties of resin. The remaining third part
possessed the properties of woody fibre. The same experiment was tried on the juice of a variety of other
plants, and the result uniformly was that oxymuriatic acid precipitated from them woody fibre.
702. The virtues of plants have generally been thought to reside in their proper juices, and the opinion
seems indeed to be well founded. It is at least proved by experiment in the poppy, spurge, and fig. The
juice of the first is narcotic, of the two last corrosive. The diuretic and balsamic virtues of the fir reside
in its turpentine, and the purgative property of jalap in its resin. If sugar is obtained from the sap of the
sugar-cane and maple, it is only because it has been mixed with a quantity of proper juice. The bark
certainly contains it in greatest abundance, as may be exemplified in cinnamon and quinquina. But
the peach-tree furnishes an exception to this rule : its flowers are purgative, and the whole plant aro-
matic ; but its gum is without any distinguished virtues. Malpighi regarded the proper juice as the prin-
ciple of nourishment, and compared it to the blood of animals ; but this analogy does not hold very closely.
The sap is, perhaps, more analogous to the blood, from which the proper juice is rather a secretion. In
one respect, however, the analogy holds good, that is, with regard to extravasated blood and peculiar
juices. If the blood escapes from the vessels it forms neither flesh nor bones, but tumors ; and if the pro-
per juices escape from the vessels containing them, they form neither wood nor bark, but a lump or depo-
sit of inspissated fluid. To the sap or to the proper juice, or rather to a mixture of both, we must refer
such substances as are obtained from plants urder the name of expressed juices, because it is evident that
they can come from no other source. In this state they are generally obtained in the first instance whe-
ther with a view to their use in medicine or their application to the arts. It is the business of the chemist
or artist to separate and purify them afterwards according to the peculiar object he may happen to have in
view, and the use to which he purposes to apply them. They contain, like the sap, acetate of potass or of
lime, and assume a deeper shade of color when exposed to the fire or air. The oxymuriatic acid precipi-
tates from them a colored and flaky substance as from the sap, and they yield by evaporation a quantity of
extract. But they differ from the sap in exhibiting no traces of tannin or gallic acid, and but rarely of the
saccharine principle.
7<).'5. Ashes. When vegetables are burnt in the open air the greatest part of their substance is evapo-
rated during the process of combustion ; but ultimately there remains behind, a portion which is altogether
incombustible, and incapable of being volatilised by the action of fire. This residuum is known by the
name of ashes. Herbaceous plants, after being dried, yield more ashes than woody plants ; the leaves more
than the branches ; and the branches more than the trunk. The alburnum yields also more ashes than
the wood ; and putrefied vegetables yield more ashes than the same vegetables in a fresh state, if the putre-
faction has not taken place in a current of water. The result of Saussure's experiments on 1000 parts of
different plants was as follows : —
Gathered in Max), dried leaves of the oak - 53 parts of ushes.
snreen leaves of the oak • - - 13
dried leaves of the rhododendron - 30
dried leaves of the Rsculns himiocastanum 7'2
trunk and branches of BBKUlUS hinpocastamim 35
Gathered in September, dried leaves of the eescullU hi)i]iocastanum 86
dried leaves of the oak - - 55
green leaves of the oak ... SJ4
Gathered rrhen injtotver, leaves of nisum sativum 95
Gathered when in fruit, leaves of uisum sativum - HI
leaves of Tidajuba • 20
Gathered before coming intofiower, the leaves of the vicia faba 16
Oak, the dried bark CO, the alburnum 4, wood - 2
704. The analysis of the ashes of plants, with a view to the discovery of the ingredients of which they arc
composed, produces alkalies, earths, and metals, which must therefore be considered as ingredients in the
composition of the vegetable. But vegetable ashes contain also a variety of other principles, occurring,
however, in such small proportions as generally to escape observation. Perhaps they contain all substances
not capable of being volatilised by the action of fire.
156 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Tart II.
705. Alkalies. The alkalies are a peculiar class of substances, distinguished by a caustic taste and the
property of changing vegetable blues to green. They are generally regarded as being three in number,
potass, soda, and ammonia, of which the two former only are found in the ashes of vegetables. Ammonia
is, indeed, often obtained from vegetable substances by means of distillation, but then it is always formed
during the process. If the ashes of land vegetables, burnt in the open air, are repeatedly washed in water,
and the water filtered and evaporated to dryness, potass is left behind. The potass of commerce is manufac-
tured in this manner, though it is not quite pure. But it may be purified by dissolving it in spirits of wine,
and evaporating the solution to dryness in a silver vessel. When pure it is white and semi-transparent,
aud is extremely caustic and deliquescent. It dissolves all soft animal substances, and changes vegetable
blues into green. It dissolves alumina, and alsc a small quantity of silex, with which it fuses into glass by
the aid of fire. It had been long suspected by chemists to be a compound substance ; and according to
the notable discovery by Sir H. Davy, its component parts are at last ascertained to be a highly inflam-
mable metal, which he denominates potassium, and oxygen — one proportion of each. Soda is found
chiefly in marine plants, from the ashes of which it is obtained by means of lixiviation. It exists in great
abundance in salsola soda, zostera maritima, and in various species of fuci. It is generally obtained in the
state of a carbonate, but is purified in the same manner as potass, to which it is similar in its properties;
but from which it is easily distinguished bv its forming a hard soap with oil, while potass forms a soft soap.
It consists, according to Sir H. Davy, of one proportion of a metal which he denominates sodium, and
two proportions of oxygen. Such are the only vegetable alkalies, and modes of obtaining them. They
are found generally in the state of carbonates, sulphates, or muriates, salts that form beyond all compa-
rison the most abundant ingredient in the ashes of green herbaceous plants whose parts are in a state of
vegetation. The ashes of the golden rod, growing in an uncultivated soil, and of the bean, turnsol, and
wheat, were found by Saussure to contain at least three fourths of their weight of alkaline salts. This
was nearly the case also with the leaves of trees just bursting from the bud. But the proportion of alkaline
salts is found to diminish rather than to augment as the parts of the plant are developed. The ashes of
the leaves of the oak, gathered in May, yielded 47 parts in the 100, of alkaline salts; and in September,
only 17. . ,
70S. The utility of the alkalies, as obtained from vegetables, is of the utmost importance in the arts, par-
ticularly in the formation of glass and of soaps. If a mixture of soda or potass, and silex or sand, in cer-
tain proportions, is exposed to a violent heat, the ingredients are melted down into a fluid mass, which is
glass in a state of fusion. In this state it mav be moulded into almost any form at the pleasure of the ar-
tist And accordingly we find that it is manufactured into a great variety of utensils and instruments,
under the heads of flint-glass, crown-glass, bottle-glass. Bottle-glass is the coarsest ; it is formed of soda
and common sand, and is used in the manufacture of the coarser sort of bottles. Crown-glass is composed
of soda and fine sand : it is moulded into large plates for the purpose of forming window-glasses and
looking-glasses. Flint-glass is the finest and most transparent of all : that which is of the best quality is
composed of 120 parts of white siliceous sand, 40 parts of pearl-ash, 35 of red oxide of lead, 13 of nitrate of
potass, and 25 of black oxide of manganese. It is known also by the name of crystal, and may be cut and
polished so as to serve for a variety of ornamental purposes, as well as for the more important and more
useful purpose of forming optical instruments, of which the discoveries of the telescope and the micro-
scope are the curious or sublime results. If a quantity of oil is mixed with half its weight of a strong so-
lution of soda or potass, a combination takes place which is rendered more complete by means of boiling.
The new compound is soap. The union of oil with potass forms soft soap, and with soda hard soap; sub-
stances of the greatest efficacy as detergents, and of the greatest utility in the washing and bleaching of
linen. The alkalies are used also in medicine, and are found to be peculiarly efficacious in the reduction
of urinary calculi.
707. Earths. The only earths which have hitherto been found in plants are the following : lime, silica,
magnesia, alumina. . .
708. Of these earths, lime is by far the most abundant. It is generally combined with a portion of phos-
phoric, carbonic, or sulphuric acid, forming phosphates, or carbonates, or sulphates of lime. The
phosphate of lime is, next to the alkaline salt, the most abundant ingredient in the ashes of green herbace-
ous plants, whose parts are all in a state of vegetation. The leaf of a tree, bursting from the bud, contains
in its ashes a greater proportion of earthy phosphate than at any other period: 100 parts of the ashes of the
leaves of the oak, gathered in May, furnished 24 parts of earthy phosphate ; in September, only 18"25. In
annual plants the proportion of earthy phosphate diminishes from the period of their germination to that
of their flowering. Plants of the bean, before flowering, gave 14-5 parts of earthy phosphate; in flower,
only 13-5 Carbonate of lime is, next to phosphate of lime, the most abundant of the earthy salts that are
found in vegetables. But if the leaves of plants are washed in water the proportion of carbonate is aug-
mented. This is owing to the subtraction of their alkaline salts and phosphates in a greater proportion
than their lime. In green herbaceous plants, whose parts are in a state of increase, there is but little car-
bonate of lime ; but the ashes of the bark of trees contain an enormous quantity of carbonate of lime, and
much more than the alburnum, as do also the ashes of the wood. The ashes of most seeds contain no car-
bonate of lime; but they abound in phosphate of potass. Hence the ashes of plants, at the period of the
maturity of the fruit, yield less carbonate of lime than at any previous period. ,
709 Silica is not found to exist in a great proportion in the ashes of vegetables, unless they have been
previously deprived of their salts and phosphates by washing ; but when the plants are washed in water,
the proportion of their silica augments. The ashes of the leaves of the hazel, gathered in May, yielded
2-5 parts of silica in 100. The same leaves, washed, yielded four parts in 100. Young plants, and leaves
bursting from the bud, contain but little of silica in their ashes ; but the proportion of silica augments as
the parts are developed. But nerhaps this is owing to the diminution of the alkaline salts. The ashes of
some stalks of wheat gathered\a month before the time of flowering, and having some of the radicle leaves
withered, contained 12 parts of silica and 65 of alkaline salts in 100. At the period of their flowering, and
when more of their leaves were withered, the ashes contained 32 parts of silica and 54 of alkaline salts. Seeds
divested of their external covering, contain less silica than the stem furnished with its leaves ; and it is
somewhat remarkable that there are trees of which the bark, alburnum, and wood, contain scarcely any
silica, and the leaves a great deal, particularly in autumn. This is a phenomenon that seems inexplicable.
The greater part of the grasses contain a very considerable proportion of silica, as do also the plants ot the
•*enus equisetum. Sir H. Daw has discovered that it forms a part of "the epidermis of these plants, and in
some of them the principal part. From 100 parts of the epidermis of the following plants the proportions
of silica were, in bonnet cane, 90; bamboo, 71 '4; common reed, 481; stalks of corn, 66 p. Owing to the
silica contained in the epidermis, the plants in which it is found, are sometimes used to give a polish to the
surface of substances where smoothness is required. The Dutch rush, equisetum hyemale, a plant of this
kind, is used to polish even brass. ,. ...
710 Magnesia does not exist so abundantly in the vegetable kingdom as the two preceding earths. It
has been found, however, in several of the marine plants, particularly the fuci ; but salsola soda contains
more of magnesia than any other plant yet examined. According to Vauquelin, 100 parts of it contain
17 '929 of magnesia. .
Alumina has been detected in several plants, but never except m very small quantities.
711 Metallic oxides. Among the substances found in the ashes of vegetables, we must class also
metals They occur, however, only in small quantities, and are not to be detected except by the most de-
licate experiments The metals hitherto discovered in plants are iron, manganese, and perhaps gold. Of
these iron is by far'the most common. It occurs in the state of an oxide, and the ashes of hard and woody
plants, such as the oak, arc said to contain nearly one twelfth of their own weight of this oxide, lne ashes
Book I. SIMPLE PRODUCTS OF PLANTS 157
of salsola contain also a considerable quantity. The oxide of manganese was first detected in the ashes of
vegetables by Scheele, and afterwards found by Proust in the ashes of the pine, calendula, vine, green oak,
and fig-tree. Beccher, Kunckel, and Sage, together with some other chemists, contend also for the exist-
ence of gold in the ashes of certain plants; but the very minute portion which they found, seems more
likely to have proceeded from the lead employed in the process than from the ashes of the plant. It has
been observed by Saussure, that the proportion of the oxides of iron and of manganese augments in the
ashes of plants as their vegetation advances. The leaves of trees furnish more of these principles in autumn
than in spring. It is so also with annual plants. Seeds contain metals in less abundance than the stem ;
and if plants are washed in water, the proportions of their metallic oxides is augmented.
712. Such are the principal ingredients that enter into the vegetable composition. They are indeed nu-
merous, though some of them, such as the metallic oxides, occur in such small proportions as to render it
doubtful whether they are in reality vegetable productions or no. The same thing may be said of some of
the other ingredients that have been found in the ashes of plants, which it is probable "they have absorbed
ready formed by the root, and deposited unaltered, so that they can scarcely be at all regarded as being the
genuine products of vegetation.
713. Other substances. Besides the substances above enumerated, there are also several others that have
been supposed to constitute distinct and peculiar genera of vegetable productions, and which might have
been introduced under such a character; such as the mucus, jelly, sarcocol, asparagin, inulin, and ulmii],
of Dr. Thomson, as described in his well known System of Chemistry ; but as there seems to be some dif-
ference of opinion among chemists with regard to them, and a belief entertained that they are but vari-
eties of one or other of the foregoing ingredients, it is sufficient for the purposes of this work to have
merely mentioned their names. Several other substances of a distinct and peculiar character have been
suspected to exist in vegetable productions : such as the febrifuge principle of Seguin, as discovering itself
in Peruvian bark ; the principle of causticity or acridity of Senebier, as discovering itself in the roots of
ranunculus bulbosus, scilla maritima, bryonia alba, and arum maculatum, in the leaves of digitalis pur-
purea, in the bark of daphne mezereon, and in the juice of the spurges : to which may be added the fluid
secreted from the sting of the common nettle, the poisons inherent in some plants, and the medical virtues
inherent in others ; together with such peculiar principles as may be presumed to exist in such regions of
the vegetable kingdom as remain yet unexplored. The important discoveries which have already resulted
from the chemical analysis of vegetable substances encourage the hope that further discoveries will be the
result of further experiment ; and from the zeal and ability of such chemists as are now directing their
attention to the subject, every thing is to be expected.
Sect. II. Simple Products.
714. From the above analysis of the vegetable subject, it is evident, that the compound
ingredients of vegetables are all ultimately reducible to a very few constituent and uncom-
pounded elements; and that the most essential of such compounds consist of carbon,
oxygen, and hydrogen, merely ; though others contain also a small proportion of nitrogen,
said to be found only in cruciform plants. The remaining elementary principles which
plants have been found to contain, although they may be necessary in the vegetable
economy, yet they are by no means principles of the first importance, as occurring only in
small proportions, and being dependent in a great measure on soil and situation ; whereas
the elements of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, form as it were the very essence of the
vegetable subject, and constitute by their modifications the peculiar character of the pro-
perties of the plant. This is conspicuously exemplified in the result of the investigations
of Gay Lussac, and Thenard, who have deduced from a series of the most minute and
delicate experiments the three following propositions, which they have dignified by the
name of Laws of Vegetable Nature (Traite de Chem. Element, torn. iii. chap, iii.) : — 1st,
Vegetable substances are always acid when the oxygen they contain is to the hydrogen in
a greater proportion than in water ; 2dly, Vegetable substances are always resinous, or
oily, or spirituous, when the oxygen they contain is to the hydrogen in a smaller propor-
tion than in water ; 3dly, Vegetable substances are neither acid nor resinous, but sac-
charine or mucilaginous, or analogous to woody fibre or starch, when the oxygen and
hydrogen they contain are in the same proportion as in water. Such is a brief sketch of
the vegetable analysis : but if the reader, not being already an adept, wishes to descend
into the detail of particulars and to prepare himself for original experiment, let him search
out and peruse original papers, and let him consult the vegetable department of the several
elementary publications referred to, especially that of Dr. Thomson's System of Chemistry ;
the most distinguished and elaborate of all our elementary works on the subject, and the
guide chiefly applied to in the drawing up of the sketch that is here exhibited.
Chap. VIII.
Functions of Vegetables.
715. From the analysis of the structure and principles of plants, the transition to their
life, growth, and propagation is natural and easy. This subject necessarily involves the
several following topics : germination ; nutriment ; digestion ; growth and developemcnt
of parts ; anomalies of vegetable developement ; sexuality of vegetables ; impregnation of
the vegetable germen ; changes consequent upon impregnation ; propagation and disper-
sion of the species ; causes limiting the dispersion of the species ; evidence and cha-
racter of vegetable vitality.
158 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Pakt II.
Sect. I. Germination of the Seed.
716. Germination is that act or operation of the vegetative principle by which the em-
bryo is extricated from its envelopes, and converted into a plant. This is universally the
first part of the process of vegetation. For it may be regarded as an indubitable fact, that
all plants spring originally from seed. The conditions necessary to germination relate
either to the internal state of the seed itself, or to the circumstances in which it is placed,
with regard to surrounding substances.
717. The first condition necessary to germinatio7i is, that the seed must have reached
maturity. Unripe seeds seldom germinate, because their parts are not yet prepared to
form the chemical combinations on which germination depends. There are some seeds,
however, whose germination is said to commence in the very seed-vessel, even before the
fruit is ripe, and while it is yet attached to the parent plant. Such are those of the tan-
gekolli of Adanson, and agave vivipara of East Florida, as well as of the cyamus nelumbo
of Sir J. E. Smith, or sacred bean of India ; to which may be added the seeds of the
common garden-radish, pea, lemon, &c. But these are examples of rare occurrence ;
though it is sometimes necessary to sow or plant the seed almost as soon as it is fully ripe,
as in the case of the coffee-bean ; which will not germinate unless it is sown within five
or six weeks after it has been gathered. But most seeds, if guarded from external injury,
will retain their germinating faculty for a period of many years. This has been proved
by the experiment of sowing seeds that have been long so kept ; as well as by the deep
ploughing up of fields that have been long left without cultivation. A field that was thus
ploughed up near Dunkeld, in Scotland, after a period of forty years' rest, yielded a con-
siderable blade of black oats without sowing. It could have been only by the plough's
bringing up to the surface seeds that had been formerly too deeply lodged for germination.
718. The secojid condition is, that the seed sown must be defended from the action of the
rays of light. This has no doubt been long known to be a necessary condition of ger-
mination, if we regard the practice of the harrowing or raking in of the grains or seeds
sown by the farmer or gardener as being founded upon it.
719. A third condition necessary to germination is the access of heat. No seed has ever
been known to germinate at or below the freezing point. Hence seeds do not germinate
in winter, even though lodged in their proper soil. But the vital principle is not neces-
sarily destroyed in consequence of this exposure ; for the seed will germinate still, on the
return of spring, when the ground has been again thawed, and the temperature raised to
the proper degree. But this degree varies considerably in different species of seeds, as is
obvious from observing the times of their germination, whether in the same or in different
climates. For if seeds which naturally sow themselves, germinate in different climates
at the same period, or in the same climate at different periods, the temperature necessary
to their germination must of consequence be different. Now these cases are constantly
occurring and presenting themselves to our notice ; and have also been made the subject
of particular observation. Adanson found that seeds which will germinate in the space
of twelve hours in an ordinary degree of heat, may be made to germinate in the space of
three hours by exposing them to a greater degree of heat ; and that seeds transported from
the climate of Paris to that of Senegal, have their periods of germination accelerated from
one to three days. - (Families des Plantes, vol. i. p. 84.) Upon the same principle, seeds
transported from a warmer to a colder climate, have their period of germination protracted
till the temperature of the latter is raised to that of the former. This is well exemplified
in the case of green-house and hot-house plants, from which it is also obvious that the tem-
perature must not be raised beyond a certain degree, otherwise the vital principle is totally
destroyed.
720. A fourth co?idition necessary to germination is the access of moisture. Seeds will
not germinate if they are kept perfectly dry. Water, therefore, or some liquid equivalent
to it, is essential to germination. Hence rain is always acceptable to the farmer or gar-
dener, immediately after he has sown his seeds ; and if no rain falls, recourse must be
had, if possible, to artificial watering. But the quantity of water applied is not a matter
of indifference. There may be too little, or there may be too much. If there is too
little, the seed dies for want of moisture ; if there is too much, it then rots. The case is
not the same, however, with all seeds. Some can bear but little moisture, though others
will o-erminate even when partially immersed ; as was proved by an experiment of Du
Hamel's, at least in the case of peas, which he placed merely upon a piece of wet sponge,
so as to immerse them by nearly the one half, and which germinated as if placed in the
soil. But this was found to be the most they could bear ; for' when totally immersed in
the water they rotted. There are some seeds, however, that will germinate even when
wholly submersed. The seeds of aquatics must of necessity germinate under water ; and
peas have been also known to do so under certain conditions.
721. A fifth condition necessary to germination is the access of atmospheric air. Seeds
will not germinate if placed in a vacuum. Ray introduced some grains of lettuce-seed
Book I.
GERMINATION OF THE SEED.
159
into the receiver of an air-pump, which he then exhausted. The seeds did not germinate.
But they germinated upon the re-admission of the air, which is thus proved by conse-
quence to be necessary to their germination. Achard proved that no seed will germinate
in nitrogene gas, or carbonic acid gas, or hydrogene gas, except when mixed with a cer-
tain proportion of oxygene gas ; and hence concluded that oxygene gas is necessary to
the germination of all seeds, and the only constituent part of the atmospheric air which
is absolutely necessary. Humboldt found that the process of germination is accelerated
by means of previously steeping the seed in water impregnated with oxymuriatic acid.
Cress-seed treated in this manner germinated in the space of three hours, though its or-
dinary period of germination is not less than thirty-two hours.
722. The period necessary to complete the pi'ocess of germination is not the same in all
seeds, even when all the necessary conditions have been furnished. Some species require
a shorter, and others a longer period. The grasses are among the number of those plants
whose seeds are of the most rapid germination ; then perhaps cruciform plants ; then le-
guminous plants ; then labiate plants ; then umbelliferous plants ; and in the last order
rosaceous plants, whose seeds germinate the slowest. The following table indicates the
periods of the germination of a considerable variety of seeds, as observed by Adanson : —
Wheat, Millet-seed
Spin;u;e, Beans, Mustard
Lettuce, Aniseed
Melon, Cucumber, Cress- 1
seed ... J
Davs.
Davs.
1
Radish, Beet -root
6
5
Barley -
7
4
Oractie -
8
,.
Furslain •-
9
Cabbage -
- 10
Days.
Hvssop ... 30
Parsley - - - 40 or 50
Almond, Chestnut, Peach- 1 year
Rose, Hawthorn, Filbert - 2 years.
723. Physical phenomena. When a seed is committed to the soil under the conditions
that have been just specified, the first infallible symptom of germination is to be deduced
from the prolongation of the radicle (Jig. 56. a), bursting through its proper integuments,
56
V-%-
and directing its extremity downwards into the soil. The next step in the process of ger-
mination is the evolution of the cotyledon or cotyledons (c), unless the seed is altogether
acotyledonous, or the cotyledons hypogean, as in the oak (6). The next step, in the case
of seeds furnished with cotyledons, is that of the extrication of the plumelet (c), or first
real leaf, from within or from between the cotyledon or cotyledons, and its expansion in
the open air. The last and concluding step is the developement of the rudiments of a
stem (d), if the species is furnished with a stem, and the plant is complete. Whatever
way the seed may be deposited, the invincible tendency of the radicle is to descend and
fix itself in the earth ; and of the plumelet to ascend into the air. Many conjectures
have been offered to account for this. Knight accounts for it on the old but revived
principle of gravitation. Keith conjectures that it takes place from a power inherent in
the vegetable subject, analogous to what we call instinct in the animal subject, infallibly
directing it to the situation best suited to the acquisition of nutriment and consequent de-
velopement of its parts.
724 The che?nical pheno?>icna of germination consist chiefly in the changes that are effected in the
nutriment destined for the support and developement of the embryo till it is converted into a plant.
This nutriment either passes through the cotyledons, or is contained in them ; because the embryo dies
160 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
when they are prematurely cut off. But the fatinaceous substance of the cotyledons, at least in exal-
buminous seeds, is a proof that they themselves contain the nutriment They are to be regarded, therefore,
as repositories of the food destined for the support of the embryo in its germinating state. And if the
seed is furnished with a distinct and separate albumen, then is the albumen to be regarded as the repo-
sitory of food, and the cotyledon or cotyledons as its channel of conveyance. But the food thus contained
in the albumen or cotyledons is not yet fitted for the immediate nourishment of the embryo. Some
previous preparation is necessary ; some change must be effected in its properties. And this change is
effected by the intervention of chemical agency. The moisture imbibed by a seed placed in the earth is
immediately absorbed by the cotyledons or albumen, which it readily penetrates, and on which it imme-
diately begins to operate a chemical change, dissolving part of their farina, or mixing with their oily
particles, and forming a sort of emulsive juice. The consequence of this change is a slight degree of
fermentation, induced, perhaps, by the mixture of the starch and gluten of the cotyledons in the water
which they have absorbed, and indicated by the extraction of a quantity of carbonic acid gas as well as
by the smell and taste of the seed. This is the commencement of the process of germination, which
takes place even though no oxygene gas is present. But if no oxygene gas is present, then the process
stops ; which shows that the agency of oxygene gas is indispensable to germination. Accordingly, when
oxygene gas is present it is gradually inhaled by the seed; and the farina of the cotyledons is found to
have changed its savour. Sometimes it becomes acid, but generally sweet, resembling the taste of sugar ;
and is consequently converted into sugar or some substance analogous to it This is a further proof that
a degree of fermentation has been induced ; because the result is precisely the same in the process of the
fermentation of barley when converted into malt, as known by the name of the saccharine fermentation ;
in which oxygene gas is absorbed, heat and carbonic acid evolved, and a tendency to germination indi-
cated by the shooting of the radicle. The effect of oxygen, therefore, in the process, is that of converting
the farina of the albumen or cotyledons into a mild and saccharine food, fit for the nourishment of the
infant plant by diminishing the proportion of its carbon, and in augmenting, by consequence, that of its
oxygen and hydrogen. The radicle gives the first indications of Ufe, expanding and bursting its integu-
ments, and at length fixing itself in the soil : the plumelet next unfolds its parts, developing the rudi-
ments of leaf, branch, and trunk : and, finally, the seminal leaves decay and drop off; and the embryo
has been converted into a plant, capable of abstracting immediately from the soil or atmosphere the
nourishment necessary to its future growth.
Sect. II. Food of the vegetating Plant.
725. The substances which plants abstract from the soil or atmosphere, or the food of the
vegetating plant, have long occupied the phytological enquirer. What then are the com-
ponent principles of the soil and atmosphere ? The investigations and discoveries of
modern chemists have done much to elucidate this dark and intricate subject. Soil, in
general, may be regarded as consisting of earths, water, vegetable mould, decayed animal
substances, salts, ores, alkalies, gases, perhaps in a proportion corresponding to the order
in which they are now enumerated ; which is at any rate the fact with regard to the three
first, though their relative proportions are by no means uniform. The atmosphere has
been also found to consist of at least four species of elastic matter — nitrogen, oxygen,
carbonic acid gas, and vapor; together with a multitude of minute particles detached
from the solid bodies occupying the surface of the earth, and wafted upon the winds.
The two former ingredients exist in the proportion of about four to one ; carbonic acid
gas in the proportion of about one part in 100; and vapor in a proportion still less.
Such then are the component principles of the soil and atmosphere, and sources of vege-
table nourishment. But the whole of the ingredients of the soil and atmosphere are not
taken up indiscriminately by the plant and converted into vegetable food, because plants
do not thrive indiscriminately in all varieties of soil. Part only of the ingredients are
selected, and in certain proportions ; as is evident from the analysis of the vegetable sub-
stance given in the foregoing chapter, in which it was found that carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen, are the principal ingredients of plants ; while the other ingredients
contained in them occur but in very small proportions. It does not however follow, that
these ingredients enter the plant in an uncombined and insulated state, because they do
not always so exist in the soil and atmosphere ; it follows only that they are inhaled or ab-
sorbed by the vegetating plant under one modification or another. The plant then does
not select such principles as are the most abundant in the soil and atmosphere ; nor in
the proportions in which they exist; nor in an uncombined and insulated state. But
what are the substances actually selected ; in what state are they taken up ; and in what
proportions? In order to give arrangement and elucidation to the subject, it shall be
considered under the following heads : Water, Gases, Vegetable Extracts, Salts, Earths,
Manures.
726. Water. As water is necessary to the commencement of vegetation, so also is it
necessary to its progress. Plants will not continue to vegetate unless their roots are
supplied with water ; and if they are kept long without it, the leaves will droop and
become flaccid, and assume a withered appearance. Now this is evidently owing to the
loss of water ; for if the roots are again well supplied with water, the weight of the plant
is increased, and its freshness restored. But many plants will grow, and thrive, and
effect the developement of all their parts, if the root is merely immersed in water,
though not fixed in the soil. Tulips, hyacinths, and a variety of plants with bulbous
roots, may be so reared, and are often to be met with so vegetating ; and many plants
will also vegetate though wholly immersed. Most of the marine plants are of this de-
scription. It can scarcely be doubted, therefore, that water serves for the purpose of a
vegetable aliment. But if plants cannot be made to vegetate without water ; and if
they will vegetate, some when partly immersed without the assistance of soil ; and some
Book I. FOOD OF THE VEGETATING PLANT. 161
even when totally immersed, so as that no other food seems to have access to them ; does
it not follow that water is the sole food of plants, the soil being merely the basis on
which they rest, and the receptacle of their food ? This opinion has had many advo-
cates ; and the arguments and experiments adduced in support of it were, at one time,
thought to have completely established its truth. It was indeed the prevailing opinion
of the seventeenth century, and was embraced by several philosophers even of the eight-
eenth century ; but its ablest and most zealous advocates were Van Helmont, Boyle,
Du Hamel, and Bonnet, who contended that water, by virtue of the vital energy of
the plant, was sufficient to form all the different substances contained in vegetables.
Du Hamel reared in the above manner plants of the horse-chestnut and almond to some
considerable size, and an oak till it was eight years old. And, though he informs us
that they died at last only from neglect of watering : yet it seems extremely doubtful
whether they would have continued to vegetate much longer, even if they had been
watered ever so regularly ; for he admits, in the first place, that they made less and less
progress every year ; and, in the second place, that their roots were found to be in a
very bad state. The result of a great variety of experiments is, that water is not the
sole food of plants, and is not convertible into the whole of the ingredients of the veget-
able substance, even with the aid of the vital energy ; though plants vegetating merely
in water, do yet augment the quantity of their carbon.
727. Gases. When it was found that water is insufficient to constitute the sole food
of plants, recourse was next had to the assistance of the atmospheric air ; and it was
believed that the vital energy of the plant, is at least capable of furnishing all the dif-
ferent ingredients of the vegetable substance, by means of decomposing and combining,
in different ways, atmospheric air and water. But as this extravagant conjecture is
founded on no proof, it is consequently of no value. It must be confessed, however,
that atmospheric air is indispensably necessary to the health and vigor of the plant,
as may be seen by looking at the different aspects of plants exposed to a free circulation
of air, and plants deprived of it : the former are vigorous and luxuriant ; the latter
weak and stunted. It may be seen also by means of experiment even upon a small
scale. If a plant is placed under a glass to which no new supply of air has access, it soon
begins to languish, and at length withers and dies ; but particularly if it is placed under
the exhausted receiver of an air-pump ; as might indeed be expected from the failure of
the germination of the seed in similar circumstances. The result of experiments on this
subject is, that atmospheric air and water are not the only principles constituting the
food of plants. But as in germination, so also in the progress of vegetation, it is part
only of the component principles of the atmospheric air that are adapted to the purposes
of vegetable nutrition, and selected by the plant as a food. Let us take them in the
order of their reversed proportions.
728. Tlie effect of the application of carbonic acid gas was found to be altogether prejudicial in the pro-
cess of the germination of the seed. But in the. process of subsequent vegetation its application has been
found, on the contrary, to be extremely beneficial. Plants will not indeed vegetate in an atmosphere of
pure carbonic acid, as was first ascertained by Dr. Priestley, who found that sprigs of mint growing in
water, and placed over wort in a state of fermentation, generally became quite dead in the space of a day,
and did not even recover when put into an atmosphere of common air. Of a number of experiments the
results are — 1st, That carbonic acid gas is of great utility to the growth of plants vegetating in the sun, as
applied to the leaves and branches ; and whatever increases the proportion of this gas in their atmo-
sphere, at least within a given degree, forwards vegetation ; 2d, That, as applied to the leaves and
branches of plants, it is prejudicial to their vegetation in the shade, if administered in a proportion beyond
that in which it exists in atmospheric air ; 3d, That carbonic acid gas, as applied to the roots of plants,
is also beneficial to their growth, at least in the more advanced stages of vegetation.
7291 As oxygen is essential to the commencement and progress of germination, so also it is essential to
the progress of vegetation. It is obvious, then, that the experiment proves that it is beneficial to the
growth of the vegetable as applied to the root; necessary to the developement of the leaves ; and to the
developement of the flower and fruit. The flower-bud will not expand if confined in an atmosphere de-
prived of oxygen, nor will the fruit ripen. Flower-buds confined in an atmosphere of pure nitrogen
faded without expanding. A bunch of unripe grapes introduced into a globe of glass which was luted by
its orifice to the bough, and exposed to tire sun, ripened without effecting any material alteration in its
atmosphere. But when a bunch was placed in the same circumstances, with the addition of a quantity of
lime, the atmosphere was contaminated, and the grapes did not ripen. Oxygen, therefore, is essential to
the developement of the vegetating plant, and is inhaled during the night.
730. Though niirogene gas constitutes by far the greater part of the mass of amospheric air, it does not
seem capable of affording nutriment to plants ; for as seeds will not germinate, so neither will plants
vegetate in it, but for a very limited time, such as the vinca minor, lythrum salicaria, inula dysenterica,
epilobium hirsutum, and polygonum persienria, that seem to succeed equally well in an atmosphere of
nitrogene gas as in an atmosphere of common air. Nitrogen is found in almost all vegetables, particularly
in the wood, in extract, and in their green parts, derived, no doubt, from the extractive principle of veget-
able mould.
731. Ih/drogcnc gas. A plant of the epilobium hirsutum, which was confined by Priestley in a receiver
filled with inflammable air or hydrogen, consumed one third of its atmosphere and was still green.
Hence Pricstlev inferred, that it serves as a vegetable food, and constitutes even the true and proper
pabulum of the plant. But the experiments of later phytologists do not at all countenance this opinion.
Our conclusion from various experiments is, that hydrogen is unfavorable to vegetation, and does not
serve as the food of plants. But hydrogen is contained in plants as is evident from their analysis ; and if
they refuse it when presented to them in a gaseous state, in what state do they then acquire it ? To this
question it is sufficient for the present to reply, that if plants do not acquire their hydrogen in the state of
gas, they may at least acquire it in the state of water, which is indisputably a vegetable food, and of
which hydrogen constitutes one of the component parts.
M
162
SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
732. Vegetable Extract. When it was found that atmospheric air and water are not,
even conjointly, capable of furnishing the whole of the aliment necessary to the de-
velopement of the plant, it was then alledged that, with the exception of water, all sub-
stances constituting a vegetable food must at least be administered to the plant in a
gaseous state. But this also is a conjecture unsupported by proof; for even with
regard to such plants as grow upon a barren rock, or in pure sand, it cannot be said that
they receive no nourishment whatever besides water, except in a gaseous state. Many of
the particles of decayed animal and vegetable substances, which float in the atmosphere
and attach themselves to the leaves, must be supposed to enter the plant in solution with
the moisture which the leaves imbibe ; and so also similar substances contained in the
soil must be supposed to enter it by the root : but these substances may certainly con-
tain vegetable nourishment ; and they will perhaps be found to be taken up by the
plant in proportion to their degree of solubility in water, and to the quantity in which
they exist in the soil. Now one of the most important of these substances is vegetable
extract. When plants have attained to the maturity of their species, the principles of
decay begin gradually to operate upon them, till they at length die and are converted
into dust or vegetable mould, which, as might be expected, constitutes a considerable
proportion of the soil. The chance then is, that it is again converted into vegetable
nourishment, and again enters the plant. But it cannot wholly enter the plant, because
it is not wholly soiuble in water. Part of it, however, is soluble, and consequently
capable of being absorbed by the root, and that is the substance which has been denomi-
nated extract. &Saussure filled a large vessel with pure mould of turf, and moistened it
with distilled or rain water, till it was saturated. At the end of five days, when it was
subjected to the action of the press, 10,000 parts in weight of the expressed and filtered
fluid yielded, by evaporation to dryness, 26 parts of extract. In a similar experiment
upon the mould of a kitchen-garden which had been manured with dung, 10,000 parts
of fluid yielded 10 of extract. And in a similar experiment upon mould taken from a
well cultivated corn-field, 10,000 parts of fluid yielded four parts of extract. Such was
the result in these particular cases. But the quantity of extract that may be separated
from common soil is not in general very considerable. After twelve decoctions, all that
could be separated was about one eleventh of its weight; and yet this seems to be more
than sufficient for the purposes of vegetation : for a soil containing this quantity was found
by experiment to be less fertile, at least for peas and beans, than a soil that contained
only one half or two thirds the quantity. But if the quantity of extract must not be too
much, neither must it be too little. Plants that were put to vegetate in soil deprived of
its extract, as far as repeated decoctions could deprive it, were found to be much less
vigorous and luxuriant than plants vegetating in soil not deprived of its extract ; and yet
the only perceptible difference between them is, that the former can imbibe and retain a
much greater quantity of water than the latter. From this last experiment, as well as
from the great proportion in which it exists in the living plant, it evidently follows that
extract constitutes a vegetable food. But extract contains nitrogen; for it yields by
distillation a fluid impregnated with ammonia. The difficulty, therefore, of accounting
for the introduction of nitrogen into the vegetating plant, as well as for its existence in
the mature vegetable substance, is done away ; for, although the plant refuses it when
presented in a gaseous state, it is plain that it must admit it along with the extract. It
seems also probable that a small quantity of carbonic acid gas enters the plant along with
the extractive principle, as it is known to contain this gas also.
733. Salts, in a certain proportion, are found in most plants, such as nitrate, muriate,
and sulphate of potass or soda, as has been already shown. These salts are known to
exist in the soil, and the root is supposed to absorb them in solution with the water by
which the plant is nourished. It is at least certain that plants may be made to take up
by the roots a considerable proportion of salts in a state of artificial solution. But if
salts are thus taken up by the root of the vegetating plant, does it appear that they are
taken up as a food ? Some plants, it must be confessed, are injured by the application of
salts, as is evident from the experiments of Saussure ; but others are as evidently benefited
by it. Trefoil and lucerne have their growth much accelerated by the application of sul-
phate of lime, though many other plants are not at all influenced by its action. The
parietaria, nettle, and borage will not thrive, except in such soils as contain nitrate of lime
or nitrate' of potass; and plants inhabiting the sea-coast, as was observed by Du Hamel,
will not thrive in a soil that does not contain muriate of soda. It has been thought, how-
ever, that the salts are not actually taken up by the root, though converted to purposes of
utility by acting as astringents or corrosives in stopping up the orifices of the vessels of the
plant, and preventing the admission of too much water : but it is to be recollected that
the salts in question are found by analysis in the very substance of the plant, and must
consequently have entered in solution. It has been also thought that salts are favorable
to vegetation only in proportion as they hasten the putrefaction of vegetable substances
contained in the soil, or attract the humidity of the atmosphere. But sulphate of lime is
Book I. FOOD OF THE VEGETATING PLANT. 163
not deliquescent ; and if its action consist merely in accelerating putrefaction, why is its
beneficial effect confined but to a small number of plants ? Grisenthwaite ( New Theory
of Agriculture^ 1819, p. 111.) answers this question by stating, that as in the principal
grain-crops which interest the agriculturist, there exists a particular saline substance, pe-
culiar to each, so, if we turn our attention to the clovers, and turnips, we shall still find
the same discrimination. Saintfoin, clover, and lucerne, have long been known to con-
tain a notable quantity of gypsum (sulphate of lime) ; but such knowledge, very strange
to relate, never led to the adoption of gypsum as a manure for those crops, any more than
that of phosphate of lime for wheat, or nitrate of soda, or potassa for barley. It is true
that gypsum has been long, and in various places, recommended as a manure, but its uses
not being understood, it was recommended without any reference to crop, or indeed to the
accomplishment of any fixed object. It is very well known that some particular ingre-
dient may be essential to the composition of a body, and yet constitute but a very small
proportion of its mass. Atmospheric air contains only about one part in the 100 of
carbonic acid ; and yet no one will venture to affirm that carbonic acid gas is merely an
adventitious and accidental element existing by chance in the air of the atmosphere, and
not an essential ingredient in its composition. Phosphate of lime constitutes but a very
small proportion of animal bodies, perhaps not one part in 500 ; and yet no one doubts
that it is essential to the composition of the bones. But the same salt is found in the
ashes of all vegetables ; and who will say that is not essential to their perfection ?
734. Earths. As most plants have been found by analysis to contain a portion of
alkaline or earthy salts, so most plants have been found to contain also a portion of
earths : and as the two substances are so nearly related, and so foreign in their character
to vegetable substances in general, the same enquiry has consequently been made with
regard to their origin. Whence are the earths derived that have been found to exist in
plants ? Chiefly from the soil. But in what peculiar state of combination do they enter
the vessels of the plant ? The state most likely to facilitate their absorption is that of their
solution in water, in which all the earths hitherto found in plants are known to be in a
slight degree soluble. If it be said that the proportion in which they are soluble is so
very small that it scarcely deserves to be taken into the account, it is to be recollected that
the* quantity of water absorbed by the plant is great, while that of the earth necessary to
its health is but little, so that it may easily be acquired in the progress of vegetation.
Such is the manner in which their absorption seems practicable : and Woodward's expe-
riments afford a presumption that they are actually absorbed by the root. The proportion
of earths contained in the ashes of vegetables depends upon the nature of the soil in which
they grow. The ashes of the leaves of the rhododendron ferrugineum, growing on
Mount Jura, a calcareous mountain, yielded 43-25 parts of earthy carbonate, and only
0-75 of silica. But the ashes of leaves of the same plant, growing on Mount Breven, a
granitic mountain, yielded two parts of silica, and only 16-75 of earthy carbonate. It is
probable, however, that plants are not indebted merely to the soil for the earthy particles
which they may contain. They may acquire them partly from the atmosphere. Margray
has shown that rain-water contains silica in the proportion of a grain to a pound ; winch,
if it should not reach the root, may possibly be absorbed along with the water that adheres
to the leaves. But although the earths are thus to be regarded as constituting a small
proportion of vegetable food, they are not of themselves sufficient to support the plant,
even with the assistance of water. Giobert mixed together lime, alumine, silica, and
magnesia, in such proportions as are generally to be met with in fertile soils, and moistened
them with water. Several different grains were then sown in this artificial soil, which
germinated indeed, but did not thrive ; and perished when the nourislmient of the cotyle-
dons was exhausted. It is plain, therefore, that the earths, though beneficial to the growth
of some vegetables, and perhaps necessary to the health of others, are by no means capable
of affording any considerable degree of nourishment to the plant.
735. Supply of food by manures and culture. With regard to the food of plants derived
from the atmosphere, the supply is pretty regular, at least, in as far as the gases are con-
cerned ; for they are not found to vary materially in their proportions on any part of tlie
surface of the globe : but the quantity of moisture contained in the atmosphere is con-
tinually varying, so that in the same season you have not always the same quantity, though
in the course of the year the deficiency is perhaps made up. From tlie atmosphere,
therefore, there is a regular supply of vegetable food kept up by nature for the support of
vegetable life, independent of the aid of man : and if human aid were even wanted, it
does not appear that it could be of much avail. But this is by no means the case with
regard to soils ; for if soils are less regular in their composition, they are at least more
within the reach of human management. The supply of food may be increased by alter-
ing the mechanical or chemical constitution of soils ; and by the addition of food in the
form of manures. The mechanical constitution of soils may be altered by pulverisation,
consolidation, draining, and watering ; their chemical properties by aeration and torrifiea-
tion ; both mechanical and chemical properties, by the addition of earths or other sub-
M 2
164 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
stances ; and manures, either liquid or solid, are supplied by irrigation and distribution
of dun«-s and other nourisbing matters, with or without their interment. (See Book II.)
736.° Soils in a state of culture, though consisting originally of the due proportion of
ingredients, may yet become exhausted of the principle of fertility by means of too frequent
cropping ; whether by repetition or rotation of the same, or of different crops. In this
case, it° should be the object of the phytologist, as well as of the practical cultivator,
to ascertain by what means fertility is to be restored to an exhausted soil, or commu-
nicated to a new one. In the breaking up of new soils, if the ground has been wet or
marshy, as is frequently the case, it is often sufficient to prepare it merely by means of
draining off the superfluous and stagnant water, and of paring and burning the turf upon
the surface. If the soil has been exhausted by too frequent a repetition of the same crop,
it often happens that a change of crop will answer the purpose of the cultivator ; for al-
though a soil may be exhausted for one sort of grain, it does not necessarily follow that it
is also exhausted' for another. And accordingly, the practice of the farmer is to sow his
crops in rotation, having in the same field a crop, perhaps, of wheat, barley, beans, and
tares in succession ; each species selecting in its turn some peculiar nutriment, or requir-
ing;, perhaps, a smaller supply than the crop that has preceded it. But even upon the
plan of rotation, the soil becomes at length exhausted, and the cultivator obliged to have
recourse to other means of restoring its fertility. In this case, an interval of repose is
considerably efficacious, as may be seen from the increased fertility of fields that have not
been ploughed up for many years, such as those used for pasture; or even from that of
the walks and paths in gardens when they are again broken up. Hence also the practice
of fallowing, and of trenching or deep ploughing, which in some cases has nearly the same
effect.
737. The fertility of a soil is restored, in the case of draining, by means of its
carrying off all such superfluous moisture as may be lodged in the soil, which is well
known to be prejudicial to plants not naturally aquatics, as well as^ by rendering the
soil more firm and compact. In the case of burning, the amelioration is effected by
means of the decomposition of the vegetable substances contained in the turf, and sub-
jected to the action of the fire, which disperses part also of the superfluous moisture, but
leaves a residue of ashes favorable to future vegetation. In the case of the rotation of
crops, the fertility is not so much restored as more completely developed and brought into
action ; because the soil, though exhausted for one species of grain, is yet found to be
sufficiently fertile for another, the food necessary to each being different, or required in
less abundance. In the case of the repose of the soil, the restored fertility may be owing to
the decay of vegetable substances that are not now carried off in the annual crop, but left to
augment the proportion of vegetable mould ; or to the accumulation of fertilising particles
conveyed to the soil by rains ; or to the continued abstraction of oxygen from the atmo-
sphere. In the case of fallows, it is owing undoubtedly to the action of the atmospheric
air upon the soil, whether in rendering it more friable, or in hastening the putrefaction of
noxious plants ; or it is owing to the abstraction and accumulation of oxygen. In the
case of trenching, or deep ploughing, it is owing to the increased facility with which the
roots can now penetrate to the proper depth, and thus their sphere of nourishment is in-
creased. But it often happens that the soil can no longer be ameliorated by any of the
foregoing means, or not at least with sufficient rapidity for the purposes of the cultivator ;
and In this case there must be a direct and actual application made to it of such substances
as are fitted to restore its fertility. Hence the indispensable necessity of manures, which
consist chiefly of animal and vegetable remains that are buried and finally decomposed in
the soil, from which they are afterwards absorbed by the root of the plant, in a state of
solution.
738. But as carbon is the principal ingredient furnished by manures, as contributing to the
nourishment of the plant, and is not itself soluble in water, nor even disengaged by fer-
mentation in a state of purity ; under what state of chemical combination is its solution
effected ? Is it effected in the state of charcoal ? It has been thought, indeed, that car-
bon in the state of charcoal is soluble in water ; because water from a dunghill, when
evaporated, constantly leaves a residuum of charcoal, as was first ascertained by the experi-
ments of Hassenfratz. But there seem to be reasons for doubting the legitimacy of the
conclusion that has been drawn from it ; for Senebier found that plants whose roots were
immersed in water took up less of the fluid in proportion as it was mixed with water from
a duno-hill. Perhaps then the charcoal of water from a dunghill is held merely in sus-
pension, and enters the plant under some other modification. But if carbon is not
soluble in water in the state of charcoal, in what other state is it soluble ? It is soluble in
the state of carbonic acid gas. But is this the state in which it actually enters the root ?
On this subject phytologists have been somewhat divided in opinion. Senebier endea-
vours to prove that carbonic acid gas, dissolved in water, supplies the roots of plants with
almost all their carbon, and founds his arguments upon the following facts : — in the
Book I. PROCESS OF VEGETABLE NUTRITION. 165
first place, it is known that carbonic acid gas is soluble in water ; in the second place, it
is known to be contained in the soil, and generated by the fermentation of the materials
composing manures ; and, in the next place, it is known to be beneficial to vegetation
when applied artificially to the roots, at least in a certain degree. This is evident from
the following experiment of Ruckert, as well as from several experiments of Saussure's,
previously related. Ruckert planted two beans in pots of equal dimensions, filled with
garden-mould ; the one was moistened with distilled water, and the other with water im-
pregnated with carbonic acid gas. But the latter appeared above ground nine days sooner
than the former, and produced twenty-five beans ; while the former produced only fifteen.
Now the result of this experiment, as well as the preceding facts, is evidently favorable to
the presumption of Senebier, and shows that if carbonic acid is not the state in which car-
bon enters the plant, it is at least a state preparatory to it ; and there are other circum-
stances tending to corroborate the opinion, resulting from the analysis of the ascending
sap of plants. The tears of the vine, when analysed by Senebier, yielded a portion of
carbonic acid and earth ; and as the ascending sap could not be supposed to have yet un-
dergone much alteration, the carbonic acid, like (he earth, was probably taken up from
the soil. But this opinion, which seems to be so firmly established upon the basis of ex-
periment, Hassenfratz strenuously controverts. According to experiments which he had
instituted with an express view to the investigation of this subject, plants which were yaised
in water impregnated with carbonic acid differed in no respect from such as grew in pure
water, and contained no carbon that did not previously exist in the seed. Now if this
were the fact, it would be decisive of the point in question. But it is plain from the ex-
periments of Saussure, as related in the preceding section, that Hassenfratz must have
been mistaken both with regard to the utility of carbonic acid gas as furnishing a vegetable
aliment, and with regard to the augmentation of carbon in the plant. The opinion of
Senebier, therefore, may still be correct. It must be acknowledged, however, that the
subject is not yet altogether satisfactorily cleared up; and that carbon may certainly enter
the plant in some state different from that, either of charcoal in solution, or of carbonic
acid gas. Is not the carbonic acid of the soil decomposed before entering the plant ?
This is a conjecture of Dr. Thomson's, founded upon the following facts : — the green
oxide of iron is capable of decomposing carbonic acid ; and many soils contain that oxide.
Most soils, indeed, contain iron, either in the state of the brown or green oxide, and it
has been found that oils convert the brown oxide into green. But dung and rich soils
contain a quantity of oily substance. One effect of manures, therefore, may be that of
reducing the brown oxide of iron to the green, thus rendering it capable of decomposing
carbonic acid gas, so as to prepare it for some new combination, in which it may serve as
an aliment for plants. All this, however, is but a conjecture ; and it is more probable
that the carbonic acid of the soil enters the root in combination with some other substance,
and is afterwards decomposed within the plant itself.
Sect. III. Process of Vegetable Nutrition.
739. Plants are nourished in a manner in some degree analogous to the animal economy.
The food of plants, whether lodged in the soil, or wafted through the atmosphere, is taken
' up by intro-susception in the form of gases or other fluids : it is then known as their sap ;
this sap ascends to the leaves, where it is elaborated as the blood of animals is in the
lungs ; it then enters into the general circulation of the plant, and promotes its growth.
740. Intro-susception. As plants have no organ analogous to the mouth of animals, they
are enabled to take up the nourishment necessary to their support only by absorption, or in-
halation as the chyle into the animal lacteals, or the air into the lungs. The former term is
applied to the intro-susception of non-elastic fluids ; the latter to that of gaseous fluids.
The absorption of non-elastic fluids by the epidermis of plants does not admit of a
doubt. It is proved, indisputably, that the leaves not only contain air, but do actually
inhale it. It was the opinion of Priestley that they inhale it chiefly by the upper surface.
And it has been shown by Saussure, that their inhaling power depends entirely upon the
organisation. It has been a question, however, among phytologists, whether it is not also
effected by the epidermis of die other parts of the plant. We can scarcely suppose it
to be effected bv the dry and indurated epidermis of the bark of aged trunks, of which
the original organisation is obliterated ; nor by that of the larger and more aged branches.
But it has been thought there are even some of the soft and succulent parts of the plant
bv which it cannot be effected, because no pores are visible in their epidermis. Decan-
dolle found no pores in the epidermis of fleshy fruits, such as pears, peaches, and goose-
berries ; nor in that of roots, or scales of bulbs ; nor in any part not exposed to the in-
fluence of air and light. It is known, however, that fruits will not ripen, and that roots
will not thrive, if wholly deprived of air ; and hence it is probable that they inhale it by
their epidermis, though the pores by which it enters should not be visible. In the root,
indeed, it may possibly enter in combination with the moisture of the soil ; but in the
other parts of the plant it enters no doubt in the state of gas. Herbs, therefore, and the
M 3
I6€ SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
soft parts of woody plants, absorb moisture and inhale gases from the soil or atmosphere
by means of the pores of their epidermis, and thus the plant effects the intro-susception
of its food. . . _
741. Ascent of the sap. The means by which the plant effects the intro-susception ot
its food, is chiefly that of absorption by the root. But the fluids existing in the soil when
absorbed by the root, are designated by the appellation of sap or lymph ; which, before
it can be rendered subservient to the purposes of vegetable nutrition, must either be
intermediately conveyed to some viscus proper to give it elaboration, or immediately
distributed throughout the whole body of the plant. Our present object, therefore, is
that of tracing out the progress of its distribution or ascent. The sap is in motion in
one direction or other, if not all the year, at least at occasional periods, as the bleeding of
plants in spring and autumn sufficiently illustrates. The plant always bleeds most- freely
about the time of the opening of the bud ; for in proportion as the leaves expand, the sap
flows less copiously, and when they are fully expanded, it entirely ceases. But this sus-
pension is only temporary, for the plant may be made to bleed again in the end of the
autumn, at least under certain conditions. If an incision is now made into the body
of the tree, after the occurrence of a short but sharp frost, when the heat of the sun or
mildness of the air begins to produce a thaw, the sap will again flow. It will flow
even where the tree has been but partially thawed, which sometimes happens on the
south side of a tree, when the heat of the sun is strong and the wind northerly. At the
seasons now specified, therefore, the sap is evidently in motion ; but the plant will not
bleed at any other season of the year. It has been the opinion of some phytologists,
that the motion of the sap is wholly suspended during the winter. But though the
^reat cold of winter, as well as the great heat of summer, is by no means so favorable
to vegetation as the milder though more changeable temperature of spring and autumn,
yet it does not whollv suspend the movement of the sap. Palms may be made to bleed
at any season of the year. And although this is not the case with plants in general,
yet there is proof sufficient that the colds of winter do not, even in this climate, entirely
prevent the sap from flowing. Buds exhibit a gradual developement of parts through-
out the whole of the winter, as may be seen by dissecting them at different periods. So
also do roots. Evergreens retain their leaves ; and many of them, such as the arbutus,
laurustinus, and the beautiful tribe of the mosses, protrude also their blossoms, even in
spite of the rigor of the season. But all this could not possibly be accomplished, if the
motion of the sap were wholly suspended.
742. Thus the sap is in perpetual motion with a more accelerated or more diminished
velocity throughout the whole of the year ; but still there is no decided indication, exhi-
bited in the mere circumstance of the plant's bleeding, of the direction in which the sap
is moving at the time ; for the result might be the same whether it was passing from the
root to the branches, or from the branches to the root. But as the great influx of the
sap is effected by means of the pores of the epidermis of the root, it follows that its motion
must, at least in the first place, be that of ascent ; and such is its direction at the season
of the plant's bleeding, as may be proved by the following experiment : —if the bore or
incision that has been made in the trunk is minutely inspected while the plant yet bleeds,
the sap will be found to issue almost wholly from the inferior side. If several bores are
made in the same trunk, one above another, the sap will begin to flow first from the lower
bore, and then from those above it If a branch of a vine be lopped, the sap will issue
copiouslv from the section terminating the part that remains yet attached to the plant;
but not from the section terminating the part that has been lopped off. Tins proves in-
dubitably that the direction of the sap's motion, during the season of the plant's bleeding,
is that of ascent. But il the sap flows so copiously during the season of bleeding, it
follows that it must ascend with a very considerable force ; which force has accordingly
been made the subject of calculation. To the stem of a vine cut off about two feet and
a half from the ground, Hales fixed a mercurial gauge which he luted with mastic ; the
image was in the form of a svphon, so contrived that the mercury might be made to rise
in proportion to the pressure 'of the ascending sap. The mercury rose accordingly, and
reached, as its maximum, to a height of thirty-eight inches." But this was equivalent to
a column of water of the height of forty-three feet three and one-third inches ; demonstrat-
ing a force in the motion of the sap that, without the evidence of experiment, would have
seemed altogether incredible.
743. Thus the sap in ascending from the lower to the upper extremity of the plant is propelled
with a very considerable force, at least in the bleeding season. But is the ascending sap pro-
pelled indiscriminately throughout the whole of the tubular apparatus, or is it confined in
its course, to any particular channel ? Before the anatomy of plants had been studied with
much accuracy," there was a considerable diversity of opinion on the subject. Some
thought it ascended by the bark ; others thought that it ascended by the bark, wood, and
pith indiscriminately ; and others thought it ascended between the bark and wood. lhe
first opinion was maintained and supported by Malpighi ; and Grew considers that the
Book I. PROCESS OF VEGETABLE NUTRITION. 167
sap ascends by the bark, wood, and pith, indiscriminately. Du Hamel stript several trees
of their bark entirely, which continued, notwithstanding, to live for many years, protrud-
ing new leaves and new branches as before. Knight stript the trunk of a number of
young crab-trees of a ring of bark half an inch in breadth, but the leaves were protruded,
and the branches elongated, as if the operation had not been performed. Du Petit
Thouars removed the central wood and pith from the stems of several young sycamore
trees, leaving the upper part to be supported only by four pillars of bark : in others he
removed the bark, liber, and alburnum, leaving the upper part of the tree to be supported
solely by the central wood. In both cases the trees lived, so that he concludes the bark
and wood can alternately act as the sap's conductor. (Hist. d'un Morceau de Bois.
Hort. Tour. 481.)
744. It is evident, therefore, that the sap docs not ascend exclusively by the bark. But it
is equally evident that it does not ascend by the pith, at least after the first year ; • for then,
even upon Grew's own supposition, it becomes either juiceless or wholly extinct : and
even during the first year it is not absolutely necessary, if at all subservient to the ascent
of the sap, as is proved by an experiment of Knight's. Having contrived to abstract from
some annual shoots a portion of their pith, so as to interrupt its continuity, but not other-
wise materially to injure the fabric of the shoot, Knight found that the growth of the
shoots which had been made the subject of experiment was not at all affected by it.
745. Thus the sap ascends neither by the bark nor pith, but by the ivood only. But the
whole mass of the wood throughout is not equally well adapted for the purpose of con-
voying it. The interior and central part, or that part that has acquired its last degree of
solidity, does not in general afford it a passage. This is proved by what is called the
girdling of trees, which consists in making a circular gap or incision quite round the
stem, and to the depth of two or three inches, so as to cut through both the bark and
alburnum. An oak-tree on which Knight had performed this operation, with a view to
ascertaining the channel of the sap's ascent, exhibited not the slightest mark of vegetation
in the spring following. The sap then does not ascend through the channel of the ma-
tured wood. But if the sap ascends neither through the channel of the bark, nor pith,
nor matured wood, through what other channel does it actually ascend ? The only re-
maining channel through which it can possibly ascend is that of the alburnum. In
passing through the channel of the alburnum, does the sap ascend promiscuously by the
whole of the tubes composing it, or is it confined in its passage to any peculiar set ?
The earliest conjectures recorded on this subject are those of Grew and Malpighi, who,
though they maintained that the sap ascends chiefly by the bark, did not yet deny that it
ascends also partly by the alburnum or wood. It occurred to succeeding phytologists
that the progress of the sap, and the vessels through which it passes, might be traced or
ascertained by means of making plants vegetate in colored infusions. Du Hamel steeped
the extremities of branches of the fig, elder, honeysuckle, and filbert in common ink.
In examining the two former, after being steeped for several days, the part immersed
was found to be black throughout, but the upper part was tinged only in the wood,
which was colored for the length of a foot, but more faintly and partially in proportion
to the height. The pith, indeed, exhibited some traces of ink, but the bark and buds
none. In some other examples the external layers of the wood only were tinged.
In the honeysuckle the deepest shade was about the middle of the woody layers ; and in
the filbert there was also observed a colored circle surrounding the pith, but none in the
pith itself, nor in the bark.
746. Thus it is proved that the sap ascends through the vessels of the longitudinal fibre
composing the alburnum of woody plants, and through the vessels of the several bundles of
longitudinal fibre constituting the woody part of herbaceous plants. But it has been already
shown that the vessels composing the woody fibre are not all of the same species. There
are simple tubes, porous tubes, spiral tubes, mixed tubes, and interrupted tubes. Through
which of these, therefore, does the sap pass in its ascent ? The best reply to this enquiry
has been furnished by Knight and Mirbel. Knight prepared some annual shoots of the
apple and horse-chestnut, by means of circular incisions, so as to leave detached rings of
bark with insulated leaves remaining on the stem. He then placed them in colored in-
fusions obtained by macerating the skins of very black grapes in water ; and, on exa-
mining the transverse section at the end of the experiment, it was found that the infu-
sion had ascended by the wood beyond his incisions, and also into the insulated leaves,
but had not colored the pith nor bark, nor the sap between the bark and wood. From
the above experiment, Knight concludes that the sap ascends through what are called
the common tubes of the wood and alburnum, at least till it reaches the leaves. Thus
the sap is conveyed to the summit of the alburnum. But Knight's next object was to
trace the vessels by which it is conveyed into the leaf. The apple-tree and horse-
chestnut were still his subjects of experiment. In the former the leaves are attached
to the plant by three strong fibres, or rather bundles of tubes, one in the middle of the
leaf-stalk, and one on each side. In the latter they arc attached by means of several
M 4
163 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
such bundles. Now the colored fluid was found in each case to have passed through
the centre of the several bundles, and through the centre only, tinging the tubes through-
out almost the whole length of the leaf-stalk. In tracing their direction from the leaf-
stalk upwards, they were found to extend to the extremity of the leaves ; and in tracing
their direction from the leaf-stalk downwards, they were found to penetrate the bark
and alburnum, the tubes of which they join, descending obliquely till they reach the
pith which they surround. From their position Knight calls them central tubes, thus
distinguishing them from the common tubes of the wood and alburnum, and from the
spiral tubes with which they were every where accompanied as appendages, as well as
from a set of other tubes which surrounded them, but were not colored, and which he
designates by the appellation of external tubes. The experiment was now transferred
to the flower-stalk and fruit-stalk, which was done by placing branches of the apple,
pear, and vine, furnished with flowers not yet expanded, in a decoction of logwood.
The central vessels were rendered apparent as in the leaf-stalk. When the fruit of the
two former was fully formed, the experiment was then made upon the fruit-stalk, in
which the central vessels were detected as before ; but the coloring matter was found to
have penetrated into the fruit also, diverging round the core, approaching again in the
eye of the fruit, and terminating at last in the stamens. It was by means of a pro-
longation of the central vessels, which did not however appear to be accompanied by thu
spiral tubes beyond the fruit-stalk. Such then are the parts of the plant through which
the sap ascends, and the vessels by which it is conveyed. Entering by the pores of the
epidermis, it is received into the longitudinal vessels of the root by which it is conducted
to the collar. Thence it is conveyed by the longitudinal vessels of the alburnum, to the
base of the leaf-stalk and peduncle ; from which it is further transmitted to the extremity
of the leaves, flower, and fruit. There remains a question to be asked intimately con-
nected with the sap's ascent. Do the vessels conducting the sap communicate with one
another by inosculation or otherwise, so as that a portion of their contents may be con-
veyed in a lateral direction, and consequently to any part of the plant ; or do they form
distinct channels throughout the whole of their extent, having no sort of communication
with any other set of tubes, or with one another? Each of the two opinions implied in
the question has had its advocates and defenders. But Du Hamel and Knight have
shown that a branch will still continue to live though the tubes leading directly to it are
cut in the trunk ; from which it follows that the sap, though flowing the most copiously
in the direct line of ascent, is at the same time also diffused in a transverse direction.
747. Causes of the sap's ascent. By what power is the sap propelled ? Grew states
two hvpotheses : its volatile nature and magnetic tendency, aided by the agency of fer-
mentation. Malpighi was of opinion that the sap ascends by means of the contraction
and dilatation of the air contained in the air-vessels. M. De la Hire attempted to ac-
count for the phenomenon by combining together the theories of Grew and Malpighi ;
and Borelli, who endeavoured to render their theory more perfect, by bringing to its aid
the influence of the condensation and rarification of the air and juices of the plant.
743. Agency of heat. Du Hamel directed his efforts to the solution of the difficulty, by endeavouring to ac-
count for the phenomenon from theagency of heat, and chiefly on the following grounds : — because the sap
begins to flow more copiously as the warmth of spring returns ; because the sap is sometimes found to
flow on the south side of a tree before it flows on the north side, that is, on the side exposed to the in-
fluence of the sun's heat sooner than on the side deprived of it ; because plants may be made to vegetate
even in the winter, by means of forcing them in a hot-house ; and because plants raised in a hot-house
produce their fruit earlier than such as vegetate in the open air. There can be no doubt of the great
utility of heat in forwarding the progress of vegetation ; hut it will not therefore follow that the motion
and a'scent of the sap are tobe attributed to its agency. On the contrary, it is very well known that if
the temperature exceeds a certain degree, it becomes then prejudicial both to the ascent of the sap and
also to the growth of the plant. Hales found that the sap flows less rapidly at mid-day than in the
morning ; and everv body knows that vegetation is less luxuriant at midsummer than in the spring. So
also, in the case of forcing, it happens but too often that the produce of the hot-house is totally destroyed
by the unskilful application of heat ; and if heat is actually the cause of the sap's ascent, how comes it
that the degree necessary to produce the effect is so very variable even in the same climate ? For there
are many plants, such as the arbutus, laurustinus, and the mosses, that will continue not only to ve-
getate, but to protrude their blossoms and mature their fruit, even in the midst of winter, when the
temperature is at the lowest. And in the case of submarine plants the temperature can never be very
high ; so that although heat does no doubt facilitate the ascent of the sap by its tendency to make the
vessels expand, yet it cannot be regarded as the efficient cause, since- the sap is proved to be in motion
even throughout the whole of the winter. Du Hamel endeavours, however, to strengthen the operation
of heat by means of the influence of humidity, as being also powerful in promoting the ascent of the sap,
whether as relative to the season of the year or time of the day. The influence of the humidity of the
atmosphere cannot be conceived to operate as a propelling cause, though it may easily be conceived to
operate as affording a facility to the ascent of the sap in one way or other; which under certain circum-
stances is capable of most extraordinary acceleration, but particularly in that state of the atmosphere
which forebodes or precedes a storm. In such a state a stalk of wheat was observed by Du Hamel to grow
three inches in three days ; a stalk of barley six inches, and a shoot of a vine almost two feet ; but this
is a state that occurs but seldom, and cannot be of much service in the general propulsion of the sap.
On this intricate but important subject Linnams appears to have embraced the opinion of Du Hamel, or
an opinion very nearlv allied to it ; but does not seem to have strengthened it by any new accession of
argument ; so that none of the hitherto alleged causes can be regarded as adequate to the production of
the effect.
749. Irritability. Perhaps the only cause that has ever been suggested as appearing to be at all adequate
to the production of the effect, is that alleged by Saussurc. According to Sautsure the cause of the sap's
Book I. PROCESS OF VEGETABLE NUTRITION. 169
ascent is to be found in a peculiar species of irritability inherent in the sap-vessels themselves, and de-
pendent upon vegetable life ; in consequence of which they are rendered capable of a certain degree of
contraction, according as the internal surface is affected by the application of stimuli, as well as of subse-
quent dilatation according as the action of the stimulus subsides ; thus admitting and propelling the sap
by alternate dilatation and contraction. In order to give elucidation to the subject, let the tube be sup-
posed to consist of an indefinite number of hollow cylinders united one to another, and let the sap be
supposed to enter the first cylinder by suction, or by capillary attraction, or by any other adequate
means ; then the first cylinder being excited by the stimulus of the sap, begins gradually to contract, and
to propel the contained fluid into the cylinder immediately above it. But the cylinder immediately
above it, when acted on in the same manner, is affected in the same manner ; and thus the fluid is pro-
pelled from cylinder to cylinder till it reaches the summit of the plant. So also when the first cylinder
has discharged its contents into the second, and is no longer acted upon by the stimulus of the sap, it
begins again to be dilated to its original capacity, and prepared for the intro-susception of a new portion
of fluid. Thus a supply is constantly kept up, and the sap continues to flow. The above is by far the
simplest as well as most satisfactory of all theories accounting for the ascent of the sap.
750. Contraction and dilatation. "Knight has presented us with a theory which, whatever may be its real
value, merits at least our particular notice, as coming from an author who stands deservedly high in the
list of phytological writers. This theory rests upon the principle of the contraction and dilatation, not
of the sap-vessels themselves, as in the theory of Saussure, but of what Knight denominates the silver
if rain, assisted perhaps bv heat and humidity expanding or condensing the fluids. {Phil. Trans. 1S01.)
Keith considers this theory of Knight as beset with many difficulties, and the agency of the alleged cause
as totally inadequate to the production of the effect to be accomplished.
751. Elaboration of the sap. The moisture of the soil is no sooner absorbed into the
plant than it begins to undergo a change. This is proved by the experiment of making
a bore or incision in the trunk of a tree during the season of bleeding ; the sap that issues
from the wound possesses properties very different from the mere moisture of the soil,
as is indicated by means of chemical analysis, and sometimes also by means of a peculiar
taste or flavor, as in the case of the birch-tree. Hence the sap has already undergone a
certain degree of elaboration ; either in passing through the glands of the cellular tissue,
which it reaches through the medium of a lateral communication, or in mingling with
the juices contained in the cells, and thus carrying oft1 a portion of them ; in the same
manner, we may suppose, that water by filtering through a mineral vein becomes im-
pregnated with the mineral tlnough which it passes. But this primary and incipient
stage of the process of elaboration must always of necessity remain a mystery to the
phytologist, as being wholly effected in the interior of the plant, and consequently beyond
the reach of observation. All he can do, therefore, is to trace out its future progress,
and to watch its succeeding changes, in which the rationale of the process of elaboration
may be more evident.
752. Tlie process of elaboration is chiefly operated in the leaf: for the sap no sooner
reaches the leaf, than part of it is immediately carried off by means of perspiration,
perceptible or imperceptible ; effecting a change in the proportion of its component parts,
and by consequence a change in its properties.
Hales reared a sun-flower in a pot of earth till it grew to the height of three feet and a half; he then
covered the mouth of the pot with a plate of lead, which he cemented so as to prevent all evaporation from
the earth contained in it In this plate he fixed two tubes, the one nine inches in length and of but small
diameter, left open to serve as a medium of communication with the external air; the other two inches
in length and one in diameter, for the purpose of introducing a supply of water, but kept always shut ex-
cept at the time of watering. The holes of the bottom of the pot were also shut, and the pot and plant
weighed for fifteen successive davs in the months of July and August ; hence he ascertained not only the
fact of transpiration by the leaves, from a comparison of the supply and waste ; but also the quantity of
moisture transpired in a given time, by subtracting from the total waste the amount of evaporation from
the pot. The final result proved that the absorbing power of the root is greater than the transpiring power
of the leaves, in the proportion of rive to two. Similar experiments were also made upon some species of cab-
bage, whose mean transpiration was found to be 1 lb. o oz. per day ; and on some species of evergreens,
which were found, however, to transpire less than other plants. The same is the case also with succulent
plants, which transpire but little in proportion to their mass, and which as they become more firm transpire
less. It is known, however, that they absorb a great deal of moisture, though they give it out thus
sparingly ; which seems intended by nature for the purpose of resisting the great droughts to which they
arc generally exposed, inhabiting, as they do for the most part, the sandy desert or the sunny rock. Along
with his own experiments Hales relates also some others that were made by Miller of Chelsea; the result of
which was that, other circumstances being the same, transpiration is in proportion to the transpiring sur-
face ; and is affected by the temperature of the air, sunshine, or drought, promoting it, and cold and wet
diminishing or suppressing it entirely. It is also greatest from six o'clock in the morning till noon, and is
least during the night. But when transpiration becomes too abundant, owing to excess of heat or drought,
the plant immediately suffers and begins to languish ; and hence the leaves droop during the day, though
they are again revived during the night. For the same or for a similar reason, transpiration has been
found also to increase as the heat of summer advances ; being more abundant in July than' in June, and .still
more in August than in either of the preceding months, from which last period it begins again to
decrease. ,
753. A fluid little different from common water is exhaled according to the experi-
ments of Hales and Guettard ; in some cases it had the odor of the plant ; but Du
Hamel found that it became sooner putrid than water. Such then are the facts that have
been ascertained with regard to the imperceptible perspiration of plants, from which it
unavoidably follows that the sap undergoes a very considerable modification in its passage
through the leaf.
754. Perceptible perspiration, which is an exudation of sap too gross or too abundant
to be dissipated immediately, and which hence accumulates on the surface of the leaf, is
the cause of its further modification. It is very generally to be met with in the course of
170
SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
the summer on the leaves of the maple, poplar, and lime-tree ; but particularly on the
surface exposed to the sun, which it sometimes wholly covers.
Its physical as well as chemical qualities are very different in different species of plants ; so that it is not
always merely an exudation of sap, but of sap in a high state of elaboration, or mingled with the peculiar
juices or secretions of the plant. Sometimes it is a clear and watery fluid conglomerating into large drops,
such as are said to have been observed by Miller, exuding from the leaves of the musa arbor, or plantain*
tree ■ and such as are sometimes to be seen in hot and calm weather exuding from the leaves of the poplar
or willow, and trickling down in such abundance as to resemble a slight shower. This phenomenon was
observed by Sir J. E. Smith, under a grove of willows in Italy, and is said to occur sometimes even in Eng-
land Sometimes it is glutinous, as on the leaf of the lime-tree ; sometimes it is waxy, as on the leaves ot
rosemary : sometimes it is saccharine as on the orange-leaf ; or resinous, as on the leaves of the cistus
creticus The cause of this excess of perspiration has not yet been altogether satisfactorily ascertained ;
though it seems to be merelv an effort and institution of nature to throw off all such redundant juices as
may have been absorbed, o'r secretions as may have been formed beyond what are necessaryto the due
nourishment or composition of the plant, or beyond what the plant is capable of assimilating at the time.
Hence the watery exudation is perhaps nothing more than a redundancy of the fluid thrown off by imper-
ceptible perspiration, and the waxy and resinous exudations nothing more than a redundancy of secreted
juices • all which may be still perfectly consistent with a healthy state of the plant-. But there are cases in
which'the exudation "is to be regarded as an indication of disease, particularly in that of the exudation
pillar of the ghost-moth injuring the root. And such seems also to be the fact with regard to the honey-
dew of the beech-tree, and perhaps also the honey-dew of the oak. The sap then in the progress of its
ascent from the extremity of the root to the extremity of the leaf undergoes a considerable change, first in
its mixing with the juices already contained in the plant, and then in its throwing off a portion at the leaf.
755. The sap is further affected by means of tlie gases entering into the root along with
the moisture of the soil, but certainly, by means of the gases inhaled into the leaf; the
action and elaboration of which shall now be elucidated.
756. Elaboration of carbonic acid. The utility of carbonic acid gas as a vegetable food has been al-
ready shown ; plants being found not only to absorb it by the root along with the moisture of the soil, but
also to inhale it by the leaves, at least when vegetating in the sun or during the day. But how is the ela-
boration of this gas effected ? Is it assimilated to the vegetable substance immediately upon entering the
plant, or is its assimilation effected bv means of intermediate steps ? The gas thus inhaled or absorbed is
not assimilated immediately, or at least not wholly : for it is known that plants do also evolve carbonic
acid gas when vegetating in the shade, or during the night. Priestley ascertained that plants vegetating in
confined atmospheres evolve carbonic acid gas in the shade, or during the night, and that the vitiated
state of their atmospheres after experiment is owing to that evolution ; and Saussure that the elaboration
of carbonic acid gas is essential to vegetation in the sun ; -and, finally, Senebier and Saussure proved that
the carbonic acid gas contained in water is abstracted and inhaled by the leaf, and immediately decom-
posed ; the carbon being assimilated to the substance of the plant, and the oxygen in part evolved, and
in part also assimilated. The decomposition of carbonic acid gas takes place only during the light of day,
though Saussure has made it also probable that plants decompose a part of the carbonic acid gas which
they form with the surrounding oxygen even in the dark. But the effect is operated chiefly by means of
the leaves and other green parts of vegetables, that is, chiefly by the parenchyma ; the wood, roots, petals,
and leaves that have lost their green color not being found to exhale oxygen e gas. It maybe observed,
however, that the green color is not an absolutely essential character of the parts decomposing carbonic
acid ; because the leaves of a peculiar variety of the atriplex hortensis, in which all the green parts change
to red, do still exhale oxvgene gas.
757. Elaboration of oxygen. It has been already shown that the leaves of plants abstract oxygen from
confined atmospheres, at least when placed in the shade, though they do not inhale all the oxygen that
disappears; and it has been further proved, from experiment, that the leaves of plants do also evolve a
gas in the sun. From a great variety of experiments relative to the action and influence of oxygen on the
plant, and the contrary, the following is the sum of the results. The green parts of plants, but especially
the leaves, when exposed in atmospheric air to the successive influence of the light and shade, inhale and
evolve alternately a portion of oxygene gas mixed with carbonic acid. But the oxygen is not immediately
assimilated to the vegetable substance ; it is first converted into carbonic acid by means of combining with
the carbon of the plant, which withers if this process is prevented by the application of lime or potass.
The leaves of aquatics, succulent plants, and evergreens consume, in equal circumstances, less oxygen
than the leaves of other plants. The roots, wood, and petals, and in short all parts not green, with the
exception of some colored leaves, do not effect the successive and alternate inhalation and extrication of
oxygen ; they inhale it indeed, though they do not again give it out, or assimilate it immediately, but con-
vey it under the form of carbonic acid to the leaves, where it is decomposed. Oxgen is indeed assimilated
to the plant, but not directlv, and only by means of the decomposition of carbonic acid ; when part of it,
though in a verv small proportion, is retained also and assimilated along with the carbon. Hence the most
obvious influence of oxygen, as applied to the leaves, is that of forming carbonic acid gas, and thus pre-
senting to the plants elements which it mav assimilate ; and perhaps the carbon of the extractive juices
absorbed even bv the root, is not assimilated to the plant till it is converted by means of oxygen into car-
bonic acid. But "as an atmosphere composed of nitrogen and carbonic acid gas only is not favorable to
vegetation, it is probable that oxygen performs also some other function beyond that of merely presenting
to the plant, under the modification of carbonic acid, elements which it may assimilate. It may effect also
the disengagement of caloric by its union with the carbon of the vegetable, which is the necessary result
of such union. But oxygen is also beneficial to the plant from its action on the soil ; for when the ex-
tractive juices contained in the soil have become exhausted, the oxygen of the atmosphere, by penetrating
into the earth and abstracting from it a portion of its carbon, forms a new extract to replace the first.
Hence we may account for a number of facts observed by the earlier phytologists, but not well explained.
Du Hamel remarked that the lateral roots of plants are always the more vigorous the nearer they are
to the surface ; but it now appears that they are the most vigorous at the surface because they have there
the easiest access to the oxygen of the atmosphere, or to the extract which it may form. It was observed
also bv the same phytologist that perpendicular roots do not thrive so well, other circumstances being the
e 'in a stiff and wet soil as in a friable and dry soil ; while plants with slender and divided roots thrive
_i'i ll :„ l — *U . l-.,,f thlc ic n/-. Hnnht nwincrtn the nhif-.irlpa that nrpspnt themselves to the Passage Of
same,
numbers of fibres, and form what is called the fox-tail root ; but it is because they cannot continue to ve-
(t
is because in the former case the oxygen contained in the water is soon exhausted, while in the latter it is
Book I. PROCESS OF VEGETABLE NUTRITION. 171
not exhausted at alL And hence also we may account for the phenomenon exhibited by plants vegetating
in distilled water under a receiver filled with atmospheric air, which having no proper soil to supply the
root with nourishment, effect the developement of their parts only at the expense of their own proper
substance ; the interior of the stem, or a portion of the root, or the lower leaves decaying and>giving up
their extractive juices to the other parts. — Thus it appears that oxygene gas, or that constituent part of
the atmospheric air which has been found to be indispensable to the life of animals is also indispensable to
the life of vegetables. But although the presence and action of oxygen is absolutely necessary to the process
of vegetation, plants do not thrive so well in an atmosphere of pure oxygen, as in an atmosphere of pure or
common air. This was proved by an experiment of Saussure's, who having introduced some plants of
pisum sativum, that were but just issuing from the seed, into a receiver containing pure oxygene gas,
found that in the space of six days they had acquired only half the weight of such as were introduced at
the same time into a receiver containing common air. From whence it follows that oxygen, though the
principal agent in the process of vegetation is not yet the only agent necessary to the health and growth of
the plant, and that the proportion of the constituent parts of the atmospheric air is well adapted for the
purposes both of vegetable and animal life.
758. Decomposition of water. Although the opinion was proved to be groundless,
by which water had been supposed to be convertible into all the different ingredients en-
tering into the composition of the vegetable substance by means of the action of the vital
energy of the plant ; yet when water was ultimately proved to be a chemical compound,
it was by no means absurd to suppose that plants may possess the power of decomposing
part, at least, of what they absorb by the root, and thus acquire the hydrogen as well as a
portion of the oxygen which, by analysis, they are found to contain. This opinion was
accordingly pretty generally adopted, but was not yet proved by any direct experiment.
Senebier pointed out several phenomena from which he thought it was to be inferred, but
particularly that of the germination of some seeds moistened merely with water, and so
situated as to have no apparent contact with oxygen. The decomposition of water was
inferred also by Ingenhouz, from the amelioration of an atmosphere of common air into
which he had introduced some succulent plants vegetating in pure water. Saussure having
gathered a number of plants of the same species, as nearly alike as possible in all circum-
stances likely to be affected by the experiment, dried part of them to the temperature of
the atmosphere, and ascertained their weight ; the rest he made to vegetate in pure wa/er,
and in an atmosphere of pure oxygen for a given period of time, at the end of which he
dried them as before, and ascertained their weight also, which it was thus only necessary
to compare with the weight of the former, in order to know whether the plants had in-
creased in solid vegetable substance or not. But after many experiments on a variety of
plants, the result always was, that plants when made to vegetate in pure water only, and
in an atmosphere of pure oxygen, or of common air deprived of its carbonic acid, scarcely
added any thing at all to their weight in a dried state ; or if they did, the quantity was too
small to be appreciated. But from a subsequent experiment, in which carbonic acid gas
was mixed with common air by the same experiment, the decomposition and fixation of
water by the vegetating plant is legitimately inferred. It does not appear, however, that
plants do in any case decompose water directly ; that is, by appropriating its hydrogen and
at the same time disengaging its oxygen in the form of gas, which is extricated only by
the decomposition of carbonic acid.
759. Descent of the proper juice. When the sap has been duly elaborated in the leaf
by means of the several processes that have just been described, it assumes the appel-
lation of the cambium, or proper juice of the plant. In this ultimate state of elaboration
it is found chiefly in the bark, or rather between the bark and wood, and may very often
be distinguished by a peculiar color, being sometimes white, as in the several species of
spurge, and sometimes yellow, as in celandine. It is said to be the principal seat of the
medical virtues of plants ; and was regarded by Malpighi as being to the plant what the
blood is to the animal body — the immediate principle of nourishment, and grand support
of life ; which opinions he endeavours to establish by the following analogies : if the blood
escapes from the vessels of the animal body, it forms neither flesh nor bone, but tumors ;
if the proper juices of the plant are extravasated, they form neither bark nor wood, but a
lump of gum, resin, or inspissated juice. The disruption of the blood-vessels and conse-
quent loss of blood, injures and often proves fatal to the animal. The extravasation of
the proper juice injures and often proves fatal to vegetables, unless the evil is prevented
by the skill and management of the gardener. Whatever may be the value of these re-
marks as tending to establish the analogy in question, it cannot be" doubted that the cam-
Hum or proper juice constitutes at least the grand principle of vegetable organisation ;
generating and developing in succession the several organs of the plant, or furnisliing the
vital principle with the immediate materials of assimilation.
760. Tfie proper juice is conveyed to the several parts of the plant by an appropriate set of vessels. One
of the earliest and most satisfactory experiments on this subject, at least as far as regards the return of
the proper juice through the leaf and leaf-stalk, is that of Dr. Darwin, which was conducted as follows:
a stalk of the euphorbia heliscopia, furnished with its leaves and seed-vessels, was placed in a decoction
of madder-root, so as that the lower portion of the stem and two of the inferior leaves were immersed in
it After remaining so for several days the color of the decoction was distinctly discerned passing along
the midrib of each leaf. On the upper side of the leaf many of the ramifications, going from the midrib
towards the circumference, were observed to be tinged with red ; but on the under side there was ob
served a system of branching vessels, originated in the extremities of the leaf and carrying not a red but
a pale milky fluid, which, after uniting in two sets, one on each side the midrib, descended along with it
172 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
into the leaf-stalk. These were the vessels returning the elaborated sap. The vessels observable on the
upper surface Darwin calls arteries, and those on the under surface he calls veins. To this may be added
the more recent discoveries of Knight, who in his experiments, instituted with a view to ascertain the
course of the sap, detected in the leaf-stalk, not only the vessels which he calls central tubes, through
which the colored infusion ascended, together with their appendages, the spiral tubes j but also another
set of vessels surrounding the central tubes, which he distinguishes by the appellation of external tubes,
and which appeared to be conveying in one direction or other a fluid that was not colored, but that
proved, upon further investigation, to be the descending proper juice. In tracing them upwards they
were found to extend to the summit of the leaf, and in tracing them downwards they were found
to extend to the base of the leaf-stalk, and to penetrate even into the inner bark. According
to Knight, then, there are three sets of vessels in leaves, the central tubes, the spiral tubes, and the
external tubes. But by what means is the proper juice conducted from the base of the leaf-stalk to the
extremity of the root ? This was the chief object of the enquiry of the earlier phytologists who had not
yet begun to trace its progress in the leaf and leaf-stalk ; but who were acquainted with facts indicating
at least the descent of a fluid in the trunk. Du Hamel stript sixty trees of their bark in the course of the
spring, laying them bare from the upper extremity of the sap and branches to the root ; the experiment
proved indeed fatal to them, as they all died in the course of three or four years. But many of them
had made new productions both of wood and bark from the buds downwards, extending in some cases to
the length of a foot ; though very few of them had made any new productions from the root upwards.
Hence it is that the proper juice not only descends from the extremity of the leaf to the extremity of the
root, but generates also in its descent new and additional parts. The experiments of Knight on this sub-
ject are, if possible, more convincing than even those of Du Hamel. From the trunks of a number of
young crab-trees he detached a ring of bark of half an inch in breadth. The sap rose in them, and the
portion of the trunk above the ring augmented as in other subjects that were not so treated, while the
portion below the ring scarcely augmented at all. The upper lips of the wounds made considerable ad-
vances downwards, while the lower lips made scarcely any advances upwards ; but if a bud was protruded
under the ring, and the shoot arising from it allowed to remain, then the portion of the trunk below that
bud began immediately to augment in size, while the portion between the bud and incision remained
nearly as before. When two circular incisions were made in the trunk so as to leave a rihg of bark be-
tween them with a leaf growing from it, the portion above the leaf died, while the portion below the leaf
lived ; and when the upper part of a branch was stripped of its leaves the bark withered as far as it was
stript. Whence it is evident that the sap which has been elaborated in the leaves and converted into
proper juice, descends through the channel of the bark, or rather between the bark and alburnum to
the extremity of the root, effecting the developement of new and additional parts. But not only is
the bark thus ascertained to be the channel of the descent of the proper juice, after entering the trunk ;
the peculiar vessels through which it immediately passes, have been ascertained also. In the language
of Knight they are merely a continuation of the external tubes already noticed, which after quitting the
base of the foot-stalk he describes as not only penetrating the inner bark, but descending along with it
and conducting the proper juice to the very extremity of the root. In the language of Mirbel they are
the large or rather simple tubes so abundant in the bark of woody plants, though not altogether confined
to it ; and so well adapted by the width of their diameter to afford a passage to the proper juice.
761. Causes of descent. The proper juice then, or sap elaborated in the leaf, descends
by the returning vessels of the leaf-stalk, and by the longitudinal vessels of the inner bark,
the large tubes of Mirbel and external tubes of Knight, down to the extremity of the root.
The descent of the proper juke was regarded by the earlier phytologists as resulting from the
agency of gravitation, owing perhaps more to the readiness with which the conjecture suggests itself
than to the satisfaction which it gives. But the insufficiency of this cause was clearly pointed out
by Du Hamel, who observed in his experiments with ligatures that the tumor was always formed
on the side next to the leaves, even when the branch was bent down, whether by nature or art, so
as to point to the earth, in which case the power propelling the proper juice is acting not only in
opposition to that of gravitation, but with such force as to overcome it This is an unanswer-
able argument ; and yet it seems to have been altogether overlooked, or at least undervalued in its
importance by Knight, who endeavours to account for the effect by ascribing it to the joint operation
of gravitation, capillary attraction, the waving motion of the tree, and the structure of the conducting
vessels ; but the greatest of these causes is gravitation. Certain it is that gravitation has considerable
influence in preventing the descent of the sap in young shoots of trees which have grown upright, which,
when bent down after being fully grown, form larger buds, and often blossom instead of leaf buds. This
practice, with a view to the production of blossom-buds is frequently adopted by gardeners (Hort. Trans.
i. 237.) in training fruit-trees. — These causes are each perhaps of some efficacy; and yet even when
taken altogether they are not adequate to the production of the effect. The greatest stress is laid upon
gravitation ; but its agency is obviously over-rated, as is evident from the case of the pendent shoots of
the weeping willow ; and if gravitation is so very efficacious in facilitating the descent of the proper
juice, how comes its influence to be suspended in the case of the ascending sap ? The action of the silver
grain will scarcely be sufficient to overcome it ; and if it should be said that the sap ascends through the
tubes of the alburnum by means of the agency of the vital principle, why may not the same vital prin-
ciple conduct also the proper juice through the returning vessels of the bark. In short if, with Saussure,
we admit the existence of a contracting power in the former case sufficient to propel the sap from ring to
ring, it will be absolutely necessary to admit it also in the latter. Thus we assign a cause adequate to
the production of the effect, and avoid at the same time the transgression of that most fundamental prin-
ciple of all sound philosophy which forbids us to multiply causes without necessity.
Sect. IV. Process of Vegetable Developement.
762. The production of the different parts and organs of plants is effected by the assimi-
lation of the proper juice. The next object of our enquiry, therefore, will be that of
tracing out the order of the developement of the several parts, together with the peculiar
mode of operation adopted by the vital principle. But this mode of operation is not
exactly the same in herbaceous and annual plants, as in woody and perennial plants. In
the former, the process of developement comprises as it were but one act of the vital prin-
ciple, the parts being all unfolded in immediate succession and without any perceptible
interruption till the plant is complete. In the latter, the process is carried on by gradual
and definite stages easily cognisable to the senses, commencing with the approach of
spring, and terminating with the approach of winter ; during which, the functions of the
vital principle seem to be altogether suspended, till it is aroused again into action by the
warmth of the succeeding spring. The illustration of the latter, however, involves also
that of the former ; because the growth of the first year exemplifies at the same time the
Book I. PROCESS OF VEGETABLE DEVELOPEMENT. 173
growth of annuals, while the growth of succeeding years exemplifies whatever is peculiar
to perennials.
763. Elementary organs. If the Embryo, on its escape from the seed and conversion
into a plant, is taken and minutely inspected, it will be found to consist of a root,
plumelet, and incipient stem, wliich have been developed in consecutive order ; and if
the plant is taken and dissected at this period of its growth it will be found to be com-
posed merely of an epidermis enveloping a soft and pulpy substance, that forms the mass
of the individual ; or it may be furnished also with a central and longitudinal fibre ; or
with bundles of longitudinal fibres giving tenacity to the whole. These parts have been
developed no doubt by means of the agency of the vital principle operating on the proper
juice ; but what have been the several steps of operation ?
Perhaps no satisfactory explication of this phenomenon has yet been offered. It is likely, however,
that the rudiments of all the different parts of the plant do already exist in the embryo in such specific
order of arrangement as shall best fit them for future developement, by the intro-susception of new and
additional particles. The pellicle constituting the vegetable epidermis has generally been regarded as a
membrane essentially distinct from the parts which it covers, and as generated with a view to the dis-
charge of some particular function. Some phytologists, however, have viewed it in a light altogether
different, and have regarded it as being merely the effect of accident, and nothing more than a scurf
formed on the exterior and pulpy surface of the parenchyma indurated by the action of the air. It is
more probably, however, formed by the agency of the vital principle, even while the plant is yet in em-
bryo, for the very purpose of protecting it from injury when it shall have been exposed to the air in the
process of vegetation. There are several respects in which an analogy between the animal and vegetable
epidermis, is sufficiently striking : they arc both capable of great expansion in the growth of the sub-
ject ; they are both easily regenerated when injured (excepting in the case of induration), and seemingly
in the same manner ; they are both subject, in certain cases, to a constant decay and repair ; and they
both protect from injury the parts enclosed.
764. Composite organs. The elucidation of the developement of the composite organs
involves the discussion of the two following topics : — the formation of the annual plant,
and of the original shoot of the perennial ; and the formation of the subsequent layers
that are annually added to the perennial.
765. Annuals and annual shoots. If a perennial of a year's growth is taken up in
the beginning of winter when the leaves, which are only temporary organs, have fallen,
it will be found to consist of a root and trunk, surmounted by one or more buds. The
root is the radicle expanded into the form peculiar to the species, but the trunk and buds
have been generated in the process of vegetation.
The root or trunk, if taken and cut into two by means of a transverse section, will be found to con-
sist already of bark, wood, and pith. Here then is the termination of the growth of the annual,
and of the first stage of the growth of the perennial : how have their several parts or organs been
formed.
766. The pith seems only a modification of the original pulp, and the same hypothesis that accounts for
the formation of the one will account also for the formation of the other ; but the pith and pulp, or
parenchyma, are ultimately converted into organs essentially distinct from one another; though phyto-
logists have been much puzzled to assign to each its respective functions. In the ages in which phytolo-
gical opinions were formed without enquiry, one of the vulgar errors of the time seems to have been an
opinion bv which the function of the pith was supposed to be that of generating the stone of fruit, and
by which' it was thought that a tree deprived of its pith would produce fruit without a stone. (Phys. det
Arb. liv. i. chap. 3.) But this opinion is by much too absurd to merit a serious refutation. Another
early opinion, exhibiting however indications of legitimate enquiry, is that by which the pith was re-
garded as being analogous to the heart and brain of animals, as related by Malpighi ; who did not him-
self adopt it, but believed the pith to be like the cellular tissue, the viscera in which the sap is elaborated
for the nourishment of the plant, and for the protrusion of future buds. Magnol thought that it pro-
duces the flower and fruit, but not the wood. Du Hamel regarded it as being merely an extension of
the pulp or cellular tissue, without being destined to perform any important function in the process of
vegetation. But Linna?us was of opinion that it produces even the wood ; regarding it not only as the
source of vegetable nourishment, but as being also to the vegetable what the brain and spinal marrow
are to animals, the source and seat of life. In these opinions there may be something of truth, but they
have all the common fault of ascribing to the pith either too little or too much. M. Lindsay of Jamaica
suggested a new opinion on the subject, regarding it as being the seat of the irritability of the leaves of
the mimosa, and Sir J. E. Smith says he can see nothing to invalidate the arguments on which this
opinion is founded. Plenk and Knight regard it as destined by nature to be a reservoir of moisture to
supply the leaves when exhausted by excess of perspiration. Hence it appears that the peculiar function
of the pith has not yet been altogether satisfactorily ascertained ; and the difficulty of ascertaining it has
been thought to be increased from the circumstance of its seeming to be only of a temporary use in the
process of vegetation, by its disappearing altogether in the aged trunk. But although it is thus only
temporary as relative to the body of the trunk, yet it is by no means temporary as relative to the process
of vegetation ; the central part of the aged trunk being now no longer in a vegetating state, and the pith
being always present in one shape or other in the annual plant, or in the new additions that are an-
nually made to perennials. The pith then is essential to vegetation in all its stages : and from the
analogy of its structure to that of the pulp or parenchyma which is known to be an organ of elabor-
ation, as in the leaf, the function of the pith is most probably that of giving some peculiar elaboration
to the sap.
767. The generation of the layer of ivood in ivoody plants, or of the parts analogous to wood in the case of
herbaceous plants, has been hitherto but little attended to. If we suppose the rudiments of all the
different parts to exist already in the embryo, then we have only to account for their developement by
means of the intro-susception and assimilation of sap and proper juice ; but if we suppose them to be
generated in the course of vegetation, then the difficulty of the case is augmented : and at the best we
can only state the result of operations that have been so long continued as to present an effect cognizable to
the sense of sight, though the detail of the process is often so very minute as to escape even the nicest
observation. All, then, that can be said on the subject, is merely that the tubes, however formed, do, by
virtue of the agency of the vital principle operating on the proper juice, always make their appearance at
last in a uniform and determinate manner, according to the tribe or species to which the plant belongs,
uniting and coalescing so as to form either a circular layer investing the pith, as in woody plants ; or a
number of divergent lavers intersecting the pith, as in some herbaceous plants ; or bundles of longitudinal
174 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
and woody fibre Interspersed throughout the pith, as in others. In the 6ame manner we may account for
the formation of the layer of hark.
768. Perennials and their annual layers. If a perennial is taken at the end of the
second year and dissected as in the example of the first year, it will be found to have in-
creased in height by the addition of a perpendicular shoot consisting of bark, wood, and
pith, as in the shoot of the former year ; and in diameter by the addition of a new layer
of wood and of bark, generated between the wood and bark of the former year, and cover-
ing die original cone of wood, like the paper that covers a sugar-loaf: this is the fact of
the mode of augmentation about which phytologists have not differed, though they have
differed widely with regard to the origin of the additional layer by which the trunk is in-
creased in diameter. Malpighi was of opinion that the new layer of wood is formed from
the liber of the former year.
769. TJie new layer of ivood Linnams considered as formed from the pith, which is absurd, because the
opinion goes to the inversion of the very order in which the layer is formed, the new layer being always
exterior to the old one. But according to the most general opinion, the layer was thought to be formed
from a substance oozing out of the wood or bark — first, a limpid fluid, then a viscid pulp, and then a thin
layer attaching itself to the former ; the substance thus exuding from the wood or bark was generally
regarded as being merely an extra vasated mucilage, which was somehow or other converted into wood and
bark : but Du Hamel regarded it as being already an organised substance, consisting of both cellular and
tubular tissue, which he designated by the appellation of the cambium, or proper juice.
770. Knight has thrown the highest degree of elucidation on this, one of the most obscure and intricate
processes of the vegetable economy, in having shown that the sap is elaborated, so to render it fit for the
formation of new parts in the leaf only. If a leaf or branch of the vine is grafted even on the fruit-stalk
or tendril, the graft will still succeed ; but if the upper part of a branch is stripped of its leaves the bark
will wither as far as it is stripped ; and if a portion of bark furnished with a leaf is insulated by means of
detaching a ring of bark above and below it, the wood of the insulated portion that is above the leaf is
not augmented : this shows evidently that the leaf gives the elaboration necessary to the formation of new
parts, and that without the agency of the leaf no new part is generated: — Such then is the mode of
the augmentation of the plant in the second year of its growth. It extends in width by a new layer
of wood and of bark insinuated between the wood and bark of the former year ; and in height by
the addition of a perpendicular shoot, or of branches, generated as in the shoot of the first year.
But if the plant is taken and dissected at the end of the third year, it will be found to have aug-
mented in the same manner ; and so also at the end of the succeeding year as long as it shall continue
to live ; so that the outermost layer of bark, and innermost layer of wood, must have been originally
tangent in the first year of the plant's growth ; the second layer of bark, and second layer of wood, in the
second year ; and so on in the order of succession till you come to the layer of the present year, which will
in like manner divide into two portions, the outer forming one or more layers of bark, and the inner
forming one or more layers of wood. And hence the origin of the concentric layers of wood and of bark
of the trunk- But how are we to account for the formation of the divergent layers, which Du Hamel
erroneously supposed to proceed from the pith? The true solution of the difficulty has been furnished by
Knight, who, in tracing the result of the operation of budding, observed that the wood formed under the
bark of the inserted bud unites indeed confusedly with the stock, though still possessing the character and
properties of the wood from which it was taken, and exhibiting divergent layers of new formation which
originate evidently in the bark, and terminate at the line of union between the graft and stock.
771. But how is the formation of the wood that now occupies the place of the pith to be accounted for?
It appears that the tubes of which the medullary is composed do, in the process of vegetation, deposit a
cambium, which forms an interior layer that is afterwards converted into wood for the purpose of filling
up the medullary canaL
772. Conversion of the alburnum into perfect wood. In consequence of the increase of the trunk by means
of the regular and gradual addition of an annual layer, the layers whether of wood or of bark are ne-
cessarily of different degrees of solidity in proportion to their age ; the inner layer of bark, and the outer
layer of wood, being the softest ; and the other layers increasing in their degree of solidity till you reach
the centre on the one hand, and the circumference on the other, where they are respectively the hardest,
forming perfect wood or highly indurated bark, which sloughs or splits into chinks, and falls off in thick
crusts, as in the plane-tree, fir, and birch. What length of time then is requisite to convert the alburnum
into perfect wood, or the liber into indurated bark ; and by what means are they so converted ? There is no
fixed and definite period of time that can be positively assigned as necessary to the complete induration
of the wood or bark, though it seems to require a period of a good many years before any particular
layer is converted from the state of alburnum to that of perfect wood ; and perhaps no layer has received
its final degree of induration till such time as the tree has arrived at its full growth. The induration
of the alburnum, and its consequent durability, are attributed by many to the loss of sap which the
layer sustains after the period of its complete developement ; when the supply from the root diminishes,
and the waste by evaporation or otherwise is still kept up, inducing a contraction or condensation of
its elementary principles that augments the solrdity of the layer, in the first degree, and begins the
process that future years finish. But Knight believes the induration of the alburnum as distinguishable
in the winter to be owing rather to some substance deposited in it in the course of the preceding summer,
which he regards as being the proper juice in a concrete or inspissated state, but which is carried off again
by the sap as it ascends in the spring.
773. Circulation of vegetable juices. After the discovery of the circulation of the
blood of animals, phytologists, who were fond of tracing analogies between the animal
and vegetable kingdoms, began to think that there perhaps existed in plants also a circu-
lation of fluids. The sap Mas supposed to be elaborated in the root. The vessels in
which it was propelled to the summit of the plant were denominated arteries ; and the
vessels in which it is again returned to the root were denominated veins. Du Hamel,
while he admits the ascent of the sap, and descent of the proper juice, each in peculiar
and appropriate vessels, does not however admit the doctrine of a circulation ; which
seems, about the middle of the last century, to have fallen into disrepute. For Hales, who
contended for an alternate ascent and descent of fluids in the day and night, and in the
same vessels, or for a sort of vibratory motion as he also describes it, gave no countenance
whatever to the doctrine of a circulation of juices. But the doctrine, as it appears, has
been again revived, and has met with the stipport of some of the most distinguished of
Boor I. PROCESS OF VEGETABLE DEVELOPEMENT. 175
modern phytologists. Hedwig is said to have declared himself to be of opinion, that plants
have a circulation of fluids similar to that of animals. Corti is said to have discovered a
species of circulation in the stem of the chara, but confined, it is believed, within the
limits of the internodia. Willdenow has also introduced the subject, and defended the
doctrine {Principles of Botany, p. 8.5.); but only by saying he believes a circulation to
exist, and that it is impossible for the leafless tree to resist the cold if there be not a cir-
culation of fluids. Knight has given his reasons somewhat in detail ; and though his
doctrine of a circulation should be false, yet the account which he gives of the progress
and agency of the sap and proper juice, short of circulation, may be true. The sum of the
account is as follows : — When the seed is deposited in the ground under proper condi-
tions, moisture is absorbed and modified by the cotyledons, and conducted directly to the
radicle, which is by consequence first developed. But the fluid which has been thus con-
ducted to the radicle, mingling no doubt with the fluid which is now also absorbed from
the soil, ascends afterwards to the plumelet through the medium of the tubes of the albur-
num. The plumelet now expands and gives the due preparation to the ascending sap, re-
turning it also in its elaborated state to the tubes of the bark, through which it again
descends to the extremity of the root, forming in its progress new bark and new albur-
num ; but mixing also, as he thinks, with the alburnum of the former year, where such
alburnum exists, and so completing the circulation.
774. JJecomposite organs. To the above brief sketch of the agency of the vital prin-
ciple in the generation or growth of the elementary and composite organs, there now re-
mains to be added that of the progress and mode of the growth of the decomposite organs,
or organs immediately constituting the plant, as finishing the process of the vegetable de-
velopement. Tliis will include the phenomena of the ultimate developement of the root,
stem, branch, bud, leaf, flower, and fruit.
The root. From the foregoing observations and experiments, it appears that the roots of plant?,
east or woody plants, are augmented in their width by the addition of an annual layer, and in their
775. The root.
or at lea
length by the addition of an annual shoot, bursting from the terminating fibre. But how is the develope-
ment of the shoot elfeeted? Is it by the intro-susception of additional particles throughout the whole of
its extent ; or only by additions deposited at the extremity ? In order to ascertain the fact, with regard
to the elongation of the root, Du Hamel instituted the following experiment : — Having passed several
threads of silver transversely through the root of a plant, and noted the distances, he then immersed the
root in water. The upper threads retained always their relative and original situation, and the lowest
thread which was placed within a few lines of the end was the only one that was carried down. Hence
he concluded that the root is elongated merely by the extremity. Knight, who from a similar experiment
obtained the same result, deduced from it also the same conclusion. We may regard it then as certain,
that the mode of the elongation of the root is such as is here represented, though in the progress of its
developement, it may afiect a variety of directions. The original direction of the root is generally perpen-
dicular, in which it descends to a considerable depth if not interrupted by some obstacle. In taking up
some young oak-trees that had been planted in a poor soil, Du Hamel found that the root had descended
abnost four feet, while the height of the trunk was not more than six inches. If the root meets with an
obstacle it then takes a horizontal direction, not by the bending of the original shoot, but by the sending
out of lateral shoots. The same effect also follows if the extremity of the root is cut off, but not always
so, for it is a common thing in nursery-gardens, to cut off the tap-roots of drills of seedling oaks without
removing them, by a sharp spade, and these generally push out new tap-roots, though not so strong as the
former. When a root ceases of its own accord to elongate, it sends out also lateral fibres which become
branches, and are always the more vigorous the nearer they are to the trunk, but the lateral branches of
horizontal roots are the less vigorous the nearer they are to the end next the trunk. In the former case,
the increased luxuriance is perhaps owing to the easy access of oxygen in the upper divisions ; but in the
latter case, the increased luxuriance of the more distant divisions is not so easily accounted for, if it is not
to be attributed to the more ample supply of nutriment which the fibres meet with as they recede from
the trunk, particularly if you suppose a number of them lying horizontally and diverging like the radii of
a circle. But the direction of roots is so liable to be affected by accidental causes, that there is often but
little uniformity even in roots of the same species. If plants were to be sown in a soil of the same density
throughout, perhaps there might be at least as much uniformity in the figure and direction of their roots,
as of their branches ; but this will seldom happen. For if the root is injured by the attacks of insects, or
interrupted by stones, or earth of too dense a quality, it then sends out lateral branches, as in the above
cases ; sometimes extending also in length by following the direction of the obstacle, and sometimes ceas-
ing to elongate, and forming a knot at the extremity. But where the soil has been loosened by digging or
otherwise, the root generally extends itself to an unusual length, and where it is both loosened and en-
riched, it divides into a multiplicity of fibres. This is also the case with the roots of plants vegetating in
pots, near a river, but especially in water. Where roots have some considerable obstacle to overcome they
will often acquire a strength proportioned to the difficulty : sometimes they will penetrate through the
hardest soil to get at a soil more nutritive, and sometimes they will insinuate their fibres into the crevices
even of walls and rocks which they will hurst or overturn. This of course requires much time, and does
much injury to the plant. Roots consequently thrive best in a soil that is neither too loose nor too
dense ; but as the nourishment which the root absorbs is chiefly taken up by the extremity, so the soil is
often more exhausted at some distance from the trunk than immediately around it. Du Hamel regards
the small fibres of the root which absorb the moisture of the soil as being analogous to the lacteals of the
animal system, which absorb the food digested by the stomach. But the root is rather to be regarded as
the mouth of the plant, selecting what is useful to nourishment and rejecting what is yet in a crude and
indigestible state ; the larger portions of it serving also to fix the plant in the soil and to convey to the
trunk the nourishment absorbed by the smaller fibres, which ascending by the tubes of the alburnum, is
thus conveyed to the leaves, the digestive organs of plants. Du Hamel thinks that the roots of plants are
furnished with pre-organised germs by which they are enabled to send out lateral branches when cut,
though the existence of such germs is not proved ; and affirms that the extremities of the fibres of the
root die annually like the leaves of the trunk and branches, and are again annually renewed; which last
peculiarity Professor Willdenow affirms also to be the fact, but without adducing any evidence by which
it appears to be satisfactorily substantiated. On the contrary, Knight, who has also made some'observ-
ations on this subject, says, it does not appear that the terminating fibres of the roots of woody plants die
annually, though those of bulbous roots are found to do so. But the fibres of creeping plants, ?.s the com-
mon crowfoot and strawberry, certainly die annually, as do those of the vine.
W SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
77R. The stem. The stem, like the root, or at least the stem of woody plants, is also augmented in
width by the addition of an annual layer, and in length by the addition of an annual shoot bursting from
the terminating bud. Is the developement of the shoot issuing from the stem effected in the same man-
ner also ? The developement of the shoot from the stem is not effected in the same manner as that of the
root — by additions to the extremity only, but by the intro-susception of additional particles throughout
its whole extent, at least in its soft and succulent state : the longitudinal extension diminishing in pro-
portion as the shoot acquires solidity, and ceasing entirely when the wood is perfectly formed ; though
often continuing at the summit after it has ceased at the base. The extension of the shoot is inversely as
its induration, rapid while it remains herbaceous, but slow in proportion as it is converted into wood.
Hence moisture and shade are the most favorable to its elongation, because they prevent or retard its in-
duration; and hence the small cone of wood which is formed during the first year of the plant's growth
increases no more after the approach of winter, neither in height nor thickness. Such is the mode of the
growth and developement of the trunk of perennial and woody plants, to which there exists a striking
exception in the growth of the trunk of palms. Their internal structure has been already taken notice of
as presenting no concentric or divergent layers, and no medullary canal, but merely an assemblage of large
and woody hbres, interspersed without order in a pulp or parenchyma, softer at the centre and gradually
becoming harder as it approaches the circumference. When the seed of the palm-tree germinates, it pro-
trudes a circular row of leaves, or of fronds, which crowns the radicle, and is succeeded in the following
year by a similar row issuing from the centre or bosom of the former leaves, which ultimately die down
to the base. This process is continued for four or five years successively without exhibiting as yet any
appearance of a stem, the remaining bases of the leaves or frond forming by their union merely a sort of
knob or bulb. At last, however, they constitute by their union an incipient stem, as thick the first year
as it ever is after ; which in the following year is augmented in height as before, and so on in succession
as long as the plant lives, the leaves always issuing from the summit and crowning the stem, which is a
regular column, but decaying at the end of the year, and leaving circular marks at the points of insertion,
which furrow the surface of the plant, and indicate the years of its growth.
777. The branches, in their mode of growth and developement, exhibit nearly the same appearances as
the trunk from which they issue. They originate in a bud, and form l-1so a cone that consists of pith,
wood, and bark ; or rather they form a double cone. For the insertion of the branch into the trunk
resembles also a cone whose base is at the circumference, and whose apex is at the centre, at least if it is
formed in the first year of the plant's growth, or on the ahoot of the present year; but falling short of the
centre in proportion to the lateness of its formation, and number of intervening layers. Branches in their
developement assume almost all varieties of position from the reflected to the horizontal and upright ; but
the lower branches of trees are said to be generally parallel to the surface of the soil on which they grow,
even though that surface should be the sloping siue of a hill — owing, as it has been thought, to the evo-
lution of a greater number of buds on the side that forms the obtuse angle with the soil, in consequence
of its being exposed to the action of a greater mass of air.
778. The bud, which in the beginning of spring is so very conspicuous on the trees of this country as to
be obvious to the most careless observer, is by no means common to all plants, nor to plants of all climates ;
shrubs in general, and annuals universally, are destitute of buds as well as all plants whatever growing
within the tropics, the leaf being in them immediately protruded from the bark. It is only in the woody
plants of cold climates, therefore, that we are to look for buds ; and in them no new part is added, whether
proper to the leaf or flower, without the intervention of a bud. For when the young shoot is produced, it
is at the same time furnished with new buds, which are again extended into new snoots in the following
spring ; and thus the bud is to be regarded as forming, not only the cradle but also the winter quarters of
the shoot, for which its coat of tiled and glutinous scales seems admirably well adapted. It is found chiefly
in the extremity, or on the surface of the young shoot or branch, and but rarely on the stem, except it be
at the collar where it produces suckers. It is also generated for the most part in the axil of the leaves,
as may be seen by inspecting the annual shoot of almost any tree at random, though not universally so ;
for to this rule there exists a curious and singular exception in the bud of the platanus, which is gene-
rated in the very centre of the base of the foot-stalk, and is not discoverable till after the fall of the leaf.
But how are the buds formed which are thus developed ? Malpighi thought they were formed from the
pith or cellular tissue, which the latter regarded as viscera destined for the elaboration of the sap and pro-
trusion of future buds. Du Hamel thinks the exterior scales of the bud originate in the interior part of
the bark, and Knight relates an experiment from which he thinks it follows that the buds are formed
from the descending proper juice. But whatever may be the actual origin of the bud, it is evident that
its developement does not take place except through the medium of the proper juice, which has been ela-
borated in the leaves of preceding buds, and originally in those of the plumelet ; as the young bud does
not make its appearance till the leaves of the preceding buds have expanded, and will not ultimately
succeed if deprived of them too soon.
Bulbs are so very similar to buds both in their origin and developement as to require no specific inves-
tigation.
779. TJte leaf. When the leaves burst from the expanding bud, and even long before that period, as
may be seen by the dissection of the bud in the winter, they are complete in all their parts. Hence it is
obvious that the leaf, like the young shoot, effects its final developement by means of the intro-susception
of new particles throughout the whole of its dimensions : and yet this law of developement is not common
to all leaves whatever, for the leaves of liliaceous plants extend chiefly at the point of their junction witli
the bulb. The effect perhaps of their peculiarity of structure, in being formed of parallel tubes which ex-
tend throughout their whole length, without those transverse and branching fibres that constitute what
are called the nerves of the Leaves of woody plants.
780. The flower and fruit. When the flower bursts from the expanding bud, and even long before
that period, it is already complete in all its parts, as may be seen also by the dissection of the bud in winter.
Linnaeus represents the pistil as originating in the pith,' the stamens in the wood, and the corolla and calvx
in the inner and outer bark respectively : but this account of their origin, though extremely plausible 'at
first sight, will not bear the test of minute examination, being contradicted by the anatomv of the parti;
themselves; particularly in the case of compound flowers. Knight in investigating the organisation of
the apple and pear, endeavoured to ascertain the origin of the several parts by tracing the organs of the
fruit-stalk to their termination. In the fruit-stalk he thought he could discover the pith, the central
tubes, spiral tubes, and tubes of the bark, together with its epidermis : and in tracing them to their ter-
mination, he thought the pith seemed to end in the pistils ; the central vessels in the stamens, after
diverging round the core and approaching again in the eye of the fruit ; and the bark and epidermis in
the two external skins. Hence he infers that the flower is a prolongation of the pith, wood, and bark.
A question of some considerable importance has arisen out of 'this subject : does the flower or fruit elabo-
rate sap for its own developement, or is it supplied with nourishment from the leaf? Bv placing small
branches of the apple, pear, and vine, with blossoms not expanded in a decoction of logwood, Knight
found that the central vessels were colored by the decoction. By means of a similar experiment on the
same subjects after the fruit was formed, the coloring matter was traced through the mass of the fruit to
the base of the stamina. And hence it appears that the flower and fruit do possess the power of elaborat-
ing sap for their own developement. Knight infers from the foregoing data, that the blossom is nourished
from the alburnum, by means of the mingling of the proper juice, which the alburnum may be supposed
to contain with the sap in its ascent.
Book I. ANOMALIES OF VEGETABLE DEVELOPEMENT. 177
Sect. V. Anomalies of Vegetable Developement.
781. A deviation from the general laws of developement is occasioned by the intervention
of some accidental cause ; or of some cause operating permanently in certain subjects.
Hence the anomaly may regard the developement either of an individual or a species,
and may occur either in the root, stem, branch, leaf, bud, flower, or fruit, according to
the circumstances in which it is placed ; or it may affect the habit, duration, or physical
virtues of the plant.
782. The root. According to the general laws of vegetable
developement, plants of the same species are furnished with the
same species of root — not producing at one time a woody or
fibrous root, and at another time a bulbous root. And yet it is
found that there are cases in which changes of this kind do occur.
If part of the root of a tree planted by a pond or river, protrudes
beyond the bank so as to be partially immersed, it divides at the
extremity into innumerable ramifications, or sends out innumer-
able fibres from the surface, which become again subdivided into
fibres still more minute, and give to the whole an appearance
something resembling that of the tail of a fox ', which has ac-
cordingly been denominated by Du Hamel the fox-tail-root.
C/fe- 57.)
783. The root of the Phleum prafense, when growing in a moist soil, which
it naturally affects, is uniformly fibrous ; but when growing- in a dry soil,
where it is also often to be found, it is furnished with a bulbous root. The
same is the case with the alopecurus geniculatus; which, when growing
in its native marshes protrudes a fibrous root, though, when growing in a
very dry situation, as on the top of a dry wall, it is found to be furnished with an ovate and juicy bulb.
This anomaly also seems to be merely the result of a provision of nature by which the plant is endowed
with the capacity of collecting a supply of moisture suited to existing circumstances, and hence of adapt-
ing itself to the soil in which it grows.
784. The roots of Utricularia minor, which consist of a number of slender and hair-like filaments, exhibit
the singular anomaly of being furnished with a multitude of small and membraneous bladders, each con-
taining a transparent and watery fluid, and a small bubble of air, by means of which the plant is kept
floating iq the water.
785. The descending root, an anomaly which attends some perennials, is at first spindle-shaped and per-
pendicular, sending out some lateral fibres ; but dying at the lower extremity in the course of the succeed-
ing winter, and protruding new fibres from the remaining portion, and even from the lower portion of the
stem, in the course of the following spring, which by descending into the soil, draw down the plant with
them, so that part of what was formerly stem is now converted into root. This process is repeated every
year, and by consequence a portion of the stem is made to descend every year into the earth. The
anomaly may be exemplified in the roots of Valeriana dioica, tanacetum vulgare, and oxalis acetosella ;
and will also account for the bitten and truncated appearance of scabiosa succisa, or devil's-bit.
786. The beet-root, if dissected when about a year old, presents the singular anomaly of being already
furnished with from five to eight distinct and concentric circles of longitudinal tubes or sap-vessels, im-
bedded at regular intervals in its pulp; whereas other biennial roots form only an individual circle each
year, and are, consequently, at no time furnished with more than two.
787. Migratory roots depend on a principle similar to the foregoing. If the stem of a descending root hap-
pens to be creeping or procumbent instead of being erect, then the lateral shoots from above are carried for-
ward in the direction of that procumbency , so that in the course of a few years the plant lias actually changed
its place by so much as the stem has been converted into a root. This is well exemplified in the genus
Iris, which as it enlarges in circumference, dies in the centre and presents a ring of plants instead of a
solitary one. In the case of some aquatics, which float about on the surface of the water as they happen
to be driven by the winds, the whole plant may be said to be migratory, as in the case of the genus Lemna,
and some marine plants.
788. Roots changed to branches and branches to roots. If the stem of a young plum or cherry tree, but
particularly of a willow, is taken in the autumn and bent so as that one' half of the top may be laid in the
earth, one "half of the root being at the same time taken carefully out, but sheltered at first from the cold
and then gradually exposed to it, and the remaining part of the top and root subjected to the same process
in the following year, the branches of the top will become roots, and the ramifications of the root will
become branches, protruding leaves, flowers, and fruit in due season.
789. If the stem of a tree planted by a pond or river is so bent in its growth as to come
near to the surface of the water and to be occasionally immersed in it, it will sometimes
send out from the under surface a multitude of shoots that will descend into the water,
and develope themselves in the manner of the fox-tail-root. Sometimes it happens that a
stem, instead of assuming the cylindrical form common to the species, assumes a com-
pressed and flattened form similar to the herbage of the cactus as in the fir-tribe, ash, &c.
790. The anomaly of the flattened stem {fig. 58. <x) is accounted for by Du Hamel by supposing that an
unnatural graft must have taken place in the leaf-bud; and so united shoots that would otherwise
have been distinct. Sometimes the stem is disfigured by accidental tumors or bunches projecting from
the surface, and forming ultimately what are called knots in the wood. They are very common in
the oak and elm, and are produced perhaps by means of some obstruction in the channel of the sap's
motion, by which the vessels become convoluted and swell up into a bunch.
791. But bunches are also to be met with on the stem of herbaceous plants, as on that of the carduus
pratensis ; of which vou will often find a portion near the top swollen out into an egg-shaped or egg-oblong
bunch, extending from an inch to two inches in length, and about an inch across. If this bunch is cut
open in the month of August, it will be found to contain several large and white maggots. It has conse-
quently been occasioned by the puncture of the parent insect depositing its eggs. It does not seem to
affect the general health of a vigorous plant, though it might prove seriously injurious to a weak one.
792. Bundled stevi. Sometimes two or more contiguous stems, extending in the process of their
growth till they meet and press against one another, become incorporated at length into one, and form a
tort of bundle. This is what may be termed a natural graft, in opposition to an artificial graft, of which
N
178
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
II.
it is the model and proto*
type. The natural graft is
always affected by means
of the union of the liber of
the respective stems com-
posing it ; so that the per-
fection of the art of grafting
consists in applying the liber
of the graft and stock toge-
ther in such a manner as
shall most facilitate their
incorporation.
793. If the branch of
a tree is situated as in
the foregoing case of
the stem, so as to be
partially or periodically
immersed in water, it
will send out also the
same sort of brush-like
shoots.
794. Bunches or knots,
exhibiting a plexus of young
shoots (Jig. 59 . a) issuing
from nearly the same point,
crossing in all directions,
and finally incorporating together by means of a sort of natural graft, frequently disfigure it. These bunches
are frequently to be met with on the branches of the birch-tree, and are known among the peasantry of Scot-
land by the name of witches' knots. They are occasioned, like the bunches of the stem, by some obstruc-
tion in the channel of the sap or proper juice. A peculiar sort of knot or bunch is also often formed on
the branches of the dog-rose. The nucleus, which is generally from an inch to an inch and a half in
diameter is covered with a long and winged shag, first of a green and then of a purple color, presenting
the appearance of a small bunch of moss. {fig. 58. b) It has been occasioned like that of the stem of the
thistle, by the puncture of an insect depositing its eggs in the tender shoot ; for if it is cut open about the
month of August, its contains maggots. These anomalies remind us always of that singular disease in the
human species, the Plica polonica.
795. The bud. The regular developement of the bud is also often prevented by means
of the puncture of insects, and converted into a large globular tumor.
796. The gall tumor is very often effected by a species of Cynips that lances its piercer into the heart of the
bud while yet tender, and penetrates with its saw into the very pith ; injecting at the same time a drop of
the corroding liquor contained in its bag, and then laying its egg. The bud being thus wounded, and the
juices corrupted by the injected poison, the circulation is not only impeded, but a fermentation is induced
which burns the contiguous parts and changes their color. The extravasated juice flows round the egg, and
is there accumulated and converted into a sort of spongy lump which vegetates and augments till it forms
•what is called a gall. The gall thus formed affords both shelter and nourishment to the young maggot,
which, after being converted into a flv, pierces its enclosure and launches into the open air. The most re-
markable of such galls are those produced on the oak-tree, and known in this country by the vulgar
name of oak-apples, (fig. 59. b) The bud of the willow, particularly salix helix, is apt always to be
punctured by insects and converted into a gall. But the conversion is not always complete ; and in this
case the shoot remains dwarfish, and the leaves, which are now protruded from nearly the same point,
assume something of the figure of a rose. Hence it has obtained the common name of the rose-willow.
The galls of the salvia pomifera formed in the above manner arc said to be of a very pleasant flavor, and
are esteemed a great delicacy in eastern countries.
797. The leaves, like the buds, are also frequently chosen for the nidus of in-
sects, and disfigured with galls or excrescences. But the most remarkable gall
produced on the leaf, and indeed the most remarkable and important of all galls,
is that which is so extremely useful in the arte of dyeing and making ink, the nut-gall
of the shops.
Book I. ANOMALIES OF VEGETABLE DEVELOPEMENT. 179
798. The nut-gall is generated on the leaf of a species of oak that grows plentifully hi the Levant, and
is so well known in commerce as to require no particular description. It is occasioned by the puncture of
the Cynips qucrcifolii, which deposits its egg in the substance of the leaf, by making a small perforation on
the under surface. Galls and tumors are to be found on the leaves of many plants ; and indeed almost all
leaves are liable to deformities, giving them a blistered, wrinkled, or curled appearance ; and often pro-
ducing disease.
799. The excess or deficiency of leaves protruded in a group sometimes constitutes the anomaly, as in
the case of the trefoils.
800. Sometimes in the natural figure of the leaf itself, as in asparagus officinalis, where they are bristle-
shaped ; salsola kali, awl-shaped ; and allium cepa, in which they are tubular, tapering to a point.
But one of the most remarkable anomalies of figure is that which occurs in the leaves of the genus Sarra-
cenia (fig. 43. b), of which the lower portion is tubular, ascending, and approaching to funnel-shaped, or
rather pitcher-shaped reversed, with a flattened and concave limb attached by the one side to the orifice of
the tube, and constituting the upper portion of the leaf. Linnams, who was acquainted with this singularity
of structure, accounted for it by supposing that it was an institution of nature, meant for the purpose of
furnishing the plant with a supply of water, which it could thus catch and retain in the leaf. But as some
species of the genus do not readily admit water notwithstanding their capacity to retain it, this hypothesis
is regarded by Sir J. E. Smith as being extremely doubtful, who accordingly offers a different solution,
founded upon the following facts. An insect of the Sphex or Ichneumon kind, had been observed by one
of the gardeners of the botanic garden at Liverpool, to drag several large flies to a leaf of sarracenia,
adunca, and to force them into the tubular part of it. On examination, the leaf was found to be about half
filled with water, in which the flies were now struggling ; the other leaves were also examined, and were
found crammed with dead or drowning flies. The leaves of sarracenia purpurea are said to exhibit also
the same phenomena, and seem peculiarly well adapted to entrap and confine flies, by having the margin
beset with inverted hairs rendering the escape of such insects as may have accidentally fallen into the
watery tube, or are intentionally forced into it, impracticable ; so that the putrid exhalation from the dead
insects contained in the leaf often offends the nostrils, even in passing near the plant. Hence Sir J. E.
Smith infers, that the growth of the plant is perhaps benefited by means of the air evolved by the dead
flies, which the water has been intended to tempt, and the leaves to entrap and retain. 7 This ingenious
conjecture is no doubt sufficiently plausible as far as the plant may be affected ; but cannot be regarded as
quite satisfactory till such time as it shall have been shown that the health of the plant is injured when
insects are prevented from approaching it.
801. The celebrated nepenthes distillatoria (Jig. 43. c) exhibits also an anomaly similar to that of sarracenia,
holding an ounce or two of a fluid which appears to be secreted from the leaf, and to be intended as a
lure to insects, which gain admission either by the spontaneous opening of the lid, or by forcibly raising it
themselves. The consequence is that they fall into the fluid and are drowned, no insect being capable
of living in it except a certain small squilla or shrimp, with a protuberant back, which, according toRum-
phius, sometimes crawls into it and can live there. To this phenomenon Sir J. E. Smith applies the same
explication as above, which is of course liable to the same objection.
802. The figure of the leaf , however singular, is generally the same throughout the same individual, ex-
cept in the case of accidental deformity, and yet there are exceptions even to this rule. For sometimes
the lower leaves of a plant are entire while the upper leaves are divided, as occurs in a variety of mountain-
ous plants, such as burnet, saxifrage, anise, coriander; and sometimes the lower leaves are divided while
the upper leaves are entire, as in the case of a variety of aquatics, particularly ranunculus aquaticus, in
which the lower leaves are capillary and immersed, and the upper leaves flat and circular, floating on the
surface of the water. But sometimes the dissimilitude of the leaves is still more remarkable. The Chi-
nese mulberry, a Botany Bay tree, has not two leaves alike in form on the whole plant. And lastly, there
are some plants, as in the case of the fungi, that are wholly destitute of leaves, and hence called
aphyllous ; while there are others, as in the case of the fuci, that seem to be wholly leaf.
803. The principal anomaly of the flower, is that by which one of its parts is unduly
augmented, to the exclusion or diminution of some of the rest. The flower is then said
to be luxuriant, and comprises the three following varieties : the multiplicate, the full,
and the proliferous flower.
804. The multiplicate flower is sometimes, though rarely, occasioned by an unusual multiplication of the
divisions of the calyx, as in dianthus caryophyllus, and some of the Alpine grasses. But the anomaly
most generally consists in the undue multiplication ol the divisions of the corolla, by the conversion of part
of the stamens into petals which is occasionally to be met with both in monopetalous and polypetalous
flowers. It occurs but seldom, however, in flowers growing in their natural state and habit, though now
and then a double flower is met with even in such circumstances.
805. The full flower is generally described to be that in which the divisions of the corolla are so multi-
plied as to exclude the stamens and pistils wholly by means of their conversion into petals ; which conver-
sion is most readily effected in polypetalous flowers, such as the tulip, poppy, pink, and ranunculus ; ro.o-
nopetalous flowers seldom being found full. This complete metamorphose is always either the effect of
cultivation, or of some concurrence of natural circumstances analogous to it; and is indeed one of the
principal objects of the art of the florist; the beauty of the flower, according to general estimation, being
thus much augmented. In the full flower the stamens are almost always converted into petals, whence we
should perhaps infer their identity of origin. But the pistil is often converted into a leaf, as may be seen
by inspecting the flower of the double-blossomed cherry, which generally protrudes from the centre a leaf
in miniature. But a flower may become full also by the multi-
plication of the parts of the nectary, as is sometimes the case
in the genus Aquilegia, which produces full flowers in three
different ways — by the multiplication of the petals to the exclu-
sion of the nectaries, by the multiplication of the nectaries to
the exclusion of the petals, and by the multiplication of the nec-
taries while the proper petals remain. There are also some pe-
culiarities in the manner in which compound flowers become
full. Radiated flowers become full sometimes by the multipli-
cation of the floscules of the ray to the exclusion of the floscules
of the disk, as in helianthus, anthemis, and centaurea ; and
sometimes by the multiplication of the floscules of the disk to
the exclusion of those of the ray, as in matricaria and bellis.
806. The proliferous flower (fig. 60.) is that out of which
another flower or another shoot is produced. It is seldom
found but in flowers already full ; from the centre of which,
that is, from the ovary or pistil, it sometimes happens that a
new flower and foot-stalk is produced, if the flower is simple, as
in the ranunculus, anemone, and pink ; or several flowers and
foot-stalks, issuing from the common calyx, if the flower is com-
pound, as in the daisy, hawkweed, and marigold ; or a new
umbel issuing from the centre of the original umbel, if the
N 2
180
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
flower is umbellate, as in comus. Sometimes the proliferous issue of the full flower is not itself a flower,
but a shoot furnished with leaves, as has been sometimes, though rarely, observed in the case of the
anemone and rose. Such are the several varieties of luxuriant flowers, constituting anomalies of excess ;
but it sometimes happens that there is also in the flower an anomaly of defect in the absence of one of Its
parts. Examples of this sort are occasionally to be met with in the flowers of cherianthus cheri, cam-
panula pentagonia, and tussilago anandria, in which the corolla is altogether wanting, though
proper to the species; and in this case the flower is said to be mutilated. Sometimes the anomaly con-
sists in the situation of the flower, which is generally protruded from the extremity or sides of the branches.
But the flower of the ruscus is protruded from the surface of the leaf; or it may consist in the relative
situation of the several parts of the flower. In simple flowers the pistil is invariably central with regard to
the stamens ; but in compound flowers the pistils are often situated in the circumference and the stamens in
the centre. This seems to be the case also with some monoecious plants having their flowers on the same
peduncle, as in the examples of the carex and arum, in which the stamens are more central than the pistils.
Sometimes the anomaly consists in the color of the corolla, which will often deviate even in the same species.
The general color of the common cowslip (Primula veris) is a bright yellow ; but an individual is occasionally
to be met with, though very rarely, in which the limb or expansion of the corolla is purple with a line of
yellow around the border. Sometimes the anomaly consists in the time of flowering. The season proper
for the flowering of the apple and pear tree is the month of May ; but trees of that sort have been known to
protrude both buds and blossoms even in the month of November. Some plants, however, blow only in the
winter, as in the case of the laurustinus and arbutus unedo ; while others blow only in the night, and
refuse to expand their petals to the light of the sun. Such is the case of the cactus grandiflorus, that
produces one of the most magnificent of flowers ; but blows only in the night ; and is hence known also
by the appellation of the night-blowing
cereus. Some plants, such as the ferns,
algae, and fungi, are altogether destitute
of conspicuous flowers ; and are hence
called Cryptogamous ; but in this respect
the fig is perhaps the most singular. The
flowers which in other cases uniformly
precede the fruit, are in this case concealed
within what is generally denominated the
fruit ; as may be proved by cutting open a
green fig (fig.61. a) by means of a longitudi-
nal section passing through its axis. Great
numbers of flowers (b).a.re then disco-
vered lining a sort of cavity in the axis
of the fruit ; and hence what is called the
fruit or fig, in common language, is rather
the receptacle of the flower than any thing
else. Most plants have their flowers fur-
nished both with stamens and pistils, and
are hence hermaphrodites : but there are
also many genera that have the stamens
in one flower and the pistils in another,
both on the same individual ; these are
denominated Monoecious plants, and are
exemplified in the oak and hazel. Other
genera have the flowers with stamens on
one plant, and the flowers with pistils on
another; these are denominated Dioeci-
ous, and are exemplified in the hop and willow. Others have flowers of all the previous kinds on one and
the same plant ; these are denominated Polygamous, and are exemplified in the genus Atriplex.
807. T/ie fruit. The anomalies of the fruit may affect either its number, figure, color,
or appendages. The common hazel-nut produces in general but one kernel in one shell ;
but in the course of opening up a considerable number, you will now and then meet with
one containing two or three kernels in a shell.
This is perhaps best accounted for by supposing, with Du Hamel, that
it is the result of an unnatural graft effected in the bud ; though some
think that the shell does always contain the rudiments of two or more
kernels, although it rarely happens that more than one I is developed.
But if two apples or pears are developed in an incorporated state, which
is a case that now and then occurs, it is no doubt best accounted for by
the graft of Du Hamel. Sometimes the anomaly consists in the figure
of the fruit, which is deformed by tumors or excrescences, in conse-
quence of the bite of insects, or injuries of weather producing warts,
moles, or specks. Sometimes it consists in the color, producing green
melons and white cucumbers. Sometimes it consists in an appendage of
leaves. (Jig. 62.)
808. Habit. Some plants, which, when placed in a rich
soil, grow to a great height and affect the habit of a tree,
are, when placed in a poor soil, converted into dwarfish
shrubs.
This may be exemplified in the case of the box-tree ; and so also in the case of herbaceous plants ; as in
that of myosotis, which in dry situations is but short and dwarfish, while in moist situations it grows to
such a size as to seem to be altogether a different plant. The habit of the plant is sometimes totally altered
by means of cultivation ; the pyrus sativa, when growing in a wild and uncultivated state, is furnished
with strong thorns ; but when transferred to a rich and cultivated soil the thorns disappear. This
phenomenon, which was observed by Linnasus, was regarded as being equivalent to the taming of animals.
But this explication is, like some others of the same great botanist, much more plausible than profound,
in place of which Professor Willdenow substitutes the following: The thorns protruded in the uncul-
tivated state of the plant, are buds rendered abortive from want of nourishment, which when supplied
with a sufficiency of nourishment, are converted into leaves and branches.
809. Physical virtues. When plants are removed from their native soil and taken
into a state of culture, it alters not only their habit but their physical virtues. Thus the
sour grape is rendered sweet, the bitter pear pleasant, the dry apricot pulpy, the prickly
Book I.
SEXUALITY OF VEGETABLES.
181
lettuce smooth, and the acrid celery wholesome. Pot-herbs are also rendered more tender
by means of cultivation, and better fitted for the use of man ; and so also are all our fine
varieties of fruit.
810. Duration. Plants are either annuals, biennials, or perennials, and the species is
uniformly of the same class. But it has been found that some plants which are annuals
in a cold climate, such as that of Sweden, will become perennials in a hot climate, such
as that of the West Indies ; this anomaly has been exemplified in tropacolum, beet-root,
and malva arborica : and, on the contrary, some plants, which are perennials in hot climates,
are reduced to annuals when transplanted into a cold climate ; this has been exemplified
in mirabilis and ricinus
Sect. VI. Of the Sexuality of Vegetables.
811. The doctrine that plants are of different sexes, and which constitutes the found-
ation of the Linnaean system, though but lately established upon the basis of logical in-
duction, is by no means a novel doctrine. It appears to have been entertained even
among the original Greeks, from the antiquity of their mode of cultivating figs and palms.
Aristotle and Theophrastus maintain the doctrine of the sexuality of vegetables ; and
Pliny, Dioscorides, and Galen, adopted the division by which plants were then distributed
into male and female ; but chiefly upon the erroneous principle of habit or aspect, and
without any reference to a distinction absolutely sexual. Pliny seems to admit the dis-
tinction of sex in all plants whatever, and quotes the case of the palm-tree as exhibiting
the most striking example.
812. Discoveries of the modems. Ca?salpinus, in the sixteenth century, denominates trees which pro-
duce fruit only, females ; and trees of the same kind which are barren, males ; adding, that the fruit is
found to be more abundant and of a better quality where the males grow in the neighbourhood of the
females, which is, he says, occasioned by certain exhalations from the males dispersing themselves' all
over the females, and by an operation not to be explained, disposing them to produce more perfect seed.
About the middle of the seventeenth century, the doctrine of the sexes of the plants began to assume a
more rixed and determinate character. Malpighi describes the stamens, anthers, and pollen : the merit of
suggesting the use of the latter seems to be between Sir T. Millington, Savilian Professor at Oxford, and
the celebrated Dr. Grew. The opinion of Grew was adopted also by Ray. The first example of experi-
ment recorded on this subject is that of Camerarius, professor of botany at Tubingen, who having
adopted the opinions of Grew and Ray, though without perhaps regarding their arguments as the best that
could be adduced, conceived that the subject might be still further illustrated by means of depriving the
plant of its male flowers altogether, or of removing the individuals of a different sex to a distance from
one another. Accordingly having selected some plants of mercurialis, morus, zea mays, and ricinus,
and stripped them of their staminiferous flowers, or removed the male plant to a great distanc-e from the
female, he found that the fruit did not now ripen ; the inference from which was, that the generation of
plants is analogous to that of animals, and that the stamens of the flowers of the former correspond to the
sexual organs of the males of the latter. The great and illustrious Linnasus, reviewing with his usual
sagacity the evidence on which the doctrine rested, and perceiving that it was supported by a multiplicity
of the most incontrovertible facts, resolved to devote his labors peculiarly to the investigation of the
subject, and to prosecute his enquiries throughout the whole extent of the vegetable kingdom ; which great
and arduous enterprise he not only undertook but accomplished with a success equal to the unexampled
industry with which he pursued it. So that by collecting into one body all the evidence of former dis-
covery or experiment, and by adding much that was original of his own, he found himself at length
authorised to draw the important conclusion — that no seed is perfected without the previous agency of
the pollen ; that the doctrine of the sexes of plants is consequently founded in fact.
813. Proofs from the economy of the aquatics. Many 63
plants of this class that vegetate for the most part wholly
immersed in water, and often at a considerable depth,
gradually begin to elevate their stems as the season of
flowering advances, when they at last rear their heads
above the surface of the water, and present their opening
blossoms to the sun, till the petals have begun to fade,
when they again gradually sink down to the bottom to
ripen and to sow their seeds. This very peculiar economy
may be exemplified in the case of ruppia maritima, and
several species of potamogeton, common in our ponds
and ditches ; from which we may fairly infer, that the
flowers rise thus to the surface merely to give the pollen
an opportunity of reaching the stigma uninjured. But
the most remarkable example of this kind is that of the
valisneria spiralis (fig. f>3.), a plant that grows in the
ditches of Italy. The plant is of the class Dicrcia, pro-
ducing its fertile flowers on the extremity of a long and
slender stalk twisted spirally like a corkscrew, which
uncoiling of its own accord, about the time of the open-
ing of the blossom, elevates the flowers to the surface of
the water, and leaves them to expand in the open air.
The barren flowers are produced in great numbers upon
short upright stalks issuing from a different root, from
which they detach themselves about the time of the
expansion of the female blossom, mounting up like little
air bubbles, and suddenly expanding when they reach the surface, where they float about in great
numbers among the female blossoms, and often cling to them in clusters so as to cover them entirely ;
thus bringing the stamens and pistils into immediate contact, and giving the anthers an opportunity of
discharging their pollen immediately over the stigma. When this operation has been performed, the now
uncoiled stalk of the female plant begins again to resume its original and spiral form, and gradually sinks
down, as it gradually rose, to ripen its fruit at the bottom of the water. We have gathered (in 1819)
these stalks, in the canals near Padua, upwards of ten feet long.
N 3
182 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
Sect. VII. Impregnation of the Seed.
814. The stamens and pistils are the male and female organs of vegetable generation, and
the pollen is the substance by which the impregnation of the seed is effected ; but how is the
pollen conveyed to the ovary ? And what is the amount of its action ?
815. Access of the pollen. When the stamens and pistils are situated near each other, the elastic spring
with which the anther flies open will generally be sufficient to disperse the pollen, so as that part of it
must infallibly reach the stigma in such flowers as do not perfect their stamens and pistils at the same
time. The pollen is very generally conveyed from the anther to the stigma through the instrumentality of
bees, and other insects peculiar to a species. The object of the insect is the discovery of honey, in quest of
which, whilst it roves from flower to flower, and rummages the recesses of the corolla, it unintentionally
covers its body with pollen, which it conveys to the next flower it visits, and brushes off" as it acquired it by
rummaging for honey ; so that part of it is almost unavoidably deposited on the stigma, and impregnation
thus effected. Nor is this altogether so much a work of random as it at first appears. For it has been
observed that even insects, which do not upon the whole confine themselves to one species of flower, will
yet very often remain during the whole day upon the species they happen first to alight on in the morning ;
hence the impregnation of the females of Dioecious plants where no male is near. Hence also a sort of
natural crossing of the breed of plants which might probably otherwise degenerate.
816. Fecundation of the ovary. Admitting that the pollen is conducted to the ovary-
through the channel of the tubes of the style, how after all is the ovary fecundated ; or
the seed rendered fertile ? On this subject naturalists have been much divided ; and ac-
cording to their several opinions have been classed under the respective appellations of
ovarists, animalculists, and epigenesists.
817. Ovarist. According to the opinion of the Ovarist, the embryo pre-exists in the ovary, and is
fecundated by the agency of the pollen as transmitted to it through the style.
818. Animalculist. But the theory of the ovarists is not without its difficulties ; for as the embryo is
never found to make its appearance till after fecundation, it has been thought that it must necessarily pre-
exist in the pollen of the anther ; from which it is conveyed to the ovary through the medium of the style,
and afterwards [matured. This theory was founded upon that of Leuwenhoeck, with regard to animal
generation ; which supposes the pre-existence of animalcula in the seminal principle of the male ; the
animalcula being conveyed in coitu to the ovary of the female, where alone they are capable of
developement.
819. Epigenesist. The difficulties inseparable from both theories, together with the phenomenon of
hybrid productions, have given rise also to a third; this is the Theory of the Epigenesists, who maintain that
the embryo pre-exists neither in the ovary nor pollen, but is generated by the union of the fecundating
principles of the male and female organs; the former being the fluid issuing from the pollen when it
explodes; and the latter, the fluid that exudes from the surface of the stigma when mature. But if
the seed is generated from the union of two fecundating principles which form an intermediate offspring,
then female plants of the class Dicecia ought occasionally to produce seeds whose offspring shall be Her-
maphrodite, or at least Monoecious, which was never yet known to happen.
820. Hybrids. Although the arguments of the epigenesists are by no means satis-
factory, yet it cannot be denied, that hybrid productions partake of the properties both of
the male and female from which they spring. This was long ago proved to be the fact
by Bradley, and more recently confirmed by the experiments of Knight ; as well as hap-
pily converted to the advantage of the cultivator.
821. Vegetable crossing. Observing that farmers who rear cattle improve the progeny by means of crossing
the breed, Knight argued from analogy, that the same improvement might be introduced into vegetables.
His principal object was that of procuring new and improved varieties of the apple and pear to supply the
place of such as had become diseased and unproductive. But as the necessary slowness of all experiments
of the kind, with regard to the fruit in question, did not keep pace with the ardor of his desire to obtain in-
formation on the subject, he was induced to institute some tentative experiments upon the common pea, —
a plant well suited to his purpose, both from' its quickness of growth, and from the many varieties in form,
size, and color, which it afforded. In 1787, a degenerate sort of pea was growing in his garden, which had
not recovered its former vigor even when removed to a better soil. Being thus a good subject of experiment,
the male organs of a dozen of its immature blossoms were destroyed, and the female organs left entire.
When the blossoms had attained their mature state, the pollen of a very large and luxuriant grey pea was
introduced into the one half of them, but not into the other. The pods of both grew equally ; but the seeds
of the half that were unimpregnated withered away, without having augmented beyond the size to which
they had attained before the blossoms expanded." The seeds of the other half were augmented and
matured as in the ordinary process of impregnation; and exhibited no perceptible difference from those
of other plants of the same variety; perhaps because the external covering of the seed was furnished
entirely by the female. But when they were made to vegetate in the succeeding spring, the effect of
the experiment was obvious. The plants rose with great luxuriance, indicating in their stem, leaves, and
fruit, the influence of this artificial impregnation ; the seeds produced were of a dark grey. By im-
pregnating the flowers of this variety with the pollen of others, the color was again changed, and new
varieties obtained, superior in every respect to the original on which the experiment was first made, and
attaining in some cases, to a height of more than twelve feet. (Phil. Trans. 17S9.) Knight thinks his
experiments on this subject afford examples of superfcetation, a phenomenon, the existence of which has
been admitted amongst animals, but of which the proof amongst vegetables is not yet quite satisfactory.
Of one species of superfcetation he has certainly produced examples ; that is, when, by impregnating a
white pea-blossom with the pollen both of a white and grey pea, white and grey seeds were obtained.
But of the other species of superfcetation, in which one seed is supposed to be the joint issue of two males,
the example is not quite satisfactory. Such a production is perhaps possible, and further experiments
may probably ascertain the fact ; but it seems to be a matter of mere curiosity, and not apparently con-
nected with any views of utility.
822. The practicability of improving the species, is rendered strikingly obvious by these experiments ;
and the ameliorating effect is the same whether by the male or female ; as was ascertained by impreg-
nating the largest and most luxuriant plants with the pollen of the most diminutive and dwarfish, or
the contrary. By such means any number of varieties may be obtained, according to the will of the
experimenter, amongst which some will no doubt be suited to all soils and situations. Knight's ex-
periments of this kind were extended also to wheat ; but not with equal success. For though some
very good varieties were obtained, yet they were found not to be permanent. But the success of his
experiments on the apple-tree were equal to his hopes. This was indeed his principal object, and no
means of obtaining a successful issue were left untried. The plants which were obtained in this case
Book I. IMPREGNATION OF VEGETABLES, 183
were found to possess the good qualities of both of the varieties employed, uniting the greatest health
and luxuriance with the finest and best-flavoured fruit
823. Improved varieties of every fruit and esculent plant may be obtained by means of artificial impreg-
nation, or crossing, as they were obtained in the cases already stated. Whence Knight thinks, that this
promiscuous impregnation of species has been intended by nature to take place, and that it does in fact
often take place, for the purpose of correcting such accidental varieties as arise from seed, and of con-
fining them within narrower limits. All which is thought to be countenanced from the consideration of
the variety of methods which nature employs to disperse the pollen, either by the elastic spring of the
anthers, the aid of the winds, or the instrumentality of insects. But, although he admits the existence
of vi *etable hybrids, that is, of varieties obtained from the intermixture of different species of the same
genus, yet he does not admit the existence of vegetable mules, that is, of varieties obtained from the
intermixture of the species of different genera ; in attempting to obtain which he could never succeed,
in spite of all his efforts. Hence he suspects that where such varieties have been supposed to take place,
the former must have been mistaken for the latter. It may be said, indeed, that if the case exists in the
animal kingdom, why not in the vegetable kingdom ? to which it is, perhaps, difficult to give a satisfactory
reply. But from the narrow limits within which this intercourse is in all cases circumscribed, it scarcely
seems to have been the intention of nature that it should succeed even among animals. Salisbury is of a
different opinion, and considers {Hort. Trans, i. 364.) that new species may be created both by bees and
the agency of man ; and the recent experiments of Herbert, Sweet, and others seem to confirm this
opinion. Sweet's experience leads him to conclude that the plants of all orders strictly natural may be
reciprocally impregnated with success, and he has already, in the nursery-gardens of Messrs. Colville,
produced many new gerania? and rhoderacea?.
824 A singular or anomalous effect of crossing, or extraneous impregnation, is the change sometimes un .
dergone by the seed or fruit which is produced by the blossom impregnated. These effects are not uniform
results, but they are of frequent occurrence, and have attracted notice from a very early period. John Tur-
ner observes {Hort. Trans, v. 63.) that Theophrastus and Pliny ( Tkeophrast. Hist. Plant. L ii. c. 4. ; Plinii Hid.
Nat. L xvii. c. 25.) seem to allude to it, and that the notion was entertained by Bradley, who, in his
New Improvements in Planting and Gardening, after giving directions for fertilising the female flowers
of the hazel with the pollen of the male, says, " By this knowledge we may alter the property and taste
of any fruit, by impregnating the one with the farina of another of the same class, as, for example, a
codlin with a peannain, which will occasion the codlin so impregnated to last a longer time than usual,
and be of a sharper taste ; or if the winter fruit should be fecundated with the dust of the summer kinds,
they will decay before their usual time ; and it is from this accidental coupling of the farina of one kind with
the other, that in an orchard, where there is variety of apples, even the fruit gathered from the same tree
differs in its flavor and times of ripening; and, moreover, the seeds of those apples so generated, being
changed by that means from their natural qualities, will produce different kinds of fruit, if they are sown."
Turner, after quoting several instances, and, among others, one from the Philosophical Transactions
" concerning the effect which the farina of the blossoms of different sorts of apples had on the fruit of
a neighbouring tree," states upwards of six cases of hybridised apples, that had come within his own
observation, and concludes with the remark, that if there does exist in fruits such a liability to change,
it will at once be evident to the intelligent cultivator how much care is requisite in growing melons,
cucumbers, &c. to secure their true characters, even without reference to saving seed for a future crop.
In the same, volume of the Horticultural Transactions (p. 234.), an account is given of different-colored
peas being produced in the same pod by crossing the parent blossom. All these facts seem to contradict
the generally received opinion, that crossing only affects the next generation : here it appears to affect
the embryo offspring ; and a gardener who had no keeping apples in his orchard, might communicate
that quality in part to his summer fruit by borrowing the use of a neighbour's blossoms from a late variety.
It is probable, however, that such counter-impregnations do not take place readily ; otherwise the produce
of a common orchard would be an ever-varying round of monstrosities.
Sect. VIII. Changes consequent upon Impregnation.
825. The peculiar changes consequent upon impregnation, whether in the flowers or
fruit, may be considered as external and internal.
826. External changes. At the period of the impregnation of the ovary the flower has attained to its
ultimate state of perfection, and displayed its utmost beauty of coloring and richness of perfume. But as
it is now no longer wanted, so it is no longer provided for in the economy of vegetation. Its period of
decline has commenced ; a* is indicated, first by the decay of the stamens, then of the petals, and then of
the calvx, which wither and shrink up, and finallv detach themselves from the fruit altogether, except in
some particular cases in which one or other of them becomes permanent and falls only with the fruit. The
stigma exhibits also similar symptoms of decay, and the style itself often perishes. The parts contiguous
to the flower, such as the bractes and floral leaves, are sometimes also affected ; and finally the whole
plant, at least in the case of annuals, begins to exhibit indications of decay. But while the flower withers
and falls, the ovary is advancing to perfection, swelling and augmenting in size, and receiving now all the
nutriment by which the decayed parts were formerlv supported. Its color begins to assume a deeper and
richer tinge ; its figure is also often altered, and new parts are even occasionally added — wings, crests,
prickles, hooks, bloom, down. The common receptacle of the fruit undergoes also similar changes, becom-
ing sometimes large and succulent, as in the fig and strawberry ; and sometimes juiceless and indurated, as
in compound flowers.
827. Internal changes. If the ovary is cut open as soon as it is first discoverable in the flower, it pre-
sents to the eye merely a pulpy and homogeneous mass. But if it is allowed to remain till immediately
before the period of its impregnation, it will now be found to be divisible into several distinct parts, exhi-
biting an apparatus of cells, valves, and membranes, constituting the pericarp, and sometimes the external
coats of the seed. In this case the umbilical cord is also to be distinguished ; but the embryo is not yet
visible. These changes, therefore, are to be attributed merely to the operation of the ordinary laws of
vegetable developement, and are not at all dependent upon "impregnation. But impregnation has no
sooner taken place than its influence begins to be visible; the umbilical cord, which was formerly short
and distended, is now generally converted into a long and slender thread. Sometimes the position of the
seed is altered. Before impregnation the seeds of caryophyllus aromaticus, and netrosideros gummifera,
are horizontal ; after impregnation they become vertical. Before impregnation the magnolia seeds are
erect ; after impregnation they become inverted and pendulous. The figure of the seed is often also
altered in passing from its young to its mature state ; changing from smootli to angular, from tapering to
oval, from oval to round, and from round to kidney-shaped. But all seeds are not brought to maturity, of
which the rudiments may exist in the ovary. Lagoecia and hasselquistia, produce uniformly the rudi-
ments of two seeds, of which they mature but one. But the principal changes resulting from impregnation
are operated in the seed itself, which, though previously a homogeneous and gelatinous mass, is now con-
verted into an organised body, or embryo. Such are the phenomena, according to the description of
Gaertner, accompanying or following the impregnation of all flowers producing seeds ; exceptions occur
where the fecundation is spurious or incomplete ; where the ovary swells, but exhibits no traces of perfect
seed within, as often happens in the vine and tamus ; or when barren and fertile seeds are intermingled
together in the same ovary. This proceeds from some defect either in the quantity or quality of the pollen ;
N 4
184
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
but rather in the quality, as ft is not always plants having the most pollen that produce the most seeds. The
two stamens of the orcnidse fecundate 8000 seeds, and the five stamens of tobacco fecundate 900: while the
50 stamens of barringtonia, the 250 of thea, and the 80 of the caryophilli, fecundate only two or three
ovaries.
Sect. IX. The Propagation of the Species.
828. As the life of the vegetable, like that of the animal, is limited to a definite period,
and as a continued supply of vegetables is always wanted for the support of animals,
what we call art, or nature operating by means of the animal man, has taken care to
institute such means as shall secure the multiplying and perpetuating of the species in
all possible cases.
829. Equivocal Generation. It was long a vulgar error, countenanced even by the philosophy of the times
that vegetables do often spring up from the accidental mixture of putrid water and earth, or other putrid
substances, in the manner of what was called the equivocal generation of animals ; or at the very least,
that the earth contains the principle of vegetable life in itself, which in order to deveiope, it is only neces-
sary to expose to the action of the air. The former alternative of the error has been long ago refuted ;
the latter has lost its hold, having been also refuted by Malpighi, who proved that the earth produces
no plant without the intervention of a seed, or of some other species of vegetable germ deposited in it by
nature or by art.
830. Propagation by seeds. When the seed has reached maturity in the due and
regular course of the developement of its several parts, it detaches itself sooner or later
from the parent plant, either singly or along with its pericarp, and drops into the soil,
where it again germinates and takes root, and springs up into a new individual. Such
is the grand means instituted by nature for the replenishing and perpetuating of the
vegetable kingdom.
831. Dispersion of seed. If seeds were to fall into the soil merely by dropping down from the plant,
then the great mass of them, instead of germinating and springing up into distinct plants, would grow up
only to putrefy and decay ; to prevent which consequence
nature has adopted a variety of the most efficacious contri-
vances, all tending to the dispersion of the see<L The first
means to be mentioned, is that of the elasticity of the peri-
carp of many fruits, by which it opens when ripe, with a sort
of sudden spring, ejecting the seed with violence, and throw-
ing it some considerable distance from the plant. This may be
exemplified in a variety of cases ; the seeds of oats when ripe
are projected from the calyx with such violence, that in a fine
and dry day you may even hear them thrown out with a
slight and sudden snap in passing through a field that is ripe.
The pericarp of the Dorsiferous Ferns {Jig. 64 a) is furnished
with a sort of peculiar elastic ring (b), intended, as it would
appear, for the very purpose of projecting the seeds. The
capsules of the cucumber, geranium geum, and fraxinella,
discharge their seeds also when ripe with an elastic jerk. But
the pericarp of impatiens, which consists of one cell with
five valves, exhibits perhaps one of the best examples of this
mode of dispersion. If it is accidentally touched when ripe
it will immediately burst open, while the valves, coiling
themselves up in a spiral form, and springing from the stem,
discharge the contained seeds and scatter them all around.
The bursting of the pericarp of some species of pines is also
worthy of notice- The pericarp, which is a cone, remains
on the tree till the summer succeeding that on which it was
produced, the scales being still closed. But when the hot ^^Jlfesfe^S"^ ^tsm* 5
weather has commenced and continued for some time, so as *s^^f^^a^sri <^
to dry the cone thoroughly, the scales open of their own
accord with a sudden jerk, ejecting the contained seeds : and if a number of them happen to burst together,
which is often the case, the noise is such as to be heard at some considerable distance. The twisted awn of
avena fatua {fig.65.), orwild oat, as well as that of geranium cicutarium, and some others, seems to have
been intended particularly for the purpose of aiding the further dispersion of the seed, after being discharged
from the plant or pericarp. This spiral awn or spring, ,
which is beset with a multitude of fine and minute hairs,
possesses the property of contracting by means of drought,
and of expanding by means of moisture. Hence it remains
of necessity in a perpetual state of contraction or dilatation,
dependent upon change of weather ; from which, as well as
from the additional aid of the fine hairs,which act as so many
fulcra, and cling to whatever object they meet, the seed to
which it is attached is kept in continual motion till it either
germinates or is destroyed. The awn of barley, which is
beset with a multitude of little teeth all pointing to its
upper extremity, presents also similar phenomena. For
when the seed with its awn falls from the ear and lies flat
upon the ground, it is necessarily extended in its dimensions
by the moisture of the night, and contracted by the drought
of the day. But as the teeth prevent it from receding in
the direction of the point, it is consequently made to ad-
vance in the direction of the base of the seed, which is thus
often carried to the distance of many feet from the stalk on
which it grew. If any one is yet sceptical with regard to
the travelling capacity of the awn, let him only introduce
an awn of barley with the seed uppermost between his coat
and shirtsleeve at the wrist, when he walks out in the morn-
ing, and by the time he returns to breakfast, if he has
walked to any great distance, he will find it up at his arm-
pit. This journey has been effected by means of the con-
tinued motion of the arm, and consequently of the teeth of
the awn acting as feet to carry it forward.
832. Where distance of dispersion is required, nature is
Book I. PROPAGATION OF VEGETABLES. 185
also furnished with a resource. One of the most common modes by which seeds are conveyed to a dis-
tance from their place of growth is that of the instrumentality of animals. Many seeds are thus carried to
a distance from their place of growth merely by their attaching themselves to the bodies of such animals
as may happen accidentally to come in contact with the plant in their search after food ; the hooka or hairs
with which one part or other of the fructification is often furnished serving as the medium of attachment,
aid the seed being thus carried about with the animal till it is again detached by some accidental cause, and
at last committed to the soil. This may be exemplified in the case of the bidens and myosotis, in which
ihe hooks or prickles are attached to the seed itself; or in the case of galium aparine and others, in which
they are attached to the pericarp ; or in the case of the thistle and the burdock, id which they are attached
to the general calyx. Many seeds are dispersed by animals in consequence of their pericarps being used
as food. This is often the case with the seeds of the drupe, as cherries, sloes, and haws, which birds
often carry away till they meet with some convenient place for devouring the pulpy pericarp, and
then drop the stone into the soil. And so also fruit is dispersed that has been hoarded lor the winter,
though even with the view of feeding on the seed itself, as in the case of nuts hoarded up by squirrels,
which are often dispossessed by some other animal, that not caring for the hoard scatters and disperses it.
Sometimes the hoard is deposited in the ground itself, in which case part of it is generally found to take
root and spring up into plants. Though it has been observed that the ground-squirrel often deprives the
kernel of its germ before it deposits the fruit it collects. Crows have been also observed to lay up acorns
and other seeds in the holes offence-posts, which being either, forgot or accidentally thrust out, fall ulti-
mately into the earth and germinate. But sometimes the seed is even taken into the stomach of the
animal, and afterwards deposited in the soil, having passed through it unhurt. This is often the case with
the seed of many species of berry, such as the mistletoe, which the thrush swallows and afterwards deposits
upon the boughs of such trees as it may happen to alight upon. The seeds of the loranthus americanus,
another parasitical plant, are said to be deposited in like manner on the branches of the coccoloba grandi-
flora, and other lofty trees; as also the seeds of phytolacca decandra, the berries of which are eaten by
the robin, thrush, and wild pigeon. And so also the seeds of currants or roans are sometimes deposited,
after having been swallowed by blackbirds or other birds, as may be seen by observing a currant-bush or
young roan-tree growing out of the cleft of another tree, where the seed has been left, and where there
may happen to have been a little dust collected by way of soil ; or where a natural graft may have been
effected by the insinuation of the radicle into some chink or cleft. It seems indeed surprising that any
seeds should be able to resist the heat and digestive action of the stomach of animals ; but it is undoubtedly
the fact. Some seeds seem even to require it. The seeds of magnolia glauca, which have been brought
to this country, are said to have generally refused to vegetate till after undergoing this process, and it is
known that some seeds will bear a still greater degree of heat without any injury. Spallanzani mentions
some seeds that germinated after having been boiled in water : and Du Hamel gives an account of some
others that germinated even after having boen exposed to a degree of heat measuring 235u of Fahrenheit.
In addition to the instrumentality of brute animals in the dispersion of the seed might be added also that
of man, who, for purposes of utility or of ornament, not only transfers to his native soil seeds indigenous to
the most distant regions, but sows and cultivates them with care.
833. The agency of winds is one of the most effective modes of dispersion instituted by nature. Some seeds
are fitted for this mode of dispersion from their extreme minuteness, such as those of the mosses, lichens,
and fungi, which float invisibly on the air, and vegetate wherever they happen to meet with a suitable
soil. Others are fitted for it by means of an attached wing, as in the case of the fir-tree and liriodendron
tulipifera, so that the seed, in falling from the cone or capsule, is immediately caught by the wind,
and carried to a distance. Others are peculiarly fitted for it by means of their being furnished with
an aigrette or down, as in the case of the dandelion, goat's-beard, and thistle, as well as most plants of the
class Sy?igenesia ; the down of which is so large and light in proportion to the seed it supports, that it is
wafted on the most gentle breeze, and often seen floating through the atmosphere in great abundance at
the time the seed is ripe. Some have a tail, as in clematis vita alba. Others are fitted for this mode of
dispersion by means of the structure of the pericarp, which is also wafted along with them, as in the case of
staphylea trifolia, the inflated capsule of which seems as if obviously intended thus to aid the dispersion
of the contained seed by its exposing to the wind a large and distended surface with but little weight. And
so also in the case of the maple, elm, and ash, the capsules of which are furnished, like some seeds, with
a membranous wing, which when they separate from the plant the wind immediately lays hold of and
drives before it.
834. The instrumentality of streams, rivers, and currents of the ocean, is a further means adopted by
nature for the dispersion of the seeds of vegetables. The mountain-stream or torrent washes down to
the valley the seeds which may accidentally fall into it, or which it may happen to sweep from its banks when
it suddenly overflows them. The broad and majestic river, winding along the extensive plain, and tra-
versing the continents of the world, conveys to the distance of many hundreds of miles the seeds that may
have vegetated at its source. Thus the southern shores of the Baltic are visited by seeds which grew in
the interior of Germany, and the western shores of the Atlantic by seeds; that have been generated in the
interior of America. But fruits indigenous to America and the West Indies have sometimes been found
to be swept along by the currents of the ocean to the western shores of Europe. The fruit of mimosa scan-
dens, dolichos pruriens, guilandina bonduc, and anacardium occidentale, or cashew-nut, have been thus
known to be driven across the Atlantic to a distance of upwards of 2000 miles; and although the fruits
now adduced as examples are not such as could vegetate on the coast on which they were thrown, owing to
soil or climate, yet it is to be believed that fruits may have been often thus transported to climates or coun-
tries favorable to their vegetation.
835. Propagation by gems. Though plants are for the most part propagated by means
of seeds, yet many of them are propagated also by means of gems ; that is, bulbs and buds.
The caulinary bulb is often the means of the propagation of the species : it generally appears in the
axil of the leaves, as in dentaria bulbifera and lilium bulbiferum ; or between the spokes of their um-
bels, as in allium canadense ; in the midst of the spike of flowers, as in polygonum viviparum and poa
alpina. As plants of this last kind are mostly alpine, it has been thought to be an institution or re-
source of nature to secure the propagation of the species in situations where the seed may fail to ripen.
836. The bud though it does not spontaneously detach itself from the plant and form a new individual,
will vet sometimes strike root and develope its parts if carefully separated by art and planted in the
earth : but this is to be understood of the leaf-bud only, for the flower-bud, according to Mirbel, if so
treated, always perishes.
837. Propagation by the leaves. The species may sometimes be propagated even by means of th •
leaves ; as in the aloe, sea-onion, and some species of arum, which if carefully deposited in the soil will
$;row up into new plants, by virtue, no doubt, of some latent gem contained in them. The fungi and
lichens, according to Gasrtner, are all gemmiferous, having no sexual organs, and no pollen impregnat-
ing a germ. In the genus Lycoperdon, the gelatinous substance that pervades the cellular tissue is con-
verted into a proliferous powder ; in clavaria, the fluid contained in the cavities of the plant is converted
into a proliferous powder also ; and in the agarics, hypnum, and boletus, vesicles containing sobolifer-
ous granules are found within the lamina, pores, or tubes. Hedtfig, on the contrary, ascribes to the
fungi a sexual apparatus, and maintains that the pollen is lodged in the volva. But here it is to be
recollected, as in the cases of the scutclkc of the lichens, that all fungi are not furnished with a volva,
186
SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
and consequently not furnished with pollen. The conferva? and ulvse, together with the genera Blasia
and Riccia, are also, according to Gartner, propagated only by gems ; while marchantia, anthoceros,
jungermannia, and lycoperdon, are said to be propagated both by gems and seeds.
838. Runners are young shoots issuing from the collar or summit of the root, and
creeping along the surface of the soil ; but producing a new root and leaves at the
extremity, and forming a new individual, by the decay of the connecting link, as in the
strawberry.
839. Slips. The process of raising perennials by slips is well known to gardeners, and
should perhaps be regarded as an extension of the old plant, rather than as the generation
of a new one ; though it serves the purpose of the cultivator equally well as a plant raised
from seed, with the additional advantage of bearing fruit much sooner. But how is the
root o-enerated which the slip thus produces ? If the trunk of a tree is lopped, and all its
existino- buds destroyed, then there will be protruded from between the wood and bark a
sort of protuberant lip or ring formed from the proper juice, and from which there will
sprino- a number of young shoots. The formation of the root in the case of the slip is
effected in the same manner, the moisture of the soil encouraging the protrusion of buds
at and near the section ; and the bud that would have been converted into a branch above
ground is converted into a root below.
840. Lai/ers. The mode of propagation by layers is practised upon trees that are deli-
cate, and which cannot readily be propagated by means of slips ; in which case the root
is o-enerated nearly as in the former case, the soil stimulating the protrusion of buds
which are converted into roots. In many plants, such as the currant and laurel, this is
altogether a natural process, effected by the spontaneous bending down of a branch to the
surface of the soil.
841. Suckers or off-sets. Many plants protrude annually from the collar a number of
youno- shoots, encircling the principal stem and depriving it of a portion of its nourish-
ment, as in the case of most fruit-trees. Others send out a horizontal root, from which
there at last issues a bud that ascends above the soil and is converted into a little stem, as
in the case of the elm-tree and syringa. Others send out a horizontal shoot from the
collar or its neighbourhood ; or a shoot that ultimately bends down by its own weight till
it reaches the ground, in which it strikes root and again sends up a stem as in the currant-
bush and laurel. The two former are called suckers or off-sets, though the term off-set
should perhaps be restricted to the young bulbs that issue and detach themselves annually
from bulbous roots. The latter is not designated by any particular name, but may be re-
garded as a sort of natural layer, resembling also, in some respects, the runner ; from
which, however, it is distinguished in that it never detaches itself spontaneously from the
parent plant, as is the case also with the two former. But if either of them is artificially
detached, together with a portion of root or a slice of the collar adhering to it, it will now
bear transplanting, and will constitute a distinct plant.
842. Grafting and budding. The species is also often propagated, or at least the
variety is multiplied, by means of grafting, which is an artificial application of a portion
of the shoot or root of one tree or plant to the stem, shoot, branch, or root of another, so
that the two shall coalesce together and form but one plant. The shoot which is to form
the summit of the new individual is called the scion ; the stem to which it is affixed is
called the stock ; and the operation, when effected, the graft. As the graft is merely an
extension of the parent plant from which the scion came, and not properly speaking
a new individual, so it is found to be the best method of propagating approved
varieties of fruit-trees without any danger of altering the quality of the fruit, which is
always apt to be incurred in propagating from seed, but never in propagating from the
scion. The scion will also bear fruit much sooner than the tree that is raised from seed ;
and, if effected on a proper stock, will be much more hardy and vigorous than if left on
the parent plant. And hence the great utility of grafting in the practice of gardening.
Till lately, grafting was confined to the ligneous plants, but it is now successfully prac-
tised on the roots and shoots of herbaceous vegetables ; and the dahlia is grafted by the
root ; the melon on the gourd ; the love-apple on the potatoe ; the cauliflower on the cab-
bage, &c. by the shoot. A very ingenious tract has been published on this subject,
entitled, Essai sur la Greffe de Vherbe des plantes el des arbres, par Monsr. Le Baron de
Tschoudy, Bourgeois de Claris. Paris, 1819.
Sect. X. Causes limiting the Propagation of the Species.
843. Though plants are controlled chiefly by animals, yet they also control one another.
From the various sources of vegetable reproduction, but particularly from the fer-
tility and dispersion of the seed, the earth would soon be overrun with plants of the most
prolific species, and converted again into a desert, if it were not that nature has set bounds
to their propagation by subjecting them to the control of man, and to the depredations of
the great mass of animals ; as well as in confining the germination of their seeds to cer-
tain and peculiar habitations arising from soil, climate, altitude, and other circumstances.
Book I. EVIDENCE OF VEGETABLE VITALITY. 487
In order to form an idea of the manner in which these act upon vegetation ; imagine that
every year an enormous quantity of seeds, produced by the existing vegetables, are spread
over the surface of the globe, by the winds and other causes already mentioned, all of
these seeds which fall in places suitable for their vegetation, and are not destroyed by ani-
mals, germinate and produce plants ; then among these plants, the strongest, and largest,
and those to which the soil is best suited, develope themselves in number and magnitude
so as to choke the others. Such is the general progress of nature, and among plants, as
among animals, the strong nourish at the expense of the weak. These causes have oper-
ated for such a length of time, that the greater number of species are now fixed and con-
sidered as belonging to certain soils, situations, and climates, beyond which they seldom
propagate themselves otherwise than by the hands of man.
Sect. XL Evidence and Character of Vegetable Vitality.
844. The power of counteracting the laivs of chemical affinity is reckoned the best and
most satisfactory evidence of the presence and agency of a vital principle as inherent in
any subject. This principle, which seems first to have been instituted by Humboldt, is
obviously applicable to the case of animals, as is proved by the process of the digestion of
the food, and its conversion into chyle and blood ; as well as from the various secretions
and excretions effected by the several organs, and effecting the growth and developement
of the individual, in direct opposition to the acknowledged laws of chemical affinity,
which, as soon as the vital principle is extinct, begin immediately to give indication of
their action in the incipient symptoms of the putrefaction of the dead body. But. the rule
is also applicable to the case of vegetables, as is proved by the intro-susception, digestion,
and assimilation of the food necessary to their developement ; all indicating the agency
of a principle capable of counteracting the laws of chemical affinity ; which, at the period
of what is usually called the death of the plant, begin also immediately to act, and to give
evidence of their action in the incipient symptoms of the putrefaction of the vegetable.
Vegetables are therefore obviously endowed with a species of vitality. But admitting the
presence and agency of a vital principle inherent in the vegetable subject, what are the
peculiar properties by which this principle is characterised ?
845. Excitability. One of the most distinguishable properties of the vital principle of vegetables is
that of its excitability, or capacity of being acted upon by the application of natural stimuli, impelling
it to the exertion of its vegetative powers ; the natural stimuli thus impelling it being light and heat.
846. The stimulating influence of light upon the vital principle of the plant is discoverable, whether
in the stem, leaf, or flower The direction of the stem is influenced by the action of light, as well as
the color of its leaves. Distance from direct rays of light or weak light produces etiolation, and its
absence blanching. The luxuriance of branches depends on the presence and action of light, as is par-
ticularly observable in the case of hot-house plants, the branches of which are not so conspicuously di-
rected, either to the flue in quest of heat, or to the door or open sash in quest of air, as to the sun
in quest of light. Hence also the branches of plants are often more luxuriant on the south than on
the north side ; or at least on the side that is best exposed to light. The position of the leaf is also
strongly affected by the action of light to which it uniformly turns its upper surface. This may be readily
perceived in the case of trees trained to a wall, from which the upper surface of the leaf is by con-
sequence always turned; being on a south wall turned to the south, and on a north wall turned to the
north. And if the upper surface of the leaf is forcibly turned towards the wall and confined in that
position for a length of time, it will soon resume its primitive position upon regaining its liberty, but
particularly if the atmosphere is clear. The leaves of the mallow are said to exhibit but slight indi-
cations of this susceptibility, as also sword-shaped leaves ; and also those of the mistletoe, are equally
susceptible on both sides. It had been conjectured that these effects are partly attributable to the
agency of heat ; and to try the value of the conjecture, Bonnet placed some plants of the atriplex in a
stove heated to 25° of Reaumur. Yet the stems were not inclined to the side from which the greatest
degree of heat came; but to a small opening in the stoves. Heat then does not seem to exert any
perceptible influence in the production of the above effects. Does moisture ? Bonnet found that the
leaves of the vine exhibited the same phenomenon when immersed in water, as when left in the open
air. Whence it seems probable that light is the sole agent in the production of the effects in question.
But as light produces such effects upon the leaves, so darkness or the absence of light produces an effect
quite the contrary; for it is known that the leaves of many plants assume a very different position in the
night from what they have in the day. This is particularly the case with winged leaves, which, though
fully expanded during the day, begin to droop and bend down about sunset and during the fall of the
evening dew, till they meet together on the inferior side of the leaf-stalk, the terminal lobe, if the leaf
is furnished with one, folding itself back till it reaches the first pair; or the two side lobes, if the leaf is
trifoliate; as in the case of common clover. So also the leaflets of the false acacia and liquorice hang
down during the night, and those of mimosa pudica fold themselves up along the common foot-stalk
so as to overlap one another. Linnaeus has designated the above phenomenon by the appellation of
Ttie Sleep of Plants. The expansion of the flower is also effected by the action of light. Many plants
do not fully expand their petals except when the sun shines ; and hence alternately open them during
the day and shut them up during the night. This may be exemplified in the case of papilionaceous
flowers in general, which spread out their wings in fine weather to admit the rays of the sun, and again
fold them up as the night approaches. . It may be exemplified also in the case of compound flowers, as in
that of the dandelion and hawkweed. But the most singular case of this kind is perhaps that of the
lotus of the Euphrates, as described by Theophrastus, which he represents as rearing and expanding its
blossoms by day, closing and sinking down beneath the surface of the water by night so as to be beyond
the grasp of the hand, and again rising up in the morning to present its expanded blossom to the sun.
The same phenomenon is related also by Pliny. But although many plants open their flowers in the
morning and shut them again in the evening, yet all flowers do not open and shut at the same time.
Plants of the same species are tolerably regular as to- time, other circumstances being the same ; and
hence the daily opening and shutting of the flower has been denominated by botanists The Horologium
Flora. Flowers requiring but a slight application of stimulus open early in the morning, while others
requiring more open somewhat later. Some do not open till noon, and some, whose extreme delicacy
cannot bear the action of light at all, open only at night, such as the cactus grandiflora, or night-blowing
188 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
cereus. But it seems somewhat doubtful whether or not light is the sole agent in the present" case ; for
it has been observed that equatorial flowers open always at the same hour, and that tropical flowers
change their hour of opening according to the length of the day. It has been observed also, that the
flowers of plants that are removed from a warmer to a colder climate expand at a later hour in the latter.
A flower that opens at six o'clock in the morning at Senegal, will not open in France or England
till eight or nine, nor in Sweden till ten. A flower that opens at ten o'clock at Senegal, will not
open in France or England till noon or later, and in Sweden it will no* open at all. And a flower
that does not open till noon or later at Senegal, will not open at all in France or England. This seems as
if heat or its absence were also an agent in the opening and shutting of flowers ; though the opening of
such as blow only in the night cannot be attributed either to light or heat. But the opening or shutting
of some flowers depends not so much on the action of the stimulus of light as on the existing state of
the atmosphere, and hence their opening or shutting betokens change. If the Siberian sow-thistle shuts
at night, the ensuing day will be fine ; and if it opens, it will be cloudy and rainy. If the African mari-
gold continues shut after seven o'clock in the morning, rain is near at hand. And if the convolvulus ar-
vensis, calendula fluvialis, or anagallis arvensis, are even already open they will shut upon the approach
of rain, the last of which, from its peculiar susceptibility, has obtained the name of the poor man's
weatherglass. But some flowers not only expand during the light of day ; they incline also towards the
sun, and follow his course, looking towards the east in the morning, towards the south at noon, and
towards the west in the evening ; and again returning in the night to their former position in the morn-
ing. Such flowers are designated by the appellation of Heliotropes, on account of their following the
course of the sun ; and the movement they thus exhibit is denominated their nutation. This phenomenon
had been observed by the ancients long before they had made any considerable progress in botany, and
had even been interwoven into their mythology, having originated, according to the records Cf fabulous
history, in one of the metamorphoses of early times. Clytie, inconsolable for the loss of the affections of
Sol, by whom she had been formerly beloved, and of whom she was still enamoured, is represented as
brooding over her griefs in silence and solitude ; where, refusing all sustenance, and seated upon the
cold ground, with her eyes invariably fixed on the sun during the day, and watching for his return dur-
ing the night, she is at length transformed into a flower, retaining, as much as a flower can retain it,
the same unaltered attachment to the sun. This is the flower which is denominated heliotropium by the
ancients, and described by Ovid as Flos qui ad solem vertitur. But it is to be observed, that the flower
alluded to by Ovid cannot be the heliotropium of the moderns, because Ovid describes it as resembling
the violet : much less can it be the sun-flower of the moderns, which is a native of America, and could
not consequently have been known to Ovid ; so that the true heliotropium of the ancients is perhaps not
yet ascertained. Bonnet has further remarked that the ripe ears of corn, which bend down with weight
of grain, scarcely ever incline to the north, but always less or more to the south ; of the accuracy of
which remark any one may easily satisfy himself by looking at a field of wheat ready for the sickle ; he
will find the whole mass of ears nodding, as if with one consent to the south. The cause of the pheno-
menon has been supposed to be a contraction of the fibres of the stem or flower-stalk on the side exposed
to the sun ; and this contraction has been thought by De la Hire and Dr. Hales to be occasioned by an
excess of transpiration on the sunny side; which is probably the fact, though there seems upon this
principle to be some difficulty in accounting for its returning at night; because if you say that the con-
tracted side expands and relaxes by moisture, what is it that contracts the side that was relaxed in the
day? The moisture, of which it is no doubt still full, would counteract the contraction of its fibres, and
prevent it from resuming its former position in the morning.
847. Heat as well as light acts also as a powerful stimulus to the exertion of the
vital principle. This has been already shown in treating of the process of germination ;
but the same thing is observable with regard to the developement and maturation of the
leaves, flower, and fruit ; for although all plants produce their leaves, flower, and fruit,
annually, yet they do not all produce them at the same period or season. This forms
the foundation of what Linnaeus has called the Calendarium Florce, including a view of
the several periods of the frondescence and efflorescence of plants, together with that of
the maturation of the fruit.
848. Frondescence. It must be plain to every observer, that all plants do not protrude their leaves at the
same season, and that even of such as do protrude them in the same season, some are earlier and some
later. The honeysuckle protrudes them in the month of January ; the gooseberry, currant, and elder,
in the end of February, or beginning of March ; the willow, elm, and lime-tree, "in April ; and the oak
and ash, which are always the latest among trees, in the beginning or towards the middle of May.
Many annuals do not come up till after the summer solstice ; and many mosses not till after the com-
mencement of winter. This gradual and successive unfolding of the leaves of different plants seems to
arise from the peculiar susceptibility of the species to the action of heat, as requiring a greater or less
degree of it to give the proper stimulus to the vital principle. But a great many circumstances will al-
ways concur to render the time of the unfolding of the leaves somewhat irregular ; because the mildness
of the season is by no means uniform at the same period of advancement ; and because the leafing of the
plant depends upon the peculiar degree of temperature, and not upon the return of a particular day of
the year. Hence it has been thought, that no rule could be so good for directing the husbandman in the
sowing of his several sorts of grain as the leafing of such species of trees as might be found by observation
to correspond best to each sort of grain respectively, in the degree of temperature required. Linnaaus
(Stillingfleet informs us) instituted some observations on the subject about the year 1750, with a view
chiefly to ascertain the time proper for the sowing of barley in Sweden ; he regarded the leafing of the birch-
tree as being the best indication for that grain, and recommended the institution of similar observations
with regard to other sorts of grain, upon the ground of its great importance to the husbandman, who
may be said to attend to it in a manner instinctively ; but as all the trees of the same species do not come
into leaf precisely at the same time, and as the weather may alter even after the most promising indi-
cations, no guide natural or artificial can be absolutely depended on with a view to future results.
849. Efflorescence. The flowering of the plant, like the leafing, seems to depend upon the degree of tem-
perature induced by the returning spring, as the flowers are also protruded pretty regularly at' the same
successive periods of the season. The mezereon and snowdrop protrude their flowers in February ; the
primrose in the month of March ; the cowslip in April ; the great mass of plants in May and June ; many
in July, August, and September ; some not till the month of October, as the meadow saffron ; and some
not till the approach or middle of winter, as the laurustinus and arbutus. Such at least is the period of
their flowering in this country ; but in warmer climates they are earlier, and in colder climates they are
later. Between the tropics, where the degree of heat is always high, it often happens that plants will
flower more than once in the year ; because they do not there require to wait till the temperature is
raised to a certain height, but merely till the developement of their parts can be effected in the regular
operation of nature, under a temperature already sufficient. For the greater part, however, they flower
during our summer, though plants in opposite hemispheres flower in opposite seasons. But in all climates
the time of flowering depends also much on the altitude of the place as well as on other causes affecting
the degree of heat. Hence plants occupying the polar regions, and plants occupying the tops of the high
mountains of southern latitudes are in flower at the same season ; and hence the same flowers are later
Book I. EVIDENCE OF VEGETABLE VITALITY. 189
in opening in North America than in the same latitudes in Europe, because the surface of the earth is
higher, or the winters more severe. .
H50 Maturation of the fruit. Plants exhibit as much diversity in the warmth and length of time neces-
sary to mature their fruit as in their frondescence and flowering; but the plant that flowers the soonest,
tloes not always ripen its fruit the soonest. The hazel-tree, which blows in February, does not ripen its
fruit till autumn ; while the cherry, that does not blow till May, ripens its fruit in June. It may be re-
garded, however, as the general rule, that if a plant blows in spring it ripens its fruit in summer, as in the
case of the currant and gooseberry ; if it blows in summer it ripens its fruit in autumn, as in the case of
the vine ; and if it blows in autumn it ripens its fruit in the winter. But the meadow-saffron, which
blows in the autumn, does not ripen its fruit till the succeeding spring.
851. Such are the primary facts on which a Calendarium Flora;, should be founded.
They have not hitherto been very minutely attended to by botanists ; and perhaps their
importance is not quite so much as has been generally supposed ; but they are at any
rate sufficiently striking to have attracted the notice even of savages. Some tribes of
American Indians act upon the very principle suggested by Linnaeus, and plant their
corn when the wild plum blooms, or when the leaves of the oak are about as large as a
squirrel's ears. The names of some of their months are also designated from the state
of vegetation. One is called the budding month, and another the flowering month ;
one the strawberry month, and another the mulberry month ; and the autumn is desig-
nated by a term signifying the fall of the leaf. Thus the proposed nomenclature of the
French for the months and seasons is founded in nature as well as in reason.
852. Cold. As the elevation of temperature induced by the heat of summer is es-
sential to the full exertion of the energies of the vital principle, so the depression of
temperature consequent upon the colds of winter has been thought to suspend the ex-
ertion of the vitalenergies altogether. » But this opinion is evidently founded on a mistake,
as is proved by the example of such plants as protrude their leaves and flowers in the
winter season only, such as many of the mosses ; as well as by the dissection of the yet
unfolded buds at different periods of the winter, even in the case of such plants as pro-
trude their leaves and blossoms in the spring and summer, and in which, it has been
already shown, there is a regular, gradual, and incipient developement of parts, from
the time of the bud's first appearance till its ultimate opening in the spring. The sap,
it is true, flows much less freely, but is not wholly stopped. Du Hamel planted some
young trees in the autumn, cutting off all the smaller fibres of the root, with a view
to watch the progress of the formation of new ones. At the end of every fortnight he
had the plants taken up and examined with all possible care to prevent injuring
them, and found that, when it did not actually freeze, new roots were always uniformly
developed.
853. Energies of life in plants like the process of respiration in animals. Hence it fol-
lows, that even during the period of winter, when vegetation seems totally at a stand,
the tree being stripped of its foliage, and the herb apparently withering in the frozen
blast, still the energies of vital life are exerted ; and still the vital principle is at work,
carrying on in the interior of the plant, concealed from human view, and sheltered from
the piercing frosts, operations necessary to the preservation of vegetable life, or protru-
sion of future parts ; though it requires the returning warmth of spring to give that
degree of velocity to the juices which shall render their motion cognizable to man, as
well as that expression to the whole plant which is the most evident token of life : in the
same manner as the processes of respiration, digestion, and the circulation of the blood
are carried on in the animal subject even while asleep ; though the most obvious
indications of animal life are the motions of the animal when awake. Heat then
acts as a powerful stimulus to the operations of the vital principle, accelerating the mo-
tion of the sap, and consequent developement of parts ; as is evident from the sap's
beginning to flow much more copiously as the warmth of spring advances, as well as
from the possibility of anticipating the natural period of their developement by forcing
them in a hot-house. But it is known that excessive heat impedes the progress of veget-
ation as well as excessive cold ; both extremes being equally prejudicial. And hence
the sap flows more copiously in the spring and autumn, than in either the summer or
winter ; as may readily be seen by watching the progress of the growth of the annual
shoot, which, after having been rapidly protruded in the spring, remains for a while
stationary during the great heat of the summer, but is again elongated during the more
moderate temperature of autumn.
854. Stimularity. There are also several substances which have been found to operate
as stimulants to the agency of the vital principle when artificially dissolved in water, and
applied to the root or branch. Oxygenated muriatic acid has been already mentioned :
and the vegetation of the bulbs of the hyacinth and narcissus is accelerated by means of
the application of a solution of nitre. Dr. Barton, of Philadelphia, found that a de-
caying branch of liriodendron tulipifera, and a faded flower of the yellow iris, recovered
and continued long fresh when put into water impregnated with camphor ; though
flowers and branches, in all respects similar, did not recover when put into common
water.
190
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
855. Irritability. Plants are not only susceptible of the action of the natural stimuli
of licht and heat, exciting them gradually to the exercise of the functions of their dif-
ferent organs in the regular progress of vegetation ; they are susceptible also of the action
of a variety of accidental or artificial stimuli, from the application of which they are
found to give indications of being endowed also with a property similar to what we
call irritability in the animal system. This property is well exemplified in the genus
Mimosa; but particularly in that species known by the name of the Sensitive Plant;
and the' dioncea muscipula and drosera. But sometimes the irritability resides in
the flower, and has its seat either in the stamens or style. The former case is ex-
emplified in the flower of the berberry and cactus tuna, and the latter in stylidium
glandulosum.
856. Sensation. From the facts adduced in the preceding sections, it is evident that
plants are endowed with a capacity of being acted upon by the application of stimuli,
whether natural or artificial, indicating the existence of a vital principle, and forming
one of the most prominent features of its character. But besides this obvious and ac-
knowledged propertv, it has been thought by some phytologists that plants are endowed
also with a species o'f sensation. Sir J. E. Smith seems rather to hope that the doctrine
may be true, than to think it so.
857. Instinct. There is also a variety of phenomena exhibited throughout the extent
of the vegetable kingdom, some of which are common to plants in general, and some
peculiar to certain species, that have been thought by several botanical writers to exhibit
indications, not merely of sensation, but of instinct. The tendency of plants to incline
their stem and to turn the upper surface of the leaves to the light, the direction which
the extreme fibres of the root will often take to reach the best nourishment, the folding
up of the flower on the approach of rain, the rising and falling of the water-lily, and
the peculiar and invariable direction assumed by the twining stem in ascending its prop,
are among the phenomena that have been attributed to instinct. Keith has endeavoured
(Lin. Trans, xi. p. 11.) to establish the doctrine of the existence and agency of an in-
stinctive principle in the plant, upon the ground of the direction invariably assumed by
the radicle and plumelet respectively, in the germination of the seed.
858. Definition of the plant. But if vegetables are living beings endowed with
sensation aiid instinct, or any thing approaching to it, so as to give them a resemblance
to animals, how are we certainly to distinguish the plant from the animal ? At the ex-
tremes of the two kingdoms the distinction is easy ; the more perfect animals can never
be mistaken for plants, nor the more perfect plants for animals, but at the mean, ' where
the two kingdoms may be supposed to unite, the shades of discrimination are so very faint
or evanescent that of some individual productions it is almost impossible to say to which
of the kingdoms they belong. Hence it is that substances which have at one time been
classed among plants, have at another time been classed among animals ; and there are
substances to°be met with whose place has not yet been satisfactorily determined. Of
these 1 may exemplify the genus Corallina (fig. 66.), which Linnaeus placed among
66
animals, but which Gasrtner places among plants. Linnaeus, Bonnet, Hedwig, and
Mirbel, have each given particular definitions. According to Keith, a vegetable is an
organised and living substance springing from a seed or gem, which it again produces ;
and effecting the developement of its parts by means of the intro-susception and
of unorganised substances, which it derives from the atmosphere or the soil
tion
assimi la-
in which
animal is an organised
grows. The definition of the animal is the counterpart
and living being proceeding from an egg or embryo, which it again produces ; and ef-
fecting the developement of its parts by means of the intro-susception of organised sub-
stance^ or their products. For all practical purposes, perhaps plants may be distinguished
Book I. VEGETABLE PATHOLOGY. 191
from animals with sufficient accuracy by means of the trial of burning ; as animal sub-
stances in a state of ignition exhale a strong and phosphoric odor, which vegetable sub-
stances do not.
Chap. IX.
Vegetable Pathology, or the Diseases and Casualities of Vegetable Life.
859. As plants are, like animals, organised and living beings, they are, like animals
also, liable to such accidental injuries and disorders as may affect the health and vigor,
or occasion the death of the individual. These are wounds, accidents, diseases, and
natural decay.
Sect. I. Wounds and Accidents.
860. A wound is a forcible separation of the solid parts of the plant effected by means
of some external cause, intentional or accidental.
861. Incisions are sometimes necessary to the health of the tree, in the same manner perhaps as
bleeding is necessary to the health of the animal. The trunk of the plum and cherry-tree seldom expand
freely till a longitudinal incision has been made in the bark ; and hence this operation is often practised
by gardeners. If the incision affects the epidermis only it heals up without leaving any scar ; if it pene-
trates into the interior of the bark, it heals up only by means of leaving a scar ; if it penetrates into the
wood, the wound in the wood itself never heals up completely, but new wood and bark are formed above
it as before.
862. Boring is an operation by which trees are often wounded for the purpose of making them part with
their sap in the season of their bleeding, particularly the birch-tree and American maple. A horizontal or
rather slanting hole is bored in them with a wimble, so as to penetrate an inch or two into the wood, from
this the sap flows copiously ; and though a number of holes is often bored in the same trunk, the health of
the tree is not very materially affected. For trees will continue to thrive though subjected to this oper-
ation for many successive vears ; and the hole, if not very large, will close up again like the deep incision,
not by the union of the broken fibres of the wood, but by the formation of new bark and wood projecting
beyond the edge of the orifice, and finallv shutting it up altogether.
863. Girdling is an operation to which trees in North America are often subjected when the farmer
wishes to clear his land of timber. It consists in making parallel and horizontal incisions with an axe into
the trunk of a tree, and carrying them quite round the stem so as to penetrate through the alburnum,
and then to scoop out the intervening portion. If this operation is performed early in the spring, and be-
fore the commencement of the bleeding season, the tree rarely survives it ; though some trees that are pe-
culiarly tenacious of life, such as acer saccharinum and nyssa integrifolia, have been known to survive
it a considerable length of time.
864. Fracture. If a tree is bent so as to fracture part only of the cortical and woody fibres, and the stem
or branch but small, the parts will again unite by being put back into their natural position, and well
propped up. Especially cure may be expected to succeed if the fracture happens in the spring ; but it will
not succeed if the fracture is accompanied with contusion, or if the stem or branch is large ; and even where
it succeeds the woody fibres do not contribute to the union, but the granular and herbaceous substance
only which exudes from between the wood and liber, insinuating itself into all interstices and finally be-
coming indurated into wood.
865. Pruning. Wounds are necessarily inflicted by the gardener or forester in the pruning or lopping
off the superfluous branches, but this is seldom attended with any bad effects to the health of the tree, if
done by a skilful practitioner : indeed no further art is required merely for the protection of the tree be-
yond that of cutting the branch through in a sloping direction so as to prevent the rain from lodging. In
this case the wound soon closes up by the induration of the exposed surface of the section, and by the pro-
trusion of a granular substance, forming a sort of circular lip between the wood and bark ; and hence the
branch is never elongated by the growth of the same vessels that have been cut, but by the protrusion of
new buds near the point of section.
866. Grafting. In the operation of grafting there is a wound both of the stock and graft; which are
united, not by the immediate adhesion of the surfaces of the two sections, but by means of a granular
and herbaceous substance exuding from between the wood and bark, and insinuating itself as a sort of
cement into all open spaces : new wood is finally formed within it, and the union is complete.
867. Felling is the operation of cutting down trees close to the ground, which certain species will survive,
if the stump is protected from the injuries of animals, and the root fresh and vigorous. In this case the
fibres of the wood are never again regenerated, but a lip is formed as in the case of pruning ; and buds,
that spring up into new shoots, are protruded near the section ; so that from the old shoot, ten, twelve, or
even twenty new stems may issue according to its size and vigor. The stools of the oak and ash-tree
will furnish good examples ; but there are some trees, such as the fir, that never send out any shoots after
the operation of felling.
868. If buds are destroyed in the course of the winter, or in the early part of the spring, many plants
will again generate new buds that will develope their parts as the others would have done, except that they
never contain blossom or fruit. Du Hamel thought these buds sprang from pre-organised germs which
he conceived to be dispersed throughout the whole of the plant ; but Knight thinks he has discovered the
true source of the regeneration of buds, in the proper juice that is lodged in the alburnum. Euds thus re-
generated never contain or produce either flower or fruit. Perhaps because the fruit-bud requires more
time to develope its parts, or a peculiar and higher degree of elaboration ; and that this hasty production
is only the effect of a great effort of the vital principle for the preservation of the individual, and one of
those wonderful resources to which nature always knows how to resort when the vital principle is in dan-
ger. But though such buds do not produce flowers directly, as in the case of plants that bear their blos-
soms on last year's wood ; yet they often produce young shoots which produce blossoms and fruit the
same season, as in the case of cutting down an old vine, or pruning the rose.
869. Sometimes the leaves of a tree are destroyed partially or totally as soon as they are protruded from
the bud, whether by the depredations of caterpillars or other insects, or by the browsing of cattle. But
if the injury is done early in the spring, new leaves will be again protruded without subsequent shoots.
Some trees will bear to be stripped even more than once in a season, as is the case with the mulberry-tree,
which they cultivate in the south of France and Italy for the purpose of feeding the silk-worm. But if it is
stripped more than once in the season it requires now and then a year's rest.
870. The decortication of a tree, or the stripping it of its bark, may be either intentional or accidental,
partial or total. If it is partial, and affects the epidermis only, then it is again regenerated, as in the case
of slight incision, without leaving any scar. But if the epidermis of the petal, leaf, or fruit, is destroyed,
it is not again regenerated, nor is the wound healed up, except by means of a scar. Such is the case also
192 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
with all decortications that penetrate deeper than the epidermis, particularly if the wound is not protected
from the action of the air : if the decortication reaches to the wood, then new bark issues from between the
bark and wood, and spreads till it covers the wound. But the result is not the same when the wound is
covered from the air. In the season of the flowing of the sap Du Hamel detached a ring of bark, of three
or four inches in breadth, from the trunks of several young elm-trees, taking care to defend the decorti-
cated part from the action of the air, by surrounding it with a tube of glass cemented above and below to
the trunk. After a few days the tubes became cloudy within, particularly when it was hot ; but when the
air became cool, the cloud "condinsed and fell in drops to the bottom. At last there began to appear, as if
exuding from between the bark and wood of the upper part of the wound, a sort of rough scurfy substance ;
and on the surface of the wood, as if exuding from between the longitudinal fibres of the alburnum, a
number of gelatinous drops. They were not connected with the scurfy substance at the top, but seemed
to arise from small slips of the liber that had not been completely detached. Their first appearance was
that of small reddish spots changing by degrees into white, and finally into a sort of grey, and extending
in size till they at last united and formed a cicatrice, which was a new bark. _~..
871 Abortion or failure in the produce of flowers, fruits, or of perfect seeds, is generally the effect of acci-
dental injuries, either directly to the flower or fruit, by w hich they are rubbed off or devoured by insects ; or
to the leaves by insects ; or to the roots by exposure to the air or cutting off so much of them as essentially
to lessen their' power of drawing up nourishment. Other causes will readily suggest themselves; and one
of the commonest, as to seeds and fruits, is want of sufficient impregnation.
872. Premature inflorescence or fruiting is sometimes brought on by insects, but more generally by checks
produced by cold or injuries from excessive heat, or long continued drought. Fruit is often ripened pre-
maturely by the puncture of insects ; and a pine-apple plant of almost any age may be thrown into fruit by
an hour or two's exposure to a frosty atmosphere in winter, or by scorching the roots in an overhot tan-
bed at any season.
Sect. II. Diseases.
873. Diseases are corrupt affections of the vegetable body, arising from a vitiated state
of its juices, and tending to injure the habitual health either of the whole or part of the
plant. The diseases that occur the most frequently among vegetables are the following :
Blight, smut, mildew, honey-dew, dropsy, flux of juices, gangrene, etiolation, suffoca-
tion, contortion, consumption.
874. Blight. Much has been written on the nature of blight ; and in proportion as
words have been multiplied on the subject, the difficulties attending its elucidation have
increased.
875. The blight, or blast, was well known to the ancient Greeks, who were however totally ignorant of its
cause regarding it merely as a blast from heaven, indicating the wrath of their offended deities, and utterly-
incapable of prevention or cure. It was known also to the Romans under the denomination of rubigo, who
regarded it in the same light as the Greeks, and even believed it to be under the direction of a particular
deity Rubigus, whom they solemnly invoked that blight might be kept from corn and trees. It is still well
known from its effects to every one having the least knowledge of husbandry or gardening ; but it has been
verv differently accounted for. And, perhaps, there is no one cause that will account for all the different
cases of blight, or disease going by the name of blight ; though they have been supposed to have all the same
origin If we take the term in its most general acceptation I think it will include afleast three distinct
species — blight originating in cold and frosty winds, blight originating in a sort of sultry and pestilential
vapor and blight originating in the immoderate propagation of a sort of small and parasitical fungus.
876' Blight, originating in cold and frosty winds, is often occasioned by the cold and easterly wands of
sprin" which nip and destroy the tender shoots of the plant, by stopping the current of the juices. The
leaves which are thus deprived of their due nourishment wither and fall, and the juices that are now
stopped in their passage swell and burst the vessels, and become the food of innumerable little insects
that soon after make their appearance. Hence they are often mistaken for the cause ot the disease itself;
the farmer supposing they are wafted to him on the east wind, while they are only generated in the extra-
vasated juices, as forming a proper nidus for their eggs. Their multiplication will no doubt contribute to
the spreading of the disorder, as they always breed fast where they find plenty of food. But a similar
disease is often occasioned by the early frost of spring. If the weather is prematurely mild, the blossom is
prematurely protruded, which, though it is viewed by the unexperienced with delight, yet it is viewed by
the judicious with fear. For it very often happens that this premature blossom is totally destroyed by sub-
sequent frosts, as well as both the leaves and shoots, which consequently wither and fall, and injure if they
do not actually kill the plant. This evil is also often augmented by the unskilful gardener, even in at-
tempting to prevent it; that is, bv matting up his trees too closely, or by keeping them covered in the
course of the day. and thus rendering the shoots so tender that they can scarcely fail to be destroyed by
the next frost. , . .. , ,,
877 Blight, originating in sultry and pestilential vapor, generally happens in the summer when the
grain has attained to its full growth, and when' there are no cold winds or frosts to occasion it Such
was the blight that used to damage the vineyards of ancient Italy, and which is yet found to damage our
hop-plantations and wheat-crops. The Romans had observed that it generally happened after short but
heavy showers occurring about noon, and followed by clear sunshine, about the season of the ripening of
the grapes, and that the middle of the vineyard suffered the most. This corresponds pretty nearly to what
is in this country called the fire-blast among hops, which has been observed to take place, most commonly
about the end of July, when there has been rain with a hot gleam of sunshine immediately after; the
middle of the hop-ground is also the most affected whether the blight is general or partial, and is
almost always the point in which it originates. In a particular case that was minutely observed, the
damage happened a little before noon, and the blight ran in a line forming aright angle with the sun-
beams at that time of the day. There was but little wind, which was however in the line of the blight.
(Hale's Bodu of Husbandry.) Wheat is also affected with a similar sort of blight, and about the same
season of the /ear, which totally destroys the crop. In the summer of 1809, a field of wheat, on rather a
light and sandy soil, came up with every appearance of health, and also into ear with a fair prospect of
rioenine welL About the beginning of July it was considered as exceeding any thing expected from such
a soi A week afterwards a portion of the crop, on the east side of the field, to the extent of several acres,
was totally destroyed ; being shrunk and shrivelled up to less than one halt the size of what it had for-
merly been, and so withered and blasted as not to appear to belong to the same field. The rest of the field
VXllTeBltshtirorig7nating in fungi, attacks the leaves or stem both of herbaceous and woody plants,
such a5 euphorbia cyparissias, berberis vulgaris, and rhamnus catharticus, but more generally grasses;
and palticularly our most useful grams, wheat, barley, and oats. It generally assumes the appearance
cf a Sy-lookng powder that soils the finger when touched. In March 1807,. some blades of wheat were
examined by Keith that were attacked with this species of blight; the appearance was that of a number
of m typing spots or patches dispersed over the surface of the leaf, exactly like that of the seeds of
dorsiferous ferns bursting their indusium. Upon more minute inspection these patches were found to
Book I. DISEASES OF VEGETABLES. 198
consist of thousands of small globules collected into groups beneath the epidermis, which they raised up
in a sort of blister and at last burst. Some of the globules seemed as if imbedded even in the longitudinal
vessels of the blade. They were of a yellowish or rusty brown, and somewhat transparent. But these
groups of globules have been ascertained by Sir J. Banks to be patches of a minute fungus, the seeds of
which, as they float in the air, enter the pores of the epidermis of the leaf, particularly if the plant is
sickly ; or they exist in the manure or soil, and enter by the pores of the root. (Sir J. Banks on Blight,
1805.) This fungus has been figured by Sowerby, and by F. Bauer, and Grew. It is known among farmers
by the name of red rust, and as it affects the stalks and leaves only it does not materially injure the crop.
But there is another species of fungus known to the farmer by the name of red gum, which attacks the
ear only, and is extremely prejudicial. In the aggregate it consists of groups of minute globules inter-
spersed with transparent fibres. The globules are filled with a fine powder, which explodes when they are
put into water. It is very generally accompanied with a maggot of a yellow colour, that preys also upon
the grain, and increases the amount of injury. The only means of preventing or lessening the effect of
any of the different varieties of blight mentioned is proper culture. Palliatives are to be found in topical
applications, such as flower of sulphur, and where the disease proceeds from, or consists of, innumerable
minute insects, it may occasionally be removed. Grisenthwaite conjectures that in many cases in
which the blight and mildew attack corn-crops, it may be for want of the peculiar food requisite for per-
fecting the grain ; it being known that the fruit or seeds of many plants contain primitive principles not
found in the rest of the plant. Thus the grain of wheat contains gluten and phosphate of lime, and where
these are wanting in the soil, that is, in the manured earths in which the plant grows, it will be unable to
perfect its fruit, which of consequence becomes more liable to disease. (New Theory of Agr. &c.)
879. Smut is a disease incidental to cultivated corn, by which the farina of the grain,
together with its proper integuments and even part of the husk, is converted into a black
soot-like powder. If the injured ear is struck with the finger, the powder will be dis-
persed like a cloud of black smoke ; and if a portion of the powder is wetted by a drop of
water and put under the microscope, it will be found to consist of millions of minute and
transparent globules, which seem to be composed of a clear and glary fluid encompassed
by a thin and skinny membrane. This disease does not affect the whole body of the crop,
but the smutted ears are sometimes very numerously dispersed throughout it. Some have
attributed it to the soil in which the grain is sown, and others have attributed it to the
seed itself, alleging that smutted seed will produce a smutted crop. But in all this there
seems to be a great deal of doubt. Willdenow regards it as originating in a small fungus,
which multiplies and extends till it occupies the whole ear. (Princip. of Bot. p. 356.)
But F. Bauer of Kew, seems to have ascertained it to be merely a morbid swelling of the
ear, and not at all connected with the growth of a fungus. (Smith's Introd. p. 348.) It
is said to be prevented by steeping the grain before sowing in a weak solution of arsenic.
But besides the disease called smut there is also a disease analogous to it, or a different
stage of the same disease, known to the farmer by the name of bags or smut-balls, in
which the nucleus of the seed only is converted into a black powder, whilst the ovary, as
well as the husk, remains sound. The ear is not much altered in its external appearance,
and the diseased grain contained in it will even bear the operation of threshing, and con-
sequently mingle with the bulk. But it is always readily detected by the experienced buyer,
and fatal to the character of the sample. It is said to be prevented as in the case of smut.
880. Miideiu is a thin and whitish coating with which the leaves of vegetables are some-
times covered, occasioning their decay and death, and injuring the health of the plant. It
is frequently found on the leaves of tussilago farfara, humulus lupulus, corylus avellana,
and the white and yellow dead-nettle. It is found also on wheat in the shape of a glu-
tinous exudation, particularly when the days are hot and the nights without dew. Will-
denow says it is occasioned by the growth of a fungus of great minuteness, the mucor
erisyphe of Linnaeus ; or by a sort of whitish slime which some species of aphides deposit
upon the leaves. J. Robertson (Hort. Trans, v. 178.) considers it as a minute fungus
of which different species attack different plants. Sulphur he has found the only specific
cure. In cultivated crops mildew is said to be prevented by manuring with soot.
881. Honey-dew is a sweet and clammy substance which coagulates on the surface of
the leaves during hot weather, particularly on the leaves of the oak-tree and beech, and is
regarded by Curtis as being merely the dung of some species of aphides. This seems to
be the opinion of Willdenow also, and it is no doubt possible that it may be the case in
some instances or species of the disease. But Sir J. E. Smith contends that it is not al-
ways so, or that there are more species of honey-dew than one, regarding it particularly
as being an exudation, at least in the case of the beech, whose leaves are, in consequence
of an unfavorable wind, apt to become covered with a sweet sort of glutinous coating,
similar in flavor to the fluid obtained from the trunk.
882. It is certain, however, that saccharine exudations are found on the leaves of many plants, though
not always distinguished by the name of honey-dew ; which should not perhaps be applied except when
the exudation occasions disease. But if it is to be applied to all saccharine exudations whatever, then we
must include under the appellation of honey-dew, the saccharine exudations observed on the orange-tree
by De la Hire, together with that of the lime-tree which is more glutinous, and of the poplar which is
more resinous ; as also that of the cistus creticus, and of the manna which exudes from the ash-tree of
Italy and larch of France. It is also possible that the exudation of excrement constituting honey-dew
may occasionally occur without producing disease; for if it should happen to be washed off soon after by
rains or heavy dews, then the leaves will not suffer. Washing is therefore the palliative : judicious culture
the preventive.
883. Plants are also liable to a disease which affects them in a manner similar to that
of the dropsy in animals, arising from long continued rain or too abundant watering.
O
194 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
Willdenow describes it as occasioning a preternatural swelling of particular parts, and in*
during putrefaction. It is said to take place chiefly in bulbous and tuberous roots, which
are often found much swelled after rain. It affects fruits also, which it renders watery
and insipid. It prevents the ripening of seeds, and occasions an immoderate production
of roots from the stem.
884. Succulent plants. This disease generally appears in consequence of excessive waterings, and is gene-
rally incurable. The leaves drop, even though plump and green ; and the fruit rots before reaching maturity.
In this case the absorption seems to be too great in proportion to the transpiration ; but the soil when too
much manured produces similar effects. Du Hamel planted some elms in a soil that was particularly
well manured, and accordingly they pushed with great vigor for some time ; but at the end of five or six
years they all died suddenly. The bark was found to be detached from the wood, and the cavity filled up
with a reddish -colored water. The symptoms of this disease suggest the palliatives ; and the preventive
Is ever the same — judicious culture.
885. Flux of juices. Some trees, but particularly the oak and birch, are liable to a
great loss of sap either bursting out spontaneously, owing to a superabundance of sap, or
issuino- from accidental wounds ; sometimes it is injurious to the health of the plant, and
sometimes not.
886. There is a spontaneous extravasation of the sap of the vine, known by the name of the tears of the
vine which is not always injurious. As it often happens that the root imbibes sap, which the leaves are not
yet prepared to throw off, because not yet sufficiently expanded, owing to an inclement season, the sap which
is first carried up, being propelled by "that which follows, ultimately forces its way through all obstructions,
and exudes from the bud. But this is observed only in cold climates ; for in hot climates where the
developement of the leaves is not obstructed by cold, they are ready to elaborate the sap as soon as it
reaches them. There is also a spontaneous extravasation of proper juice in some trees, which does not
seem in general to be injurious to the individual. Thus the gum which exudes from cherry, plum, peach,
and almond trees, is seldom detrimental to their health, except when it insinuates itself into the other
vessels of the plant and occasions obstructions.
887. But the exudation of gum is sometimes a disease, and one for which there is seldom any remedy. It
is generally the consequence of an unsuitable soil, situation, or climate. Cold raw summers will produce it
in the peach, apricot, and more under-sorts of plum and cherry ; or grafting these fruits on diseased stocks.
Cutting out the part and applying a covering of loam or tar and charcoal to exclude the air are palliatives ;
but the only effectual method, where it can be practised, is to take up the tree and place it in a suitable soil
and situation. . .
888 The extravasation and corruption of the ascending or descending juices, has been known to occasion
a fissure of the solid parts. Sometimes the fissure is occasioned by means of frost, forming what is called a
double alburnum ; that is, first a layer that has been injured by the frost, and then a layer that passes into
wood. Sometimes a layer is partially affected, and that is generally owing to a sudden and partial thaw
on the south side of the trunk, which may be followed again by a sudden frost. In this case the alburnum
is split into clefts or chinks, by means of the expansion of the frozen sap.
889. Chilblains. But clefts thus occasioned often degenerate into chilblains that discharge a blackish and
acrid fluid to the great detriment of the plant, particularly if the sores are so situated that rain or snow will
readily lodge in them, and become putrid. The same injury may be occasioned by the bite or puncture of
insects while the shoot is yet tender ; and as no vegetable ulcer heals up of its own accord, the sooner a
cure is attempted the better, as it will, if left to itself, ultimately corrode and destroy the whole plant, bark,
wood, and pith. The only palliative is the excision of the part affected, and the application of a coat of
grafting wax. ( Willdenow, p. 354.)
890. Gangrene. Of this disorder there are two varieties, the dry and the wet. The
former is occasioned by means of excessive heat or excessive cold. If by means of cold,
it attacks the leaves of young shoots and causes them to shrink up, converting them from
green to black ; as also the inner bark, which it blackens in the same manner, so that it
is impossible to save the plant except by cutting it to the ground. If by means of heat,
the effects are nearly similar, as may oftentimes be seen in gardens, or even in forests,
where the foresters are allowed to clear away the moss and withered leaves from the roots.
Sometimes the disease is occasioned by the too rapid growth of a particular branch, de-
priving the one that is next it of its due nourishment, and hence inducing its decay.
Sometimes it is occasioned by means of parasitical plants, as in the case of the bulbs of
the saffron, which a species of lycoperdon often attaches itself to and totally corrupts.
891. Dry gangrene. The harmattan winds of the coast of Africa kill many plants, by means of in-
ducing a sort of gangrene that withers and blackens the leaves, and finally destroys the whole plant. The
nopal of Mexico is also subject to a sort of gangrene that begins with a black spot, and extends till the
whole leaf or branch rots off, or the plant dies. But plants are sometimes affected with a gangrene by which
a part becomes first soft and moist, and then dissolves into foul ichor. This is confined chiefly to the
leaves, flowers, and fruit. Sometimes it attacks the roots also, but rarely the stem. It seems to be owing,
in many cases, to too wet or too rich a soil ; but it may originate in contusion, and may be caught by in-
fection. But the nopal is subject also to a disease called by Thiery la dissolution, considered by Sir J. E.
Smith as distinct from gangrene, and which appears to be Wil'ldenow's dry gangrene. A joint of the
nopal, or a whole branch, and sometimes an entire plant, changes in the space of a single hour, from a
state of apparent health to a state of putrefaction or dissolution. Now its surface is verdant and shining,
and in an instant it changes to a yellow, and its brilliancy is gone. If the substance is cut into, the parts are
found to have lost all cohesion, and are quite rotten ; the attempt at a cure is by speedy amputation below
the diseased part Sometimes the vital principle collecting and exerting all its energies, makes a stand
as it were against the encroaching disease, and throws off the infected part. (Smith's Introduction, p. 340.)
892. Etiolation. Plants are sometimes affected by a disease which entirely destroys
their verdure, and renders them pale and sickly. This is called etiolation, and may arise
merely from want of the agency of light, by which the extrication of oxygen is effected,
and the leaf rendered green. And hence it is that plants placed in dark rooms, or be-
tween great masses of stone, or in the clefts of rocks, or under the shade of other trees,
look always peculiarly pale. But if they are removed from such situations, and exposed
Book I. NATURAL DECAY OF VEGETABLES. 195
to the action of light, they will again recover their green color. Etiolation may also en-
sue from the depredation of insects nestling in the radicle, and consuming the food of the
plant, and thus debilitating the vessels of the leaf so as to render them insusceptible of
the action of light. This is said to be often the case with the radicles of secale cereale ;
and the same result may also arise from poverty of soil.
893. Suffocation. Sometimes it happens that the pores of the epidermis are closed up,
and transpiration consequently obstructed, by means of some extraneous substance that
attaches itself to and covers the bark. This obstruction induces disease, and the disease
is called suffocation.
894. Sometimes it is occasioned by the immoderate growth of lichens upon the bark covering the whole
of the plant, as may be often seen in fruit-trees, which it is necessary to keep clean by means of scraping
off the lichens, at least from the smaller branches. For if the young branches are thus coated, so as that
the bark cannot perform its proper functions, the tree will soon begin to languish, and will finally become
covered with fungi, inducing or resulting from decay, till it is at last wholly choaked up.
895. But a similar effect is also occasionally produced by insects, in feeding upon the sap or shoot. This
may be exemplified in the case of the aphides, which sometimes breed or settle upon the tender shoot in
such multitudes as to cover it from the action of the external air altogether. It may be exemplified also
in the case of Coccus Hesperidmn and Acarus tellarius, insects that infest hot-house plants, the latter by
spinning a fine and delicate web over the leaf, and thus preventing the access of atmospheric air. Insects
are to be removed either by the hand or other mechanical means, or destroyed by excess of some of the
elements of their nutrition, as heat, or cold, or moisture, where such excess does not prove injurious to
the plant; or by a composition either fluid or otherwise, which shall have the same effects. Prevention
is to be attempted by general culture, and particular attention to prevent the propagation of the insects or
vermin, by destroying their embryo progeny, whether oviparous or otherwise.
896. Sometimes the disease is occasioned by an extravasation of juices which coagulate on the surface of
the stalk so as to form a sort of crust, investing it as a sheath, and preventing its further expansion.
897. Sometimes the disease is occasion ed/rom want of an adequate supply of nourishment as derived
from the soil, in which the lower part of the plant is the best supplied, while the upper part of it is starved.
Hence the top shoots decrease in size every succeeding year, because sufficient supply of sap cannot be
obtained to give them their proper developement. This is analogous to the phenomena of animal life,
when the action of the heart is too feeble to propel the blood through the whole of the system : for then
the extremities are always the first to suffer. And perhaps it may account also for the fact, that in bad
soils and unfavorable seasons, when the ear of barley is not wholly perfected, yet a few of the lower grains
are always completely developed. (Smith's Introduction, p. 344.)
898. Contortion. The leaves of plants are often injured by means of the puncture of
insects, so as to induce a sort of disease that discovers itself in the contortion or convolu-
tion of the margin, or wrinkled appearance of the surface. The leaves of the apricot,
peach, and nectarine, are extremely liable to be thus affected in the months of June and
July.
899. The leaf that has been punctured soon begins to assume a rough and wrinkled figure, and a reddish
and scrofulous appearance, particularly on the upper surface. The margins roll inwards on the under
side, and enclose the eggs which are scattered irregularly on the surface, giving it a blackish and granular
appearance, but without materially injuring its health. In the vine, the substance deposited on the leaf is
whitish, giving the under surface a sort of a frosted appearance, but not occasioning the red and scrofulous
aspect of the upper surface of the leaf of the nectarine. In the poplar, the eggs when first deposited re-
semble a number of small and hoary vesicles containing a sort of clear and colorless fluid. The leaf then
becomes reflected and conduplicated, enclosing the eggs, with a few reddish protuberances on the upper
surface. The embryo is nourished by this fluid ; and the hoariness is converted into a fine cottony down,
which for some time envelopes the young fly. The leaf of the lime-tree in particular is liable to attacks
from insects when fully expanded ; and hence the gnawed appearance it so often exhibits. The injury
seems to be occasioned bv some species of puceron depositing its eggs in the parenchyma, generally about
the angles that branch off from the midrib. A sort of down is produced, at first green, and afterwards
hoary ; sometimes in patches, and sometimes pervading the whole leaf ; as in the case of the vine. Under
this covering the egg is hatched ; and then the young insect gnaws and injures the leaf, leaving a hole, or
scar of a burnt or singed appearance. Sometimes the upper surface of the leaf is covered with clusters of
wart-like substances somewhat subulate and acute. They seem to be occasioned by means of a puncture
made on the under surface, on which a number of openings are discoverable, penetrating into the warts,
which are hollow and villous within. The disease admits of palliation by watering frequently over the
leaves ; and by removing such as are the most contorted and covered by larva?.
900. Consmnption. From barren or improper soil, unfavorable climate, careless
planting, or too frequent flowering exhausting the strength of the plant, it often happens
that disease is induced which terminates in a gradual decline and wasting away of the
plant, till at length it is wholly dried up. Sometimes it is also occasioned by excessive
drought, or by dust lodging on the leaves, or by fumes issuing from manufactories which
may happen to be situated in the neighbourhood, or by the attacks of insects.
901. There is a consumptive affection that frequently attacks the pine-tree, called Teredo Pinorum
( Willdenmv, Princ. Bot. p. 351.), which affects the alburnum and inner bark chiefly, and seems to proceed
from long continued drought, or from frost suddenly succeeding mild or warm weather, or heavy winds.
The leaves assume a tinge of yellow, bordering upon red. A great number of small drops of resin exude
from the middle of the boughs, of a putrid odor. The bark exfoliates, and the alburnum presents a livid ap-
pearance. The tree swarms with insects, and the disease is incurable, inducing inevitably the total decay
and death of the individual. The preventive is obviously good culture, so as to maintain vigorous health :
palliatives may be employed according to the apparent cause of the disease.
Sect. III. Natural Decay.
902. Although a plant should not suffer from the influence of accidental injury, or
from disease, still there will come a time when its several organs will begin to experience
the approaches of a natural decline insensibly stealing upon it, and at last inducing death.
The duration of vegetable existence is very different in different species. Yet in the ve-
getable, as well as in the animal kingdom, there is a term or limit set, beyond which the
O 2
196 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
individual cannot pass. Some plants are annuals and last for one season only, springing
up suddenly from seed, attaining rapidly to maturity, producing and again sowing their
seeds, and afterwards immediately perishing. Such is the character of the various species
of corn, as exemplified in oats, wheat, and barley. Some plants continue to live for a
period of two years, and are therefore called biennials, springing up the first year from seed,
and producing roots and leaves, but no fruit ; and in the second year producing both
flower and fruit, as exemplified in the carrot, parsnep, and caraway. Other plants are
perennials, that is, lasting for many years ; of which some are called under-shrubs, and
die down to the root every year ; others are called shrubs, and are permanent both by the
root and stem, but do not attain to a great height or great age ; others are called trees,
and are not only permanent by both root and stem, but attain to a great size, and live to a
great age. But even of plants that are woody and perennial, there are parts which perish
annually, or which are at least annually separated from the individual ; namely, the leaves,
flowers, and fruit, leaving nothing behind but the bare caudex, which submits in its turn
to the ravages of time, and ultimately to death.
903. The decay of the temporary organs, which takes place annually, is a phenomenon
familiar to every body, and comprehends the fall of the leaf, the fall of the flower, and
the fall of the fruit.
904 The fall of the leaf, or annual defoliation of the plant, commences for the most part with the colds
of autumn, and is accelerated by the frosts of winter, that strip the forest of its foliage, and the landscape
of its verdure. But there are some trees that retain their leaves throughout the whole of the winter,
though changed to a dull and dusky brown, and may be called ever-clothed trees, as the beech : and there
are others that retain their verdure throughout the year, and are denominated evergreens, as the holly.
The leaves of Doth sorts ultimately fall in the spring. Sir J. E Smith considers that leaves are thrown off
by a process similar to that of the sloughing of diseased parts in the animal economy ; and Keith observes,
that if it is necessary to iUustrate the fall of the leaf by any analogous process in the animal economy, it
maybe compared to that of the shedding of the antlers of the stag, or of the hair or feathers of other
beasts or birds, which being, like the leaves of plants, distinct and peculiar organs, fall off, and are rege-
nerated annually, but do not slough.
905. The flowers, which, like the leaves, are onlv temporary organs, are for the most part very short-
lived : for as the object of their production is merely that of effecting the impregnation of the germs,
that object is no sooner obtained than they begin again to give indications of decay, and speedily fall from
the plant ; so that the most beautiful part of the vegetable is also the most transient.
906. The fruit, which begins to appear conspicuous when the flower falls, expands and increases in
volume, and, assuming a peculiar hue as it ripens, ultimately detaches itself from the parent plant, and
drops into the soil. But it does not in all cases detach itself in the same manner : thus, in the bean and
pea the seed-vessel opens and lets the seeds fall out, while in the apple, pear, and cherry, the fruit falls
entire, enclosing the seed, which escapes when the pericarp decays. Most fruits fall soon after ripening,
as the cherry and apricot, if not gathered ; but some remain long attached to the parent plant after being
fully ripe, as in the case of the fruit of euonymus, and mespilus. But these, though tenacious of their
hold, detach themselves at last, as well as all others, and bury themselves in the sod, about to give birth
to a new individual in the germination of the seed. The fall of the flower and fruit is accounted for in the
same manner as that of the leaf.
907. Decay of the permanent organs. Such then is the process and presumptive ra-
tionale of the decay and detachment of the temporary organs of the plant. But there is
also a period beyond which even the permanent organs themselves can no longer carry on
the process of vegetation. Plants are affected by the infirmities of old age as well as
animals, and are found to exhibit also similar symptoms of approaching dissolution. The
root refuses to imbibe the nourishment afforded by the soil, or if it does imbibe a portion,
it is but feebly propelled, and partially distributed, through the tubes of the alburnum ;
the elaboration of the sap is now effected with difficulty as well as the assimilation of the
proper juice, the descent of which is almost totally obstructed ; the bark becomes thick
and woody, and covered with moss or lichens ; the shoot becomes stunted and diminutive ;
and the fruits palpably degenerate, both in quantity and quality. The smaller or ter-
minal branches fade and decay the first, and then the larger branches also, together with
the trunk and root ; the vital principle gradually declines without any chance of recovery,
and is at last totally extinguished. " When life is extinguished, nature hastens the de-
composition ; the surface of the tree is overrun with lichens and mosses, which attract and
retain the moisture ; the empty pores imbibe it, and putrefaction speedily follows. Then
come the tribes of fungi, which flourish on decaying wood, and accelerate its corruption ;
beetles and caterpillars take up their abode under the bark, and bore innumerable holes
in the timber ; and woodpeckers in search of insects pierce it more deeply, and excavate
large hollows, in which they place their nests. Frost, rain, and heat assist, and the whole
mass crumbles away, and dissolves into a rich mould." (JDuz/. on Bot. p. 365.)
Chap. X.
Vegetable Geography and History, or the Distribution of Vegetables relatively to the Earth
and to Man.
908. The science of the distribution of plants, Humboldt observes (Essai sur la Geo-
graphic des Plantes, &c. 1807), considers vegetables in relation to their local associations in
Book I. DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETABLES. 197
different climates. It points out the grand features of the immense extent which plants
occupy, from the regions of perpetual snow to the bottom of the ocean, and to the interior
of the globe, where., in obscure grottoes, cryptogamous plants vegetate, as unknown as the
insects which they nourish. The superior limits of vegetation are known, but not the
inferior ; for every where in the bowels of the earth are germs which develope themselves
when they find a space and nourishment suitable for vegetation. On taking a general
view of the disposition of vegetables on the surface of the globe, independently of the
influence of man, that disposition appears to be determined by two sorts of causes, geogra-
phical and physical. The influence of man, or of cultivation, has introduced a third cause,
which may be called civil. The different aspects of plants, in different regions, has given
rise to what may be called their characteristic, or picturesque distribution ; and the subject
of distribution may be also considered relatively to the systematic divisions of vegetables,
their arithmetical proportions, and economical applications.
Sect. I. Geographical Distribution of Vegetables.
909. The territorial limits to vegetation are determined in general by three different-
causes: — 1. By sandy deserts, which seeds cannot pass over either by means of winds or
birds, as that of Sahara, in Africa ; 2. By seas too vast for the seeds of plants to be
drifted from one shore to the other, as in the ocean ; while the Mediterranean sea, on the
contrary, exhibits the same vegetation on both shores ; and, 3. By long and lofty chains
of mountains. To these causes are to be attributed the fact, that similar climates and
soils do not always produce similar plants. Thus in certain parts of North America,
which altogether resemble Europe in respect to soil, climate, and elevation, not a single
European plant is to be found. The same remark will apply to New Holland, the Cape
of Good Hope, Senegal, and other countries, as compared with countries in similar phy-
sical circumstances, but geographically different. The separation of Africa and South
America, Humboldt considers, must have taken place before the developement of organised
beings, since scarcely a single plant of the one country is to be found in a wild state in
the other.
Sect. II. Physical Distribution of Vegetables.
910. The natural circumstances affecting the distribution of plants, may be considered
in respect to temperature, elevation, moisture, soil, and light.
911. Temperature has the most obvious influence on vegetation. Everyone knowB
that the plants of hot countries cannot in general live in such as are cold, and the con-
trary. The wheat and barley of Europe will not grow within the tropics ; the same re-
mark applies to plants of still higher latitudes, such as those within the polar circles, which
cannot be made to vegetate in more southern latitudes ; nor can the plants of more southern
latitudes be made to vegetate there. In this respect, not only the medium temperature
of a country ought to be studied, but the temperature of different seasons, and especially
of winter. Countries where it never freezes ; those where it never freezes so strong as to
stagnate the sap in the stems of plants ; and those where it freezes sufficiently strong to
penetrate into the cellular tissue ; form three classes of regions in which vegetation ought
to differ. But this difference is somewhat modified by the effect of vegetable structure,
which resists, in different degrees, the action of frost ; thus, in general, trees which lose
their leaves during winter resist the cold better than such as retain them ; resinous trees
more easily than such as are not so ; herbs of which the shoots are annual and the root
perennial, better than those where the stems and leaves are persisting ; annuals which
flower early, and whose seeds drop and germinate before winter, resist cold less easily than
such as flower late, and whose seeds lie dormant in the soil till spring. Monocotyledonous
trees, which have generally persisting leaves and a trunk without bark, as in palms, are
less adapted to resist cold than dicotyledonous trees, which are more favorably organised
for this purpose, not only by the nature of their proper juice, but by the disposition of the
cortical and alburnous layers, and the habitual carbonisation of the outer bark. Plants
of a dry nature resist cold better than such as are watery ; all plants resist cold better in
dry winters than in moist winters ; and an attack of frost always does most injury in a
moist country, in a humid season, or when the plant is too copiously supplied with water.
912. Some plants of firm texture, but natives of warm climates, will endure a front of
a few hours' continuance, as the orange at Genoa (Humboldt, De Distributione Plantarum) ;
and the same thing is said of the palm and pine-apple, facts most important for the gar-
dener. Plants of delicate texture, and natives of warm climates, are destroyed by the
slightest attack of frost, as the phaseolus, nasturtium, &c.
913. The temperature of spring has a material influence on the life of vegetables ; the
injurious effects of late frosts are known to every cultivator. In general, vegetation is
favored in cold countries by exposing plants to the direct influence of the sun ; but this
excitement is injurious in a country subject to frosts late in the season : in such cases, it
is better to retard than to accelerate vegetation.
O 3
198
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
914. The temperature of summer, as it varies only by the intensity of heat, is not pro-
ductive of so many injurious accidents as that of spring. Very hot dry summers, however,
destroy many delicate plants, and especially those of cold climates. A very early summer
is injurious to the germination and progress of seeds ; a short summer to their ripening,
and the contrary.
915. Autumn is an important season for vegetation, as it respects the ripening of seeds ;
hence where that season is cold and humid, annual plants, which naturally flower late, are
never abundant, as in the polar regions ; the effect is less injurious to perennial plants,
which generally flower earlier. Frosts early in autumn are as injurious as those which hap-
pen late in spring. The conclusion, from these considerations, obviously is, that temperate
climates are more favorable to vegetation than such as are either extremely cold or ex-
tremely hot. But the warmer climates, as Keith observes, are more favorable upon
the whole to vegetation than the colder, and that nearly in proportion to their distance from
the equator. The same plants, however, will grow in the same degree of latitude,
throughout all degrees of longitude, and also in correspondent latitudes on different sides
of the equator ; the same species of plants, as some of the palms and others, being found
in Japan, India, Arabia, the West Indies, and part of South America, which are all in
nearly the same latitudes ; and the same species being also found in Kamschatka, Ger-
many, Great Britain, and the coast of Labrador, which are aH also in nearly the same lati-
tudes. (Willdenow, p. 374.)
916. The most remarkable circumstances respecting the temperature in the three zones, is
exhibited in the following Table by Humboldt. The temperature is taken according to the
centigrade thermometer. The fathom is 6 French feet, or 6.39453 English feet.
Torrid zone.
Temperate zone.
Frigid zone.
Andes
of Quito,
Lat. 0°.
Mountains
of Mexico,
Lat. 20°.
Caucasus,
Lat. 421s'.
Pyrenees,
Lat. 42|°.
Alps,
Lat. 45i° to
46°.
Lapland,
Lat. 67° to
70°
Inferior limit of per- 7
petual snow - - )
2460 fa.
2350 fa.
1650 fa.
1400 fa.
1370 fa.
550 fa.
Mean annual heat at )
that height - - )
H°
—
—
OlO
o2 .
4°.
6°.
Mean heat of winter, do.
n°
—
—
~
10°.
20i°.
Mean heat of Aug. do.
1 3b
x4
—
—
—
6°.
y2 '
Distance between trees )
and snow - - - $
600 fa.
350 fa.
650 fa.
230 fa.
450 fa.
300 fa.
Upper limit of trees -
1800 fa,
2000 fa.
1000 fa.
1170 fa.
920 fa.
250 fa.
Last species of trees to- \
wards the snow - )
Escalonia
alstonia.
Pinus
Occident.
Betula
alba.
Pin. rubra
P. uncin.
Pinus
abies.
Betula
alba.
Upper limit of the 1
Ericineae - - - )
Befariaa,
1600 fa.
—
Rhodod.
Caucas.
1380 fa.
—
Rhodod.
ferrug.
11 70 fa.
Rhodod.
laponic.
480 fa.
!
Distance between the )
snow and corn - - )
800 fa.
—
630 fa.
—
700 fa.
450 fa. !
■ »
917. Elevation, or the height of the soil above the level of the sea, determines, in a very
marked manner, the habitation of plants. The temperature lessens in regular gradation,
in the same manner as it does in receding from the equator, and six hundred feet of ele-
vation, De Candolle states, are deemed equal to one degree of latitude, and occasion a
diminution of temperature equal to 23° of Fahrenheit ; 300 feet being nearly equal to half
a degree. Mountains 1000 fathoms in height, at 46° of latitude, have the mean temper-
ature of Lapland ; mountains of the same height between the tropics enjoy the tem-
perature of Sicily ; and the summits of the lofty mountains of the Andes, even where
situated almost directly under the equator, are covered with snow as eternal as that of the
north pole.
Book I.
DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETABLES.
199
918. Hence it is that plaiits of high latitudes live on the mountains of such as are much lower,
and thus the plants of Greenland and Lapland are found on the Alps and Pyrenees. At
the foot of Mount Ararat (Jig. 67.), Tournefort met with plants peculiar to Armenia ;
67
above these he met with plants which are found also in France ; at a still greater height
he found himself surrounded with such as grow in Sweden ; and at the summit with such
as vegetate in the polar regions. This accounts for the great variety of plants which are
often found in a Flora of no great extent ; and it may be laid down as a botanical axiom,
that the more diversified the surface of the country, the richer will its Flora be, at least in
the same latitudes. It accounts also, in some cases, for the want of correspondence be-
tween plants of different countries though placed in the same latitudes ; because the
mountains or ridges of mountains, which may be found in the one and not in the other,
will produce the greatest possible difference in the character of their Floras. And to this
cause may generally be ascribed the diversity that often actually exists between plants grow-
ing in the same latitudes, as between those of the north-west and north-east coasts of North
America, as also of the south-west and south-east coasts ; the former being more moun-
tainous, the latter more flat. Sometimes the same sort of difference takes place between
the plants of an island and those of the neighbouring continent ; that is, if the one is
mountainous and the other flat ; but if they are alike in their geographical delineation,
then they are generally alike in their vegetable productions.
919. Cold and lofty situations are the favorite habitations of most cryptogamic jilants of the
terrestrial class, especially the fungi, alga?, and mosses ; as also of plants of the class
Tetradynamia, and of the Umbellatce and Syngenesian tribes ; whereas trees and shrubs,
ferns, parasitic plants, lilies, and aromatic plants, are most abundant in warm climates ;
only this is not to be understood merely of geographical climates, because, as we have
seen, the physical climate depends upon altitude. In consequence of which, combined
with the ridges and directions of the mountains, America and Asia are much colder in
the same degrees of northern latitude than Europe. American plants, vegetating at forty-
two degrees of northern latitude, will vegetate very well at fifty-two degrees in Europe;
the same, or nearly so, may be said of Asia ; which, in the former case, is perhaps owing
to the immense tracts of woods and marshes covering the surface, and in the latter, to the
more elevated and mountainous situation of the country affecting the degree of temper-
ature. So also Africa is much hotter under the tropics than America ; because in the
latter the temperature is lowered by immense chains of mountains traversing the equa-
torial regions, while in the former it is increased by means of the hot and burning sands
that cover the greater part of its surface.
920. Elevation influences tlie habits of plants in various ways ; — by exposing them to the
wind ; to be watered by a very fresh and pure water from the melting of adjoining
snow ; and to be covered in winter by a thick layer of snow, which protects them from
severe frosts. Hence many alpine plants become frozen during winter in the plains, and
in gardens which are naturally warmer than their natural stations. In great elevations,
the diminution of the density of the air may also have some influence on vegetation. The
rarity of the atmosphere admits a more free passage for the rays of light, which, being in
consequence more active, ought to produce a more active vegetation. Experience seems
to prove this in high mountains ; and the same effect is produced in high latitudes by
the length of the day. On the other hand, vegetables require to absorb a certain quantity
of oxygene gas from the air during the night ; and as they find less of that in the rarefied
air of the mountains, they ought to be proportionably feeble and languishing. According
to experiments made by Theodore de Saussure, plants which grow best in the high Alps
are those which require to absorb least oxygen during the night ; and, in this point of
view, the shortness of the nights near the poles correspond. These causes, however, are
obviously very weak, compared to the powerful action of temperature.
O 4
200
SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
921. Great anomalies are found in the comparative height in which the same plant will
grow in different circumstances. In countries situated under the equator, the two sides of
the mountain are of the same temperature, which is solely determined by elevation ; but in
countries distant from it, the warmest side is that towards the south, and the zones of
plants, instead of forming lines parallel to the horizon, incline towards the north. The
reason, in both cases, is sufficiently obvious. In the temperate zone we find the same
plants frequently on low and elevated situations, but this is never the case between the
tropics. . ■
922. Altitude influences the habits of aquatics ; thus some aquatics float always on the
surface of the water, as lemna, while others are either partially or wholly immersed.
Such aquatics as grow in the depths of the sea are not influenced by climate ; but such as
are near the surface are influenced by climate, and have their habitations affected by it.
923. The moisture, or mode of watering natural to vegetables, is a circumstance which
has a powerful influence on the facility with which plants grow in any given soil. The
quantity of water absolutely necessary for the nourishment of plants, varies according to
their tissue ; some are immersed, others float on its surface ; some grow on the margin
of waters, with their roots always moistened or soaked in it, others again live in soil
slio-htly humid or almost dry. Vegetables which resist extreme drought most easily
are, 1. Trees and herbs with deep roots, because they penetrate to, and derive sufficient
moisture from, some distance below the surface ; 2. Plants which, being furnished with
few pores on the epidermis, evaporate but little moisture from their surface, as the suc-
culent tribe. . .
924. The qualities of water, or the nature of the substances dissolved in it, must neces-
sarily influence powerfully the possibility of certain plants growing in certain places.
But the difference in this respect is much less than would be imagined, because the food
of one species of plant differs very little from that of another. The most remarkable
case is that of salt-marshes, in which a great many vegetables will not live, whilst a
number of others thrive there better than any where else. Plants wliich grow in marine
marshes and those which grow in similar grounds situated m the interior of a country
are the same. Other substances naturally dissolved in water appear to have much less
influence on vegetation, though the causes of the habitations of some plants, such as
those which grow best on walls, as peltaria, and in lime-rubbish, as thlaspi, and other
crucifereee, may doubtless be traced to some salt (nitrate of lime, &c.) or other substance
peculiar to such situations.
925. The nature of the earth's surface affects the habitations of vegetables in different
points of view : 1. As consisting of primitive earths, or the debris of rocks or mineral
bodies ; and, 2. As consisting of a mixture of mineral, animal, and vegetable matter.
926.' Primitive surfaces affect vegetables mechanically according to their different de-
grees of moveability or tenacity. In coarse sandy surfaces plants spring up easily, but
many of them, which have large leaves or tall stems, are as easily blown about and
destroyed. In fine, dry, sandy surfaces, plants with very delicate roots, as protea and
erica, prosper ; a similar earth, but moist in the growing season, is suited to bulbs. On
clayey surfaces plants are more difficult to establish, but when established are more per-
manent : they are generally coarse, vigorous, and perennial in their duration.
927. With respect to the relative proportions of the primitive earths in these surfaces,
it does not appear that their influence on the distribution of plants, is so great as might
at first sight be imagined. Doubtless different earths are endowed with different degrees
of absorbing, retaining, and parting with moisture and heat ; and these circumstances
have a material effect in a state of culture, where they are comminuted and exposed to the
air ; but not much in a wild or natural state, where they remain hard, firm, and covered
with vegetation. The difference, with a few exceptions, is never so great but that the
seeds of a plant which has been found to prosper well in one description of earth, will
germinate and thrive as well in another composed of totally different earths, provided
they are in a nearly similar state of mechanical division and moisture. Thus De Can-
itolle observes, though the box is very common on calcareous surfaces, it is found m as
treat quantities in such as are schistous or granitic. The chestnut grows equally well
in calcareous and clayey earths, in volcanic ashes, and in sand. The plants of Ana, a
mountain entirely calcareous, grow equally well on the Vosges or the granitic Alps.
But though the kind or mixture of earths seems of no great consequence, yet the presence
of metallic oxides and salts, as sulphates of iron or copper, or sulphur alone, or alum, or
other similar substances in a state to be soluble in water, are found to be injurious to all
vegetation, of which some parts of Derbyshire and the maremmes of Tuscany {Chateau-
vieux, let. 8.) are striking proofs. But excepting in these rare cases, plants grow nearly
indifferently on all primitive surfaces, in the sense in which we here take these terms ;
the result of which is, that earths strictly or chemically so termed, have much less in-
fluence on the distribution of plants, than temperature, elevation, and moisftire. Another
Book I. DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETABLES. 201
result is, as De Candolle has well remarked, that it is often a very had method of cul-
ture to imitate too exactly the nature of the earth in which a plant grows in its wild
state.
928. Mired or secondary soils include not only primitive earths, or the debris of rocks,
but vegetable matters — not only the medium through which perfect plants obtain their
food, but that food itself. In this view of the subject the term soil is used in a very ex-
tensive acceptation, as signifying, not only the various sorts of earths which constitute the
surface of the globe, but every substance whatever on which plants are found to vegetate,
or from which they derive their nourishment. The obvious division of soils in this ac-
ceptation of the term is that of aquatic, terrestrial, and vegetable soils ; corresponding
to the division of aquatic, terrestial, and parasitical plants.
929. Aquatic soils are such as are either wholly or partially inundated with water, and
are fitted to produce such plants only as are denominated aquatics. Of aquatics there-
are several subdivisions according to the particular situations they affect, or the degree
of immersion they require.
One of the principal subdivisions of aquatics is that of marine plants, such as the fuci and many of the
algje, which are very plentiful in the seas that wash the coasts of Great Britain, and are generally at-
tached to stones and rocks near the shore. Some of them are always immersed ; and others, which are
situated above low water mark, are immersed and exposed to the action of the atmosphere alternately.
But none of them can be made to vegetate except in the waters of the sea. Another subdivision of aqua-
tics is that of river plants, such as chara, potamogeton, and nymphjea, which occupy the bed of fresh
water rivers, and vegetate in the midst of the running stream; being for the most part wholly immersed,
as well as found only in such situations.
A third subdivision of aquatics is that of paludal or fen plants, being such as are peculiar to lakes,
marshes, and stagnant or nearly stagnant waters, but of which the bottom is often tolerably clear. In
such situations you find the isoetis lacustris, flowering rush, water ranunculus, water violet, and a variety
of others which uniformly affect such situations ; some of them being wholly immersed, and others im-
mersed only in part.
930. Earthy soils are such as emerge above the water and constitute the surface of the
habitable globe, that is every where covered with vegetable productions. Plants affecting
such soils, which comprise by far the greater part of the vegetable kingdom, are de-
nominated terrestrial, being such as vegetate upon the surface of the earth, without having
any portion immersed in water, or requiring any further moisture for their support
beyond that which they derive from the earth and atmosphere. This division is, like the
aquatics, distributed into several subdivisions according to the peculiar situations which
different tribes affect.
931. Some of them are maritime, that is, growing only on the sea-coast, or at no great distance from
it, such as statice, glaux, samolus, samphire, sea-pea.
93° Some are fluviatic, that is, aflecting the banks of rivers, such as ly thrum, lycopus, eupatronum.
933. Some are champaign, that is, affecting chiefly the plains, meadows, and cultivated fields, such as
cardamine, tragopogon, agrostemma. •
934. Some are dumose, that is, growing in hedges and thickets, such as the bramble.
'•;.". Some are ruderate, that is, growing on rubbish, such as senecio viscosus. ...
936 Some are sylvatic, that is, growing in woods or forests, such as stachys sylvatica, angelica sylvestris.
937! And, finally, some are alpine, that is, growing on the summits of mountains, such as poa alpina,
epilobium alpinum, and many of the mosses and lichens.
938. Vegetable soils are such as are formed of vegetating or decayed plants themselves,
to some of "which the seeds of certain other plants are found to adhere, as being the only
soil fitted to their germination and developement. The plants springing from them are
denominated Parasitical, as being plants that will vegetate neither in the water nor earth,
but on certain other plants, to which they attach themselves by means of roots that
penetrate the bark, and from the juices of which they do often, though not always, derive
their support. This last circumstance constitutes the ground of a subdivision of parasiti-
cal plants, into such as adhere to the dead or inert parts of other plants, and such as ad-
here to living plants, and feed on their juices.
939 In the first subdivision we may place parasitical mosses, lichens, and fungi, which are found as
often and in as great perfection on the stumps of rotten trees, and on rotten pales and stakes, as on trees
that are vet vegetating ■ whence it is also plain that they do not derive their nourishment from the juices
of the plants on which they grow, but from their decayed parts, and the atmosphere by which they are
surrounded; the plant to which they cling serving as a basis of support _ •
940 In the second subdivision we may place all plants strictly parasitical, that is, all such as do actually
abstract from the juices of the plant to which they cling the nourishment necessary to the developement
of their parts • and of which the most common, at least as being indigenous to Britain, are the Mistletoe,
Dodder, Broom-rape, and a sort of tuber that grows on the root of Saffron, and destroys it it allowed to
SP941 The Mistletoe ( Viscum album) is found for the most part on the apple-tree ; but sometimes also on
the oak If its berry is made to adhere to the trunk or branch of either of the foregoing trees, which
from its' glutinous nature it may readily be made to do, it germinates by sending out a small globular body
attached'to a pedicle, which after it acquires a certain length bends towards the bark, whether above it or
below it, into which it insinuates itself by means of a number of small fibres which it now protrudes, and
bv which it abstracts from the plant the nourishment necessary to its future developement When the
root has thus fixed itself in the bark of the supporting tree, the stem of the parasite begins to ascend, at
first smooth and tapering, and of a pale green colour, but finally protruding a multiplicity of branches and
leaves It seems to have been thought by some botanists that the roots of the Mistletoe penetrate even
into the wood, as well as through the bark. But the observations of Du Hamel show that this opinion is
*ot well founded. The roots are indeed often found within the wood, which they thus seem to have
202
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
penetrated by their own vegetating power. But the fact is, that they are merely covered by the addi-
tional layers of wood that have been formed since the fibres first insinuated themselves into the bark.
942. The Cuscuta europcea, or Dodder {fig. 68.), though it
is to be accounted a truly parasitical plant in the issue, is
yet not originally so. For the seed of this plant when it
has fallen to the ground takes root originally by sending
down its radicle into the soil and elevating its stem into
the air. It is not yet, therefore, a parasitical plant. But
the stem which is now elevated above the surface lays
hold of the first plant it meets with, though it is par-
ticularly partial to hops and nettles, and twines itself
around it, attaching itself by means of little parasitical
roots at the points of contact, and finally detaching itself
from the soil altogether by the decay of the original root,
and becoming a truly parasitical plant. Withering de-
scribes the plant in his arrangement as being oiiginally
parasitical ; but this is certainly not the fact.
943. The Orobanche, or Broom-rape, which attaches
itself by the root to the roots of other plants, is also to be
regarded as being truly parasitical, though it sometimes
sends out fibres which seem to draw nourishment from
the earth. It is found most frequently on the roots of
common Broom.
944. The Epidendron flos aeris is regarded also by
botanists as a parasitical plant, because it is generally
found growing on other trees. But as it is found to grow
in old tan, it probably derives only support from the
bark of trees, and not nourishment.
945. Light is a body which has very considerable influence on the structure of vege-
tables, and some also on their habitation. The fungi do not require the usual interludes
of day, in order to decompose carbonic acid gas, and can live and thrive with little or no
light. In green plants, which require the action of light, the intensity required is very
different in different species ; some require shady places, and hence the vegetable in-
habitants of caves, and the plants which grow in the shade of forests ; others, and the
greater number, require the direct action of the sun, and grow in exposed elevated sites.
De Candolle considers that the great difficulty of cultivating Alpine plants in the gar-
dens of plains, arises from the impossibility of giving them at once the fresh temperature
and intense light which they find on high mountains.
Sect. III. Civil Causes affecting the Distribution of Plants.
946. By the art of man plants may be inured to circumstances foreign to their usual
Jmbits. Though plants in general are limited to certain habitations destined for them by
nature, yet some are, and probably the greater number may be, inured to climates, soils,
and situations, of which they are not indigenous. The means used are acclimating and
culture.
947. Acclimating seems to be most easily effected in going from a hot to a cold climate,
particularly with herbaceous plants. Because it often happens that the frosts of winter are
accompanied with snow, which shelters the plant from the inclemency of the atmosphere
till the return of spring. Trees and shrubs, on the contrary, are acclimated with more
difficulty, because they cannot be so easily sheltered from the colds, owing to the greater
length of their stems and branches. The acclimating or naturalisation of vegetables is to
be attempted by two modes : by sowing the seeds of successive generations, and by the
difference of temperature produced by different aspects. The former is well exemplified
in the case of the rice-plant which is grown in Germany, from seeds raised there, while
if seeds from its native country, India, are used they will not vegetate (Sir J. Banks,
in Hort. Trans, vol. i.) ; and the latter in the sloping banks of Professor Thouin of
Paris, as described by Girardin. (Physiologie Vegetale, vol. i.) Some plants seem to
have the capacity of vegetating in almost all climates, or of naturalising themselves in
almost any. This is particularly the case with esculents, such as the domestic cabbages,
potatoes, and carrots. (Dialogues on Botany, p. 411.)
948. Domesticated plants. " Some plants," Humboldt observes, " which constitute
the object of gardening and of agriculture, have time out of mind accompanied man
from one end of the globe to the other. In Europe, the vine followed the Greeks ; the
wheat, the Romans ; and the cotton, the Arabs. In America the Tultiques carried
with them the maize; the potatoe and the quinoa (Chenojiodium quinoa, of which the
seeds are used,) are found wherever have migrated the ancient Condinamarea. The
migration of these plants is evident ; but their first country is as little known as that of
the different races of men, which have been found in all parts of the globe from the ear-
liest traditions." (Geographie des Plantes, p. 25.)
949. The general effect of culture on plants is that of enlarging all their parts ; but it
often also alters their qualities, forms, and colors : it never, however, alters their pri-
mitive structure. " The potatoe," as Humboldt observes, " cultivated in Chili, at
nearly twelve thousand feet above the level of the sea, carries the same flower as in
Siberia."
Book I. DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETABLES. 203
950. The culinary vegetables of our gardens, compared with the 6ame species in their
wild state, afford striking proofs of the influence of culture on both the magnitude and
qualities of plants. Nothing in regard to magnitude is more remarkable than in the case
of the Brassica tribe ; and nothing, in respect to quality, exceeds the change effected on
the celery and carrot.
951. The influence of culture on fruits is not less remarkable. The peach, in its wild
state in Media, is poisonous, but cultivated in the plains of Ispahan and Egypt, it be-
comes one of the most delicious of fruits. The effect of culture on the apple, pear,
cherry, plum, and other fruits, is nearly as remarkable ; for not only the fruit and leaves,
but the general habits of the tree are altered in these and other species. The history of
the migration of fruit-trees has been commenced by Sickler, in a work (Geschicte, &c.)
which Humboldt has praised as equally curious and philosophical.
952. Tlie influence of culture on pla?its of ornament is great in most species. The
parts of all plants are enlarged, some are numerically increased, as in the case of double
flowers ; and what is most remarkable, even the colors are frequently changed, both
in the leaf, flower, and fruit.
953. The influence of civilisation and culture, in increasing the number of plants in a
country, is very considerable, and operates directly, by introducing new species for cul-
ture in gardens, fields, or timber-plantations ; and, indirectly by the acclimating and final
naturalisation of many species, by the influence of winds and birds in scattering their
seeds. The vine and the fig are not indigenous to France, but are now naturalised there
by birds. In like manner the orange is naturalised in the south of Italy. Many her-
baceous plants of the Levant are naturalised both in France and Britain ; some, as the
cabbage, cherry, and apple, were probably naturalised during the subjection of England
to the Romans. The narrow-leaved elm was brought from the Holy Land during
the crusades. Phaseolus vulgaris, and impatiens balsamina were brought originally
from India ; and datura stramonium, which is now naturalised in Europe, was brought
originally from India or Abyssinia. Buckwheat and most species of corn and peas
came also from the East, and along with them several plants found among corn only,
such as centaurea cyanus, agrostemma githago, raphanus raphanistrum, and myagrum
sativum. The country from whence the most valuable grasses migrated is not known.
Bruce says he found the oat wild in Abyssinia, and wheat and millet have been found in
a wild state in hilly situations in the East Indies. Rye and the potatoe were not known to
the Romans. The country of the former Humboldt declares to be totally unknown.
954. The greatest refinement in culture consists in tlie successful formation of artificial
climates for the culture of tropical plants in cold regions. Many vegetables, natives of
the torrid zone, as the pine-apple, the palm, &c. cannot be acclimated in temperate
countries. But by means of hot-houses of different kinds they are grown even on the
borders of the frozen zone to the highest degree of perfection ; and in Britain some of
the tropical fruits, as the pine and melon, are brought to a greater size and better flavor
than in their native habitations. Casting our eyes on man, and the effects of his indus-
try, we see him spread on the plains and sides of mountains, from the frozen ocean to
the equator, and every where he wishes to assemble around him whatever is useful and
agreeable of his own or of other countries. The more difficulties to surmount, the more
rapidly are developed the moral faculties ; and thus the civilisation of a people is almost
always in an inverse ratio with the fertility of the soil which they inhabit. What is the
reason of this ? Humboldt asks. Habit and the love of the site natal.
Sect. IV. Characteristic or Picturesque Distribution of Vegetables.
955. The social anil antisocial habits of plants is one of their most remarkable charac-
teristics. Like animals they live in two classes : the one class grows alone and scattered,
as solanum dulcamara, lychnis dioica, polygonum bistorta, anthericum liliago, &c. The
other class unites in society, like ants or bees, covers immense surfaces, and excludes other
species, such as fragaria vesca, vaccinium myrtillus, polygonum aviculare, aira canescens,
pinus sylvestris, &c. Burton states that the mitchella repens is the plant most extensively
spread in North America, occupying all the ground between the 28° and 69° of north
latitude. The arbutus uva ursi, extends from New Jersey to the 72° of latitude. On
the contrary, gordonia, franklinia, and dionrea muscipula are found isolated in small
spots. Associated plants are more common in the temperate zones than in the tropics,
where vegetation is less uniform and more picturesque. In the temperate zones, the
frequency of social plants, and the culture of man, has rendered the aspect of the country
comparatively monotonous. Under the tropics, on the contrary, all sorts of forms are
united ; thus cypresses and pines are found in the forests of the Andes of Quindiu, and of
Mexico ; and bananas, palms, and bamboos in the valleys. (Jig. 69. ) But green meadows
and the season of spring are wanting in the south, for nature has reserved gifts for every
region. « The valleys of the Andes," Humboldt observes, " are ornamented with bananas
and palms ; on the mountains are found oaks, firs, barberries, alders, brambles, and a
2C4
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
crowd of genera believed to belong only to countries of the north. Thus the inhabitant
of the equinoctial regions views all the vegetable forms which nature has bestowed around
him on the globe. Earth developes to his eyes a spectacle as varied as the azure vault
of heaven, which conceals none of her constellations." The people of Europe do not
x=*%
enjoy the same advantage. The languishing plants, which the love of science or luxury
cultivates in our hot-houses, present only the shadow of the majesty of equinoctial vege-
tation ; but by the richness of our language, we paint these countries to the imagination,
and individual man feels a happiness peculiar to civilisation.
956. The features of many plants are so obvious and characteristic, as to strike every
general observer. The scitaminese, tree-heaths, firs, and pines, mimosa?, climbers, cacti,
grasses, lichens, mosses, palms, equisitaceas, arums, pothos, dracontium, &c. the chaffy-
leaved plants, malvaceoe, orchideae, liliaceae, &c. form remarkable groups distinguishable
at first sight. Of these groups, the most beautiful are the palms, scitamineas, and liliaceae,
which include the bamboos and plantains, the most splendid of umbrageous plants.
957. The native countries of plants may often be discovered by their features in the same
manner as the national distinctions which are observable in the looks and color of man-
kind, and which are effected chiefly by climate. Asiatic plants are remarkable for their
superior beauty ; African plants for their thick and succulent leaves, as in the case of the
cacti ; and American plants for the length and smoothness of their leaves, and for a sort
of singularity in the shape of the flower and fruit. The flowers of European plants are
but rarely beautiful, a great proportion of them being amentaceous. Plants indigenous
to polar and mountainous regions are generally low, with small compressed leaves ; but
with flowers large in proportion. Plants indigenous to New Holland are distinguishable
for small and dry leave3, that have often a shrivelled appearance. In Arabia they are low
and dwarfish ; in the Archipelago they are generally shrubby and furnished with prickles ;
while in the Canary Islands many plants, which in other countries are merely herbs,
assume the port of shrubs and trees. The shrubby plants of the Cape of Good Hope
and New Holland exhibit a striking similarity, as also the shrubs and trees of the northern
parts of Asia and America, which may be exemplified in the platanus orientalis of the
former, and in platanus occidentals of the latter, as well as in fagus sylvatica and fagus
latifolia, or acer cappadocium and acer saecharinum ; and yet the herbs and under-
shrubs of the two countries do not in the least correspond. " A tissue of fibres," Hum-
boldt observes, " more or less loose — vegetable colors more or less vivid, according to
the chemical mixture of their elements, and the force of the solar rays, are some of the
causes which impress on the vegetables of each zone their characteristic features."
958. The influence of tlie general aspect of vegetation on the taste and imagination of a people
— the difference in this respect between the monotonous oak and pine forests of the
temperate zones, and the picturesque assemblages of palms, mimosas, plantains, and
bamboos of the tropics — the influence of the nourishment, more or less stimulant,
peculiar to different zones, on the character and energy of the passions : — these, Humboldt
observes, unite the history of plants with the moral and political history of man.
Book T.
DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETABLES.
205
Sect. V. Systematic Distribution of Vegetables.
959. Tlw distribution of plants, considered in respect to their systematic classifications, is
worthy of notice. The three grand systematic divisions of plants are acotyledoneae, dico-
tyledoneae, and monocotyledoneae. A simplification of this division considers plants as
agamous, or phanerogamous, that is, without or with visible sexes.
960. Plants of visible sexes. Taking the globe in zones, the temperate contain \ part
of all the phanerogamous or visible sexual species of plants. The equinoctial countries
contain nearly Jq, and Lapland only ^ part.
961. Plants with the sexual parts invisible or indistinct. Taking the whole surface of
the globe, the agamous plants, that is, mosses, fungi, fuci, &c. are to the phanerogamae
or perfect plants, nearly as 1 to 7 ; in the equinoctial countries as 1 to 5 ; in the tem-
perate zones as 2 to 5 ; in New Holland as 2 to 1 1 ; in France as 1 to 2 ; in Lapland,
Greenland, Iceland, and Scotland, they are as 1 to 1, or even more numerous than the
phanerogamous plants. Within the tropics, agamous plants grow only on the summits of
the highest mountains. In several of the islands of the Gulf of Carpentaria, having a Flora
of phanerogamous plants exceeding 200 species, R. Brown did not observe a single moss.
962. In the whole globe, the monocotyledonece, including the grasses, liliacea?, scita-
meneae, &c. are to the whole of the perfect plants as 1 to 6 ; in the temperate zones
(between 36° and 52°,) as 1 to 4 ; and in the polar regions as 1 to 20. In Germany, the
monocotyledoneae are to the total number of species as 1 to 4§ ; in France as 1 to 4§ ; in
New Holland the three grand divisions of plants, beginning with the acotyledoneae, are
nearly as 1, 2|, and 7^.
963. Bicottjledonece. In the whole globe, the monocotyledoneae are estimated, by
R. Brown, from Persoon's Synopsis, {Gen. Rem. on the Bot. of Terr. Just. 1814,) to be
to the dicotyledoneae as 2 to 1 1 ; or with the addition of undescribed plants, as 2 to 9.
From the equator to 30° of north latitude, they are as 1 to 5. In the higher latitudes a
gradual diminution of dicotyledoneae takes place, until in about 60° north latitude and
50° south latitude they scarcely equal half their intertropical proportions. The ferns in
the temperate regions are to the whole number of species as 1, 2, and 5 ; that is, in the
polar regions as 1, in the temperate countries as 2, and in the intertropical regions as 5.
In France, ferns form ^ part of the phanerogamous plants ; in Germany ^ ; in Lap-
land ^. ....
964. The natural orders of perfect or phanerogamous plants are variously distributed in
different countries. The following Table gives a general view of the relative proportions
of several natural orders of perfect plants in France, Germany, and Lapland.
Names of Natural Orders.
Number of Species in
different Countries.
Fran. I Germ. I X,apl.
Cyperoideoe
Gramineae
Junceae -
These three Families together
Orchideae - _ -
Labiatae -
Rhinantheae et Scrophuleae -
Boragineae
Ericeae et Rhododendreae
Compositae -
Umbelliferaa
Cruciferae -
Malvaceae
Caryophylleoe
Leguminoseae
Euphorbeae
Amentaceae
Conifereae -
134
284
42
102
143
20
460
265
54
44
149
72
147
76
49
26
29
21
490
238
170
86
190
106
25
8
165
71
230
96
51
18
69
48
19
7
55
49
20
3645
1884
124
11
7
17
6
20
38
9
22
29
14
1
23
3
497
Ratio of each Family to the
whole of the Phanero
gamous plants in these
Countries.
Fran. | Germ, i Lapl.
S3
51
1
TS
1
T33
1
1
1
31
T13
1
53
1
TS
1
Ti
1
55
1
TS5
15
n
i
i
i
13
1
53
1
91
1
12
I
93
1
S
1
55
1
TS
1
533
1
57
1
TS
1
To!
1
35
1
5-58
h
1
55
l
■i
l
IS
1
IV
i
SB
I
l
1
35
1
1
Tl
T53
206
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
965. The most universal plants are the agamous
families. Their germs are the only ones which nature
developes spontaneously in all climates. The poly-
trychum commune (Jig. 70.) grows in all latitudes ; in
Europe and under the equator ; on high mountains and
on a level with the sea ; in short, wherever there is
shade and humidity. No phanerogamous plants have
organs sufficiently flexible to accommodate themselves in
this manner to every zone. The alsine media, fragaria
vesca, and solanum nigrum, have been supposed to enjoy
this advantage ; but all that can be said is, that these
plants are very much spread, like the people of the race
of Caucasus, in the northern part of the ancient con-
tinent. (Humboldt.)
Sect. VI. Economical Distribution of Vegetables.
966. The plarits chiefly employed in human economy differ in different climates and
countries; but some, as the cereal grasses, are in universal use ; and others, as the banana
and plaiuain (Jig. 71.), only in the countries which
produce them. ^-^ rr\ n^ 71
967. The bread-corn of the temperate climates is
chiefly wheat and maize ; of the hot climates rice, and '~&JMif$^\/&$s' •»• ^f^\
of the coldest climates barley. S^i^^ou/wTV^f v x^S*"'
968. The edible roots of the old world are chiefly the
yam, sweet potatoe, onion, carrot, and turnip ; of the
new the potatoe. /»^Aji^MW«E»\1
969. The oleraceous herbs of temperate climates are
chiefly the brassica family, and other cruciferae. In
hot climates pot-herbs are little used. Legumes, as
the pea, bean, and kidney-bean, are in general use in
most parts of the old world.
970. The fruits of the northern hemisphere belong
chiefly to the orders of Pomaceae, Amygdalineae,
Grossulareae, Rosacea?, Viticeae, and Amentaceae.
The fruits of the East Indies belong chiefly to Myrtacea?, Guttifereae, Aurantea?, Musacea?, Palma?, Cu-
curbitacea?, Myristiceae, &c.
The fruits of China are chiefly of the orders of Aurantea?, Myrtacea?, Rhamnea?, Pomacea?, Aniygda-
The fruits of Africa belong to Sapotea?, Palma?, Chrysobalanea?, Guttiferea?, Apocineae, Papilionacea?,
Musacea?, and Cucurbitacea?.
The fruits of South America belong to Annonacea?, Myrtacea?, Terebintacea?, Myristicea?, Palma?, Bro-
meliaceae, Sapotea?, Laurina?, Chrysobalanea?, Musacea?, Papilionacea?, and Paseiflorea?.
971. The most showy herbaceous flowers of the temperate zone belong to Rosacea?, Li-
liaceae, Irideas, Ericinae, Ranuneulacea?, Primulaceae, Caryophylleae, Gentianea;, &c.
Those of the torrid zone belong to the Scitamineae, Amaryllideae, Bignoniaceae, Mela-
stomaceae, Magnoliacea?, Papilionaceae, Apocineae, &c.
The most useful timber-trees of temperate climates are of the pine or fir kind ; of warm climates the
palm and bamboo. The universal agricultural order is the Graminece.
Sect. VII. Arithmetical Distribution of Vegetables.
972. The total number of sjiecies of plants known, or believed to exist, amounts to about
44,000, of which 38,000 have been described. According to Humboldt and R. Brown,
they are thus distributed : in Europe 7000 ; in temperate Asia 1500; in equinoctial Asia
and the adjacent islands 4500 ; in Africa 3000 ; in temperate America, in both hemi-
spheres, 4000 ; in equinoctial America 1 3,000 ; in New Holland and the islands of the
Pacific Ocean 5000 ; — in all 38,000. In Spitzbergen there are 30 species of perfect
plants ; in Lapland 534 ; in Iceland 533 ; in Sweden 1299; in Scotland 900 ; in Britain
1400 ; in Brandenburg 2000 ; in Piedmont 2800 ; in Jamaica, Madagascar, and the coast
of Coromandel, from 4000 to 5000.
Sect. VIII. Distribution of the British Flora, indigenous and exotic.
973. About thirteen, thousand plants compose the Hortus Britannicus, or such species
as admit of cultivation. Mosses, Fungi, Fuci, Algae, and Lichens are, with a few ex-
ceptions, excluded.
Book I. DISTRIBUTION OF THE BRITISH FLORA. 207
974. The natives of Britain which enter into this Hortus are upwards of 1400 species ;
but the native British Flora contains in all above 3300 species. Of these there are about
1437 cotyledonous plants, and nearly 1893 of imperfect, or of what are termed, in the
Jussieuean system, acotyledoneae.
975. Of the cotyledonous or perfect plants, 182 are trees or shrubs; 855 are peren-
nials ; 60 are biennials, and 340 annuals. Of the trees and shrubs, 47 are trees ; 25
above thirty feet high, and the remainder under thirty, but above 10 feet high. Of the
perennials 83 are grasses ; the next greatest number belong to the two first orders of the
class Pentandria ; the next to the Syngenesia ; and the third to Monoecia Triandria, or
the Cyperaceae of Jussieu, comprehending chiefly the genus Carex. Most of the bien-
nials belong to the first order of the 19th class, and the two first orders of Pentandria.
There are 41 annual grasses ; 52 annuals belong to the two first orders of Pentandria ;
and the next greatest number of annuals to Diadelphia Decandria, winch includes the tre-
foils and vetches.
976. Of the Cryptogamece, or imperfect plants, 800 are fungi; 18 algae; 373 lichens;
85 hepaticae ; 460 musci ; and 130 ferns ; according to an estimate (in Bees' s Cyclop, art.
Plant,) understood to be made by Sir J. E. Smith.
977. In regard to the distribution of the perfect plants as to elevation, little or nothing
has been yet generalised on the subject. In regard to soils, 276 are found in bogs, and
marshy or moist places ; 140 on the sea-shores ; 128 in cultivated grounds ; 121 in mea-
dows and pastures; 78 in sandy grounds ; 76 in hedges and on hedge-banks ; 70 on
chalky and other calcareous soils ; 64 on heaths ; 60 in woods ; 30 on walls ; 29 on
rocks ; and 1 9 on salt-marshes ; — reckoning from Galpine's Compend. Ft. Brit.
978. In the distribution of the Cryptogamece, the ferns prevail in rocky places and wastes ;
most of the musci, hepatici, and lichens, on rocks and trees ; most of the fuci and algae
in the sea ; and of the fungi, on decaying vegetable bodies, especially trunks of trees,
manures, &c.
979. In respect to geographical distribution, the mountainous and hilly districts of Eng-
land and South Wales are most prolific; the greatest number, according to extent of sur-
face, are found in England and Wales, and the smallest number in Ireland.
980. The genera of the native British Flora have been already arranged according to the
Linnaean and Jussieuean systems (where they are distinguished by marks *) ; they enter
into 23 classes and 71 orders of the former, and 8 classes and 121 orders of the latter
system.
981. With respect to the uses or application of the native Flora, there are about 18 sorts
of wild fruits which may be eaten, exclusive of the wild apple and pear ; but only the
pear, apple, plum, currant, raspberry, strawberry, and cranberry, are gathered wild, or
cultivated in gardens. There are about 20 boiling culinary plants natives, including the
cabbage, sea-kale, asparagus, turnip, carrot, and parsnep. There are about the same
number of spinaceous plants, salading, and pot and sweet herbs, which may be used, but
of which but a few only enter into the dietetics of modern cooks. There are three fungi,
in general use, the mushroom, truffle, and morel ; and various others, as well as about
eight species of sea-weeds, are occasionally eaten. There are about six native plants
cultivated as florists' flowers, including the primula elatior, crocus, narcissus, dianthus,
&c. Nearly 100 grasses, clovers, and leguminous plants are used in agriculture, or serve
in their native places of growth as pasturage for cattle. Two native plants, the oat and
the big, or wild barley, are cultivated as farinaceous grains. Most of the trees are used
in the mechanical arts, for fuel, or for tanning : one plant, the flax, not an aboriginal
native, but now naturalised, affords fibre for the manufacture of linen cloth. Various
plants yield colored juices, which may be, and in part are, used in dyeing ; and some hundred
species have been, and a few are still used in medicine. About 20 cotyledonous plants,
and above 50 cryptogameae, chiefly fungi, are, or are reputed to be, poisonous, both to
men and cattle.
982. By the artificial Flora of Britain, we understand such of the native plants as admit of
preservation or culture in gardens ; and such exotics as are grown there, whether in the open
ground, or in different descriptions of plant habitations. The total number of species
which compose this Flora, or Hortus Britannicus, as taken from Sweet's catalogue, is, as
already observed (973.), about 13,000, including botanists' varieties, and excluding
agamous plants. This is nearly a fourth part of the estimated Flora of our globe, and
maybe considered in regard to the countries from whence the plants were introduced ;
the periods of their introduction ; their obvious divisions ; their systematic classification ;
their garden habitations ; their application ; and their native habitations.
983. With respect to the native countries of the artificial Flora or Hortus Britannicus,
of 970 species the native countries are unknown ; the remaining 1 2,000 species were first
introduced from the following countries : —
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
Europe.
A6IA.
Africa.
America.
Continent.
Continent.
Continent.
S. Continent.
N. Continent
S. of Europe - 659
East Indies -
826
Cape of Good") ooan
Mexico -
-
102
United States
1222
Spain - - 266
Siberia -
364
Hope - y
Peru -
.
77
Carolina -
129
Italy --- 202
Levant -
213
Barbary -
77
Brazil
-
74
Virginia -
49
Hungary - - 173
China
205
Egypt -
69
Guinea -
-
33
Canada -
28
Austria - - 171
Caucasus -
67
Morocco -
13
Vera Cruz
-
22
Missouri
24
Germany - - 134
Persia
37
Sierra Leone -
12
Caraccas -
-
21
Louisiana
18
Switzerland - 117
Japan -
36
Guinea -
11
Chili
-
29
Georgia -
16
France - - 103
Syria - -
19
Abyssinia -
8
Buenos Ayres
8
Florida
9
Various other7 a ac
Parts - J **»
Various other!
Parts - J
82
Algiers
Various other?
Parts - J
8
51
Various other"?
Places - J
275
Other Parts T
of British
America and }»
111
Islands.
Islands.
S. Islands.
the United 1
Madeira 75
New So. Wales
239
Islands.
Cayenne -
-
9
States - - J
Candia 66
New Holland
152
Canaries - -
82
Falkland
}
„
Other Islands - 352
Ceylon
31
TenerifFe -
21
Islands -
N. Islands.
Britain - - 1400
VanDieman's")
Land - $
21
St. Helena
6
Terra del
}
1
West Indies -
435
Cape Verde 7
Islands - $
1
Fuego -
Jamaica -
248
Other Islands
73
Bahamas -
9
1
Other Islands
55
European plants in the artificial Flora of Britain -
.
- 4169
Asiatic
_
-
- 2365
African
...
.
.
- 2639
South America
...
.
.
- 644
North America
.
-
.
- 2353
Native countries unknown
-
- 970
i
'
- 13,140
984. With respect to the dates of the introduction of the exotics from those different
countries, the dates of the introduction of none are known before the time of Gerard, in
Henry VIII. 's reign. From this author and Trew, it appears that 47 species were intro-
duced on or before 1548, including the apricot, fig, pomegranate, &c. Those previously
introduced, of which the dates are unknown, may be considered as left here by the Ro-
mans, or afterwards brought over from France, Italy, and Spain, by the ecclesiastics, and
preserved in the gardens of the religious houses. Henry died in 1547 ; but the plants in-
troduced in the year after his death, may be considered as properly belonging to his reign.
Edrv.Vl. 1547 to 1553. During this troublous reign, only
seven exotic species were added to the British garden, chiefly
by Dr. Turner, director of the Duke of Somerset's (then Lord
Protector) garden at Zion House.
Mary. 1353 to 1558. No plants introduced.
Elizabeth. 1558 to 1603. 533 species were introduced during
this reign. Of these, 288 are enumerated in the first edition of
Gerard's Herbal, published 1557. Drake's voyage round the
world, Raleigh's discoveries in North America, and the con-
sequent introduction of the tobacco and potatoe, took place
during this reign.
James I. 1603 to 1625. Only 20 plants introduced during
this period.
Charles I. 1625 to 1649. 331 plants introduced, which are
chiefly mentioned by Parkinson, the first edition of whose
work was published iii 1629. Parkinson was the king's herbaHst,
and Tradescant his kitchen -gardener. A taste for plants began
to appear among the higher classes during this reign ; various
private gentlemen had botanic gardens ; and several London
merchants procured seeds and plants for Lobel, Johnston, and
Parkinson, through their foreign correspondents.
O. and R. Cromwell. 1649 to 1658. 95 plants introduced by
the same means as before. Cromwell encouraged agriculture ;
but the part he acted left no leisure for any description of
elegant or refined enjoyment.
Charles II. 1660 to 1685. 152 plants introduced, chiefly
mentioned by Rav, Morrison, and different writers in the
Transactions of the Royal Society, founded in 1663. The
Oxford and Chelsea gardens were founded, or enlarged, during
this reign. Sir Hans Sloane and Evelyn flourished. Many
native plants were now brought into notice by Ray and
VVilloughby.
James II. 1685 to 1688. 44 plants introduced.
William 8; Mary. 1688 to 1702. 298 species introduced,
chiefly from the West Indies, and through Sir Hans Sloane
and the Chelsea garden. Plunkenet succeeded Parkinson as
royal herbalist during this reign ; and botanists were sent
from England, for the first time, to explore foreign countries.
As in the two former reigns, great additions were now made
to the indigenous Flora, by Ray, Sibbald, Johnson, and
others. Many of the 50 species "annually presented to the
Royal Society were natives.
Anne. 1702 to 1714. 230 plants in great part from the
East and West Indies, and through the Chelsea garden.
George I. 1714 to 1727- 182 plants, chiefly through the
Chelsea garden.
George II. 1727 to 1760. 1770 plants, almost entirely
through the Chelsea garden, now in its zenith of fame under
Miller. 375 of these plants are stated as introduced in 1730
and 1731, the latter being the year in which the first folio
edition of the Gardeners' and Botanists' Dictionary appeared.
239 in 1759, in which year the 4th edition of the same work
appealed. 196 in 1752, and above 400 in 1758 and 1759,
when subsequent editions were published. In the last, in
1763, the number of plants cultivated in England is stated to
be more than double the number contained in the edition of
1731.
[i George III. 1760 to 1817. 6756 plants introduced, or con-
siderably above half the whole number of exotics now in the
gardens of this country. This is to be accounted for from the
general progress of civilisation, and the great extension of
British power and influence in every quarter of the world ;
especially in the East Indies, at the Cape of Good Hope, and
New South Wales. The increasing liberality of intercourse
which now obtained among the Teamed of all countries,
must also be taken into account, by which, notwithstanding
the existence of political differences, peace reigned and com-
merce flourished in the world of science. George III. may
also be said to have encouraged botany, aided by the advice,
assistance, and unwearied efforts of that distinguished patron of
science, Sir Joseph Banks ; and the garden of Kew, and its late
curator, Aiton, became the Chelsea garden, and the Miller of
this reign. Most of the new plants were sent there, and first de-
scribed in the Hortni Kewensis. The next greatest numbers were
procured by the activity of the London nurserymen, especially
Lee and Loddiges, and described in the Botanical Magazine ;
Andrew's Heathery ; the Botanical Register ; Loddiges* Cabi-
net, and other works. The greatest number of plants intro-
duced in any one year, during this period, is 336, in 1800, chiefly
heaths and proteas from the Cape of Good Hope, taken from
the Dutch in 1795. The following are the numbers annually
introduced since that period : —
1801. • 116 I
1S02. - 169
1803. - 267
1804. - 299
Annual Average of 17 years, ending 1816, 156 species.
1805.
- 169
1809.
- 48
1813.
- 42
1806.
- 224
1810.
- 68
1814.
- 44
1807.
- 61
1811.
- 149
1815.
- 192
1808.
• 52
1812.
- 316
1816.
- 301
985. With respect to the obvious character of the artificial Flora, 350 species are hardy
trees or shrubs ; of these 270 are trees above 10, and 100 trees above 30 feet high. Of
these, the larch, spruce fir, silver fir, and Lombardy poplar, sometimes attain the height
of 100 feet. Above 400 species are hardy grasses. Of the tender exotics, the greater
number are trees or shrubs, and the next greatest number annuals and bulbs. The
colors of the blossoms are generally rich and vivid in proportion to the warmth of the
climate of which the plants are natives.
986. In regard to systematic and horticultural distribution, the following Table gives a
combined view of the whole, arranged according to the Linnaan system, and also according
to their habitation in the garden.
Book I.
DISTRIBUTION OF THE BRITISH FLORA.
20$
Class and order.
Hardy.
Frame.
Green-house.
Dry-stove.
Stove*
TotaL
1?
V-
t
o
»?!^
*l
O
1? |lfj
s
o
J?
*l*|
0l%|
If
*|
0
Ge.
Sp.
Monandria.
Monogynia ...
1
2
-
o
-
-
-
-
l! 3
1
19
2
-
20
65
Digvnia
-
-
-
b
3
5
DlANURIA.
1
Monogynia ...
34
112
7
24
-
-
-
-
42
12
1
b
-
33
b
36
276
Digynia
-
2
-
-
-
-
-
-
- 1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
2
Trigynia
.
.
.
-
•
-
-
-
-
-
-
.
-
-
-
-
-
13
14
I j
1
28
Triandria.
Monogynia ...
.
122
1
20
.
.
-
-
1
169
4
56
346
-
153
3
141
-
-
-
-
-
1
b
/
ll
2
50
314
Trigynia
-
3
-
9
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
9
12
Tetrandria.
Monogynia ...
18
88
8
49
-
-
-
-
196
b
4
1,
32
o
76
420
1
.
1
o
3
5
Tetragynia ...
5
14
-
6
4
-
-
-
2
~
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
3]
1
9
35
Pentandria.
Monogynia ...
117
211
31
117
3
.
-
.
202 851
13
1
-
-
.
-
12
2j
200 '
36
209
1080
13
227
26
90
.
.
-
.
26 i
7
2
-
74
tt
b
93
487
42
2
1
3
-
-
-
-
23
-
-
1
-
-
-
-
2
-
7
4
15
85
Tetragynia ...
-
o
1
3
Pentagynia ...
o
46
2
4
-
7
-
-
43!
10
6
6
3
1
11
131
Polygynia
1
-
-
3
3
Hexandria.
Monogynia ...
14
277
3
3
3
9
-
.
34 238
1
-
13
>>
-
-
-
84
471
1
106
730
Digynia
.
_■
.
.
.
-
-
-
1
1
3
4
-
45
-
8
-
-
-
-
2
17
1
-
14
175
Heptandria.
Monogynia ...
' 7
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
2
3
\
-
8
21
Digynia
-
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- \
-
1
1
Tetragynia ...
-
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
■ i
-
1
1
Heptagynia ...
1
3
OCTANDRIA.
Monogynia ...~
25
22
8
7
1
2
1
-
35
2
3
31
-
-
-
-
1
-
25
-
41
163
Digynia
.
1
.
-
.
-
-
-
1
2
2
11
-
17
-
■
-
-
o
-
1
-
-
-
-
•
-
1
14
2
b
50
Tetragynia ...
-
2
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
-
-
4
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
7
10
ENNEANDRIA.
Monogynia ...
5
2
1 -
b
-
3
20
Trigynia
-
7
-
•-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
"
-
-
-
1
7
1
1
Decandria.
Monogynia ...
196
20
.
o
.
-
-
-
91
3
3
1
-
-
-
! -
8, 3
169
6
92
443
4
111
67
8
9
49
o
1
20
1
-
1
.
6
_
m
.
.
_
26
12
9
ItiU
158
Pentagynia ...
-v
63
2
20
-
1
-
-
10
62
-
1
6
-
1
b
Decagynia ...
-
1
-
-
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
o
2
-
11
lb4
DODECANDRIA.
Monogynia ...
6
11
.
2
1
-
-
-
5
2
1
1
-
-
-
-
4
-
17
4
22
54
Digynia
.
6
_
'-
—
-
.
.
1
1
-
3
8
2
30
3
24
6
3
-
-
26
3
2
-
23
•
-
-
1
3
V
b
3
139
1
-
1
1
1
1
-
6
-
1
-
-
-
-
6
2
1
ll
ICOSANDRIA.
Monogynia ...
33
_
_
.
1
.
.
-
53
-
2
•
55
-
-
-
-
-
34
-
18
173
Di-Pentag. ...
67
7
15
49
3
315
-
-
-
-
-
o
-
2
y
309
162
67
1
-
,j
-
-
-
6
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
-
10
340
POLYANCRIA.
Monogynia ...
28
19
3
17
33
5
.
.
6
b
3/
5
32
161
. 5
13
2
4
21
.
27
2
2
3
3b
Pentagynia ...
.
11
.
6
1
4
IS
30
107
1
10
5
2
-
-
8
*
18
-
28
135
DlDYNAMIA.
29
198
4
38
24
7
<->
_
48
5
6
b
5
15
48
2/9
.
87
8
42
3
23
4
-
38
3
10
9
511
81
316
Tetradyn.
6
35
11
b6
4
1
1
.
6
30
120
Siliquosa
.
48
22
66
-
-
-
-
15
-
o
2
-
-
-
-
o
-
1
b
20
164
Monadelphia.
Triandria
_
1
.
.
.
-
.
.
.
9
.
.
-
.
-
-
-
-
1
-
5
11
Pentandria ...
1
3
.
8
.
2
.
.
34
3
1
-
-
.
.
-
1
-
38
1
7
92
Heptandria ...
.
.
-
-
-
•
-
-
107
59
2
2
2
5
-
1
175
Octandria
_
.
-
.
.
.
.
.
1
1
1
Decandria ...
.
23
.
12
.
1
.
.
2
0
1
-
2
41
1
o
1
_
.
-
.
.
1
.
7
-
5
13
Polyandria ...
S
14
4
24
1
.
.
.
53
3
2
3
-
.
-
-
23
3
55
22
27
210
Diadelphia.
1
2
5
Hexandria ...
_
9
o
7
3
19
2
! b
.
6
.
.
.
.
15
1
-
2
29
Decandria ...
70
138
9
189
i
G
.
.
159
12
4
18
8
7
'/6
8U
800
PoLYADELPHTA.
2
-
1
3
-
2
t>
Icosandria ...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
31
.
.
.
-
.
.
-
-
-
1
-
4
32
Polyandria ...
10
1 17
.
-
;
8
-
-
322
2
5
65
Syngenesia.
1
i Polyg. asqu. ...
i .
1253
48
11
as
3
6
-
-
12
4
-
-
-
-
-
7
! 3
3
10
74
sr/4
210
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
Class and order.
Hardy.
Frame.
Green-house.
Dry-stove.
Stove.
Total.
Syngen. — cont.
Pol. superflua
frustanaea .
necessaria.
segregata .
Gynandria.
Monandria ..
Diandria ...
Hexandria...
Moncecia.
Monandria . .
Triandria ...
Tetrandria . .
Pentandria . .
Hexandria...
Polyandria...
Monadelp. ...
Gynandria...
Dicecia.
Monandria...
Diandria ...
Triandria ...
Tetrandria...
Pentandria . .
Hexandria...
Octandria ...
Enneandria .
Decandria...
Dodecand. ...
Icosandria...
Monadelp. ...
Gynandria...
Polygamia.
Moncecia ...
Cryptogamia.
Gonopter. ...
Stachyopter.
Poropterid. .
Schismatopt.
Filices
1?
if
*|.0
1?
n
3
1
15
0
4
1
17
-
23*
101
20
39
3
"i
3
5
3
"2
13
4
33
3
6
1
1
3
4
is
7
7
36
20
1
2014
^ «?!©
J?i^;<?
0
J?|lf
*.|0
Gfe.1 S/?.
8
1
1
14
82
36
84
1
9
5
11
14
2
3
2
21
24
25
1
389
92
14
6
46
6
6
85
7
17
3
"l
1
7
1
1
2
21
2
6
16
i
8
6
98
36
14
2
9
5
4
42
1
1
14
1
3
"2
2
29
4
2
1
"2
"2
"l
2
1
5
7
1
1
3
1
21
22
6
13
3
23
3
2
1
1
2
9
4
*3
5
1
1
1535
12
1
3
_
90
3
2
382
169
'6
!)
":
5
"l
1
2
4
2
2
10
1
16
14
46
4
2
3
4
;5
5
3
4
6
10
7
1
70
27
*2
5
2
"2
50
2
4
1
16
5
6
-i
9
2
3
44
1
1
2
"2
"2
4
-8
2
18
1
6
;.
3
1
9
60
19
20
10
48
3
1
5
2
11
12
7
7
22
26
1
1
3
7
13
8
8
2
2
5
6
3
5
12
.1
31
14
i
• 4
1
3
26
673
177
100
17
132
10
19
16
5
101
41
48
11
189
158
1
4
87
12
45
18
36
15
6
9
12
6
26
40
8
204
76
7
18
1
9
130
Total
1132
3130 2341,1232,
177
0
353
438
865
764
1850
12700
987. The following Table exhibits the systematic and horticultural distribution of the
artificial Flora of Britain, according to the Jussieuean classification, with the garden-
habitations.
Class and order.
Hardy.
Frame.
Green-house.
Dry-stove. [ Stove.
. Total.
Thalamif. § 1.
Ranuncula. ..
Magnoliaceae
Annoneae ...
Menisperm. .
Berberideae ..
| Thalamif. \ 2.
Papaveraceae
Crucifereae...
Capparideae .
Passifloreae...
Pediculareae
Thalamif. §3.
Caryophyll. .
Malvaceae ...
Sterculiaceae
Sapindeae ...
Acereae ......
Malpighiaceae
Pittosporeae .
Hypericineae
Guttifereae...
Geraniaceae .
Meliaceae ...
Auranteae ...
Diosmaceae
±
16
13
3
3
7
46
1
4
2
11
5
5
21
1
22
10
"7
2
43
4
18
83
11
3
36
154
16
20
17
30
I
6
$
8
33
1
12
4
_0
4
20
124
9
7
2
6
6
85
24
i
26
1
*\K
-
1
0
1
3
"3
1
30
5
4
5
15
s
34
1
43
2
3
,2
-2
175
5
28
11
34
2
1
"l
I
1
1
5
6
1
67
1
1
'3
1
1
5
1
5
g
•
J?
2f
I
©h
v\&
O
*Ge.| Sp.
"5
"5
29
1
1
1
:■ »
8
2
4
1
2
4
"3
8
3
■
2
1
3
1
1
.'
IS
4
1
1
16
34
5
1
.71
5
65
IS
8
1
13
2
13
10
.1
2
"l
*2
30
"l
1
)
~2
24
1
1
6
22
5
2
_i
i
25
4
5
7
13
53
7
1
3
0
2
30
35
2
20
10
17
3
3
2
8
1
7
14
8
10
7
69
24
1 16
12
13
51
! 330
53
55
53
1 !39
47
281
216
6
88
20
51
27
10
54
15
8
309
21
38
27
34 j
1
Book I.
DISTRIBUTION OF THE BRITISH FLORA.
211
Class and order.
Hardy. 1 Frame.
Green-house.
Dry-stove. 1 Stova
1 Total.
h\V-
I
©hi^
1*1©
\
n
\t
o
1? V-
l*i0hr
u\ $
0
|Ge.
\Sp.
Thalamiflor. §4.
o! o
(
0
0
0
0
0
0
i
(
0
0 C
1 0 0
0
0 c
0
0
0
Calyciflore.e
i
Terebintaceaa .
17
70
Leguminosa? ..
52 184
9
292
9
6
-
-
189
15
5
3
- -
.
89 ]
0 19
62
144
10r4
157 195
1
-
6
-
-
-
27
_
.
-
- -
.
4
.
.
26
391
.
6
.
5
.
.
.
•
3
1
1
7
1 1
1
1?
27
Melastomeae...
w
2
.
.
-
1
.
-
-
_
.
.
- .
.
20
- 1
.
4
94
Myrteaceae
9
.
-
-
-
-
-
79
33
1 -
1
22
193
Combretaceas .
4
9
Cucurbitacea? .
.
1
.
8
.
.
-
13
.
81 -
.
.
_
3
7 -
1
in
4
Loosacea?
_
11
.
_
-
.
-
-
1
2
1 -
1
2
1"
Onograreaa ...
.
24
8
7
.
1
i
-
3
2
2
2 4
.
10
72
Ficoidese
1
-
.
.
1
-
-
-
152
53
, s
15
- -
.
.
3 -
4
7
9,39
Scmperviveee .
.
41
.
6
-
1
-
-
42
11
1 5
4
13
97
Portulacea? ...
3
6
.
9
.
-
■
-
5
2
1 .
.
.
5
- 3
8
14
37
22
2
.
.
55 .
.
3
.
.
3
8?
Saxifrageaj ...
4
69
.
2
2
IS
-
-
1
9
95
9.
9
4
4
2
3
32
Caprifolea? ...
53
6
11
65
Umbellifereaa .
1
172
.j, >
51
.
.
.
-
10
8
3
1
1 1
.
53
985
Corymbiferae .
21
494
8
148
6
IS
l
1
169
54
14
6
- -
.
14 1
2 9
30
133
<H5
Rubiacea?
41
36
-
11
-
.
-
-
19
1
.
.
. .
.
62
2 2
3
51
153
Cynarocephal.
1
127
28
43
2
4
o
-
12
4
.
1
- -
,
1
1 -
23
227
.
33
4
26
.
.
-
-
4
1
5
68
Gentianea? ...
.
24
6
9
.
_
.
-
.
5
1
.
-
.
13
2 -
1
15
48
Cichoraceae ...
.
118
25
59
.
_
1
-
1
3
2
10
73
Campanulaceaa
_
84
14
9
.
3
-
-
8
25
5
9
- -
.
0
.
.
10
128
Stylideae
_
.
.
.
.
.
-
-
3
2
.
.
- -
.
.
.
.
1
3
4
8
67
10
.
.
2
.
-
-
42
.
.
.
- -
.
10
.
.
20
421
Epacridea?
1
-
.
-
-
-
-
-
19
9
20
CoROLLIFLORE.£
Myrsineae
_
.
.
-
-
.
-
-
5
- 2
11
5
9
m
16
9
23
93
EbenacGai
9
.
.
.
_
_
.
12
.
m
.
_
7
_
8
Oleineaj
34
.
_
.
.
.
-
-
.
2
_
.
- -
.
3
•
.
9
49
Jasmineae
.
.
.
.
.
.
-
-
.
_
.
.
- -
.
1 •
.
.
1
1
2
8
.
-
.
.
-
-
5
_
-
.
- -
.
34
3
.
19
56
Bignoniacea? .
3
11
_
-
1
-
-
■
4
.
.
2
-
.
19
2 -
5
10
47
Pedalinea?
„
_
_
.
.
-
-
-
4
3
1
1
1
1
Polcmoniaceaa
.
27
.
.
.
-
.
-
1
.
1
.
- -
.
_
.
_
5
94
Convolvulaceffi
fi
5
.
18
-
-
.
-
12
!)
.
.
- -
.
9
7 1
22
9
99
Boraginea? ...
1
44
17
33 1
.
.
-
28
5
2
.
. .
.
21
1 -
.
25
159
9
12
IS
49 !
.
.
3
-
28
8
2
.
. .
.
42
3 2
2
20
174
Scrophularinea:
.
102
6
;>s
2
25
-
1
17
4
3
5
- -
.
11
3 1
2
41
222
Orobanchea?...
_
7
_
.
.
-
-
_
2
.
.
- -
.
.
.
.
2
7
32 22
11
55
23
7
2
-
13
3
.
. .
.
7
3 5
15
55
590
Myoporineaa...
4
11
Acanthaceaa...
3
3
.
.
.
.
35
5 1
5
10
61
Lentibulareaa .
7
1
.
.
.
-
.
_
.
_
. .
_
.
.
.
2
9
Primulaceaa ...
«
57
2
7
.
_
-
-
.
3
4
14
64
Globulareae ...
_
3
1
3
.
1
7
MoNOCHLAMYDEjE
Plumbagineae .
2
24
_
.
.
9
-
-
4
4
1
.
- -
.
3 -
-
_
0
44
Plantagineaa...
1
19
2
14
-
.
-
-
1
_
1
.
- -
.
- -
-
-
0
39
Nyctagineaa ...
.
2
.
.
.
-
.
-
2
1
1
.
- -
.
6
4 -
1
7
17
Amaranthaceae
1
3
.
1
•
.
6
4 3
9
61
23
Chenopodeaa...
5
5
3
60
.
_
.
-
3-
1
1
.
- -
.
10
3 2
2
24
136
Polygoneae ...
2
36
_
26
.
.
-
-
4
2
1
.
- -
.
6
1 -
.
8
79
Laurineaa
5
.
m
_
.
_
..
-
7
_
.
.
-
.
9 -
.
.
g
18
Myristiaceae ...
m
.
.
.
.
.
-
5
.
.
.
- .
.
2
L -
_
2
3
Proteacea;
„
.
.
_
.
.
-
61
93
200
Thvmeleae
14
11
48
Santalaceaj ...
4
4
e
10
20
Eleagneae
4
.
.
-
.
.
.
-
1
2
6
Aristolocheaa
2
8
-
.
.
.
.
-
6
5
.
.
•
.
4
[ -
.
2
41
Euphorbiaceaa
4
_
1
20
.
.
-
-
25
1
.
.
- -
.
50
2 4
9
30
19fi
8
6
„
10
.
1
.
-
3
2
.
.
-
.
461
1 2
2
15
102
Amentaceae ...
190
3
18
206
Conifereae
16
.
.
-
.
2
-
-
81
5
26
PHANEHOGAME/E
|
1
Cycadeaa
.
.
.
-
.
.
-
-
5
8 -
2
13
Hvdrocharideaa
.
13
.
1
.
.
-
11
.
.
.
-
.
7 1-
• 2
.
17
58
Alismacete ...
_
2.1
.
.
.
-
5
6
30
Orchidea?
27
.
.
1
-
.
23,
.
.
.
-
. 2
2 4)
1 .
.
49
128
Musaceas
m
.
.
a
.
.
.
.
_
.
.
.
6 !
} -
.
4
15
Irideaa
-
73
1
-
-
-
1
-
-
166
1
2
9.
-
-
"7 4
-
7 .
-
25
4
.00
4
Haamodoraceje
AmaryllideEe .
.
64
2
611
.
_
. .
. .
- 4J
5 -
.
13
102
Hemerocallid.
_
10
.
_
3
_
-
29
39
0 1
13
102
Dioscoreae
2
.
.
.
.
-
.
.
1 (
.
2
9
16
29
m
1
1
1
.
.
7
1
m
. -
_
1 -
.
.
11
59
4
37
24
1
1 i
> .
-
6
7
47
35
Melanthaceae .
- -
Junceas
29
_,
1 -
_
„
.
.
.
1 -
1
.
5
32
Restiaceaa
_
1
- -
1
.
_
4 -
_
.
.
. .
-
.
5
7
. 1
1 £
-
2
5
22
P 2
212
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
Class and order. J Hardy.
Frame.
Green-house.
Dry-stove*
Stove.
Total. |
Pit ax. — cont.
Pandanea?...
Scitamineaa
Cyperacea? ..
Gramineas...
CRYPTOGAMEiE.
Naiadeas ...
Equisetaceaj
Marciliacece
Lycopodineae
Filiceas
h
V
t
0
\
21
<?!©
*
7
5
1
V- c?
e
1?
VJ
3
J?
n
*|0
Ge.\ Sp.
"1
7
33
174
5
5
11
76
78
5
5
155
13
-
15
3
Q
9
90
-
0
0
°2
1
1
353
8
49
5
3
19
1
1
12
75
9
1
2
2
31
37
4
2
136
933
21
6
2
12
144
Total
1132
3130
234
1232
177
23
2014
1535
3S2B169
6
438 855
764
1850 12700
988. The uses of these arrangements, and of the other tables in this chapter to the botanist
and cultivator, are very considerable. They afford a full view of the riches of the British
garden ; a condensed view of the affinities of plants, by which their properties, culture, and
alliances by grafting, crossing, &c. may be estimated ; and the means of selecting plants
for every department of the garden. Thus, a person wishing to possess a collection of
hardy plants, may, from the two last tables, order a certain number of annuals, biennials,
perennials, and trees from each of the Linnaaan or Jussieuean classes. Or if he wishes
merely a few species of dried plants to illustrate each of the classes or orders of these systems,
he may give instructions for forming a herbarium from the tables of the genera before
given. (588, 589.) He may there also make a choice for any purpose confined to British
plants. To the gardener these tables will be particularly useful, by enabling him to form
arrangements in any of the departments of culture with ease and effect. Thus, supposing
he is desirous of arranging bis green-house plants according to the method of Jussieu ;
then, beginning, say with Ranunculaceae, he finds that order contains only one tree and
two perennials which are green-house plants ; on turning to the Jussieuean classification
of the genera (589. ), he finds Atragene and Knowltonia furnish these. If these genera are in
his collection, he begins by placing them together. Next, he proceeds to Magnoliacea?,
in which there are three green-house trees, and so on ; — proceeding thus, whether in ar-
ranging hardy, green-house, or hot-house plants in the natural method, and similarly, if
arranging them according to that of Linnaeus. It is proper to observe, that though great
care has been taken to attain arithmetical correctness in these tables, yet, in some cases,
we have failed of perfect success ; but as the number of plants in the artificial Flora is
every day increasing, and their arrangement and even names very frequently varying,
there is no occasion for absolute perfection in arithmetical enumerations for subjects such
as ours, and even a much less degree than what has been attained would have answered
the purpose equally well.
989. Purchasable British Flora. The whole of the plants enumerated as forming the
British Flora, are probably not at any one time all in existence in Britain. Many of them,
especially the exotic species, which were introduced at Kew, have been lost there through
accidents or diseases, and are wanting for a time till new seeds or plants are obtained from
abroad. Had they been distributed among the nurserymen they would have been
abundantly multiplied and spread over the country. Casualties happen even to hardy
plants, and a species which at one time is to be found in moderate quantities in the nur-
series is at another period comparatively scarce. Thus, if we reduce the actual number
of species to be found in cultivation at one time to from 9000 to 10,000, it will be found
nearer the truth. In the public nurseries, varieties are very much cultivated, in order, as
it were, to place the beauties of esteemed species in different points of view; or to produce
in vegetables something analogous to what are called variations in musical compositions.
The following may be considered as a popular or horticultural distribution of the species
and varieties obtainable from British nurseries. It is taken from a catalogue entitled
Prodromus, &c. ; or Forerunner of the collection in Page's Southampton nursery-garden,
drawn up by L. Kennedy, (late of the Hammersmith nursery,) and published in 1818.
It is a work of great practical utility, and with Sweet's Hortus, should be in the hands
of every gardener v/ho has a collection of plants under his care.
990. Hardy Plants.
Sp. &Var.
Trees above 50 feet high - - 100
Trees under 50 and above 101 900
feet high ... j
Deciduous shrubs ... 500
Roses, double and single - 550
Evergreen shrubs - - 400
Sp
&Var.
Sp. &Var.
Hardy climbing shrubs -
130
Marsh plants
. - 70
Herbaceous plants - - -
2800
Biennials
300
Grasses introduced in botanic")
collections - - - J
150
Total 4580
Bulbous-rooted plants
250
Aquatics ...
50
Book "I.
DISTRIBUTION OF THE BRITISH FLORA.
213
991. Green-house and Dry-stove Plants.
Trees and shrubs
Heaths •
Geraniums
Froteas -
Sp.&Var.
1450;
400
150
120
Climbers
Succulents ...
Mesymbryanthemums
Bulbous-rooted plants -
Sp.&Var.
. 90
170
160
300
992. Hot-house Plants.
Trees and shrubs
Climbers
Succulent plants
Bulbous-rooted plants
Herbaceous
993. Annuals, native and exotic.
Sp. &Var.
850
150
130
SO
170
Sp. &Var.
300
110
100
200
Aquatics
Reedy or scitaminous
Used in agriculture exclusive of grasses
Sp. &Var.
Herbaceous and stcmless plants 340
Total 5180
Sp. &Var.
28
55
Total 820
Hardy
Half hardy
Tender ......
Esculent .......
Total. Hardy, 4580; green-house and dry-stove, 3180; hot-house, 1463 ; annuals, 820;
total, 10,043 ; of these, above 3000 may be considered as varieties, so that the actual
hortus procurable in British nurseries, may be estimated, as to the British hortus of books,
as 7 to 12, or including the cryptogamous plants, as 8 to 12.
994. With respect to the application of the purchasable Flora of Britain, including species
and varieties, we submit the following as only a rude outline, the subject not admitting
of perfect accuracy from the ever-varying number of varieties.
995. Varieties of Fruit-trees, and Fruit-hearing Plants, for Sale in British Nurseries.
Apples ...
Pears *
Medlars ...
Quinces
Services ...
Oranges and Lemons
Peaches . - .
Nectarines
Almonds , -
Sp. &Var.
300
300
2
3
60
100
50
6
Apricots -
Plums -
Cherries -
Grapes -
Figs
Gooseberries
Currants '
Raspberries
Strawberries
Sp.&Var.
30
150
100
50
30
200
4
10
20
Sp. &Var.
Cranberry
1
M ulberries
2
Filberts
6
Walnuts
3
Chestnuts
3
Melons
15
Pine-apples , -
20
Total 1417
996. Esculent Herbaceous Plants, annuals and perennials, used in Horticulture.
Cabbage tribe -
Leguminous plants
Esculent roots -
Spinaceous plants
Alliaceous plants
Asparaginous plants
Acetaceous plants
Sp. &Var.
35
59
45
10
is
is
10
1
3
10
6
7
11
25
Pot-herbs and garnishings 11
Sweet herbs ... 12
Plants used in confectionary "1 j^
and domestic medicine J
Plants used as preserves andl jg
pickles - - S
Sp. &Var.
11 16
20
18
26
Sp.&Var.
Edible wild plants which "} 31 3,
may be used -
Edible fungi
Edible fuel
Total 154 337
997. Florists' Flowers, used in Floriculture.
Sp.&Var,
Bulbous-rooted PUnts
Hyacinths
Tulips -
Crocuses -
Narcissi . . .
Irises ...
Fritillaries ...
Crown-imperials
Dens cards
200
300
100
200
60
20
20
6
Colchicums ...
Other sorts
Fibrous-rooted Plants.
Auriculas
Polyanthi -
Primroses
Cowslips "...
Pinks ...
Carnations •
Sp.&Var.
10
100
200
100
20
10
200
300
Tuberous.rooted Plants.
Dahlias ...
Paaonies
Ranunculuses
Anemonies -
Sp. &Var.
400
20
300
200
Total 2666
998. Hardy Timber-trees and Shrubs, used in Arboriculture, Floriculture, and Land-
scape-gardening.
° Sp.&Var. Sp.&Var.
Trees planted for timber 100 Shrubs planted for various uses, as fuel, charcoal,! „„
other useful purposes - - - 20 bark, hrewood, &c. ....
Trees planted for ornament .... - 180
Hedge-plants
Total 330
999. Agricultural Herbaceous Plants, grown for Food for Men and Cattle, and for use
in various Arts.
Grains for human food .....
leguminous seeds .....
Roots 6
Herbage plants, not grasses - - ".',"-, 9
.. grasses, and grasses for grains for the infe- 1 go
rior animals ...... J
Plants used for furnishing oils and essences - - 5
Sp. &Var
Plants used for dyeing -
Plants used for the clothing arts
Sea-plants used .....
Mosses used in dyeing - - ■
^— — — — . for various purposes in the arts
Sp. &Var.
Total
1000. Miscellaneous applications of Hardy Perennials, native and exotic.
Used for distillation and perfumery *
Sp. &Var
Border-flowers, or .such as |are used in flower -gar-1 jqq
dens and shrubberies, in ordinary cases about J
Used in the modern pharmacopoeias ... 50
Sold by herbalists, and used by quacks and irregu-'l 50
lar practitioners ..-•»- J
2
2
2
2
6
6
1
1
6
6
ll 65
112
Sp. &Var.
20
Total
870
1001. Application of curious Hot-house Exotics, or such plants of ornament as require the
protection of glass. Of these there are in ordinary green-houses seldom more than lOOspecies
and varieties, and not more than half that number in most of our plant-stoves. The
remainder of this class are confined to the public and private botanic gardens, and to eminent
P 3
214
SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Paut II.
public nurseries. Many of this division are of great importance in their native countries,
as the indigo, sugar-cane, tea-tree, cinnamon, &c. ; the mango, durion, and other excellent
fruits, the palms, bamboos, &c. Even some here treated as entirely ornamental, afford
useful products in their own countries, as the camellia, sun-flower, &c. from the seeds of
which oils are expressed in China and America. The cultivation or preservation of living
specimens of these plants, therefore, in our green-houses and stoves, is,a rational entertain-
ment, and also useful, as many species become in time acclimated, and some even natu-
ralised ; and uses may in time also be discovered for such as are now merely looked on as
objects of curiosity. But it is quite enough to justify much more than all the care that
is taken to obtain and preserve them, that they contribute to elegant enjoyment ; for what
is life when it does not exceed mere obedience to the animal instincts ?
1002. With respect to tlie native habitations of the exotic part of the Hortus Britannicus,
little can be advanced with certainty. In general it seems to appear that moist and mo-
derately warm climates, and irregular surfaces, are most prolific in species ; and judging
of the whole world from Europe, we should venture to consider half the species of plants
in existence as growing in soft and rather moist grounds, whether low or elevated. The
soil of surfaces constantly moist, or inclining to be moist, whether watered from the at-
mosphere or from subterraneous sources, is almost always found to be minutely divided,
and o-enerally of a black vegetable or peaty nature. Immense tracts in Russia and Ame-
rica are of this description, and even when dry, resist evaporation better than any other.
In such soils, the roots of plants are generally small and finely divided, as in the heaths,
most bog plants, and nearly all the American shrubs. The next sort of habitation most
prolific in species, appears to us to be arenarious soils in temperate climates, and in pro-
portion to their moisture. Here the roots of plants are also small, but less so than in
soils of the former description. On rocky and calcareous soils the roots of plants are ge-
nerally strong and woody, or at least long and penetrating. In clayey habitations, ex-
clusive of the alluvial depositions of rivers, few plants are found, and these generally
grasses, or strong fibrous-rooted herbaceous plants, or tap-rooted trees. Such at least is
the amount of our generalisations ; but as our observation has been limited to Europe, and
does not even extend to the whole of it, those who have visited Africa and Asia are much
more capable of illustrating the subject. One conclusion we think the cultivator is fully
entitled to draw, that the greater number of plants, native or foreign, will thrive best in
light soil, such as a mixture of soft black vegetable mould or peat and fine sand kept
moderately moist ; and that on receiving unknown plants or seeds, of the native sites of
which he is ignorant, he will err on the safe side by placing them in such soils rather
than in any other ; avoiding, most of all, clayey and highly manured soils, as only fit
for certain kinds of plants constitutionally robust, or suited to become monstrous by
culture.
Chap. XI.
Origin of Culture, as derived from the Study of Vegetables.
1003. Agriculture and gardening are the two arts which embrace the whole business of
cultivating vegetables, for whatever purpose they are applied by civilised man, and in this
respect their fundamental principles are the same ; they are all indicated by nature, and
explained by vegetable chemistry and physiology.
1004. The object of vegetable cidture is either to'increase the number of plants ; to in-
crease their number and retain their native qualities ; to increase their number and im-
prove their qualities ; to increase their magnitude ; to increase their number, improve the
quality, and increase the magnitude of particular parts of the vegetable ; to form new varieties
for the furtherance of all or any of the above purposes ; to propagate and preserve from
degenerating approved varieties of vegetables ; and to preserve vegetables for future use.
The first step, for all these objects in common, is to procure the desired plant, either by removing it in
an entire state from its native site, and planting it in an appropriate situation ; or by gathering and sow-
ing its seeds ; or by propagating from a part of the plant. Hence the general origin both of agriculture and
gardening, and of all the different modes of propagation, transplanting, and collecting seeds.
The next step is to secure the plants to be cultivated from the depredations of animals, or unsuitable
weather either by surrounding them with an adequate barrier where they are growing fortuitously or by
removing them to a spot already protected. Hence the origin of fences and enclosures, and plant habita-
Athtwi step common to all the above objects of culture is to remove from the vicinity of the plant to be
cultivated or from the plant itself, all other plants, or animals, or objects likely to impede its progress.
Hence the origin of weeding, thinning, destroying insects, and curing diseases.
1005. To increase the number and retain the native qualities of vegetables, it is necessary
to imitate, as exactly as circumstances will admit, their native habitation, in respect to
soil, climate, mode of watering, light, &c. If the habitation is in any way ameliorated,
the qualities of the plant will be altered, and its parts enlarged, which is not desired.
Book I. ORIGIN OF VEGETABLE CULTURE. 215
All that is necessary, therefore, for effecting this branch of culture, is to imitate the habit-
ation, and to propagate. This is, or ought to be the case, wherever plants are grown for
medical or botanical purposes, as in herb and botanic gardens. Nature is here imitated
as exactly as possible, and the result is productions resembling, as near as possible, those
of nature.
1006. To increase the number and improve the qualities of plants, it is necessary to faci-
litate their mode of nutrition by removing all obstacles to the progress of the plant.
These obstacles may either exist under or above the surface ; and hence the origin of drain-
ing, clearing from surface-incumbrances, and the various operations, as digging, plough-
ing, &c. for pulverising the soil. Nature suggests this in accidental ruptures of the
surface, broken banks, the alluvial depositions from overflowing rivers, and the earth
thrown up by underground animals. Many of the vegetables within the influence of
such accidents are destroyed, but such as remain are ameliorated in quality, and the reason
is, their food is increased, because tlieir roots, being enabled to take a more extensive
range, more is brought within their reach.
1007. It is necessary, or at least advantageous, to supply food artificially ,• and hence the
origin of manuring. All organised matters are capable of being converted into the food
of plants ; but the best manure for ameliorating the quality, and yet retaining the peculiar
chemical properties of plants, must necessarily be decayed plants of their own species.
It is true that plants do not differ greatly in their primary principles, and that a supply
of any description of putrescent manure will cause all plants to thrive ; but some plants,
as wheat, contain peculiar substances, (as gluten and phosphate of lime,) and some ma-
nures, as those of animals, or decayed wheat, containing the same substances, must neces-
sarily be a better food or manure for such plants. Manuring is an obvious imitation of
nature, every where observable by the decaying herbage of herbaceous plants, or the fal-
len leaves of trees, rotting into dust or vegetable mould about their roots ; 'and by the
effect of the dung left by pasturing or other animals.
1008. Amelioration of climate is farther advantageous, in improving the qualities of vege-
tables, by increasing or diminishing its temperature according to the nature of the plant •
unless, indeed, it be situated in a climate which experience and observation show to be
exactly suited to its nature. Hence the origin of shelter and shade, by means of walls
hedges, or strips of plantation ; of sloping surfaces or banks, to receive more directly or
indirectly the rays of the sun ; of soils better calculated to absorb and retain heat • walls
fully exposed to the south, or to the north ; of training or spreading out the branches of
trees on these walls ; of hot- walls ; of hot-beds ; and finally of all the variety of hot-houses.
Nature suggests this part of culture, by presenting, in every country, different degrees of
shelter, shade, and surface, and in every zone different climates.
1009. The regulation of moisture is the next point demanding attention; for when the
soil is pulverised, it is more easily dried by the penetration of the air ; when an increase
of food is supplied, the medium through which that food is taken up by the plant should
be increased; and when the temperature is increased, evaporation becomes «reater.
Hence the origin of watering by surface or subterraneous irrigation, manual supplies to
the root, showering over the leaves, steaming the surrounding atmosphere, &c. This is
only to imitate the dews and showers, streams and floods of nature ; and it is to be re-
gretted that the imitation is in most countries attended with so much labor, and requires
so much nicety in the arrangement of the means, and judgment in the application of the
water, that it is but very partially applied by man in every part of the world, excepting
perhaps a small district of Italy. But moisture may be excessive ; and on certain soils at
certain seasons, and on certain productions at particular periods of their progress, it may
be necessary to carry off a great part of the natural moisture, rather than let it sink into
the earth, or draw it off where it has sunk in and injuriously accumulated, or prevent its
falling on the crop at all ; and hence the origin of surface-drainage by ridges, and of un-
der-draining by covered conduits, or gutters ; and of awnings and other covers to keep off
the rain or dews from ripe fruits, seeds, or rare flowers.
1010. The regulation of light is the remaining point. Light sometimes requires to be ex-
cluded and sometimes to be increased, in order to improve the qualities of vegetables •
and hence the origin of thinning the leaves which overshadow fruits and flowers, the
practice of shading cuttings, seeds, &c, and the practice of blanching. The latter
practice is derived from accidents observable among vegetables in a wild state, and its in-
fluence on their quality is physiologically accounted for by the obstruction of perspiration,
and the prevention of the chemical changes effected by light on the epidermis.
1011. Increasing the magnitude of vegetables, without reference to their quality, is to be
obtained by an increased supply of all the ingredients of food, distributed in such a body
of well pulverised soil as the roots can reach to ; of heat and moisture ; of a partial ex-
clusion of the direct rays of the sun, so as to moderate perspiration ; and of wind, so as to
prevent sudden desiccation. But experience alone can determine what plants are best
suited for this, and to what extent the practice can be earned. Nature gives thphint in
P 4 r
216 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
the occasional luxuriance of plants accidentally placed in favorable circumstances, and
man adopts it, and improving on it, produces cabbages and turnips of half a cwt. ; apples
of one pound and a half ; and cabbage-roses of four inches in diameter ; productions
which may in some respects be considered as diseased.
1012. To increase the number, improve the quality, and increase the magnitude of parti-
cular parts of vegetables. It is necessary, in this case, to remove such parts of the vegeta-
ble as are not wanted, as the blooms of bulbous or tuberous rooted plants, when the bulbs
are to be increased, and the contrary ; the water-shoots and leaf-buds of fruit-trees ; the
flower-stems of tobacco ; the male flowers and barren runners of the cucumis tribe, &c.
Hence the important operations of pruning, ringing, cutting off large roots, and other
practices for improving fruits and throwing trees into a bearing state. At first sight these
practices do not appear to be copied from nature ; but, independently of accidents by fire,
already mentioned, which both prune and manure, and of fruit-bearing trees, say thorns
or oaks, partially blown out by the roots, or washed out of the soil by torrents, which
always bear better afterwards, why may not the necessity- that man was under, in a pri-
mitive state of society, of cutting or breaking ofF branches of trees, to form huts, fences,
or fires, and the consequent vigorous shoots produced from the parts where the amputa-
tion took place, or the larger fruit on that part of the tree which remained, have given the
first idea of pruning, cutting off roots, &c. It may be said that this is not nature but art ;
but man, though an improving animal, is still in a state of nature, and all his practices,
in every stage of civilisation, are as natural to him as those of the other animals are to
them. Cottages and palaces are as much natural objects as the nests of birds, or the
burrows of quadrupeds ; and all the laws and institutions by which social man is guided
in his morals and politics, are no more artificial than the instinct which congregates sheep
and cattle in flocks and herds, and guides them in their choice of pasturage and shelter.
1013. To form new varieties of vegetables, as well as of flowers and useful plants of
every description, it is necessary to take advantage of their sexual differences, and to
operate in a manner analogous to crossing the breed in animals. Hence the origin of
new sorts of fruits. Even this practice is but an imitation of what takes place in nature
by the agency of bees and other insects, and the wind ; all the difference is, that man ope-
rates with a particular end in view, and selects individuals possessing the particular
properties which he wishes to perpetuate or improve. New varieties, or rather subvarieties,
are formed by altering the habits of plants ; by dwarfing through want of nourishment ;
variegating by arenarious soils ; giving or rather continuing peculiar habits when
formed by nature, as in propagating from monstrosities — fasciculi of shoots, weeping
shoots, shoots with peculiar leaves, flowers, fruit, &c.
1014. To propagate and preserve from degeneracy approved varieties of vegetables, it is in
general necessary to have recourse to the different modes of propagating by extension.
Thus choice apples and tree fruits are preserved and multiplied by grafting ; others, as the
pine-apple by cuttings or suckers ; choice carnations by layers, potatoes by cuttings of the
tubers, &c. But approved varieties of annuals are in general multiplied and preserved by
selecting seed from the finest specimens and paying particular attention to supply suitable
culture. This part of culture is the farthest removed from nature ; yet there are not-
withstanding examples cf the fortuitous graft ; of accidental layers ; of leaves, or de-
tached portions, forming natural cuttings, (as of the cardamine hirsuta,) dropping and
taking root.
1015. The preservation of vegetables for future use is effected by destroying or render-
ing dormant the principle of life, and by warding off", as far as practicable, the progress
of chemical decomposition. Hence some vegetables are dried, and either their herbs, or
roots, or fruits ; others are placed beyond the reach of the active principles of vegetation,
heat, and moisture, as seeds, cuttings, scions, roots, and fruits ; and some are, in addi-
tion, even excluded from air, or placed in very low temperatures. The origin of these
practices are all obvious imitations of what accidentally takes place in nature, from the
withered grassy tressock to the hedgehog's winter store ; and hence the origin of herb,
seed, fruit, and root rooms and cellars, and packing plants and seeds for sending to a
distance.
1016. The whole of gardening, as an art of culture, is but a varied developement of the
above fundamental practices, all founded in nature, and for the most part rationally and sa-
tisfactorily explained on chemical and physiological principles. Hence the great necessity
of the study of botany to the cultivator, not in the limited sense in which the term is often
taken as including mere nomenclature and classification, but in that extended signification
in which we have here endeavored, proportionately to our limited space, to present the
study of the vegetable kingdom. Those who would enter more minutely into the subject
will have recourse to the excellent work of Keith, from whom we have quoted at such
length; to Sir J. E. Smith's Introduction ; and to the elementary works of Willdenow
and De Candolle.
Book II. NATURAL AGENTS OF VEGETABLE CULTURE. 217
BOOK II.
OF THE NATURAL AGENTS OF VEGETABLE GROWTH AND CULTURE.
1017. The phenomena of vegetation being examined, and the fact ascertained that plants
derive their nourishment from the external elements of matter : the next step in the study
of the science of gardening is to enquire into the composition and nature of material bodies,
and the laws of their changes. The earthy matters which compose the surface of the earth,
the air and light of the atmosphere, the water precipitated from it, the heat or cold pro-
duced by the alternation of day and night, and by chemical composition and resolution,
must include all the elements concerned in vegetation. These elements have all been
necessarily brought into notice in the study of the vegetable kingdom ; but we shall now
examine more minutely their properties, in so far as they are connected with cultivation.
To study them completely, reference must be had to systems of chemistry and mechanical
pliilosophy, of which those of Dr. Thomson {System of Chemistry,) and Dr. Young
{Lectures on Mechanical Philosophy,) may be especially recommended.
Chap. I.
Of Earths ayid Soils.
1018. Earths are the productions of the rocks which are exposed on the surface of the
globe, and soils are earths mixed with more or less of t/ie decomposed organised matter
afforded by dead plants and animals. Earths and soils, therefore, must be as various as
the rocks which produce them, and hence to understand their nature and formation it is
necessary to begin by considering the geological structure of the territorial surface, and
the manner in which earths and soils are produced ; and we shall next consider in suc-
cession the nomenclature, quality, use, and improvement of soils.
Sect. I. Of the Geological Structure of the Globe and the Formation of Earths and Soils m
1019. The crust, or under surface of the earth, is considered by geologists as presenting
four distinct series of rocky substances ; the first, supposed to be coeval with the world,
are called primitive, and consist chiefly of granite and marble, below which man has not
yet penetrated. The second series, called by the Wernerians transition-rocks, are of more
recent formation, and seem to have resulted from some great catastrophe, (probably that
to which history gives the name of deluge,) tearing up and modifying the former order
of things. Clay-slate is one of the principal rocks of this class, and next limestone,
sandstone, and trap or whinstone. The third series are called secondary rocks, and
seem to owe their formation to partial or local revolutions, as indicated by their compa-
ratively soft and fragile structure, superincumbent situation, and nearly horizontal position.
They are chiefly limestones, sandstones, and conglomerations of fragments of other rocks,
as plum-pudding-stone, &c. and appear rather as mechanical deposits from water than
as chemical compounds from fusion or solution. A fourth stratum consists of alluvial or
earthy depositions from water, in the fonn chiefly of immense beds of clays, marls, or
sands. These strata are far from being regular in any one circumstance ; sometimes one
or more of the strata are wanting, at other times the order of their disposition seems par-
tially inverted ; their continuity of surface is continually interrupted, so that a section of
the earth almost every where exhibits only confusion and disorder to persons who have not
made geology more or less their study.
1020. The succession of alluvial, secondary, transition, and primary strata, in England,
has been illustrated by Professor Brande {Outlines of Geology), by £wo sections, supposed
to be taken through them.
1021. The first section (Jig. 72.) commences with the blue clay of London (1), and pro-
ceeding westward through the counties of Berkshire, Hampshire, Wiltshire, Dorsetshire,
and Devonshire, terminates at die Land's End, in Cornwall. The rocks and earths pre-
sented in this line are, the Windsor alluvion (2), Hampshire and Salisbury chalk (3),
alluvion (4), sandstone (5), alluvion (6), Sherborne freestone (7), sandstone (8), blue
lias limestone (9), Blackdown sandstone (10), Devonshire red sandstone (11), mountain
limestone (12), Dartmoor slate (13), granite (14), slate again (15), greenstone (16),
Cornwall serpentine (17), slate killas (18), Cornwall granite (19), slate killas (20), and
finally, Cornwall granite.
72
218
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
1022. The second section {jig. 73.) commences with the coal strata, and limestone
resting upon slate and granite in Cumberland, and thence proceeds towards the metropolis
by Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Bedfordshire, and Hert-
fordshire. The passage is here exhibited from the primary rocks of Cumberland to the
secondary hills of the southern counties. It shows the Cumberland coal (a), limestone
and slate (b), the Mossdale granite (c), slate (d), grauwacke (e), Ribblesdale limestone
(f)> gritstone (g), Ashton coal (h), Derby limestone (i), Derby toadstone (A-), gritstone
(/), gypsum (m), sandstone (n), limestone (o), Charnwood slate (p), Mountsorrel
granite (q), red sandstone (r), lias limestone (s), Northampton oolite or freestone (t),
Woburn sand (u), Dunstable chalk (v), and terminates in the London clay (w), with
winch the first section sets out.
1023. The surface earth, or that which forms the outer coating of the dry parts of the
globe, is formed by the detritus or worn off parts of rocks and rocky substances. For
in some places, as in chasms and vacuities between rocky layers or masses, earth occupies
many feet in depth, and in others, as on the summits of chalk hills or granite mountains,
it hardly covers the surface.
1024. Earths are, therefore, variously composed, according to the rocks or strata which
have supplied their particles. Sometimes they are chiefly formed from slate-rocks, as in
blue clays ; at other times from sandstone, as in siliceous soils ; and mostly of a mixture of
clayey, slaty, and limestone rocks, blended in proportions as various as their situations.
Such we may suppose to have been the state of the surface of the dry part of the globe
immediately after the last disruption of its crust ; but in process of time the decay of ve-
getables and animals form additions to the outer surface of the earths, and constitute what
are called soils ; the difference between which and earths is, that the former always contain
a portion of vegetable or animal matter.
1025. The manner in ivhich rocks are converted into soils, Sir H. Davy observes (Ele?n.
of Agric. Chem. 188.), may be easily conceived by referring to the instance of soft
granite, or porcelain granite. This substance consists of three ingredients, quartz, feldspar,
and mica. The quartz is almost pure siliceous earth in a crystalline form. The feld-
spar and mica are very compounded substances ; both contain silica, alumina, and oxide
of iron ; in the feldspar there is usually lime and potassa ; in the mica, lime and mag-
nesia. When a,eranitic rock of this kind has been long exposed to the influence of air
and water, the lime and the potassa contained in its constituent parts are acted upon by
water or carbonic acid ; and the oxide of iron, which is almost always in its least oxidised
state, tends to combine with more oxygen ; the consequence is, that the feldspar decom-
poses, and likewise the mica; but the first the most rapidly. The feldspar, which is as it
were the cement of the stone, forms a fine clay : the mica partially decomposed mixes
with it as sand ; and the undecomposed quartz appears as gravel, or sand of different de-
grees of fineness. As soon as the smallest layer of earth is formed on the surface of a
rock, the seeds of lichens, mosses, and other imperfect vegetables which are constantly
floating in the atmosphere, and which have made it their resting-place, begin to vegetate ;
their death, decomposition, and decay afford a certain quantity of organisable matter,
which mixes with the earthy materials of the rock ; in this improved soil more perfect
plants are capable of subsisting ; these in their turn absorb nourishment from water and
the atmosphere ; and, after perishing, afford new materials to those already provided : the
decomposition of the rock still continues ; and at length, by such slow and gradual pro-
cesses, a soil is formed in which even forest-trees can fix their roots, and which is fitted to
reward the labors of the cultivator.
1026. The formation of peaty soils is produced from very opposite causes, and it is interesting to contem-
plate how the same effect may be produced by different means, and the earth which supplies almost all
our wants may become barren alike from the excessive application of art, or the utter neglect of it. Con-
tinual pulverisation and cropping, without manuring, will certainly produce a hungry barren soil; and
the total neglect of fertile tracts will, from their accumulated vegetable products, produce peat soils, and
bogs. Where successive generations of vegetables have grown upon a soil, Sir H. Davy observes, unless
part of their produce has been carried off by man, or consumed by animals, the vegetable matter increases
in such a proportion, that the soil approaches to a peat in its nature ; and if in a situation where it can
receive water from a higher district, it becomes spongy, and permeated with that fluid, and is gradually
rendered incapable of supporting the nobler classes of vegetables. Many peat-mosses seem to have been
formed by the destruction of forests, in consequence of the imprudent use of the hatchet by the early cul-
tivators of the country in which they exist : when the trees are felled in the outskirts of a wood, those in
the interior are exposed to the influence of the winds ; having been accustomed to shelter, they become
unhealthy, and die in their new situation ; and their leaves and branches gradually decomposing, produce
a stratum of vegetable matter. In many of the great bogs in Ireland and Scotland, the larger trees that
Book II. CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. 219
are found in the outskirts of them, bear the marks of having been felled. In the interior, few entire trees
are found ; and the cause is, probably, that they fell by gradual decay ; and that the fermentation and
decomposition of the vegetable matter was the most rapid where it was in the greatest quantity.
1027. Spurious peaty soil. Lakes and pools of water are sometimes filled up by the accumulation of
the remains of aquatic plants ; and in this case a sort of spurious peat is formed. The fermentation in
these cases, however, seems to be of a different kind. Much more gaseous matter is evolved ; and the
neighbourhood of morasses, in which aquatic vegetables decompose, is usually aguish and unhealthy ;
whilst that of the true peat, or peat formed on soils originally dry, is always salubrious.
1028. Soils may generally be distinguished from mere masses of earth by their friable texture, dark
color, and by the presence of some vegetable fibre or carbonaceous matter. In uncultivated grounds, soils
occupy only a few inches in depth on the surface, unless in crevices, where they had been washed in by
rains ; and in cultivated soils their depth is generally the same as that to which the implements used in
cultivation have penetrated.
1029. Much has been written on soils, and till lately, to very little purpose. All the Roman authors on
husbandry treated the subject at length ; and in modern times, in this country, copious philosophical dis-
courses on soils were published by Bacon, Evelyn, Bradley and others ; but it may be truly said, that in
no department of cultivation was ever so much written of which so little use could be made by practical
men. One reason for this failure is, that some of the principal effects of operations on soils are chemical,
and chemistry, till within the last forty years, could hardly be considered an inductive science. In so little
esteem was it held in Evelyn's time, that he ranks it with astrology, and considers the term as synonymous
with alchemy. {Terra, p. 4. and Memoirs, &c. i.) Jethro Tull, about 60 years after the publication of
Evelyn's Terra, published a system of culture, in which every thing was referred to mechanical division ;
but though he referred to this theory the beneficial influence of some excellent practices, yet neither
gained ground at the time. The first attempt to treat of soils chemically, was made by Kirwan about
1780, the next by Lord Dundonald in 1795, and then followed Dr. Darwin's Phytologia in 1800, and
lastly, Sir H. Davy's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry in 1802. It is from the last edition (in 1821)
of that valuable work, that we shall chiefly make our selections.
Sect. II. Classification and Nomenclature of Soils.
1030. Systematic order and an agreed nomenclature are as necessary in the study of soils
as of plants or animals. The number of provincial terms for soils which have found
their way into the books on cultivation, is one reason why so little use can be made of
their directions.
1031. A correct classification of soils may be founded on the presence or absence of
organic and inorganic matter in their basis. This will form two grand classes, viz.
primitive soils, or those composed entirely of inorganic matter, and secondary soils, or
those composed of organic and inorganic matter in mixtures. These classes may be
subdivided into orders founded on the presence or absence of saline, metallic, and car-
bonic matter. The orders may be subdivided into genera founded on the prevailing
earths, salts, metals, or carbon ; the genera into species founded on their different mix-
tures ; the species into varieties founded on color, texture ; and sub-varieties founded on
moisture, dryness, richness, lightness, &c.
1032. In naming the genera of soils, the first thing is to discover the prevailing earth or
earths; either the simple earths, as clay, lime, sand, or the particular rocks from which
the soil has been produced, as granite, basalt, &c. When one earth prevails, the generic
name should be taken from that earth, as clayey soil, calcareous soil, &c. ; when two
prevail to all appearance equally, then their names must be conjoined in naming the
genus, as clay and sand, lime and clay, basalt and sand, &c. The great thing is precision
in applying the terms. Thus, as Sir H. Davy has observed, the term sandy soil should
never be applied to any soil that does not contain at least seven eighths of sand ; sandy
soils that effervesce with acids should be distinguished by the name of calcareous
sandy soil, to distinguish them from those that are siliceous. The term clayey soil
should not be applied to any land which contains less than one sixth of impalpable
earthy matter, not considerably effervescing with acids ; the word loam should be limited
to soils, containing at least one third of impalpable earthy matter, copiously effervescing
with acids. A soil to be considered as peaty, ought to contain at least one half of
vegetable matter. In cases where the earthy part of a soil evidently consists of the de-
composed matter of one particular rock, a name derived from the rock may with pro-
priety be applied to it. Thus, if a fine red earth be found immediately above decom-
posing basalt, it may be denominated basaltic soil. If fragments of quartz and mica be
found abundant in the materials of the soil, which is often the case, it may be
denominated granitic soil; and the same principles may be applied to other like instances.
In general, the soils, the materials of which are the most various and heterogeneous, are
those called alluvial, or which have been formed from the depositions of rivers; and
these deposits may be designated as siliceous, calcareous, or argillaceous ; and in some
cases the term saline may be added as a specific distinction, applicable, for example, at
the embouchure of rivers, where their alluvial remains are overflown by the sea.
1033. In naming the species of soils, greater nicety is required to determine distinctions,
than in naming the genera ; and there is also some difficulty in applying or devising
proper terms. The species are always determined by the mixture of matters, and never
by the color or texture of that mixture which belongs to the nomenclature of varieties.
Thus a clayey soil with sand is a sandy clay, this is the name of the species ; if the
mass is yellow, and it is thought worth while to notice that circumstance, then it is
a yellow sandy clay, which expresses at once the genus, species, and variety. A soil con-
220
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
taining equal parts of clay, lime, and sand, would, as a generic term, be called clay,
lime, and sand; if it contained no other mixture in considerable quantity, the term
entire, might be added as a specific distinction ; and if notice was to be taken of its color
or degree of comminution, it might be termed a brown, a fine, a coarse, a stiff, or a free
entire clay, lime, and sand.
1034. The following Table enumerates the more common genera, species, and varieties of
soils. The application of the terms will be understood by every cultivator, though to
attempt to describe the soils either chemically, or empirically (as by sight, smell, or touch),
would be a useless waste of time. From a very little experience in the field or garden,
more may be gained in the study of soils, than from a volume of such descriptions. This
table corresponds with the nomenclature adopted in the agricultural establishments
of Fellenberg at Hofwyl in Switzerland, of Professor Thaer at Moegelin in Prussia, of
Professor Thouin in his leatures at Paris, and in general with that of all the
continental professors. It is therefore very desirable that it should become as generally
adopted as that of the Linnaean system in botany. The principle of the table may be
extended so as to include any other soil whatever.
Clot:
Order.
Earths alone
Primitive
Soils. 5
[Clay
J Lime
LSand
Clay
I Earths and Salts
\ or Metals
.Sand
Clay
Secondary
Soils.
"Earths and or-
ganic remains \ Lime
alone.
Sand
Earths with or-
ganic remains,
metals, salts,
. and rocks.
Clay -
Spews.
Entire
- i
Sand
Granite -
Basalt
Schist
Sandstone
Coal
Entire
Entire ...
Ferrugineous -
Cupreous
Saline - -
Ferrugineous -
Cupreous ...
Saline
Ferrugineous -
Cupreous ...
Saline ...
Loamy ...
Peaty ....
Mouldy ...
Limy ...
Sandy ...
'Clayey -' - -
Loamy -
Sandy - - -
Peaty -
^Mouldy - - -
Clayey ...
Loamy - - -
1 Limy . - -
I Peaty - - -
LMouldy - -
f Ferrugineous, loamy ,&c.
I Ferrugineous, limy, &c
I Ferrugineous, sandy ,&c
1 Ferrugineous, peaty , &c
1 Ferrugineous,mouldy&c
I Cupreous, loamy, &c.
■ Saline, loamy, &c. -
LCinereous, loamy, &c.
Ferrugineous, loamy ,&c.
Ferrugineous, sandv,&c.
Cupreous, loamy, &c.
Cupreous, sandy, &c.
Saline, loamy, &c. -
Saline, sandy, &c.
Cinereous, loamy, &c.
Cinereous, limy, &c.
Ferrugineous, loamy,&c.
Ferrugineous, limy, &c.
Cupreous, loamy, &c.
. Cupreous, limy, &c.
j Saline, loamy, &c. -
I Saline, Hmy, &c. - -
I Cinereous, loamy, &c
LCinereous, limy, &c.
{Ferrugineous, &c- -
Quartzose, &c
t Ferrugineous, &c -
< Columnar, &c.
(Whinstone, &c.
~ Ferrugineous, &c. -
Micaceous, &c
Chlorite, &c.
Ferrugineous, &c
Calcareous, &c.
Argillaceous, &c
Cupreous, &c -
Chalky, &c.
Marble, &c.
SheUy, &c. - - -
Magnesian, &c
Sulphuric, &c. -
Ferrugineous, &c. -
Cupreous, &c. -
Argillaceous, &c.
Siliceous, &c. -
C Slaty, &c. -
J Pyritic, &c.
J Stonv, &c.
(.Woody, &c. •
Variety.
Black
Red -
Yellow -
Coarse -
Fine
Black, red,
Black, red,
Black, red,
Black, red,
Black, red,
Black, red
Black, red
Black, red,
Black, red,
Black
Black
Black, red,
Black, red,
Black
Black -
Black
Black, red,
Black
Black -
Black -
Black
Black
Black -
Black
Black -
Black
Black -
Black
Black
Black
Black -
Black
Black -
Black
Black -
Black
Black -
Black -
Black
Black -
Black
Black -
Black
Black -
Black
Black -
Black
Black -
Black
Black -
Black, red,
Black
Black, red,
Black
Black -
Black, red,
Black -
Black
Black, &c
Black -
Black -
Black
Black, red,
Black -
Black
Black -
Black
Black -
Black
Black
Black
Black, red,
Black -
Black
Black -
yellow, coarse, fine, &c.
yellow, coarse, fine, &c.
yellow, coarse, fine, &c.
&c. ....
&c. - - - -
yellow, coarse, fine, &c.
yellow, coarse, fine, &e.
yellow, &c.
yellow, &c.
yellow, &c.
yellow, &c.
yellow, &c.
yellow, &c.
&C
yellow, &c. -
Sub-Variety.
Moist.
Dry.
Rich.
.Poor.
LSterile.
Moist, dry, &c.
Moist, dry, &c.
Moist, dry, &c.
Moist, dry, &c.
Moist, dry, rich, &c.
Moist, dry, &c.
Moist, dry, &c.
Moist, dry, &c.
Moist, dry, &c.
Moist, dry, &c.
Moist, dry, &c.
Moist, dry, rich, &c.
Moist, dry, rich, &c.
Moist.
Moist, dry, &c.
Moist, dry, &c.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist, dry.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist. '
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist, dry, &c.
Moist.
Moist, dry, &c.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist, &c
Moist.
Moist.
Moist, &c.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist, dry, &c.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist, dry, rich, &c.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Book II. ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 221
Sect. III. Of discovering the Qualities of Soils.
1035. The value of soils to the cultivatort is discoverable botanically, chemically, and
mechanically ; that is, by the plants that grow on them naturally ; by chemical analysis ;
and by exterior and interior inspection or handling.
Subsect. 1. Of discovering tlie Qualities of Soils by means of the Plants which groiu
on them.
1036. Plants are the most certain indicators of the nature of a soil ; for while no prac-
tical cultivator would engage with land of which he knew only the results of a chemical
analysis, or examined by the sight and touch a few bushels which were brought to him,
yet every gardener or farmer, who knew the sort of plants it produced, would be at
once able to decide as to its value for cultivation.
1037. The leading soils for the cultivator are the clayey, calcareous, sandy, ferrugineous,
peaty, saline, moist or aquatic, and dry. The following are the plants by which such
soils are distinguished in most parts of Europe : —
Argillaceous. Tussilago farfara, Potentilla anserina, argentea, and reptans. Tha-
lictrum flavum, Carex, many species. Juncus, various species. Orobus tuberosus,
Lotus major, and corniculatus. Saponaria officinalis. But the Tussilago farfara is
a certain and universal sign of an argillaceous soil, and is the chief plant found on the
alum grounds of Britain, France, and Italy.
Calcareous. Veronica spicata, Gallium pusillum, Lithospermum officinale, and pur-
puro-caeruleum. Campanula glomerata, and hybrida. Phyteuma orbicularis, Verbas-
cum lychnitis, Viburnum lantana, Berberis vulgaris, Cistus helianthemum, Anemone
Pulsatilla, Clematis vita alba, Hedysarum onobrychis.
Siliceous. Veronica triphyllus, and verna. Echium italicum, Hernaria glabra, and
hirsuta. Silene anglica and other species. Arenaria rubra, &c. Spergula arvensis,
Papaver hybridum, Argemone, &c.
Ferrugineous. Rumex acetosa, and acetosella.
Peaty. Vaccinium myrtillus, uliginosum, and oxycoccus. Erica 4 sp. Spergula
subulata. Tormentilla officinalis.
Saline. Salicornea 4 species. Zostera marina, Ruppia maritima, Pulmonaria mari-
tima, Convolvulus soldanella, Illecebrum verticillatum, Chenopodium maritimum,
Salsola kali, and fruticosa. Sium verticillatum. Arenaria maritima, &c. Atriplex
laciniata.
Aquatic. Caltha palustris, Hippuris vulgaris. Pinguicula vulgaris, Lycopus euro-
peus, Valeriana dioica, Viola palustris, Samolus valerandi, Silenum ^alustre, Epilobium
tetragonum, Lythrum salicaria, Ranunculus lingula, and flamula.
Very dry. Arenaria rubra, Rumex acetosella, Thymus Serpyllum, Acinos vulgaris,
Trifolium arvense.
1038. These plants are not absolutely to be depended on, however, even in Britain ;
and in other countries they are sometimes found in soils directly opposite. Still,
the saintfoin is almost always an indication of a calcareous soil; the common
coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara), of blue clay; the arenaria rubra, of poor sand; the
small wood-sorrel of the presence of iron. The aquatic, peaty, and saline soils are
almost every where indicated by their appropriate plants ; a proof, as we have
before stated, that the climate and natural irrigation of plants have much more influence
on their habits than mere soil. (See the Stationes Plantarum of Lin. and the Flora
Franqaise of De Candolle ; Galjnne's Compendium Fl. Brit. ; Smith's Flora Brit. ;
Kent's Hints; and Farmers' Mag. Feb. 1819.)
Subsect. 2. Of discovering the Qualities of Soils by chemical Analysis.
1039. Chemical analysis is much too nice an operation for general purposes. It is not
likely that many practical cultivators will ever be able to conduct the analytic
process with sufficient accuracy, to enable them to depend on the result. But still such
a knowledge of chemistry as shall enable the cultivator to understand the nature of the
process and its results, when made and presented to him by others, is calculated
to be highly useful, and ought to be acquired by every man whose object is to join theo-
retical to practical knowledge. If it so happens that he can perform the operations
of analysis himself, so much the better, as far as that point is concerned ; but
on the whole, such knowledge and adroitness is not to be expected from men who have
so many other points demanding their attention, and who will, therefore, effect their pur-
pose much better by collecting proper specimens of the soils to be studied, and sending
them for analysis' to a respectable operative chemist.
1040. In selecting specimens, where the general nature of the soil of a field is to be
222 SCIENCE OF GARDENING-. Part II.
ascertained, portions of it should be taken from different places, two or three inches below
the surface, and examined as to the similarity of their properties. It sometimes happens,
that upon plains, the whole of the upper stratum cf the land is of the same kind, and in
this case, one analysis will be sufficient ; but in valleys, and near the beds of rivers, there
are very great differences, and it now and then occurs that one part of a field is calcareous,
and another part siliceous ; and in this case, and in analogous cases, the portions different
from each other should be separately submitted to experiment. Soils, when col-
lected, if they cannot be immediately examined, should be preserved in phials quite
filled with them, and closed with ground glass stoppers. The quantity of soil most
convenient for a perfect analysis is from two to four hundred grains. It should
be collected in dry weather, and exposed to the atmosphere till it becomes dry to the
touch.
1041. The soilbest suited for culture, according to the analysis of Bergman, contains four
parts of clay, three of sand, two of calcareous earth, and one of magnesia : and, accord-
ing to the analysis of Fourcroy and Hassenfratz, 9216 parts of fertile soil contained 305
parts of carbon, together with 279 parts of oil ; of which, according to the calculations
of Lavoisier, 220 parts may be regarded as carbon : so that the whole of the carbon
contained in the soil in question may be estimated at about 525 parts, exclusive of the
roots of vegetables, or to about one sixteenth of its weight. Young observed that equal
weights of different soils, when dried and reduced to powder, yielded by distillation
quantities of air somewhat corresponding to the ratio of their values. The air was a
mixture of fixed and inflammable airs, proceeding probably from decomposition of the
water ; but, partly, it may be presumed, from its capacity of abstracting a portion of air
from the atmosphere, which the soil at least is capable of doing. The following is the
analysis of a fertile soil, as occurring in the neighbourhood of Bristol : — In 400 grains,
there were of water, 52; siliceous sand, 240; vegetable fibre, 5; vegetable extract, 3;
alumine, 48; magnesia, 2; oxide of iron, 14; calcareous earth, 30; loss, 6. But
Kirwan has shown in his Geological Essays, that the fertility of a soil depends in
a great measure upon its capacity for retaining water : and if so, soils containing the
same ingredients must be also equally fertile, all other circumstances being the same ;
though it is plain that their actual fertility will depend ultimately upon the quantity
of rain that falls, because the quantity suited to a wet soil cannot be the same that is
suited to a dry soil. And hence it often happens that the ingredients of the soil do not
correspond to the character of the climate. Silica exists in the soil under the modifi-
cation of sand, and alumine under the modification of clay. But the one or the other
is often to be met with in excess or defect. Soils in which the sand preponderates retain
the least moisture ; and soils in which the clay preponderates retain the most : the former
are dry soils, the latter are wet soils. But it may happen that neither of them is suffi-
ciently favorable to culture ; in which case, their peculiar defect or excess must Jje
supplied or retrenched before they can be brought to a state of fertility.
1042. Use of the result of analysis. In the present state of chemical science, Dr. Ure
observes, no certain system can be devised for the improvement of lands, independently of
experiment ; but there are few cases in which the labor of analytical trials will not be amply
repaid by the certainty with which they denote the best methods of melioration ; and
this will particularly happen, when the defect of composition is found in the proportions
of the primitive earths. In supplying organic matter, a temporary food only is provided
for plants, which is in all cases exhausted by means of a certain number of crops ; but
when a soil is rendered of the best possible constitution and texture, with regard to its
earthy parts, its fertility may be considered as permanently established. It becomes
capable of attracting a very large portion of vegetable nourishment from the atmosphere,
and of producing its crops with comparatively little labor and expense. {Diet, of Chem.
art. Soil.)
Subsect. 3. Of discovering the Qualities of a Soil mechanically and empirically.
1043. Tfie physical properties of soils, and some of their most important constituents
relatively to the cultivator, may be ascertained to a certain extent by various and very
simple means.
1044. The specific gravity of a soil, or the relation of its weight to that of water, may be
ascertained by introducing into a phial, which will contain a known quantity of water,
equal volumes of water and of soil, and this may be easily done by pouring in water
till it is half full, and then adding the soil till the fluid rises to the mouth ,• the differ-
ence between the weight of the soil and that of the water, will give the result. Thus
if the bottle contains four hundred grains of water, and gains two hundred grains when
half filled with water and half with soil, the specific gravity of the sod will be 2, that is,
it will be twice as heavy as water, and if it gained one hundred and sixty-five grains,
its specific gravity would be 1825, water being 1000.
Book II. USES OF SOIL TO VEGETABLES. 223
1045. The presence of clay and sand in any soil is known, the first by its tenacity} the
other by its roughness to the touch, and by scratching glass when rubbed onjrt.
1046. The presence of calcareous matter in soil may be ascertained by simply pouring
any acid on it, and observing if it effervesces freely. Calcareous soils are also softer to
the touch than any other.
1047. The presence of organised matter in any soil may be ascertained very satisfactorily
by weighing it after being thoroughly dried ; then subjecting it to a red heat, and weigh-
ing it again, the weight last found will be the proportion of organic matter. The same
object may also be attained by ascertaining the specific gravity of the soil, but with
less accuracy.
1048. The presence of metallic oxides in a soil may generally be known by their color.
Ferrugineous soils, are red or yellow ; cupreous soils, interspersed with greenish
streaks, &c.
1049. The presence of salts, sulphur, coal, &c. may be known by the absence or
peculiarity of vegetation, as well as by color, and the appearance of the water of such
soils.
1050. The capacity of a soil for retaining U'ater may be thus ascertained. An equal portion
of two soils, perfectly dry, may be introduced into two tall glass cylindrical vessels,
(fig. 74.) in the middle of each of which a glass tube is pre-
viously placed. The soils should be put into each in the same
manner, not compressed very hard, but so as to receive a so-
lidity approaching to that which they possessed when first ob-
tained for trial. If, after this preparation, a quantity of water
be poured into the glass tubes, it will subside ; and the capillary
attraction of the soils will conduct it up the cylinders towards
the tops of the vessels. That which conducts it most rapidly, provided it does not rise
from the weight of the incumbent column of water in the tube, may be pronounced to
be the better soil. (Grisenthwaite.)
Sect. IV. Of the Uses of the Soil to Vegetables.
1051. Soils afford to jylants a fixed abode and medium of nouris/nnent. Earths, exclu-
sively of organised matter and water, are allowed by most physiologists, to be of no other
use to plants than that of supporting them, or furnishing a medium by which they may fix
themselves to the globe. But earths and organic matter, that is, soils, afford at once
support and food.
1052. The pure earths merely act as meclianical and indirect chemical agents in the soil.
The earths consist of metals united to oxygen, and these metals have not been decomposed ;
there is consequently no reason to suppose that the earths are convertible into the elements
of organised compounds, that is, into carbon, hydrogen, and azote. Plants have been
made to grow in given quantities of earth. They consume very small portions only ; and
what is lost may be accounted for by the quantities found in their ashes ; that is to say, it
has not been converted into any new products. The carbonic acid united to lime or mag-
nesia, if any stronger acid happens to be formed in the soil during the fermentation of
vegetable matter, which will disengage it from the earths, may be decomposed ; but the
earths themselves cannot be supposed convertible into other substances, by any process
taking place in the soil. In all cases the ashes of plants contain some of the earths of the
soil in which they grow ; but these earths, as has been ascertained from the ashes afforded
by different plants, never equal more than one fiftieth of the weight of the plant consumed.
If they be considered as necessary to the vegetable, it is as giving hardness and firmness
to its organisation. Thus, it has been mentioned that wheat, oats, and many of the hollow-
stalked grasses, have an epidermis principally of siliceous earth ; the use of which seems
to be to strengthen them, and defend them from the attacks of insects and parasitical
plants.
1053. Tlie true nourishment of plants is water, and decomposing organic matter ;
both these exist only in soils, not in pure earths ; but the earthy parts of the soils are
useful in retaining water, so as to supply it in the proper proportions to the roots of
the vegetables, and they are likewise efficacious in producing the proper distribution of
the animal or vegetable matter. When equally mixed with it they prevent it from
decomposing too rapidly ; and by their means the soluble parts are supplied in proper
proportions.
1054. The soil is necessary to the existence of plants, both as affording them nourishment,
and enabling them to fix themselves in such a manner as to obey those laws by which their
radicles are kept below the surface, and their leaves exposed to the free atmosphere. As
the systems of roots, branches, and leaves, are very different in different vegetables, so
they flourish most in different soils ; the plants that have bulbous roots require a looser
and a lighter soil than such as have fibrous roots ; and the plants possessing only short
224 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
fibrous radicles demand a firmer 6oil than such as have tap-roots or extensive lateral
roots.
1055. The constituent parts of the soil which give tenacity and coherence are the finely
divided matters ; and they possess the power of giving those qualities in the highest
decree when they contain much alumina. A small quantity of finely divided matter
is sufficient to fit a soil for the production of turnips and barley ; and a tolerable
crop of turnips has been produced on a soil containing 1 1 parts out of 12 sand. A much
greater proportion of sand, however, always produces absolute sterility. The soil of
Bagshot heath, which is entirely devoid of vegetable covering, contains less than one twen-
tieth of finely divided matter : 400 parts of it, which had been heated red, afforded 380
parts of coarse siliceous sand ; 9 parts of fine siliceous sand, and 1 1 parts of impalpable
matter, which was a mixture of ferruginous clay with carbonate of lime. Vegetable or
animal matters, when finely divided, not only give coherence, but likewise softness and
penetrability ; but neither they nor any other part of the soil must be in too great propor-
tion ; and a soil is unproductive if it consist entirely of impalpable matters. Pure alumina
or silica, pure carbonate of lime, or carbonate of magnesia, are incapable of supporting
healthy vegetation ; and no soil is fertile that contains as much as 1 9 parts out of 20 of
any of these constituents.
1056. A certain degree of friability or looseness of texture is also required in soils, in order
that the operations of culture may be easily conducted ; that moisture may have free
access to the fibres of the roots, that heat may be readily conveyed to them, and that eva-
poration may proceed without obstruction. These are commonly attained by the presence
of sand. As alumina possesses all the properties of adhesiveness in an eminent degree,
and silex those of friability, it is obvious that a mixture of those two earths, in suitable
proportions, would furnish every thing wanted to form the most perfect soil as to water
and the operations of culture. In a soil so compounded, water will be presented to the
roots by capillary attraction. It will be suspended in it, in the same manner as it is sus-
pended in a sponge, not in a state of aggregation, but minute division, so that every part
may be said to be moist, but not wet. (Grisenthu-aite.)
1057. The water chemically combined amongst the elements of soils, unless in the case of
the decomposition of animal or vegetable substances, cannot be absorbed by the roots of
plants ; but that adhering to the parts of the soil is in constant use in vegetation. Indeed
there are few mixtures of the earths found in soils that contain any chemically combined
water ; water is expelled from the earth by most substances that combine with them.
Thus, if a combination of lime and water be exposed to carbonic acid, the carbonic acid
takes the place of water ; and compounds of alumina and silica, or other compounds of
the earths, do not chemically unite with water ; and soils, as it has been stated, are formed
either by earthy carbonates, or compounds of the pure earths and metallic oxides. When
saline substances exist in soils, they may be united to water both chemically and me-
chanically ; but they are always in too small a quantity to influence materially the rela-
tions of the soil to water.
1058. The power of the soil to absorb water by cohesive attraction depends in great measure
upon the state of division of its parts ; the more divided they are, the greater is their ab-
sorbent power. The different constituent parts of soils likewise appear to act, even by
cohesive attraction, with different degrees of energy. Thus vegetable substances seem to
be more absorbent than animal substances ; animal substances more so than compounds
of alumina and silica ; and compounds of alumina and silica more absorbent than car-
bonates of lime and magnesia : these differences may, however, possibly depend upon the
differences in their state of division, and upon the surface exposed.
1059. The power of soils to absorb water from air is much connected with fertility. When
this power is great, the plant is supplied with moisture in dry seasons ; and the effect of
evaporation in the day is counteracted by the absorption of aqueous vapor from the atmo-
sphere, by the interior parts of the soil during the day, and by both the exterior and in-
terior during the night. The stiff clays approaching to pipe-clays in their nature, which
take up the greatest quantity of water when it is poured upon them in a fluid form, are
not the soils which absorb most moisture from the atmosphere in dry weather. They cake,
and present only a small surface to the air ; and the vegetation on them is generally burnt
up almost as readily as on sands. The soils that are most efficient in supplying the plant
with water by atmospheric absorption, are those in which there is a due mixture of sand,
finely divided clay, and carbonate of lime, with some animal or vegetable matter, and
which are so loose and light as to be freely permeable to the atmosphere. With respect
to this quality, carbonate of lime, and animal and vegetable matter, are of great use in
soils ; they give absorbent power to the soil without giving it likewise tenacity ; sand,
which also destroys tenacity, on the contrary, gives little absorbent power. The absorbent
powers of soils, with respect to atmospheric moisture, is always greatest in the most fertile
soils ; so that it affords one method of judging of the productiveness of land.
Book II. USES OF SOIL TO VEGETABLES. 225
1060. As examples of the absorbent powers of soils : 1000 parts of a celebrated soil from
Ormiston, in Earst Lothian, which contained more than half its weight of finely divided
matter, of which 1 1 parts were carbonate of lime, and 9 parts vegetable matter, when dried
at 212°, gained in an hour by exposure to air saturated with moisture, at a temperature
of 62°, 1 8 grains. 1000 parts of a very fertile soil from the banks of the river Parret, in
Somersetshire, under the same circumstances, gained 16 grains. 1000 parts of a soil
from Mersea, in Essex, gained 13 grains. 1000 grains of a fine sand,, from Essex,
gained 11 grains. 1000 of a coarse sand gained only 8 grains. 1000 of a soil of Bag-
shot heath gained only 3 grains.
1061. The absorbent pouters of soils ought to vary with the climate in which they are si-
tuated. The absorption of moisture ought to be much greater in warm or dry countries,
than in cold and moist ones ; and the quantity of clay, or vegetable, or animal matter in
soils greater. Soils also on declivities ought to be more absorbent than in plains or in the
bottom of valleys. Their productiveness likewise is influenced by the nature of the sub-
soil, or the stratum on which they rest. When soils are immediately situated upon a bed
of rock or stone, they are much sooner rendered, dry by evaporation than where the sub-soil
is of clay or marl ; and a prime cause of the great fertility of the land in the moist climate
of Ireland, is the proximity of the rocky strata to the soil. A clayey sub-soil will some-
times be of material advantage to a sandy soil ; and in this case it will retain moisture in
such a manner as to be capable of supplying that lost by the earth above, in consequence
of evaporation or the consumption of it by plants. A sandy or gravelly sub-soil often
corrects the imperfections of too great a degree of absorbent power in the true soil. In
calcareous countries, where the surface is a species of marl, the soil is often found only
a few inches above the limestone ; and its fertility is not impaired by the proximity of the
rock ; though in a less absorbent soil, this situation would occasion barrenness ; and the
sandstone and limestone-hills in Derbyshire and North Wales, may be easily distinguished
at a distance, in summer, by the different tints of the vegetation. The grass on the
sandstone-hills usually appears brown and burnt up ; that on the limestone-hills flourish-
ing and green.
1062. In a moist climate, where the quantity of rain that falls annually equals from 40
to 60 inches, as in Lancashire, Cornwall, and some parts of Ireland, a siliceous sandy soil
is much more productive than in dry districts ; and in such situations wheat and beans
will require a less coherent and absorbent soil than in drier situations ; and plants having
bulbous roots will flourish in a soil containing as much as 14 parts out of 15 of sand.
Even the exhausting powers of crops will be influenced by like circumstances. In cases
where plants cannot absorb sufficient moisture, they must take up more manure. And
in Ireland, Cornwall, and the western Highlands of Scotland, corn will exhaust less than
in dry inland situations. Oats, particularly in dry climates, are impoverishing in a much
higher degree than in moist ones.
1063. Many soils are popularly distinguished as cold or hot ; and the distinction, though
at first view it may appear to be founded on prejudice, is really just. Some soils are
much more heated by the rays of the sun, all other circumstances being equal, than others ;
and soils brought to the same degree of heat, cool in different times, i. e. some cool much
faster than others. This property has been very little attended to in a philosophical point
of view; yet it is of the highest importance in culture. In general, soils that consist
principally of a stiff white clay are difficultly heated ; and being usually very moist, they
retain their heat only for a short time. Chalks are similar in one respect, that they are
difficultly heated ; but being drier they retain their heat longer, less being consumed in
causing the evaporation of their moisture. A black soil, containing much soft vegetable
matter, is most heated by the sun and air ; and the colored soils, and the soils containing
much carbonaceous matter, or ferruginous matter, exposed under equal circumstances to
sun, acquire a much higher temperature than pale-colored soils.
1064. When soils are perfectly dry, those that most rcad'dy become heated by the solar rays,
likewise cool most rapidly ; but the darkest-colored dry soil, (that which contains abund-
ance of animal or vegetable matter ; substances which most facilitate the diminution of
temperature,) when heated to the same degree, provided it be within the common limits
of the effect of solar heat, will cool more slowly than a wet, pale soil, entirely composed of
earthy matter. Sir H. Davy " found that a rich black mould, which contained nearly
one fourth of vegetable matter, had its temperature increased in an hour from 65° to 88°
by exposure to sunshine ; whilst a chalk soil was heated only to 69° under the same cir-
cumstances. But the mould removed into the shade, where the temperature was 62°,
lost, in half an hour, 15° ; whereas the chalk, under the same circumstances, had lost onlv
4°. A brown fertile soil and a cold barren clay were each artificially heated to 88°,
having been previously dried ; they were then exposed in a temperature of 57° ; in half
an hour the dark soil was found to have lost 9° of heat ; the clay had lost only 6°. An
equal portion of the clay containing moisture, after being heated to 88°, was exposed in a
temperature of 55° ; in less than a quarter of an hour it was found to have gained the
Q
226 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
temperature of the room. The soils in all these experiments were placed in 6mall tin-
plate trays two inches square, and half an inch in depth ; and the temperature ascertained
by a delicate thermometer. Thus the temperature of the surface, when bare and exposed
to the rays of the sun, affords at least one indication of the degrees of its fertility ; and
the thermometer may be sometimes a useful instrument to the purchaser or improver of
lands."
1065. The moisture in the soil and sub-soil materially affects its temperature, and prevents,
as in the case of constantly saturated aquatic soils, their ever attaining to any great degree
either of heat or cold. The same observation will apply to moist peaty soils, or peat-
bogs.
1066. Chemical agency of soils. Besides these uses of soils, which may be considered
mechanical, there is, Sir H. Davy observes, another agency between soils and or-
ganisable matters, which may be regarded as chemical in its nature. The earths, and
even the earthy carbonates, have a certain degree of chemical attraction for many of the
principles of vegetable and animal substances. This is easily exemplified in the instance
of alumina and oil ; if an acid solution of alumina be mixed with a solution of soap,
which consists of oily matter and potassa, the oil and the alumina will unite and form a
white powder, which will sink to the bottom of the fluid. The extract from decomposing
vegetable matter, when boiled with pipe-clay or chalk, forms a combination by which the
vegetable matter is rendered more difficult of decomposition and of solution. Pure silica
and siliceous sands have little action of this kind ; and the soils which contain the most
alumina and carbonate of lime, are those which act with the greatest chemical energy in
preserving manures. Such soils merit the appellation, which is commonly given to them, of
rich soils ; for the vegetable nourishment is long preserved in them, unless taken up by
the organs of plants. Siliceous sands, on the contrary, deserve the term hungry, which
is commonly applied to them ; for the vegetable and animal matters they contain, not
beino- attracted by the earthy constituent parts of the soil, are more liable to be decom-
posed by the action of the atmosphere, or carried off from them by water. In most of the
black and brown rich vegetable moulds, the earths seem to be in combination with a pe-
culiar extractive matter, afforded during the decomposition of vegetables ; this is slowly
taken up or attracted from the earths by water, and appears to constitute a prime cause of
the fertility of the soil.
1067. Thus all soils are useful to plants, as affording them a fixed abode and a range for
their roots to spread in search of food ; but some are much more so than others, as better
adapted by their constituent parts, climate, inclination of surface and subsoil attracting
and supplying food.
Sect. V. Of the Improvement of Soils.
1068. Soils may be rendered more ft for answering the purposes of vegetation by pulveris-
ation, by consolidation, by exposure to the atmosphere, by an alteration of their constituent
parts, by changing their condition in respect to water, by changing their position in re-
spect to atmospherical influence, and by a change in the kinds of plants cultivated. All
these improvements are independently of the application of manures.
Subsect. 1. Pulverisation.
1069. The meclianical division of the parts of soils is a very obvious improvement, and ap-
plicable to all in proportion to their adhesive texture. Even a free siliceous soil will, if
left untouched, become too compact for the proper admission of air, rain, and heat, and
for the free growth of the fibres ; and strong upland clays, not submitted to the plough
or the spade, will, in a few years, be found in the possession of fibrous-rooted perennial
grasses, which form a clothing on their surface, or strong tap-rooted trees, as the oak,
which force their way through the interior of the mass. Annuals and ramentaceous-
rooted herbaceous plants cannot penetrate into such soils.
1070. The first object of pulverisation is to give scope to the roots of vegetables, for
without abundance of roots no plant will become vigorous, whatever may be the richness
of the soil in which it is placed. The fibres of the roots, as we have seen (740.), take
up the extract of the soil by intro-susception ; the quantity taken up, therefore, will not
depend alone on the quantity in the soil, but on the number of absorbing fibres. The
more the soil is pulverised, the more these fibres are increased, the more extract is ab-
sorbed, and the more vigorous does the plant become. Pulverisation, therefore, is not only
advantageous previous to planting or sowing, but also during the progress of vegetation,
when applied in the intervals between the plants. In this last case it operates also in the
way of pruning, and by cutting off or shortening the extending fibres, causes them to
branch out numerous others, by which the mouths or pores of the plants are greatly in-
creased, and such food as is in the soil has the better chance of being sought after, and
taken up by them. Tull and Du Hamel relate various experiments which decidedly
prove that, ceteris paribus, the multiplication of the fibres is as the inter-pulverisation ;
Book II. PULVERISATION OF SOILS. 227
but the strength of the vegetable, in consequence of this multiplication of fibres, must
depend a good deal on the quantity of food or of extract within their reach. The root of
a willow-tree, as we have seen (782.), has the fibres prodigiously increased by coming in
contact with the water in a river, and so have various other aquatic trees and plants, as
alder, mint, lysimachia thyrsiflora, calla palustris, oenanthe fistulosa, &c- ; but their herbs
or trunks are not proportionally increased unless the water be impregnated with organised
remains.
1071. Pulverisation increases the capillary attraction, or sponge-like property of soils,
by wliich their humidity is rendered more uniform. It is evident this capillary at-
traction must be greatest where the particles of the earth are finely divided ; for
gravels and sands hardly retain water at all, while clays, not opened by pulverisation or
other means, either do not absorb water, or when, by long action it is absorbed, they re-
tain too much. Water is not only necessary to the growth of plants as such, but it is
essential to the production of extract from the vegetable matters which they contain ; and
unless the soil, by pulverisation or otherwise, is so constituted as to retain the quantity
of water requisite to produce this extract, the addition of manures will be in vain.
Manure is useless to vegetation till it becomes soluble in water, and it would remain
useless in a state of solution, if it so abounded as wholly to exclude air, for then the fibres
or mouths, unable to perform their functions, would soon decay and rot off.
1072. The temperature of a soilis greatly promoted by pulverisation. Earths, Grisenthwaite
observes, are also amongst the worst conductors of heat with which we are acquainted,
and consequently, it would be a considerable time before the gradually increasing tem-
perature of spring could communicate its genial warmth to the roots of vegetables, if
their lower strata were not heated by some other means. To remove this defect, wliich
always belongs to a close compact soil, it is necessary to have the land open, that there
may be a free ingress of the warm air and tepid rains of spring.
1073. Pulverisation contributes to the increase of vegetable food. Water is known to be
a condenser and solvent of carbonic acid gas, which, when the land is open, can be im-
mediately carried to the roots of vegetables, and contribute to their growth ; but if the
land be close, and the water lie on or near its surface, then the carbonic acid gas, which
always exists in the atmosphere and is carried down by rains, will soon be dissipated.
An open soil is also almost suitable for effecting those changes in the manure itself, which
are equally necessary to the preparation of such food. Animal and vegetable substances,
exposed to the alternate action of heat, moisture, light, and air, undergo spontaneous
decompositions, which would not otherwise take place.
1074. By means of pulverisation a portion of atmospheric air is buried in the soil. This
air, so confined, is decomposed by the moisture retained in the earthy matters. Am-
monia is formed by the union of the hydrogen of the water with the nitrogen of the at-
mosphere ; and nitre, by the union of oxygen and nitrogen ; the oxygen may also unite
with the carbon contained in the soil, and form carbonic acid gas, and carburetted hydro-
gen. Heat is given out during these processes, and " hence," as Dr. Darwin remarks
(Phytologia, sect. xii. 1.), " the great propriety of cropping lands immediately after they
had been comminuted and turned over ; and this the more especially, if manure has been
added at the same time, as the process of fermentation will go on faster when the soil is
loose, and the interstices filled with air, than afterwards, when it becomes compressed with
its own gravity, the relaxing influence of rains, and the repletion of the partial vacuums
formed by the decomposition of the enclosed air. The advantage of the heat thus obtained
in exciting vegetation, whether in a seed or root, especially in spring, when the soil is
cold, must be very considerable."
1075. The great advantages of jml vernation deceived Tidl, who fancied that no other
assistances were required in the well-management of the business of husbandry. A
knowledge of chemistry, in its present improved state, would have enabled him to discover
that the pulverisation of the soil was of no other benefit to the plants that grow in it than
as it " increased the number of their fibrous roots or mouths by which they imbibe their
food, facilitated the more speedy and perfect preparation of this food, and conducted the
food so prepared more regularly to their roots." Of this food itself it did not produce
one particle.
1076. The depth of 'pulverisation, Sir H. Davy observes, " must depend upon the nature
of the soil, and of the sub-soil. In rich clayey soils it can scarcely be too deep ; and even
in sands, unless the sub-soil contains some principles noxious to vegetables, deep commi-
nution should be practised. When the roots are deep, they are less liable to be injured
either by excess of rain or drought ; the radicles are shot forth into every part of the soil ;
and the space from which the nourishment is derived is more considerable than when the
seed is superficially inserted in the soil."
1077. Pulverisation should, in all cases, be accompanied with the admixture of the penis
of soils by turning them over. It is difficult, indeed, to pulverise without effecting this
Q2
228 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
end, at least by the implements in common use ; but if it could be effected, it would be
injurious, because the difference of gravity between the organised matters and the earths,
has a constant tendency to separate them, and stirring a soil only by forks or pronged
implements, such as cultivators, would, in a short time, leave the surface of the soil too
light and spongy, and die lower part too compact and earthy.
Subsect. 2. Of the Improvement of Soils by Compression.
1078. Mechanical consolidation will improve some soils, such as spongy peats and light
dusty sands. It is but a limited source of improvement, but still it deserves to be
noticed.
1079. The proper degree of adhesiveness is best given to loose soils by the addition of
earthy matters ; but mere rolling and treading are not to be altogether rejected. To be
benefited by rolling a soil must be dry, and die operation must not be carried too far. A
peat-bog drained and rolled, will sooner become covered with grasses than one equally
well drained and left alone. Drifting sands may be well rolled when wet, and by re-
peating the process after rains they will in time acquire a surface of grass or herbage.
Every agriculturist knows the advantages of rolling light soils after sowing, or even
treading them with sheep. Gardeners also tread in seeds on certain soils.
Subsect. 3. Of the Improvenxent of Soils by Aeration or Fallowing.
1080. Soils are benefited by the free admission of the weather to their interior parts. This is
generally considered as one of the advantages of fallowing, and its use in gardening is ex-
perienced in compost heaps, and in winter and summer ridging. The precise advantages,
however, of exposure to the air, independently of the concurrent influence of water,
heat, and the other effects mentioned as attendant on pulverisation, do not seem at present
to be correctly ascertained. It is allowed that carbonic acid gas may be absorbed by cal-
careous earths, and Dr. Thomson considers that the eardis alone may thus probably
administer food to plants ; but Sir H. Davy seems to consider mere exposure to the at-
mosphere as of no benefit to soils whatever. " It has been supposed by some writers," he
says, " that certain principles necessary to fertility are derived from the atmosphere, which
are exhausted by a succession of crops, and that these are again supplied during the repose
of the land, and the exposure of the pulverised soil to the influence of the air ; but this in
truth is not the case. The earths commonly found in soils cannot be combined with more
oxygen ; none of them unite to azote ; and such of them as are capable of attracting car-
bonic acid, are always saturated with it in those soils on which the practice of fallowing is
adopted."
1081. Aeration and repose, or summer fallow. " The vague ancient opinion of the use of
nitre, and of nitrous salts in vegetation," Sir H. Davy says, " seems to have been one of the
principal speculative reasons for the defence of summer fallows. Nitrous salts are produced
during the exposure of soils containing vegetable and animal remains, and in greatest
abundance in hot weather ; but it is probably by the combination of azote from these re-
mains Avith oxygen in the atmosphere that the acid is formed ; and at the expense of an
element, which otherwise would have formed ammonia ; the compounds of which are
much more efficacious than the nitrous compounds in assisting vegetation." It is proper
to observe that this reasoning is more speculative than experimental, and seems influenced,
in some degree, by the opinion adopted by the author, that fallows are of little use in
husbandry. One obvious advantage of aeration in summer, or a summer fallow, is, that
the soil may thus be heated by the sun to a degree which it never could be, if partially
covered with the foliage of even the widest-drilled crops. For this purpose, if the soil is
laid up in large lumps, it is evident it will receive more heat by exposing a greater sur-
face to the atmosphere, and it will retain this heat longer than can be expected, from the
circumstance of the lumps reflecting back the rays of heat radiated by each other. A
clayey soil, in this May, it is said [Farmers' Magazine, 1815), maybe heated to 120",
which may in some degree alter its absorbent powers as to water, and contribute materially
to the destruction of vegetable fibre, insects, and their eggs. By the aeration of lands in
winter, minute mechanical division is obtained by the freezing of the water in the soil ;
for, as water in the solid state occupies more space than when fluid, the particles of
earthy matters and of decomposing stones are thus rent asunder, and crumble down in
a fine mould. Rough stony soils will thus receive an accession to their finer soil every
winter.
1082. Agricidtural experience has fully proved that fallows are the only means by
which stiff clays in moist climates can be effectually cleared of weeds. Supposing there-
fore that no other advantage whatever was obtained, that no nutritive matter was
imbibed from the atmosphere, and the soil was neither chemically nor mechanically
benefited by aeration, this benefit alone — the effectual eradication of weeds — is suf-
ficient to justify the use of fallows on such soils.
Book II. ALTERATION OF THE PARTS OF SOILS. 399
Subsect. 4. Alteration of the constituent Parts of Soils.
1083. The constituent parts of soils may be altered by tlie addition or subtraction of in-
gredients in which they are deficient, or superabound, and by the chemical changes of
some constituent part or parts by the action of fire.
1084. In ascertaining the composition qf faulty soils ivith a vieio to their improvement
by adding to their constituent parts, any particular ingredient which is the cause of their
unproductiveness, should be particularly attended to ; if possible, they should be com-
pared with fertile soils in the same neighbourhood, and in similar situations, as the dif-
ference of the composition may, in many cases, indicate the most proper methods of im-
provement. If, on washing a sterile soil, it is found to contain the salts of iron, or any
acid matter, it may be ameliorated by the application of quick-lime. A soil of good ap-
parent texture, containing sulphate of iron, will be sterile ; but the obvious remedy is a
top-dressing with lime, which converts the sulphate into manure. If there be an excess
of calcareous matter in the soil, it may be improved by the application of sand or clay.
Soils too abundant in sand are benefited by the use of clay, or marl, or vegetable matter.
Light sands are often benefited by a dressing of peat, and peats by a dressing of sand ;
though the former is in its nature but a temporary improvement. When peats are acid,
or contain ferruginous salts, calcareous matter is absolutely necessary in bringing them
into cultivation. The best natural soils are those of wliich the materials have been de-
rived from different strata, which have been minutely divided by air and water, and are
intimately blended together ; and in improving soils artificially, the cultivator cannot do
better than imitate the processes of nature. The materials necessary for the purpose are
seldom far distant ; coarse sand is often found immediately on chalk, and beds of sand
and gravel are common below clay. The labor of improving the texture or constitution
of the soil, is repaid by a great permanent advantage, — less manure is required, and its
fertility insured ; and capital laid out in this way secures for ever the productiveness, and
consequently the value of the land.
1085. Tlie removal of superabundant ingredients in soils may sometimes be one of the
simplest and most effectual means of their improvement. It occasionally happens that
the surface of a well proportioned soil is thickly covered with peat, with drifted sand,
with gravel, or with small stones. Extensive examples of the former occur in Stirling-
shire, and of the latter in Norfolk. In such cases, a simple and effectual mode of im-
provement consists in removing the superincumbent strata, and cultivating that below.
This can seldom be put in practice on a large scale, with such heavy materials as gravel
or stones ; but some hundreds of acres of rich alluvial soil, deeply covered by peat, have
been bared and cultivated in Flanders moss in Stirlingshire ; an operation commenced by
the celebrated Lord Kaimes, ( Gen. Rqi. of Scot. App. v. 5. ) copied by his neighbours,
and continued by his and their successors. The moss is floated off by streams of water,
which empty themselves in the Frith of Forth. In this river, by the winds and tides, it
is cast on shore in the bays and recesses, impregnated with salt ; and here it ingenders
vegetation on the encroaching surfaces of sand and gravel. Coatings of sand or gravel
can seldom be removed on a scale of sufficient extent for agriculture, but have, in some
instances, for the purposes of gardening. Sometimes this improvement may be effected
by trenching down the surface, and raising up a stratum of better earth.
1086. Incineration. The chemical changes which can be effected in soils by inciner-
ation are considerable. This practice was known to the Romans, is more or less in use
in most parts of Europe, is mentioned as an approved practice by our oldest agricultural
writers, and has lately excited some degree of attention from the successful experiments
of different cultivators. {Farmer's Magazine, 1810 to 1815, and Farmers Journal,
1814 to 1821.)
1087. The theory of burning soils is thus given by Sir H. Davy. It rests, he says,
entirely on chemical doctrines. The bases of all common soils, are mixtures of the
primitive earths and oxide of iron ; and these earths have a certain degree of attraction for
each other. To regard this attraction in its proper point of view, it is only necessary to
consider the composition of any common siliceous stone. Feldspar, for instance, contains
siliceous, aluminous, calcareous earths, fixed alkali, and oxide of iron, which exist in one
compound, in consequence of their chemical attractions for each other. Let this stone be
ground into impalpable powder, it then becomes a substance like clay . if the powder be
heated very strongly, it fuses, and on cooling forms a coherent mass similar to the original
stone ; the parts separated by mechanical division adhere again in consequence of chemical
attraction. If the powder is heated less strongly, the particles only superficially combine
with each other, and form a gritty mass, which, when broken into pieces, has the characters
of sand. If the power of the powdered feldspar to absorb water from the atmosphere
before, and after the application of the heat, be compared, it is found much less in the
last case. The same effect takes place when the powder of other siliceous or aluminous
Q3
'230 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
stones is made the subject of experiment, and two equal portions of basalt ground into im-
palpable powder, of which one half had been strongly ignited, and the other exposed only
to a temperature equal to that of boiling water, gained very different weights in the same
time when exposed to air. In four hours the one had gained only two grains, whilst the
other had gained seven grains. When clay or tenacious soils are burnt, the effect is of
the same kind ; they are brought nearer to a state analogous to that of sands. In the
manufacture of bricks the general principle is well illustrated ; if a piece of dried brick
earth be applied to the tongue, it will adhere to it very strongly, in consequence of its
power to absorb water ; but after it has been burnt, there will be scarcely a sensible ad-
hesion.
1088. The advantages of burning are that it renders the soil less compact, less tenacious
and retentive of moisture ; and when properly applied, may convert a matter that was
stiff, damp, and in consequence cold, into one powdery, dry, and warm, and much
more proper as a bed for vegetable life.
1089. Tlie great objection made by speculative chemists to paring and burning, is, that
it destroys vegetable and animal matter, or the manure in the soil ; but in cases in which
the texture of its earthy ingredients is permanently improved, there is more than a com-
pensation for this temporary disadvantage. And in some soils where there is an excess
of inert vegetable matter, the destruction of it must be beneficial ; and the carbonaceous
matter remaining in the ashes may be more useful to the crop than the vegetable fibre
from which it was produced.
1090. Three specimens of ashes from different lands that had undergone paring and
burning were examined by chemical analysis. The first was from a chalk soil, and 200
grains contained 80 of carbonate of lime, 11 gypsum, 9 charcoal, 15 oxide of iron,
3 saline matter, sulphate of potash, muriate of magnesia, with a minute quantity of ve-
getable alkali. The remainder alumina and silica. Suppose 2660 bushels to be the
common produce of an acre of ground, then, according to this calculation, they would
give 172,900 lbs., containing carbonate of lime 691,60 lbs., gypsum 9509*5., oxide of
iron 12,967*5., saline matter 2593*5., charcoal 7780*5. In this instance there was un-
doubtedly a very considerable quantity of matter capable of being active as manure pro-
duced in the operation of burning. The charcoal very finely divided, and exposed on a
large surface, must be gradually converted into carbonic acid. And gypsum and oxide
of iron seem to produce the very best effects when applied to lands containing an ex-
cess of carbonate of lime. The second specimen was from a soil near Coleorton, in
Leicestershire, containing only four per cent, of carbonate of lime, and consisting of
three fourths light siliceous sand, and about one fourth clay. This had been turf before
burning, and 100 parts of the ashes gave 6 parts charcoal, 3 muriate of soda and sulphate
of potash, with a trace of vegetable alkali, 9 oxide of iron, and the remainder the earths.
In this instance, as in the other, finely divided charcoal was found, the solubility of
which would be increased by the presence of the alkali. The third instance was that
of a stiff clay, from Mount's Bay, Cornwall. This land has been brought into cultiva-
tion from a heath, by burning, about ten years before ; but having been neglected, furze
was springing up in different parts of it, which gave rise to the second paring and burn-
ing, 100 parts of the ashes contained 8 parts of charcoal, 2 of saline matter, principally
common salt, with a little vegetable alkali, 7 oxide of iron, 2 carbonate of lime, the re-
mainder alumina and silica. Here the quantity of charcoal was greater than in the other
instances. The salt was probably owing to the vicinity of the sea, it being but two miles
off". In this land there was certainly an excess of dead vegetable fibre, as well as un-
profitable living vegetable matter.
1091. Causes if the effects of burning soil. Many obscure causes have been referred to
for the purpose of explaining the effects of paring and burning ; but they may be re-
ferred entirely to the diminution of the coherence and tenacity of clays, and to the
destruction of inert and useless vegetable matter, and its conversion into a manure.
Dr. Darwin, in his Plujtologia, has supposed that clay, during torrefaction, may absorb
some nutritive principles from the atmosphere that afterwards may be supplied to plants ;
but the earths are pure metallic oxides, saturated with oxygen ; and the tendency of
burning is to expel any other volatile principles that they may contain in combination.
If the oxide of iron in soils is not saturated with oxygen, torrefaction tends to produce
its further union with this principle ; and hence, in burning, the color of clay changes to
red. The oxide of iron, containing its full proportion of oxygen, has less attraction for
acids than the other oxide, and is consequently less likely to be dissolved by any fluid
acids in the soil ; and it appears in this state to act in the same manner as the earths.
A very ingenious author, Naismith {Elements of Agr.), supposes that the oxide of
iron, when combined with carbonic acid, is poisonous to plants ; and that one use of tor-
refaction is to expel the carbonic acid from it ; but the carbonate of iron is not 'soluble
in wafer, and is a very inert substance ; and a luxuriant crop of cresses has been raised
Book II. CHANGING THE CONDITION OF LANDS. 2S1
in a soil composed of one fifth carbonate of iron, and four fifths carbonate of lime.
Carbonate of iron abounds in some of the most fertile soils in England, particularly the
red hop soil. And there is no theoretical ground for supposing that carbonic acid,
which is an essential food of plants, should, in any of its combinations, be poisonous to
them ; and it is known that lime and magnesia are both noxious to vegetation, unless
combined with this principle.
1092. The soils i?nproved by burning are all such as contain too much dead vegetable
fibre, and which consequently lose from one third to one half of their weight by inciner-
ation; and all such as contain their earthy constituents in an impalpable state of division,
i. e. the stiff clays and marls, are improved by burning : but coarse sands, or ricli
soils containing a just mixture of the earths ; and in all cases in which the texture is
sufficiently loose, or the organisable matter sufficiently soluble, the process of torrefaction
cannot be useful.
1093. All jmor siliceous sands are injured by burning. Young in his Essai/ on Ma-
nures, states, " that he found burning injure sand ; and the operation is never performed
by good cultivators upon siliceous sandy soils, after they have once been brought into
cultivation."
Subskct. 5. Changing the Condition of Lands, in respect to Water.
1094. The water of the soil where [superabundant may be withdrawn, and when deficient
supplied : these operations with water are independent of its supply as a manure, or as
affording the stimulus of heat or cold.
1095. Stagnant water may be considered as injurious to all the useful classes of plants,
by obstructing perspiration and intro-susception, and thus diseasing their roots and sub-
merged parts. Where the surface-soil is properly constituted, and rests on a sub-soil mo-
derately porous, both will hold water by capillary attraction, and what is not so retained
will sink into the interior strata by its gravity ; but where the sub-soil is retentive, it will
resist, or not admit with sufficient rapidity, the percolation of water to the strata below,
which accumulating in the surface-soil, till its proportion becomes excessive as a com-
ponent part, not only carries off the extractive matter, but diseases the plants. Hence
the origin of surface-draining, that is, laying land in ridges or beds, or intersecting it
with small open gutters.
1096. Springs. Where the upper stratum is porous in some places, and retentive in
others, and on a retentive base, the water, in its progress along the porous bed or layer,
will be interrupted by the retentive places in a great variety of ways, and there accumu-
lating will burst through the upper surface in the form of springs, which are more in-
jurious than surface-water, as being colder, and generally permanent in their operation.
Hence the origin of under-draining in all its varieties of collecting, extracting, and con-
veying water.
1097. The water of rivers may become injurious to lands on their banks, by too fre-
quently overflowing their surface. In this case the stream may be included by mounds
of earth, or other materials impervious to water : and thus aquatic soils rendered dry and
fit for useful herbage and aration. The same may be said of lands occasionally over-
flown by the sea. Hence the origin of embanking, an art carried to a great extent in
Holland and Italy. (See Smeatotis Posthumous Works ; Sigis7twndi, Agr. Tosc. ; and our
article Embankment, in Svpp. Encyc. Brit. 1819.)
1098. h-rigation. Plants cannot live without water, any more than they can prosper
in soils where it is superabundant ; and it is therefore supplied by art on a large scale,
either by surface or subterraneous irrigation. In both practices important points are to
imitate nature in producing motion, and in applying the water in the mornings or even-
ings, or under a clouded sky, and also at moderate intervals. The effects of water con-
stantly employed, would, in most cases, be such as attend stagnated water, aquatic soils,
or land-springs ; and employed in hot sunshine, or after violent heats, it may check eva-
poration and destroy life, exactly as happens to those who may have bathed in cold spring
water after long and violent exercise in a hot day. (Phytologia, xv. 3. 5.)
1099. In surface irrigation the water is conveyed in a system of open channels, which
require to be most numerous in such grounds as are under drilled annual crops, and
least so in such as are sown in breadths, beds, or ridges, under perennial crops. This
mode of watering has existed from time immemorial. The children of Israel are repre-
sented as sowing their seed and " watering it with their foot ;" that is, as Calmet explains
it, raising the water from the Nile by a machine worked by the feet, from which it was
conducted in such channels as we have been describing. It is general in the south of
France and Italy ; but less required in Britain.
1 100. Subterraneous irrigation may be effected by a system of drains or covered gutters
in the sub-soil, which, proceeding from a main conduit, or other supply, can be charged
with water at pleasure. For grounds under the culture of annual plants, this mode would
be more convenient, and for all others more economical as to the use of water, than sur-
Q4
«$£ SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
face irrigation. Where the under-stratum is gravelly, and rests on a retentive stratum,
this mode of watering may take place without drains, as it may also on perfectly flat
lands, by filling to the brim, and keeping full for several days, surrounding trenches;
but the beds or fields between the trenches must not be of great extent. This practice is
used in Lombardy on the alluvial lands near the embouchures of the Po. In Lincoln-
shire the same mode is practised by shutting up the flood-gates of the mouths of the
great drains in the dry seasons, and thus damming up the water through all the ramifica-
tions of the drainage from the sea to their source. This was first suggested by G. Ren-
nie and Sir Joseph Banks, after the drainage round Boston, completed about 1810. A
similar plan, on a smaller scale, had been practised in Scotland, where deep mosses had
been drained and cultivated on the surface, but where, in summer, vegetation failed
from deficiency of moisture. It was first adopted by J. Smith, (See Essay on the Im-
provement of Peat-Moss, 1795,) on a farm in Ayrshire, and has subsequently been brought
into notice by J. Johnston, the first delineator and professor of Elkinston's system of
draining.
1101. Manuring by irrigation. Irrigation with a view to conveying additions to the soil
has long been practised, and is an evident imitation of the overflowing of alluvial lands,
whether in meadow or aration. In the former case it is called irrigation or flooding, and
in the latter, warping. Warping is used chiefly as a mode of enriching the soil by an
increase of the alluvial depositions, or warp of rivers, during winter, where the sur-
face is not under crop, and is common on the banks of the Ouse.
1 102. The rationale of irrigation is thus given by Sir H. Davy. " In general in nature
the operation of water is to bring earthy substances into an extreme state of division.
But in the artificial watering of meadows, the beneficial effects depend upon many dif-
ferent causes, some chemical, some mechanical. Water is absolutely essential to vegeta-
tion ; and when land has been covered by water in the winter, or in the beginning of
spring, the moisture that has penetrated deep into the soil, and even the sub-soil, becomes
a source of nourishment to the roots of the plants in the summer, and prevents those bad
effects that often happen in lands in their natural state, from a long continuance of dry
weather. When the water used in irrigation has flowed over a calcareous country, it is
o-enerally found impregnated with carbonate of lime; and in this state it tends, in many
instances, to ameliorate the soil. Common river water also generally contains a certain
portion of organisable matter, which is much greater after rains than at other times ; and
which exists in the largest quantity when the stream rises in a cultivated country. Even
in cases when the water used for flooding is pure, and free from animal or vegetable sub-
stances, it acts by causing a more equable diffusion of nutritive matter existing in the
land ; and in very cold seasons it preserves the tender roots and leaves of the grass from
being affected by frost. Water is of greater specific gravity at 42° Fahrenheit, than at
32°,*the freezing point ; and hence, in a meadow irrigated in winter, the water immediately
in contact with°the grass is rarely below 40°, a degree of temperature not at all prejudi-
cial to the living organs of plants. In 1804, in the month of March, the temperature in
a water meadow near Hungerford was examined by a very delicate thermometer. The
temperature of the air at seven in the morning was 29°. The water was frozen above the
grass. The temperature of the soil below the water in which the roots of the grass were
fixed, was 43°." Water may also operate usefully in warm seasons by moderating tem-
perature, and thus retarding the over-rapid progress of vegetation. The consequence of
this retardation will be greater magnitude and improved texture of the grosser parts of
plants, a more perfect and ample developement of their finer parts, and, above all, an
increase in the size of their fruits and seeds. We apprehend this to be one of the princi-
pal uses of flooding rice-grounds in the East ; for it is ascertained that the rice-plant will
perfect its seeds in Europe, and even in this country, without any water beyond what is
furnished by the weather, and the natural moisture of a well constituted soil. " In
general, those waters which breed the best fish are the best fitted for watering meadows ;
but most of the benefits of irrigation may be derived from any kind of water. It is, how-
ever, a general principle, that waters containing ferruginous impregnation, though pos-
sessed of fertilising effects when applied to a calcareous soil, are injurious on soils that
do not effervesce with acids ; and that calcareous waters, which are known by the earthy
deposit they afford when boiled, are of most use on siliceous soils, or other soils containing
no remarkable quantity of carbonate of lime."
Subsect. 6. Changing the Condition of Lands, in reject to Atmospherical Influence.
1103. The influence of the u-eather on soils may be affected by changing the position of
their surface and by sheltering or shading. m
1104. Changing the condition of lands, as to solar influence, is but a limited means of
improvement ; but is capable of being turned to some account in gardening. It is
effected by altering the position of their surface, so as that surface may be more or less
at right angles to the plane of the sun's rayS> according as heat or cold is to be increased
Book II. ROTATION OF CROPS. 2S3
or diminished. The influence of the sun's rays upon any plane are demonstrated to be
as their number and perpendicularity to that plane, neglecting the effects of the atmo-
sphere. Hence one advantage of ridging lands, provided the ridges run north and south ;
for on such surfaces the rays of the morning sun will take effect sooner on the east side,
3nd those of the afternoon will remain longer in operation on the west side ; whilst at
mid-day his elevation will compensate, in some degree, for the obliquity of his rays to
both sides of the ridge. In culture, on a small scale, ridges or sloping beds for winter-
crops may be made south-east and north-west, with their slope to the south, at an angle
of forty degrees, and as steep on the north side as the mass can be got to stand ; and on
the south slope of such ridge, cccteris paribus, it is evident much earlier crops may be
produced than on level ground. The north side, however, will be lost during this early
cropping ; but as early crops are soon gathered, the whole can be laid level in time for
a main crop. Hence all the advantage of grounds sloping to the south south-east, or
south-west, in point of precocity, and of those sloping to the north for lateness and di-
minished evaporation. Another advantage of such surfaces is, that they dry sooner after
rains, whether by the operation of natural or artificial drainage ; or in the case of sloping
to the south, by evaporation.
1 1 05. Shelter, whether by walls, hedges, strips of plantation, or trees scattered over the
surface, may be considered generally, as increasing or preserving heat, and lessening
evaporation from the soil. But if the current of air should be of a higher temperature
than that of the earth, screens against wind will prevent the earth from being so soon heated ;
and from the increased evaporation arising from so great a multiplication of vegetable
surface by the trees, more cold will be produced after rains, and the atmosphere kept
in a more moist state, than in grounds perfectly naked. When the temperature of a cur-
rent of air is lower than that of the earth, screens will prevent its carrying off so much
heat ; but more especially scattered trees, the tops of which will be chiefly cooled whilst
the under surfaces of their lower branches reflect back the rays of heat as they radiate
from the surface of the soil. Heat in its transmission from one body to another, follows
the same laws as light ; and, therefore, the temperature of the surface in a forest will, in
winter, be considerably higher than that of a similarly constituted soil exposed to the full
influence of the weather. The early flowering of plants, in woods and hedges, is a proof
of this : but as such soils cannot be so easily heated in summer, and are cooled like others
after the sinking in of rains, or the melting of snows, the effect of the reflection as to the
whole year is nearly neutralised, and the average temperature of the year of such soils
and situations will probably be found not greater than that of open lands.
1106. Shading the ground, whether by umbrageous trees, spreading plants, or covering
it with tiles, slates, moss, litter, &c. has a tendency to exclude atmospherical heat and
retain moisture. Shading dry loose soils, by covering them with litter, or slates, or tiles,
laid round the roots of plants, is found very beneficial.
Subsect. 7. Botation of Crops.
1 107. Growing different crops in succession is a practice which every cultivator knows to
be highly advantageous, though its beneficial influence has not yet been fully accounted
for by chemists. The most general theory is, that though all plants will live on the same
food, as the chemical constituents of their roots and leaves are nearly the same, yet that
many species require particular substances to bring their seeds or fruits to perfection, as
the analysis of these seeds or fruits often affords substances different from those which
constitute the body of the plant. (736.) A sort of rotation may be said to take place in
nature, for perennial herbaceous plants have a tendency to extend their circumference,
and rot and decay at their centre, where others of a different kind spring up and succeed
them. This is more especially the case with travelling roots, as in mint, strawberry,
creeping crowfoot, &c.
1 108. The rationale of rotation, is thus given by Sir H. Davy. " It is a great advantage
in the convertible system of cultivation, that the whole of the manure is employed ; and
that those parts of it which are not fitted for one crop, remain as nourishment for another.
Thus, if the turnip is the first in the order of succession, this crop, manured with recent
dung, immediately finds sufficient soluble matter for its nourishment ; and the heat pro-
duced in fermentation assists the germination of the seed and the growth of the plant.
If, after turnips, barley with grass-seeds is sown, then the land, having been little
exhausted by the turnip crop, affords the soluble parts of the decomposing manure to the
grain. The grasses, rye-grass, and clover remain, which derive a small part only of
their organised matter from the soil, and probably consume the gypsum in the manure
which would be useless to other crops : these plants, likewise, by their large systems
of leaves, absorb a considerable quantity of nourishment from the atmosphere ; and when
ploughed in at the end of two years, the decay of their roots and leaves affords manure
for the wheat crop ; and at this period of the course, the woody fibre of the farm -yard
manure, which contains the phosphate of lime and the other difficultly soluble parts, is
■234 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
broken down : and as soon as the most exhausting crop is taken, recent manure is again
applied. Peas and beans, in all instances, seem well adapted to prepare ground for
wheat ; and in some rich lands they are raised in alternate crops for years together.
Peas and beans contain a small quantity of a matter analogous to albumen ; but it seems
that the azote, which forms a constituent part of this matter, is derived from the atmo-
sphere. The dry bean-leaf, when burnt, yields a smell approaching to that of decomposing
animal matter ; and in its decay in the soil, may furnish principles capable of becoming
apart of the gluten in wheat. Though the general composition of plants is very analo-
gous, yet the specific difference in the products of many of them, prove that they must
derive different materials from the soil ; and though the vegetables having the smallest
system of leaves will proportionably most exhaust the soil of common nutritive matter,
yet particular vegetables, when their produce is carried off, will require peculiar princi-
ples to be supplied to the land in which they grow. Strawberries and potatoes at first
produce luxuriantly in virgin mould, recently turned up from pasture ; but in a few
years they degenerate, and require a fresh soil. Lands, in a course of years, often cease
to afford good cultivated grasses ; they become (as it is popularly said) tired of them ;
and one of the probable reasons for this is, the exhaustion of the gypsum contained in the
soil."
1109. T/ie powers of vegetables to exhaust the soil of the principles necessary to their
growth, is remarkably exemplified in certain funguses. Mushrooms are said never to
rise in two successive seasons on the same spot ; and the production of the phenomena
called fairy rings has been ascribed by Dr. Wollaston to the power of the peculiar fungus
which forms it, to exhaust the soil of the nutriment necessary for the growth of the
species. The consequence is, that the ring annually extends ; for no seeds will grow
where their parents grew before them ; and the interior part of the circle has been ex-
hausted by preceding crops ; but where the fungus has died, nourishment is supplied for
grass, which usually rises within the circle, coarse, and of a dark green color.
1110. A rotation is unnecessary, according to Grisenthwaite ; and, in a strict chemical
sense, what he asserts cannot be denied. His theory is a refinement on the common
idea of the uses of a rotation stated above ; but by giving some details of the constituent
parts of certain grains and certain manures, he has presented it in a more clear and
striking point of view than has hitherto been done. To apply the theory in every case,
the constituent parts of all manures and of all plants (1st, their roots and leaves, and,
2dly, their seeds, fruits, or grains,) must be known. In respect to manures this is the
case, and it may be said to be in a great degree the case as to the most useful agri-
cultural plants ; but, unfortunately for our purpose, the same cannot be said of garden
productions in general, though no branch of culture can show the advantage of a rota-
tion of crops more than horticulture, in the practice of which it is found that grounds
become tired of particular crops, notwithstanding that manures are applied at pleasure.
If the precise effects of a rotation were ascertained, and the ingredients peculiarly neces-
sary to every species pointed out, nothing could be more interesting than the results of
experimental trials ; and whoever shall point out a simple and economical mode by which
the potatoe may be grown successively in the same soil, and produce annually, neglecting
the effects of climate, as dry and well-flavored tubers, or nearly so, as they generally pro-
duce the first and second years on a new soil, will confer a real benefit on society. That
wheat may be grown many years on the same soil by the use of animal manures, or such
as contain gluten, Grisenthwaite's theory would justify us in believing chemically ; and it
ought to be fairly tried by such cultivators as Coke and Curwen. Till this is done in
the face of the whole agricultural world, and the produce of every crop, and all the par-,
ticulars of its culture, accurately reported on annually, the possibility of the thing may
be assented to from the premises, but will not be acted on ; and, in fact, even the best
agricultural chemists do not consider that we are sufficiently advanced in that branch of
the science to draw any conclusion, a priori, very much at variance with general opinion
and experience.
Chap. II.
Of Manures.
1111. Every species of matter capable of promoting tlie growth of vegetables may be con-
sidered as manure. On examining the constituents of vegetables, we shall find that
they are composed of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen, or azote, with a small
proportion of saline bodies. It is evident, therefore, that the substances employed
as manure should also be composed of these elements, for unless they are, there will
be a deficiency in some of the elements in the vegetable itself; and it is probable
that such deficiency may prevent the formation of those substances within it, for which its
Book II. MANURES. 235
peculiar organisation is contrived, and upon which its healthy existence depends. The
elementary bodies above enumerated are all contained in animal, and the three first in
vegetable matters. Sometimes vegetables, though very seldom, contain a small quantity
of nitrogen. As certain salts are also constantly found to be present in healthy living
vegetables, manures or vegetable food may, consequently, be distinguished into animal,
vegetable, and saline. The authors whom we have already mentioned (1029.) as produc-
ing the first chemical treatises on soils, were also the first to treat chemically of manures.
Of these, the latest in the order of time is Sir H. Davy, from whose highly satisfactory
work we shall extract the greater part of this chapter.
Sect. I. Of Manures of Animal and Vegetable Origin.
1112. Decaying animal and vegetable substances constitute by far the most important
class of manures, or vegetable food, and may be considered as to the theory of their oper-
ation, their specific kinds, and their preservation and application in practice.
Subsect. 1. The Theory if the Operation of Manures of Animal and Vegetable Origin.
1113. The rationale of organic manures is very satisfactorily given by Sir H. Davy,
who, after having proved that no solid substances can enter in that state into the plant,
explains the manner in which nourishment is derived from vegetable and animal sub-
stances.
1 114. Vegetable and animal substances deposited in the soil, as is shown by universal ex-
perience, are consumed during the process of vegetation ; and they can only nourish the
plant by affording solid matters capable of being dissolved by water, or gaseous substances
capable of being absorbed by the fluids in the leaves of vegetables ; but such parts of
them as are rendered gaseous, and pass into the atmosphere, must produce a comparatively
small effect, for gases soon become diffused through the mass of the surrounding air.
The great object, therefore, in the application of manure should be to make it afford as
much soluble matter as possible to the roots of the plant ; and that in a slow and gra-
dual manner, so that it may be entirely consumed in forming its sap and organised
parts.
1115. Mucilaginous, gelatinoiis, saccharine, oily, and extractive fluids, carbonic acid, and '
ivater, are substances that in their unchanged states contain almost all the principles
necessary for the life of plants ; but there are few cases in which they can be applied
as manures in their pure forms ; and vegetable manures, in general, contain a great ex-
cess of fibrous and insoluble matter, which must undergo chemical changes before they
can become the food of plants.
1116. The nature of the changes on these substances; of the causes which occasion them,
and which accelerate or retard them ; and of the products they afford, have been scientifi-
cally stated and explained by our great agricultural chemist. If any fresh vegetable matter
which contains sugar, mucilage, starch, or other of the vegetable compounds soluble in water,
be moistened, and exposed to air, at a temperature from 55° to 80°, oxygen will soon be ab-
sorbed, and carbonic acid formed ; heat will be produced, and elastic fluids, principally car-
bonic acid, gaseous oxide of carbon, and hydro-carbonate will be evolved ; a dark-colored
liquid, of a slightly sour or bitter taste, will likewise be formed ; and if the process be
suffered to continue for a time sufficiently long, nothing solid will remain, except earthy
and saline matter, colored black by charcoal. The dark-colored fluid formed in the fer-
mentation always contains acetic acid ; and when albumen or gluten exists in the vege-
table substance, it likewise contains volatile alkali. In proportion as there is more
gluten, albumen, or matters soluble in water, in the vegetable substances exposed to fer-
mentation, so in proportion, all other circumstances being equal, will the process be more
rapid. Pure woody fibre alone undergoes a change very slowly ; but its texture is
broken down, and it is easily resolved into new aliments, when mixed with substances
more liable to change, containing more oxygen and hydrogen. Volatile and fixed oils,
resins, and wax, are more susceptible of change than woody fibre, when exposed to air
and water ; but much less liable than the other vegetable compounds ; and even the most
inflammable substances, by the absorption of oxygen, become gradually soluble in water.
Animal matters in general are more liable to decompose than vegetable substances ;
oxygen is absorbed and carbonic acid and ammonia fprmed in the process of their putre-
faction. They produce fetid, compound, elastic fluids and likewise azote : they afford
dark-colored acid and oily fluids, and leave a residuum of salts and earths mixed with
carbonaceous matter.
1117. The principal animal substances which constitute their different parts, or which are
found in their blood, their secretions, or their excrements, are gelatine, fibrine, mucus,
fatty, or oily matter, albumen, urea, uric acid, and different other acid, saline, and earthy
matters.
-\
1118. General treatment of organic vumures. Whenever manures consist principally of
236 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
matter soluble in water, it is evident that their fermentation or putrefaction should be pre-
vented as much as possible ; and the only cases in which these processes can be useful,
are when the manure consists principally of vegetable or animal fibre. The circumstances
necessary for the putrefaction of animal substances are similar to those required for the
fermentation of vegetable substances ; a temperature above the freezing point, the presence
of water, and the presence of oxygen, at least in the first stage of the process. To prevent
mas-ures from decomposing, they should be preserved dry, defended from the contact of
air, and kept as cool as possible. Salt and alcohol appear to owe their powers of pre-
serving animal and vegetable substances to their attraction for water, by which they pre-
vent its decomposing action, and likewise to their excluding air.
Subsect. 2. Oftlie different Species of Manures of Animal and Vegetable Origin.
1119. The properties and nature of the manures in common use should be known to every
cultivator : for as different manures contain different proportions of the elements neces-
sary to vegetation, so they require a different treatment to enable them to produce their
full effects in culture.
1 120. All green succulent j^lants contain saccharine or mucilaginous matter, with woody
fibre, and readily ferment. They cannot, therefore, if intended for manure, be used too
soon after their death. Hence the advantage of digging or ploughing in green crops,
whether natural, of weeds, or sown on purpose ; they must not, however, be turned in too
deep, otherwise, as Mrs. Ibbetson has shown (Philos. Mag. 1816), fermentation will be
prevented by compression and exclusion of air. Green crops should be ploughed in, if it
be possible, when in flower, or at the time the flower is beginning to appear, for it is at
this period that they contain the largest quantity of easily soluble matter, and that their
leaves are most active in forming nutritive matter. Green crops, pond-weeds, the paring
of hedges or ditches, or any kind of fresh vegetable matter, require no preparation to fit
them for manure. The decomposition slowly proceeds beneath the soil ; the soluble mat-
ters are gradually dissolved, and the slight fermentation that goes on, checked by the want
of a free communication of air, tends to render the woody fibre soluble without occasion-
ing the rapid dissipation of elastic matter. When old pastures are broken up and made
arable, not only has the soil been enriched by the death and slow decay of the plants which
have left soluble matters in the soil, but the leaves and roots of the grasses, living at the
time, and occupying so large a part of the surface, afford saccharine, mucilaginous, and
extractive matters, which become immediately the food of the crop, and the gradual de-
composition affords a supply for successive years.
1121. Rape-cake, which is used with great success as manure, contains a large quantity
of mucilage, some albuminous matter, and a small quantity of oil. This manure should
be used recent, and kept as dry as possible before it is applied. It forms an excellent
dressing for turnip crops ; and is most economically applied by being thrown into the soil
at the same time with the seed.
1122. Malt-dust consists chiefly of the infant radicle separated from the grain. Sir
H. Davy never made any experiment upon this manure ; but has great reason to suppose
it must contain saccharine matter, and this will account for its powerful effects. Like rape-
cake, it should be used as dry as possible, and its fermentation prevented.
1 123. Linseed-cake is too valuable as a food for cattle to be much employed as a manure.
The water in which flax and hemp are steeped, for the purpose of obtaining the pure
vegetable fibre, has considerable fertilising powers. It appears to contain a substance ana-
logous to albumen, and likewise much vegetable extractive matter. It putrefies very
readily. By the watering process, a certain degree of fermentation is absolutely neces-
sary to obtain the flax and hemp in a proper state ; the water to which they have been ex-
posed should therefore be used as a manure as soon as the vegetable fibre is removed from
it. Washing with soap has been successfully substituted for watering by lie.
1124. Sea-xveeds, consisting of different species of fuci, alga?, and conferva?, are much
used as a manure on the sea-coasts of Britain and Ireland. By digesting the common
fucus, which is the sea-weed usually most abundant on the coast, in boiling water, one-
eighth of a gelatinous substance will be obtained, with characters similar to mucilage. A
quantity distilled gave nearly four fifths of its weight of water, but no ammonia ; the
water had an empyreumatic and slightly sour taste ; the ashes contained sea-salt, car-
bonate of soda, and carbonaceous matter. The gaseous matter afforded was small in
quantity, principally carbonic acid, and gaseous oxide of carbon, with a little hydro-car-
bonate. This manure is transient in its effects, and does not last for more than a single
crop ; which is easily accounted for from the large quantity of water, or the elements of
water, it contains. It decays without producing heat when exposed to the atmosphere,
and seems, as it were, to melt down and dissolve away. A large heap has been entirely
destroyed in less than two years, nothing remaining but a little black fibrous matter.
Some of the firmest part of a fucus were suffered to remain in a close jar, containing at-
mospheric air, for a fortnight : in this time it had become very much shrivelled ; the sides
Book II. SPECIES OF MANURES. 237
of the jar were lined with dew. The air examined was found to have lost oxygen, and
contained carbonic acid gas. Sea-weed is sometimes suffered to ferment before it is
used ; but this process seems wholly unnecessary, for there is no fibrous matter rendered
soluble in the process, and a part of the manure is lost. The best cultivators use it as
fresh as it can be procured ; and the practical results of this mode of applying it are
exactly conformable to the theory of its operation. The carbonic acid formed by its in-
cipient fermentation must be partly dissolved by the water set free in the same process ;
and thus become capable of absorption by the roots of plants. The effects of the sea-
weed, as manure, must principally depend upon this carbonic acid, and upon the soluble
mucilage the weed contains ; some fucus which had fermented so as to have lost about
half its weight, afforded less than one twelfth of mucilaginous matter ; from which it may
be fairly concluded that some of this substance is destroyed in fermentation.
1 1 25. Dry straiv of wheat, oats, barley, beans, and peas, and spoiled hay, or any other
similar kind of dry vegetable matter, is, in all cases, useful manure. In general, such
substances are made to ferment before they are employed, though it may be doubted
whether the practice should be indiscriminately adopted. From 400 grains of dry bailey-
straw eight grains of matter soluble in water were obtained, which had a brown color, and
tasted like mucilage. From 400 grains of wheaten straw, were obtained five grains of a
similar substance. There can be no doubt that the straw of different crops, immediately
ploughed into the ground, affords nourishment to plants ; but there is an objection to this
method of using straw, from the difficulty of burying long straw, and from its x-endering
the husbandry foul. When straw is made to ferment, it becomes a more manageable
manure ; but there is likewise, on the whole, a great loss of nutritive matter. More
manure is perhaps supplied for a single crop ; but the land is less improved than it would
be, supposing the whole of the vegetable matter could be finely divided and mixed with
the soil. It is usual to carry straw that can be employed for no other purpose to the
dunghill, to ferment, and decompose ; but it is worth experiment, whether it may not be
more economically applied when chopped small by a proper machine, and kept dry till it
is ploughed in for the use of a crop. In this case, though it would decompose much more
slowly, and produce less effect at first, yet its influence would be much more lasting.
1126. Mere woody fibre seems to be the only vegetable matter that requires fermentation
to render it nutritive to plants. Tanners' spent bark is a substance of this kind.
A. Young, in his excellent Essay on Manure, states, " that spent bark seemed rather to
injure than assist vegetation ;" which he attributes to the astringent matter that it contains.
But, in fact, it is freed from all soluble substances, by the operation of water in the tan-
pit ; and if injurious to vegetation, the effect is probably owing to its agency upon water,
or to its mechanical effects. It is a substance very absorbent and retentive of moisture,
and yet not penetrable by the roots of plants.
1 127. Inert peaty matter is a substance of the same kind. It remains for years exposed
to water and air without undergoing change, -and in this state yields little or no nourish-
ment to plants. "Woody fibre will not ferment, unless some substances are mixed with
it, which act the same part as the mucilage, sugar, and extractive or albuminous matters,
with which it is usually associated in herbs and succulent vegetables. Lord Meadowbank
has judiciously recommended a mixture of common farm-yard dung for the purpose of
bringing peat into fermentation : any putrescible or fermentable substance will answer
the end ; and the more a substance heats, and the more readily it ferments, the better will
it be fitted for the purpose. Lord Meadowbank states, that one part of dung is suffi-
cient to bring three or four parts of peat into a state in which it is fitted to be applied to
land ; but of course the quantity must vary according to the nature of the dung and of
the peat. In cases in which some living vegetables are mixed with the peat, the ferment-
ation will be more readily effected.
1128. Tanners spent bark, shavings of wood, and saw-dust, will probably require as
much dung to bring them into fermentation as the worst kind of peat. Woody fibre
may be likewise prepared, so as to become a manure, by the action of lime. It is evident,
from the analysis of woody fibre by Gay Lussac and Thenard, (which shows that it con-
sists principally of the elements of water and carbon, the carbon being in larger quantities
than in the other vegetable compounds,) that any process which tends to abstract carbo-
naceous matter from it, must bring it nearer in composition to the soluble principles ; and
this is done in fermentation by the absorption of oxygen and production of carbonic acid ;
and a similar effect, it will be shown, is produced by lime.
1 129. Wood-ashes, imperfectly formed, that is, wood-ashes containing much charcoal, are
said to have been used with success as a manure. A part of their effects may be owing
to the slow and gradual consumption of the charcoal, which seems capable, under other
circumstances than those of actual combustion, of absorbing oxygen so as to become car-
bonic acid. In April 1S03, some well-burnt charcoal was enclosed by Sir H. Davy, in
a tube, half filled with pure water, and half with common air; the tube was hermetically
sealed. The tube was opened under pure water, in the spring of 1804, at a time when
238 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
the atmospheric temperature and pressure were nearly the same as at the commencement
of the experiment. Some water rushed in ; and on expelling a little air by heat from the
tube, and analysing it, it was found to contain only seven per cent, of oxygen. The
water in the tube, when mixed with lime-water, produced a copious precipitate ; so that
carbonic acid had evidently been formed and dissolved by the water.
1130. Manures from animal substances, in general, require no chemical preparation to
fit them for the soil. The great object of the farmer is to blend them with the earthy
constituents in a proper state of division, and to prevent their too rapid decomposition.
1131. The entire jmrts of the muscles cf land animals are not commonly used as manure,
though there are many cases in which such an application might be easily made. Horses,
dogs, sheep, deer, and other quadrupeds that have died accidentally, or of disease, after
their skins are separated, are often suffered to remain exposed to the air, or immersed in
water, till they are destroyed by birds or beasts of prey, or entirely decomposed ; and in
this case, most of their organised matter is lost for the land in which they lie, and a con-
siderable portion of it employed in giving off noxious gases to the atmosphere. By
covering dead animals with five or six times their bulk of soil, mixed with one part of
lime, and suffering them to remain for a few months ; their decomposition would impreg-
nate the soil with soluble matters, so as to render it an excellent manure ; and by mixing
a little fresh quick lime with it at the time of its removal, the disagreeable effluvia would
be in a great measure destroyed ; and it might be applied in the same way as any other
manure to crops.
1132. Fish forms a powerful manure, in whatever state it is applied ; but it cannot be
ploughed in too fresh, though the quantity should be limited. A. Young records an ex-
periment, in which herrings spread over a field, and ploughed in for wheat, produced so
rank a crop, that it was entirely laid before harvest. The refuse pilchards in Cornwall
are used throughout the county as a manure, with excellent effects. They are usually
mixed with sand or soil, and sometimes with sea-weed, to prevent them from raising too
luxuriant a crop. The effects are perceived for several years. In the fens of Lincoln-
shire, Cambridgeshire, and Norfolk, the little fishes called sticklebacks, are caught in the
shallow waters in such quantities, that they form a great article of manure in the land
bordering on the fens. It is easy to explain the operation of fish as a manure. The skin
is principally gelatine ; which from its slight state of cohesion, is readily soluble in water :
fat or oil is always found in fishes, either under the skin or in some of the viscera ; and
their fibrous matter contains all the essential elements of vegetable substances.
1 1 33. Amongst oily substances, blubber has been employed as a manure. It is most
useful when mixed with clay, sand, or any common soil, so as to expose a large surface
to the air, the oxygen of which produces soluble matter from it. Lord Somerville used
blubber with great success at his farm in Surrey. It was made into a heap with soil, and
retained its powers of fertilising for several successive years. The carbon and hydrogen
abounding in oily substances, fully account for their effects ; and their durability is easily
explained from the gradual manner in which they change by the action of air and water.
1 134. Bones are much used as a manure in the neighbourhood of London. After being
broken, and boiled for grease, they are sold to the farmer. The more divided they are,
the more powerful are their effects. The expense of grinding them in a mill would pro-
bably be repaid by the increase of their fertilising powers ; and in the state of powder they
might be used in the drill husbandry, and delivered with the seed, in the same manner as
rape-cake. Bone-dust and bone-shavings, the refuse of the turning manufacture, may be
advantageously employed in the same way. The basis of bone is constituted by earthy
salts, principally phosphate of lime, with some carbonate of lime and phosphate of mag-
nesia ; the easily decomposable substances in bone, are fat, gelatine, and cartilage, which
seems of the same nature as coagulated albumen. According to the analysis of Fourcroy
and Vauquelin, ox-bones are composed of decomposable animal matter 51 ; phosphate of
lime 37*7, carbonate of lime 10, phosphate of magnesia 1*3 ; — total 100.
1 1 35. Horn is a still more powerful manure than bone, as it contains a larger quantity
of decomposable animal matter. From 500 grains of ox-horn, Hatchett obtained only
1 '5 grains of earthy residuum, and not quite half of this was phosphate of lime. The
shavings or turnings of horn form an excellent manure, though they are not sufficiently
abundant to be in common use. The animal matter in them seems to be of the nature
of coagulated albumen, and it is slowly rendered soluble by the action of water. The
earthy matter in horn, and still more that in bones, prevents the too rapid decomposition
of the animal matter, and renders it very durable in its effects.
1136. Hair, woollen rags, and feathers, are all analogous in composition, and princi-
pally consist of a substance similar to albumen united to gelatine. This is shown by the
ingenious researches of Hatchett. The theory of their operation is similar to that of
bone and horn shavings.
1137. The refuse of the diferent manufactures of skin and leather form very useful
manures ; such as the shavings of the currier, furriers' clippings, and the offals of the
Book IL SPECIES OF MANURES. 239
tan-yard and of the glue-maker. The gelatine contained in every kind of skin is in a
state fitted for its gradual solution or decomposition ; and when buried in the soil, it
lasts for a considerable time, and constantly affords a supply of nutritive matter to the
plants in its neighbourhood.
1138. Blood contains certain quantities of all the principles found in other animal sub-
stances, and is consequently a very good manure. It has been already stated that it
contains fibrine ; it likewise contains albumen ; the red particles in it, which have been
supposed by many foreign chemists to be colored by iron in a particular state of combin-
ation with oxygen and acid matter, Brande considers as formed of a peculiar animal
substance, containing very little iron. The scum taken from the boilers* of the sugar-
bakers, and which is used as manure, principally consists of bullocks' blood, which has
been employed for the purpose of separating the impurities of common brown sugar, by
means of the coagulation of its albuminous matter by the heat of the boiler.
1139. The different species of corals, corallines, and sponges, must be considered as sub-
stances of animal origin. From the analysis of Hatchett, it appears that all these
substances contain considerable quantities of a matter analogous to coagulated albumen ;
the sponges afford likewise gelatine. According to Merat Guillot, white coral contains
equal parts of animal matter and carbonate of lime ; red coral 46*5 of animal matter,
and 53-5 of carbonate of lime; articulated coralline 51 of animal matter, and 49 of
carbonate of lime. These substances are never used as manure in this country, except
in cases when they are accidentally mixed with sea-weed ; but it is probable that the
corallines might be advantageously employed, as they are found in considerable quantity
on the rocks, and bottoms of the rocky pools on many parts of our coast, where the land
gradually declines towards the sea ; and they might be detached by hoes, and collected
without much trouble.
1140. Amongst excrementations, animal substances used as manures, urine is the one
upon which the greatest number of chemical experiments have been made, and the
nature of which is best understood. The urine of the cow contains, according to the
experiments of Brande : water 65 ; phosphate of lime 3 ; muriates of potassa and ammonia
1 5 ; sulphate of potassa 6 ; carbonates, potassa, and ammonia 4 ; urea 4.
1141. The urine of the horse, according to Fourcroy and Vauquelin, contains, of car-
bonate of lime 11, carbonate of soda 9, benzoate of soda 24, muriate of potassa 9, urea 7,
water and mucilage 940. In addition to these substances, Brande found in it phosphate
of lime. The urine of the ass, the camel, the rabbit, and domestic fowls, have been
submitted to different experiments, and their constitution have been found similar. In
the urine of the rabbit, in addition to most of the ingredients above mentioned, Vau-
quelin detected gelatine ; and the same chemist discovered uric acid in the urine of do-
mestic fowls. Human urine contains a greater variety of constituents than any other
species examined. Urea, uric acid, and another acid similar to it in nature, called
rosacic acid, acetic acid, albumen, gelatine, a resinous matter, and various salts are found
in it. The human urine differs in composition, according to the state of the body, and
the nature of the food and drink made use of. In many cases of disease there is a much
larger quantity of gelatine and albumen than usual in the urine ; and in diabetes it con-
tains sugar. It is probable that the urine of the same animal must likewise differ
according to the different nature of the food and drink used ; and this will account for
discordances in some of the analyses that have been published on the subject. Urine is
very liable to change, and to undergo the putrefactive process ; and that of carnivorous
animals more rapidly than that of graminivorous animals. In proportion as there is more
gelatine and albumen in urine, so in proportion does it putrefy more quickly. The species
of urine that contain most albumen, gelatine, and urea, are the best as manures ; and all
urine contains the essential elements of vegetables in a state of solution. During the
putrefaction of urine the greatest part of the soluble animal matter that it contains is
destroyed : it should consequently be used as fresh as possible ; but if not mixed with
solid matter, it should be diluted with water, as, when pure, it contains too large a quan-
tity of animal matter to form a proper fluid nourishment for absorption by the roots of
plants.
1 1 42. Putrid urine abounds in ammoniacal salts ; and though less active than fresh
urine, is a very powerful manure. According to a recent analysis published by Berze-
lius, 1000 parts of urine are composed of, water 933; urea 30*1 ; uric acid 1 ; muriate of
ammonia, free lactic acid, lactate of ammonia, and animal matter 17'14. The remainder
different salts, phosphates, sulphates, and muriates.
1 143. Dung of birds. Amongst excrementitious solid substances used as manures, one of
the most powerful is the dung of birds that feed on animal food, particularly the dung of
sea-birds. The guano, which is used to a great extent in South America, and which is the
manure that fertilises the sterile plains of Peru, is a production of this kind. It exists
abundantly, as we are informed by Humboldt, on the small islands in the South Sea, at
Chinche, Ilo, Iza, and Arica. Fifty vessels are laden with it annually at Chinche, each of
240 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
which carries from 1500 to 2000 cubical feet. It is used as a manure only in very
small quantities ; and particularly for crops of maize. Some experiments were made on
specimens of guano in 1805. It appeared as a fine brown powder ; it blackened by heat,
and gave off strong ammoniacal fumes ; treated with nitric acid, it afforded uric acid.
In 1806, Fourcroy and Vauquelin published an elaborate analysis of guano. They
state that it contains a fourth part of its weight of uric acid, partly saturated with am-
monia, and partly with potassa ; some phosphoric acid combined with the bases, and
likewise with lime. Small quantities of sulphate and muriate of potassa, a little fatty
matter, and some quartzose sand. ' It is easy to explain its fertilising properties : from
its composition it might be supposed to be a very powerful manure. It requires
water for the solution of its soluble matter to enable it to produce its full beneficial effect
on crops.
1144. The dung of sea-birds has never been much used as a manure in this country ;
but it is probable that even the soil of the small islands on our coast much frequented by
them would fertilise. Some dung of sea-birds, brought from a rock on the coast of
Merionethshire, produced a powerful, but transient effect on grass. The rains in our
climate must tend very much to injure this species of manure, where it is exposed to
them, soon after its deposition ; but it may probably be found in great perfection in
caverns or clefts in rocks haunted by cormorants and gulls. Some recent cormorants'
dung, when examined, had not at all the appearance of the guano ; it was of a greyish-
white color ; had a very fetid smell, like that of putrid animal matter ; when acted
on by quick-lime, it gave abundance of ammonia ; treated with nitric acid, it yielded
uric acid.
1145. Night-soil, it is well known, is a very powerful manure, and very liable to de-
compose. It differs in composition ; but always abounds in substances composed of
carbon, hydrogen, azote, and oxygen. From the analysis of Berzelius, it appears that a
part of it is always soluble in water ; and in whatever state it is used, whether recent or
fermented, it supplies abundance of food to plants. The disagreeable smell of night-
soil may be destroyed by mixing it with quick-lime ; and if exposed to the atmosphere
in thin layers, strewed over with quick-lime in fine weather, it speedily dries, is easily
pulverised, and in this state, may be used in the same manner as rape-cake, and
delivered into the furrow with the seed. The Chinese, who have more practical know-
ledge of the use and application of manures than any other people existing, mix their
night-soil with one third of its weight of a fat marl, make it into cakes, and dry it by
exposure to the sun. These cakes, we are informed by the French missionaries, have no
disagreeable smell, and fonn a common article of commerce of the empire. The earth,
by its absorbent powers, probably prevents, to a certain extent, the action of moisture
upon the dung, and likewise defends it from the effects of air. Desiccated night-soil, in
a state of powder, forms an article of internal commerce in France, and is known under
the name of poudrette. In London it is mixed with quick-lime, and sold in cakes under
the name of " Clarke's desiccated compost."
1146. Pigeons' dung comes next in order, as to fertilising power. 100 grains di-
gested in hot water for some hours, produced 23 grains of soluble matter, which
afforded abundance of carbonate of ammonia by distillation ; and left carbonaceous
matter, saline matter, principally common salt, and carbonate of lime as a residuum.
Pigeons' dung, when moist, readily ferments, and after fermentation, contains less
soluble matter than before ; from 100 parts of fermented pigeons' dung, only eight parts
of soluble matter were obtained, which gave proportionally less carbonate of ammonia in
distillation than recent pigeons' dung. It is evident that this manure should be applied
as new as possible ; and when dry, it may be employed in the same manner as the other
manures capable of being pulverised. The soil in woods, where great flocks of wood-
pigeons roost, is often highly impregnated with their dung, and it cannot be doubted,
would form a valuable manure. Such soil will often yield ammonia when distilled with
lime. In the winter, likewise, it usually contains abundance of vegetable matter, the
remains of decayed leaves, and the dung tends to bring the vegetable matter into a state
of solution. Manuring was, and still is, in great esteem in Persia.
1147. The dung of domestic fowls approaches very nearly in its nature to pigeons' dung.
Uric acid has been found in it. It gives carbonate of ammonia by distillation, and im-
mediately yields soluble matter to water. It is very liable to ferment. The dung of
fowls is employed, in common with that of pigeons, by tanners, to bring on a slight degree
of putrefaction in skins that are to be used for making soft leather ; for this purpose
the dung is diffused through water. In this state it rapidly undergoes putrefaction, and
brings on a similar change in the skin. The excrements of dogs are employed by the
tanner with similar effects. In all cases, the contents of the grainer, as the pit is called
in which soft skins are prepared by dung, must form a very useful manure.
1 148. Rabbits' dung has never been analysed. It is used with great success as a manure
bv some farmers, who find it profitable to keep rabbits in such a manner as to preserve
Book II. APPLICATION OF MANURES. 241
their dung. It is laid on as fresh as possible, and is found better the less it has
fermented.
1 149. The dung of cattle, oxen, and cows, has been chemically examined by Einhof and
Thaer. They found that it contained matter soluble in water ; and that it gave in
fermentation nearly the same products as vegetable substances, absorbing oxygen, and
producing carbonic acid gas.
1150. The recent dung of sheep and of deer affords, when long boiled in water, soluble
matters which equal from two to three per cent, of their weight. These soluble sub-
stances, procured by solution and evaporation, when examined, contain a very small quan-
tity of matter analogous to animal mucus ; and are principally composed of a bitter
extract, soluble both in water and in alcohol. They give ammoniacal fumes by dis-
tillation, and appear to differ very little in composition. Some blades of grass were
watered for several successive days with a solution of these extracts ; they evidently be-
came greener in consequence, and grew more vigorously than grass in other respects
under the same circumstances. The part of the dung of cattle, sheep, and deer, not
soluble in water, appears to be mere woody fibre, and precisely analogous to the residuum
of those vegetables that form their food after they have been deprived of all their soluble
materials.
1151. The du?ig of horses gives a brown fluid, which, when evaporated, yields a bitter
extract, which affords ammoniacal fumes more copiously than that from the dung of
oxen.
1152. In the treatment of the pure dung of cattle, sheep, and horses, there seems no
reason why it should be made to ferment except in the soil, like the other pure dungs ;
or, if suffered to ferment, it should be only in a very slight degree. The grass, in the
neighbourhood of recently voided dung, is always coarse and dark green ; some persons
have attributed this to a noxious quality in unfermenting dung ; but it seems to
be rather the result of an excess of food furnished to the plants.
1 153. Street and road dung and the sweepings of houses may be all regarded as composite
manures ; the constitution of them is necessarily various, as they are derived from a num-
ber of different substances. These manures are usually applied in a proper manner,
without being fermented.
1154. Soot, which is principally formed from the combustion of pit-coal or coal,
generally contains likewise substances derived from animal matters. This is a very
powerful manure. It affords ammoniacal salts by distillation, and yields a brown
extract to hot water, of a bitter taste. It likewise contains an empyreumatic oil. Its
great basis is charcoal, in a state in which it is capable of being rendered soluble by the
action of oxygen and water. This manure is well fitted to be used in the dry state,
thrown into the ground with the seed, and requires no preparation.
Subsect. 5. Of the fermenting, preseriing, and applying of Manures of Animal and
Vegetable Origin.
1155. On the management of organic manures depends much of their value as food to
plants. The great mass of manures procured by the cultivator are a mixture of
animal and vegetable matters, and the great source of supply is the farm or stable yard.
Here the excrementitious matter of horses, cattle, swine, and poultry, is mixed
with straw, haulm, chaff, and various kinds of litter. To what degree should this
be fermented before it is applied to the soil ? And how can it best be preserved when not
immediately wanted?
115G. A slight incipient fermentation is undoubtedly of use in the dunghill; for, by
means of it a disposition is brought on in the woody fibre to decay and dissolve, when it
is carried to the land, or ploughed into the soil ; and woody fibre is always in great ex-
cess in the refuse of the farm. Too great a degree of fermentation is, however,
very prejudicial to the composite manure in the dunghill ; it is better that there should be
no fermentation at all before the manure is used, than that it should be carried
too far. The excess of fermentation tends to the destruction and dissipation of the most
useful part of the manure ; and the ultimate results of this process are like those of com-
bustion. It is a common practice amongst farmers to suffer the farm-yard dung to ferment
till the fibrous texture of the vegetable matter is entirely broken down ; and till
the manure becomes perfectly cold, and so soft as to be easily cut by the spade. Inde-
pendent of the general theoretical views unfavorable to this practice, founded upon the
nature and composition of vegetable substances, there are many arguments and
facts which show that it is prejudicial to the interests of the farmer.
1157. During the violent fermentation which is necessary for reducing farm-yard
manure to the state in which it is called short muck, not only a large quantity of fluid, but
likewise of gaseous matter is lost ; so much so, that the dung is reduced one half, or two
thirds in weight ; and the principal elastic matter disengaged, is carbonic acid with some
ammonia ; and both these, if retained by the* moisture in the soil, as has been stated
R
242 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
before, are capable of becoming a useful nourishment of plants. In October, 1808,
Sir H. Davy filled a large retort capable of containing three pints of water, with some
hot fermenting manure, consisting principally of the Utter and dung of cattle ; he adapted
a small receiver to the retort, and connected the whole with a mercurial pneumatic
apparatus, so as to collect the condensible and elastic fluids which might rise from the
dune. The receiver soon became lined with dew, and drops began in a few hours
to trickle down the sides of it. Elastic fluid likewise was generated ; in three days
thirty-five cubical inches had been formed, which, when analysed, were found to contain
twenty-one cubical inches of carbonic acid, the remainder was hydrocarbonate mixed
with some azote, probably no more than existed in the common air in the receiver. The
fluid matter collected in the receiver at the same time amounted to nearly half an ounce.
It had a saline taste, and a disagreeable smell, and contained some acetate and carbonate
of ammonia. Finding such products given off from fermenting litter, he introduced
the beak of another retort, filled with similar dung, very hot at the time, in the soil
amongst the roots of some grass in the border of a garden ; in less than a week a very
distinct effect was produced on the grass ; upon the spot exposed to the influence of the
matter disengaged in fermentation, it grew with much more luxuriance than the grass in
any other part of the garden. — Besides the dissipation of gaseous matter, when
fermentation is pushed to the extreme, there is another disadvantage in the loss of
heat, which, if excited in the soil, is useful in promoting the germination of the seed, and
in assisting the plant in the first stage of its growth, when it is most feeble and most
liable to disease : and the fermentation of manure in the soil must be particularly
favorable to the wheat crop, in preserving a genial temperature beneath the surface late
in autumn and during winter. Again, it is a general principle in chemistry, that in all
cases of decomposition, substances combine much more readily at the moment of their
disengagement, than after they have been perfectly formed. And in fermentation
beneath°the soil the fluid matter produced is applied instantly, even whilst it is warm, to
the organs of the plant, and consequently is more likely to be efficient, than in manure
that has gone through the process ; and of which all the principles have entered into new
combinations.
1158. Checking fermentation by covering. "There are reasons sufficiently strong,"
Grisenthwaite observes, " to discourage the practice of allowing dung-heaps to ferment
and rot without interruption. It appears that public opinion has slowly adopted the
decisions of chemical reasoning, and dung-pies, as they are called, have been formed with
a view to save what was before lost ; a stratum of mould, sustaining the heap, being
placed to receive the fluid parts, and a covering of mould being applied to prevent the
dissipation of the aerial, or gaseous products. These purposes and contrivances,
unfortunately, like many of the other operations of husbandry, were not directed by
scientific knowledge. To cover is so commonly believed to confine, that there is no
wonder that the practical cultivator adopted it in this instance from such a consideration.
But it is in vain ; the elasticity of the gases generated is such as no covering whatever
could possibly confine. If it were perfectly compact, it could only preserve as much
carbonic acid as is equal to the volume or bulk of air within it ; a quantity too incon-
siderable to be regarded, could it even be saved; but every particle of it must be
disengaged, and lost, when the covering is removed."
1159. Checking fermentation by tvatering is sometimes recommended ; but this practice
is inconsistent with just chemical views. It may cool the dung for a short time ; but
moisture, as before stated, is a principal agent in all processes of decomposition. Dry
fibrous matter will never ferment. Water is as necessary as air to the process ; and to
supply it to fermenting dung, is to supply an agent which will hasten its decay. In all
cases when dung is fermenting, there are simple tests by which the rapidity of the process,
and consequently the injury done, may be discovered. If a thermometer, plunged into
the dung, does not rise to above one hundred degrees of Fahrenheit, there is little
danger of much aeriform matter flying off. If the temperature is higher, the dung
should be immediately spread abroad. When a piece of paper, moistened in muriatic
acid, held over the steams arising from a dunghill, gives dense fumes, it is a certain test
that the decomposition is going too far, for this indicates that volatile alkali is
disengaged.
1160. In favor of the application of farm-yard dung in a recent state, a great mass of
facts may be found in the writings of scientific agriculturists. A. Young, in the Essay
on Manures, already quoted, adduces a number of excellent authorities in support of the
plan. Many, who doubted, have been lately convinced ; and perhaps there is no subject
of investigation in which there is such a union of theoretical and practical evidence.
Within the last seven years Coke has entirely given up the system formerly adopted on
his farm, of applying fermented dung; and his crops have been since as good as
they ever were, and his manure goes nearly twice as far. A great objection against
slightly fermented dung is, that weeds spring up more luxuriantly where it is applied.
Book II. OPERATION OF MINERAL MANURES. 243
If there are seeds carried out in the dung, they certainly will germinate ; but it is seldom
that this can be the case to any extent ; and if the land is not cleansed of weeds, any
kind of manure, fermented or unfermented, will occasion their rapid growth. If
slightly fermented farm-yard dung is used as a top-dressing for pastures, the long
straws and unfermented vegetable matter remaining on the surface should be re-
moved as soon as the grass begins to rise vigorously, by raking, and carried back to
the dunghill : in this case no manure will be lost, and the husbandry will be at once
clean and economical. In cases when farm-yard dung cannot be immediately applied to
crops, the destructive fermentation of it should be prevented as much as possible :
the principles on which this may be effected have been already alluded to. The surface
should be defended as much as possible from the oxygen of the atmosphere ; a compact
marl, or a tenacious clay, offers the best protection against the air ; and before the dung
is covered over, or, as it were, sealed up, it should be dried as much as possible. If the
dung is found at any time to heat strongly, it should be turned over, and cooled by
exposure to the air.
1161. The doctrine of the proper application of manures from organised substances,
offers an illustration of an important part of the economy of nature, and of f.he happy
order in which it is arranged. The death and decay of animal substances tend to
resolve organised forms into chemical constituents ; and the pernicious effluvia disengaged
in the process seem to point out the propriety of burying them in the soil, where they are
fitted to become the food of vegetables. The fermentation and putrefaction of or-
ganised substances in the free atmosphere are noxious processes ; beneath the surface of
the ground they are salutary operations. In this case the food of plants is prepared
where it can be used ; and that which would offend the senses and injure the health, if
exposed, is converted by gradual processes into forms of beauty and of usefulness ; the
foetid gas is rendered a constituent of the aroma of the flower, and what might be poison
becomes nourishment to animals and to man.
1 162. To preserve dung for any time, the situation in which it is kept is of importance.
It should, if possible, be defended from the sun. To preserve it under sheds would be
of great use ; or to make the site of a dunghill on the north side of a wall. The floor
on which the dung is heaped, should, if possible, be paved with flat stones ; and there
should be a little inclination from each side towards the centre, in which there should be
drains connected with a small well, furnished with a pump, by which any fluid matter
may be collected for the use of the land. It too often happens that a dense mucilaginous
and extractive fluid is suffered to drain away from the dunghill, so as to be entirely lost
to the farm.
Sect. II. Of Manures of Mineral Origin.
1 163. Earthy and saline manures are probably of more recent invention, and doubtless
of more uncertain use than those of animal and vegetable origin. The conversion of
matter that has belonged to living structures into organised forms, is a process that can
be easily understood ; but it is more difficult to follow those operations by which earthy
and saline matters are consolidated in the fibre of plants, and by which they are made
subservient to their functions. These are capable of being materially elucidated by
modern chemistry, and shall here be considered as to the theory of their operation, and
specific kinds.
Subsect. 1. T/ieory of the Operation of Mineral Manures.
1 1 64. Saline and calcareous substances form the principal fossil manures. Much has
been written on lime and common salt, both in the way of speculation and reasoning
from facts, which, from want of chemical knowledge, has turned to no useful account, and
cultivators till very lately contented themselves with stating that these substances acted as
stimuli to the soil, something like condiments to the digestive organs of animals. Even
chemists themselves are not yet unanimous in all their opinions ; but still the result of
their enquiries will be found of great benefit to the scientific cultivator.
1 1 65. Various opinions exist as to the rationale of the operation of mineral manures.
" Some enquirers," Sir H. Davy observes, " adopting that sublime generalisation of
the ancient philosophers, that matter is the same in essence, and that the different sub-
stances, considered as elements by chemists, are merely different arrangements of the .
same indestructible particles, have endeavoured to prove, that all the varieties of the prin-
ciples found in plants, may be formed from the substances in the atmosphere ; and that
vegetable life is a process in which bodies that the analytical philosopher is unable to
change or to form, are constantly composed and decomposed. But the general results
of experiments are very much opposed to the idea of the composition of the earths, by
plants, from any of the elements found in the atmosphere, or in water ; and there are
various facts contradictory to the idea. Jacquin states, that the ashes of glass-wort (Sal-
R 2
244 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
sola soda), when it grows in inland situations, afford the vegetable alkali ; when it grows
on the sea-shore, where compounds which afford the fossil or marine alkali are more
abundant, it yields that substance. Du Hamel found that plants which usually grow
on the sea-shore, made small progress when planted in soils containing little common
salt. The sun-flower, when growing in lands containing no nitre, does not afford that
substance ; though when watered by a solution of nitre, it yields nitre abundantly. The
tables of De Saussure show that the ashes of plants are similar in constitution to the soils
in which they have vegetated. De Saussure made plants grow in solutions of different
salts; and he ascertained that, in all cases, certain portions of the salts were absorbed by
the plants, and found unaltered in their organs. Even animals do not appear to possess
the powec of forming the alkaline and earthy substances. Dr. Fordyce found, that when
canarv-birds, at the time they were laying eggs, were deprived of access to carbonate of
lime, their eggs had soft shells ; and if there is any process for which nature may be con-
ceived most likely to supply resources of this kind, it is that connected with the repro-
duction of the species.
1 166. It seems a fair conclusion, as the evidence on the subject now stands, that the dif-
ferent earths and saline substances found in the organs of plants, are supplied by the soils
in which they grow ; and in no cases composed by new arrangements of the elements in
air or water. What may be our ultimate view of the laws of chemistry, or how far our
ideas of elementary principles may be simplified, it is impossible to say. We can only
reason from facts. We cannot imitate the powers of composition belonging to vegetable
structures ; but at least we can understand them : and as far as our researches have
gone, it appearsthat in vegetation compound forms are uniformly produced from simple
ones ; and the elements in the soil, the atmosphere and the earth absorbed and made parts
of beautiful and diversified structures. The views which have been just developed lead to
correct ideas of the operation of those manures which are not necessarily the result of de-
cayed organised bodies, and which are not composed of different proportions of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and azote. — They must produce their effect, either by becoming a
constituent part of the plant, or by acting upon its more essential food, so as to render it
more fitted for the purposes of vegetable life.
Subsect. 2. Of the different Species of Mineral Manures.
1167. Alkaline earths, or alkalies and their combinations, which are found unmixed with
the remains of any organised beings, are the only substances which can with propriety be
called fossil manures. The only alkaline earths which have been hitherto applied in this
way are lime and magnesia ; though potassa and soda, the two fixed alkalies, are both used
to a limited extent in certain of their chemical compounds.
1 168. The most common form in which lime is found on the surface of the earth, is in a
state of combination with carbonic acid or fixed air. If a piece of limestone or chalk
be thrown into a fluid acid, there will be an effervescence. This is owing to the escape
of the carbonic acid gas. The lime becomes dissolved in the liquor. When limestone
is strongly heated, the carbonic acid gas is expelled, and then nothing remains but the
pure alkaline earth ; in this case there is a loss of weight ; and if the fire has been very
high, it approaches to one half the weight of the stone ; but in common cases, limestones,
if well dried before burning, do not lose much more than 35 to 40 per cent., or from
seven to eight parts out of twenty.
1 1 69. Wlxen burnt lime is exposed to the atmosphere, in a certain time it becomes mild,
and is the same substance as that precipitated from lime-water ; it is combined with car-
bonic acid gas. Quick-lime, when first made, is caustic and burning to the tongue,
renders vegetable blues green, and is soluble in water ; but when combined with carbonic
acid, it loses all these properties, its solubility, and its taste : it regains its power of effer-
vescing, and becomes the same chemical substance as chalk or limestone. Very few
limestones or chalks consist entirely of lime and carbonic acid. The statuary marbles,
or certain of the rhomboidal spars, are almost the only pure species ; and the different
properties of limestones, both as manures and cements, depend upon the nature of the in-
gredient mixed in the limestone ; for the true calcareous element, the carbonate of lime,
is uniformly the same in nature, properties, and effects, and consists of one proportion of
carbonic acid 41 -4, and one of lime 55. When a limestone does not copiously effer-
vesce in acids, and is sufficiently hard to scratch glass, it contains siliceous, and probably
aluminous earth. When it is deep brown or red, or strongly colored, of any of the shades
of brown or yellow, it contains oxide of iron. When it is not sufficiently hard to scratch
o-lass, but effervesces slowly, and makes the acid in which it effervesces milky, it contains
magnesia. And when it is black, and emits a fetid smell if rubbed, it contains coaly or
bituminous matter. Before any opinion can be formed of the manner in which the
different ingredients in limestones modify their properties, it will be necessary to con-
sider the operation of pure lime as a manure.
Book II. SPECIES OF MINERAL MANURES. 245
1 1 70. Quick-lime, in its jmre state, whether in powder, or dissolved in water, is injurious
to plants. In several instances grass has been killed by watering it with lime-water.
But lime, in its state of combination with carbonic acid, is a useful ingredient in soils.
Calcareous earth is found in the ashes of the greater number of plants ; and exposed
to the air, lime cannot long continue caustic, for the reasons that were just now
assigned, but soon becomes united to carbonic acid. When newly-burnt lime is exposed
to air, it soon falls into powder ; in this case it is called slacked lime ; and the same effect
is immediately produced by tin-owing water upon it, when it heats violently, and the
water disappears. Slacked lime is merely a combination of lime, with about one third
of its weight of water ; i. e. fifty-five parts of lime absorb seventeen parts of water ; and
in this case it is composed of a definite proportion of water, and is called by chemists
hydrate of lime ; and when hydrate of lime becomes carbonate of lime by long exposure
to air, the water is expelled, and the carbonic acid gas takes its place. When lime,
whether freshly burnt or slacked, is mixed with any moist fibrous vegetable matter, there
is a strong action between the lime and the vegetable matter, and they form a kind of
compost together, of which a part is usually soluble in water. By this kind of operation,
lime renders matter winch was before comparatively inert, nutritive ; and as charcoal
and oxygen abound in all vegetable matters, it becomes at the same time converted into
carbonate of lime.
1171. Mild lime, powdered limestone, marls, or chalks have no action of this kind
upon vegetable matter ; they prevent the too rapid decomposition of substances
already dissolved ; but they have no tendency to form soluble matters. It is obvious
from these circumstances, that the operation of quick-lime, and marl, or chalk, depends
upon principles altogether different. Quick-lime, in being applied to land, tends to
bring any hard vegetable matter that it contains into a state of more rapid decomposition
and solution, so as to render it a proper food for plants. Chalk and marl, or carbonate
of lime, will only improve the texture of the soil, or its relation to absorption ; it acts
merely as one of its earthy ingredients. Chalk has been recommended as a substance
calculated to correct the sourness of land. It would surely have been a wise practice to
have previously ascertained the certainty of this existence of acid, and to have determined
its nature, in order that it might be effectually removed. The fact really is, that no soil
was ever yet found to contain any notable quantity of uncombined acid. The acetic and
carbonic acids are the only two that are likely to be generated by any spontaneous de-
composition of animal or vegetable bodies, and neither of these has any fixity when ex-
posed to the air. Chalk having no power of acting on animal and vegetable substances,
can be no otherwise serviceable to land than as it alters its texture. Quick-lime, when
it becomes mild, operates in the same manner as chalk ; but in the act of becoming mild,
it prepares soluble out of insoluble matter. Boullion la Grange says, that gelatine
oxygenised becomes insoluble, and vegetable extract we know becomes so from the same
cause ; now lime has the property of attracting oxygen, and, consequently, of restoring
the property of solubility to those substances which have been deprived of it, from a
combination with oxygen. Hence the uses of lime on peat lands, and on all soils con-
taining an excess of vegetable insoluble matter. (Grisenthwaite.)
1 172. Effect of lime on wheat crops. When lime is employed upon land where there is
present any quantity of animal matter, it occasions the evolution of a quantity of ammonia,
which may, perhaps, be imbibed by the leaves of plants, and afterwards undergo some
change so as to form gluten. It is upon this circumstance that the operation of lime in
the preparation for wheat crops depends; and its efficacy in fertilising peat, and in bring-
ing into a state of cultivation all soils abounding in hard roots, or dry fibres, or inert
vegetable matter.
1 1 73. General principles for applying lime. The solution of the question whether quick-
lime ought to be applied to a soil, depends upon the quantity of inert vegetable matter
that it contains. The solution of the question, whether, marl, mild lime, or powdered
limestone ought to be applied, depends upon the quantity of calcareous matter already in
the soil. All soils are improved by mild lime, and ultimately by quick-lime, which do not
effervesce with acids ; and sands more than clays. When a soil, deficient in calcareous
matter, contains much soluble vegetable manure, the application of quick-lime should
always be avoided, as it either tends to decompose the soluble matters by uniting to their
carbon and oxygen so as to become mild lime, or it combines with the soluble matters,
and forms compounds having less attraction for water than the pure vegetable substance.
The case is the same with respect to most animal manures ; but the operation of the lime
is different in different cases, and depends upon the nature of the animal matter. Lime
forms a kind of insoluble soap with oily matters, and then gradually decomposes them by
separating from them oxygen and carbon. It combines likewise with the animal acids,
and probably assists their decomposition by abstracting carbonaceous matter from them
combined with oxygen ; and consequently it must render them less nutritive. It tends
to diminish likewise the nutritive powers of albumen from the same causes; and alwavs
R 3
246 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
de3troys, to a certain extent, the efficacy of animal manures ; either by combining with
certain of their elements, or by giving to them new arrangements. Lime should never
be applied with animal manures, unless they are too rich, or for the purpose of preventing
noxious effluvia. It is injurious when mixed with any common dung, and tends to
render the extractive matter insoluble.
1 174. Lime jrromotes fermentation. In those cases in which fermentation is useful to
produce nutriment from vegetable substances, lime is always efficacious. Some moist
tanners' spent bark was mixed with one fifth of its weight of quick-lime, and suffered to
remain together in a close vessel for three months ; the lime had become colored, and
was effervescent : when water was boiled upon the mixture, it gained a tint of fawn-color,
and by evaporation furnished a fawn-colored powder, which must have consisted of
lime united to vegetable matter, for it burnt when strongly heated, and left a residuum
of mild lime.
1175. Different kinds of limestones have different effects. The limestones containing
alumina and silica are less fitted for the purposes of manure than pure limestones ; but
the lime formed from them has no noxious quality. Such stones are less efficacious,
merely because they furnish a smaller quantity of quick-lime. There is very seldom
any considerable portion of coaly matter in bituminous limestones ; never as much as
five parts in 100 ; but such limestones make very good lime. The carbonaceous matter
can do no injury to the land, and may, under certain circumstances, become a food of the
plant.
1176. The subject of the application of the magnesian limestone is one of great interest.
It had been long known to farmers in the neighbourhood of Doncaster, that lime made
from a certain limestone applied to the land, often injured the crops considerably.
Tennant, in making a series of experiments upon this peculiar calcareous substance,
found that it contained magnesia ; and on mixing some calcined magnesia with soil, in
which he sowed different seeds, he found that they either died or vegetated in a very
imperfect manner, and the plants were never healthy. And with great justice and
ingenuity he referred the bad effects of the peculiar limestone to the magnesian earth it
contains.
1177. Magnesian limestone is nsed ivith good effect in some cases. Magnesia has a
much weaker attraction for carbonic acid than lime, and will remain in the state of caus-
tic or calcined magnesia for many months, though exposed to the air. And as long as
any caustic lime remains, the magnesia cannot be combined with carbonic acid, for lime
instantly attracts carbonic acid from magnesia. When a magnesian limestone is burnt,
the magnesia is deprived of carbonic acid much sooner than the lime ; and if there is not
much vegetable or animal matter in the soil to supply by its decomposition carbonic acid,
the magnesia will remain for a long while in the caustic state ; and in this state acts as a
poison to certain vegetables. And that more magnesian lime may be used upon rich
soils, seems to be owino-to the circumstance that the decomposition of the manure in them
supplies carbonic acid. And magnesia, in its mild state, i. e. fully combined with car-
bonic acid, seems to be always a useful constituent of soils. Carbonate of magnesia
(procured by boiling the solution of magnesia in supercarbonate of potassa,) was thrown
upon grass, and upon growing wheat and barley, so as to render the surface white ; but
the vegetation was not injured in the slightest degree. And one of the most fertile parts
of Cornwall, the Lizard, is a district in which the soil contains mild magnesian earth.
It is obvious, from what has been said, that lime from the magnesian limestone may
be applied in large quantities to peats ; and that where lands have been injured by
the application of too large a quantity of magnesian lime, peat will be a proper and
efficient remedy.
1 178. A simple test of magnesia in a limestone is its slight effervescence with acids, and
its rendering diluted nitric acid, or aqua fortis, milky. From the analysis of Tennant, it
appears to contain from 20*3 to 22-5 magnesia; 29*5 to 31*7 lime ; 47 -2 carbonic acid ;
0-8 clay and oxide of iron. Magnesia limestones are usually colored brown or pale yel-
low. They are found in Somersetshire, Leicestershire, Derbyshire, Shropshire, Durham,
and Yorkshire ; and in many parts of Ireland, particularly near Belfast. In general,
when limestones are not magnesian, their purity will be indicated by their loss of weight
in burning ; the more they lose, the larger is the quantity of calcareous matter they con-
tain. The magnesian limestones contain mere carbonic acid than the common lime-
stones ; and I have found all of them lose more than half their weight by calcination.
1179. Gypsum. Besides being used in the forms of lime and carbonate of lime, cal-
careous matter is applied for the purposes of agriculture in other combinations. One of
these bodies is gypsum or sulphate of lime. This substance consists of sulphuric acid
(the same body that exists combined with water in oil of vitriol,) and lime ; and when dry
it is composed of 55 parts of lime and 15 parts of sulphuric acid. Common gypsum or
selenite, such as that found at Shotover Hill, near Oxford, contains, besides sulphuric
acid and lime, a considerable quantity of water; and its composition may be thus
Book II. SPECIES OF MINERAL MANURES. 247
expressed : sulphuric acid one proportion 75 ; lime one proportion 55 ; water two pro-
portions 34.
1 180. Tlie nature ofgyjysum is easily demonstrated ; if oil of vitriol be added to quick-
lime, there is a violent heat produced ; when the mixture is ignited, water is given off,
and gypsum alone is the result, if the acid has been used in sufficient quantity ; and gyp-
sum mixed with quick-lime, if the quantity has been deficient. Gypsum, free from
water, is sometimes found in nature, when it is called anhydrous selenite. It is distin-
guished from common gypsum by giving off no water when heated. When gypsum, free
from water, or deprived of water by heat, is made into a paste with water, it rapidly sets
by combining with that fluid. Plaster of Paris is powdered dry gypsum, and its property
as a cement, and its use in making casts, depends upon its solidifying a certain quantity
of water, and making with it a coherent mass. Gypsum is soluble in about 500 times its
weight of cold water, and is more soluble in hot water ; so that when water has been
boiled in contact with gypsum, crystals of this substance are deposited as the water cools.
Gypsum is easily distinguished by its properties of affording precipitates to solutions of
oxalates and of barytic salts. In America it is employed with signal success ; it has been
advantageously used in Kent, but in most counties of England it has failed, though tried
in various ways, and upon different crops.
1181. Very discordant notions have been formed as to the mode of operation of gypsu?n.
It has been supposed by some persons to act by its power of attracting moisture from the
air ; but this agency must be comparatively insignificant. When combined with water,
it retains that fluid too powerfully to yield it to the roots of the plant, and its adhesive at-
traction for moisture is inconsiderable ; the small quantity in which it is used likewise is
a circumstance hostile to this idea. It has been erroneously said that gypsum assists the
putrefaction of animal substances, and the decomposition of manure.
1 1 82. The ashes of sainfoin, clover, and rye-grass, afford considerable quantities of gypsum ;
and the substance probably is intimately combined as a necessary part of their woody
fibre. If this be allowed, it is easy to explain the reason why it operates in such small
quantities ; for the whole of a clover crop, or saintfoin crop, on an acre, according to esti-
mation, would afford by incineration only three or four bushels of gypsum. The reason
why gypsum is not generally efficacious, is probably because most cultivated soils contain
it in sufficient quantities for the use of the grasses. In the common course of cultivation,
gypsum is furnished in the manure ; for it is contained in stable dung, and in the dung
of all cattle fed on grass ; and it is not taken up in corn crops, or crops of peas and beans,
and in very small quantities in turnip crops ; but where lands are exclusively devoted to
pasturage and hay, it will be continually consumed. Should these statements be con-
firmed by future enquiries, a practical inference of some value may be derived from them.
It is possible that lands which have ceased to bear good crops of clover, or artificial grasses,
may be restored by being manured with gypsum. This substance is found in Oxford-
shire, Glocestersbire, Somersetshire, Derbyshire, Yorkshire, &c. and requires only pul-
verisation for its preparation.
1183. Upon the use of sulphate of iron, or green vitriol, which is a salt produced from peat
in Bedfordshire, some very interesting documents have been produced by Dr. Pearson ;
and there is little doubt that the peat salt and the vitriolic water acted chiefly by pro-
ducing gypsum. The soils on which both are efficacious are calcareous ; and sulphate
of iron is decomposed by the carbonate of lime in such soils. The sulphate of iron con-
sists of sulphuric acid and oxide of iron, and is an acid and a very soluble salt ; when
a solution of it is mixed with carbonate of lime, the sulphuric acid quits the oxide of
iron to unite to the lime, and the compounds produced are insipid and comparatively
insoluble.
1 184. Vitriolic imjrregnations in soils where there is no calcareous matter are injurious ;
but it is probably in consequence of their supplying an excess of ferruginous matter to
the sap. Oxide of iron, in small quantities, forms a useful part of soils ; it is found
in the ashes of plants, and probably is hurtful only in its acid combinations. The ashes
of all peats do not afford gypsum. In general, when a recent peat-ash emits a strong
smell, resembling that of rotten eggs, when acted upon by vinegar, it will furnish
gypsum.
1 1 85. Phosphate of lime is a combination of phosphoric acid and lime, one proportion of
each. It is a compound insoluble in pure water, but soluble in water containing any acid
matter. It forms the greatest part of calcined bones. It exists in most excrementitious
substances, and is found both in the straw and grain of wheat, barley, oats, and rye, and
likewise in beans, peas, and tares. It exists in some places in these islands native, but
only in very small quantities. Phosphate of lime is generally conveyed to the land in
the composition of other manure, and it is probably necessary to corn crops and other
white crops.
1 1 86. Bone-ashes calcined and ground to powder will probably be found useful on arable
lands containing much vegetable matter, and may perhaps enable soft peats to produce
R 4
248 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
wheat ; but the powdered bone in an uncalcined state is much to be preferred in all cases
when it can be procured.
1187. The saline comjwunds of magnesia will require very little discussion as to their uses
as manures. In combination with sulphuric acid, magnesia forms a soluble salt. This
substance, it is stated by some enquirers, has been found of use' as a manure ; but it is not
found in nature in sufficient abundance, nor is it capable of being made artificially suffi-
ciently cheap to be of useful application in the common course of husbandry.
1 188. Wood-ashes consist principally of the vegetable alkali united to carbonic acid ; and
as this alkali is found in almost all plants, it is not difficult to conceive that it may form
an essential part of their organs. The general tendency of the alkalies is to give solu-
bility to vegetable matters ; and in this way they may render carbonaceous and other
substances capable of being taken up by the tubes in the radical fibres of plants. The
vegetable alkali likewise has a strong attraction for water, and even in small quantities,
may tend to give a due degree of moisture to the soil, or to other manures ; though this
operation, from the small quantities used or existing in the soil, can be only of a second-
ary kind.
1 189. The mineral alkali or soda is found in the ashes of sea-weed, and may be procured
by certain chemical agencies from common salt. Common salt consists of the metal
named sodium, combined with chlorine ; and pure soda consists of the same metal united
to oxygen. "When water is present, which can afford oxvgen to the sodium, soda may be
obtained in several modes from salt. The same reasoning will apply to the operation of
the pure mineral alkali, or the carbonated alkali, as to that of the vegetable alkali ; and
when common salt acts as a manure, it is probably by entering into the composition of
the plant in the same manner as gypsum, phosphate of lime, and the alkalies. Sir John
Pringle has stated, that salt in small quantities assists the decomposition of animal and
vegetable matter. This circumstance may render it useful in certain soils. Common
salt, likewise, is offensive to insects. In small quantities it is sometimes a useful
manure, and it is probable that its efficacy depends upon many combined causes. Some
persons have argued against the employment of salt ; because when used in large quan-
tities, it either does no good, or renders the ground sterile ; but this is a very unfair mode
of reasoning. That salt in large quantities rendered land barren, was known long before
any records of agricultural science existed. We read in the Scriptures, that Abimelech
took the city of Shechem, "and beat down the city, and sowed it with salt ;" that the soil
might be for ever unfruitful. Virgil reprobates a salt soil ; and Pliny, though he recom-
mends giving salt to cattle, yet affirms, that when strewed over land it renders it barren.
But these are not arguments against a proper application of it. Refuse salt in Cornwall,
which, however, likewise contains some of the oil and exuvias of fish, has long been known
as an admirable manure. And the Cheshire farmers contend for the benefit of the peculiar
produce of their county. It is not unlikely, that the same causes influence the effects of
salt, as those which act in modifying the operation of gypsum. Most lands in this island,
particularly those near the sea, probably contain a sufficient quantity of salt for all the
purposes of vegetation ; and in such cases the supply of it to the soil will not only be
useless, but may be injurious. In great storms the spray of the sea has been carried more
than fifty miles from the shore ; so that from this source salt must be often supplied to the
soil. Salt is found in almost all sandstone rocks, and it must exist in the soil derived
from these rocks. It is a constituent likewise of almost every kind of animal and ve-
getable manure.
1190. Other compounds. Besides these compounds of the alkaline earths and alkalies,
many others have been recommended for the purposes of increasing vegetation ; such
are nitre, or the nitrous acid combined with potassa. Sir Kenelm Digby states, that he
nade barley grow very luxuriantly by watering it with a very weak solution of nitre ; but
he is too speculative a writer to awaken confidence in his results. This substance consists
of one proportion of azote, six of oxygen, and one of potassium ; and it is not unlikely
that it may furnish azote to form albumen or gluten in those plants that contain them ;
but the nitrous salts are too valuable for other purposes to be used as manures. Dr. Home
states, that sulphate of potassa, which was just now mentioned as found in the ashes of some
peats, is a useful manure. But Naismith (Elements of Agriculture, p. 78.) questions his
results ; and quotes experiments hostile to his opinion, and, as he conceives, unfavorable
to the efficacy of any species of saline manure. Much of the discordance of the evidence
relating to the efficacy of saline substances depends upon the circumstance of their having
been used in different proportions, and, in general, in quantities much too large.
1191. Solutions of saline substances were used twice a week, in the quantity of two
ounces, on spots of grass and corn, sufficiently remote from each other to prevent any in-
terference of results. The substances tried were super-carbonate, sulphate, acetate, nitrate,
and muriate of potassa ; sulphate of soda ; sulphate, nitrate, muriate, and carbonate of am-
monia. It was found, that in all cases when the quantity of the salt equalled one thirtieth
Book II. HEAT AND LIGHT. 249
part of the weight of the water, the effects were injurious ; but least so in the instances of
the carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of ammonia. When the quantities of the salts were
one three-hundredth part of the solution, the effects were different. The plants watered
with the solutions of the sulphates grew just in the same manner as similar plants watered
with rain-water. Those acted on by the solution of nitre, acetate, and super-carbonate
of potassa, and muriate of ammonia, grew rather better. Those treated with the solution
of carbonate of ammonia grew most luxuriantly of all. This last result is what might be
expected, for carbonate of ammonia consists of carbon, hydrogen, azote, and oxygen.
There was, however, another result which was not anticipated ; the plants watered with
solution of nitrate of ammonia did not grow better than those watered with rain-water.
The sol ution reddened litmus paper ; and probably the free acid exerted a prejudicial effect,
and interfered with the result.
1 1 92. Soot doubtless owes part of its efficacy to the ammoniacal salts it contains. The
liquor produced by the distillation of coal contains carbonate and acetate of ammonia, and
is said to be a very good manure.
1 193. Soapers' ivaste has been recommended as a manure, and it has been supposed that
its efficacy depended upon the different saline matters it contains ; but their quantity is
very minute indeed, and its principal ingredients are mild lime and quick-lime. In the
soapers' waste, from the best manufactories, there is scarcely a trace of alkali. Lime,
moistened with sea- water, affords more of this substance, and is said to have been used in
some cases with more benefit than common lime.
1 1 94. The result of Sir H. Davys discussion as to the extent of the effects of saline sub-
stances on vegetation, is, that except the ammoniacal compounds, or the compounds con-
taining nitric, acetic, and carbonic acid, none of them can afford by their decomposition
any of the common principles of vegetation — carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The alkaline
sulphates and the earthy muriates are so seldom found in plants, or are found in such mi-
nute quantities, that it can never be an object to apply them to the soil. The earthy and
alkaline substances seem never to be formed in vegetation ; and there is every reason to
believe, that they are never decomposed ; for, after being absorbed, they are found in their
ashes. The metallic bases of them cannot exist in contact with aqueous fluids ; and
these metallic bases, like other metals, have not as yet been resolved into any other forms
of matter by artificial processes ; they combine readily with other elements ; but they re-
main indestructible, and can be traced undiminished in quantity, through their diversi-
fied combinations.
Chap. III.
Of the Agency of Heat, Light, Electricity, and Water, in Vegetable Culture.
1 1 95. The particular agency of heat, light, and water in vegetation and culture has
been so frequently illustrated, that it only remains to give a general idea of their natures,
and to offer some remarks on electricity.
Sect. I. Of Heat and Light.
1196. The heat of the sun is the cause of growth, and its light the cause of maturity, in the
vegetable kingdom. This is universally acknowledged : animals will live without or with
very little light ; but no plants whatever can exist for any time without the presence of
this element. The agency of electricity in vegetation is less known.
1197. Two opinions are current respecting the nature of heat. By some philosophers it
is conceived to be a peculiar subtile fluid, of which the particles repel each other, but have
a strong attraction for the particles of other matter. By others it is considered as a mo-
tion or vibration of the particles of matter, which is supposed to differ in velocity in dif-
ferent cases, and thus to produce the different degrees of temperature. Whatever deci-
sion be ultimately made respecting these opinions, it is certain that there is matter moving
in the space between us and the heavenly bodies capable of communicating heat ; the mo-
tions of which are rectilineal : thus the solar rays produce heat in acting on the surface of
the earth. The beautiful experiments of Dr. Herschel have shown that there are rays
transmitted from the sun which do not illuminate, and which yet produce more heat than
the visible rays ; and Ritter and Dr. Wollaston have shown that there are other invisible
rays distinguished by their chemical effects.
1198. Heat is radiated by the sun to the earth, and if suffered to accumulate, Dr. Wells
observes, would quickly destroy the present constitution of our globe. This evil is pre-
vented by the radiation of heat from the earth to the heavens, during the night, when it re-
ceives from them little or no heat in return. But, through the wise economy of means,
which is witnessed in all the operations of nature, the prevention of this evil is made the
source of great positive good. For the surface of the earth, having thus become colder
250
SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
than the neighbouring air, condenses a part of the watery vapor of the atmosphere into
dew, the utility of which is too manifest to require elucidation. This fluid appears chiefly
where it is most wanted, on herbage and low plants, avoiding, in great measure, rocks,
bare earth, and considerable masses of water. Its production, too, tends to prevent the
injury that might arise from its own cause ; since the precipitation of water, upon the
tender parts of plants, must lessen the cold in them, which occasions it. The prevention,
either wholly or in part, of cold, from radiation, in substances on the ground, by the in-
terposition of any solid body between them and the sky, arises in the following manner :
the lower body radiates its heat upwards, as if no other intervened between it and the
sky ; but the loss, which it hence suffers, is more or less compensated by what is radiated
to it, from the body above, the under surface of which possesses always the same, or very
nearly the same temperature as the air. The manner in which clouds prevent, or occa-
sion to be small, the appearance of a cold at night, upon the surface of the earth, is by
radiating heat to the earth, in return for that which they intercept in its progress from
the earth towards the heavens. For although, upon the sky becoming suddenly cloudy
during a calm night, a naked thermometer, suspended in the air, commonly rises 2 or 3
decrees : little of this rise is to be attributed to the heat evolved by the condensation of
watery vapor in the atmosphere, for the heat so extricated must soon be dissipated ;
whereas the effect of greatly lessening, or preventing altogether, the appearance of a su-
perior cold on the earth to that of the air, will be produced by a cloudy sky, during the
whole of a long night.
1 1 99. Dense clouds, near the earth, reflect back the heat they receive from it byradiation. But
similarly dense clouds, if very high, though they equally intercept the communication of the
earth with the sky, yet being, from their elevated situation, colder than the earth, will ra-
diate to it less heat than they receive from it, and may, consequently, admit of bodies on
its surface becoming several degrees colder than the air. Islands, and parts of continents
close to the sea, being, by their situation, subject to a cloudy sky, will, from the smaller
quantity of heat lost by them through radiation to the heavens, at night, in addition to
the reasons commonly assigned, be less cold in winter, than countries considerably distant
from any ocean.
1200. Fogs, like clouds, will arrest heat, which is radiated upwards by the earth, and if
they be very dense, and of considerable perpendicular extent, may remit to it as much as
they receive. Fogs do not, in any instance, furnish a real exception to the general rule,
that whatever exists in the atmosphere, capable of stopping or impeding the passage of
radiant heat, will prevent or lessen the appearance at night of a cold on the surface of
the earth, greater than that of the neighbouring air. The water deposited upon the earth,
during a fo°- at night, may sometimes be derived from two different sources, one of which
is a precipitation of moisture from a considerable part of the atmosphere, in consequence
of its general cold ; the other, a real formation of dew, from the condensation, by means
of the superficial cold of the ground, of the moisture of that portion of the air, which
comes in contact with it. In such a state of things, all bodies will become moist, but
those especially which most readily attract dew in clear weather.
1201. When bodies become cold by radiation, the degree of effect observed must depend,
not only on their radiating power, but in part also on the greater or less ease with which
they can derive heat, by conduction, from warmer substances in contact with them.
Bodies, exposed in a clear night to the sky, must radiate as much heat to it during the
prevalence of wind, as they would do if the" air were altogether still. But in the former
case, little or no cold will be observed upon them above that of the atmosphere, as the
frequent application of warm air must quickly return a heat equal, or nearly so, to that
which they had lost by radiation. A slight agitation of the air is sufficient to produce
some effect of this kind; though, as has already been said, such an agitation, when the
air is very pregnant with moisture, will render greater the quantity of dew, one requisite
for a considerable production of this fluid being more increased by it, than another is
diminished.
1202. It has been remarked, that the hurtful effects of cold occur chiefly in hollow places.
If this be restricted to what happens on serene and calm nights, two reasons from
different sources are to be assigned for it. The first is, that the air being stiller in such
a situation, than in any other, the cold, from radiation, in the bodies which it contains,
will be less diminished by renewed applications of warmer air ; the second, that from the
longer continuance of the same air in contact with the ground, in depressed places than
in others, less dew will be deposited, and therefore less heat extricated during its
formation.
1 203. An observation closely connected with the preceding, namely, that in clear and
still nights, frosts are less severe upon hills, tlian in neighbouring jilains, has excited more
attention, chiefly from its contradicting what is commonly regarded an established fact,
that the cold of the atmosphere always increases with the distance from the earth. But
on the contrary the fact is certain, that in very clear and still nights, the air near to the
Boor II. HEAT AND LIGHT. 251
earth is colder than that which is more distant from it, to the height at least of 220 feet,
this being the greatest to which experiments relate. If then a hill be supposed to rise
from a plain to the height of 220 feet, having upon its summit a small flat surface
covered with grass ; and if the atmosphere, during a calm and serene night, be admitted
to be 10° warmer there than it is near the surface of the low grounds, which is a less
difference than what sometimes occurs in such circumstances, it is manifest that, should
both the grass upon the hill, and that upon the plain, acquire a cold of 10° by radiation,
the former will, notwithstanding, be 10° warmer than the latter. Hence also the tops
of trees are sometimes found dry when the grass on the ground's surface has been found
covered with dew.
1204. A very slight covering tvill exclude much cold. I had often, observes Dr. Wells,
in the pride of half knowledge, smiled at the means frequently employed by gardeners,
to protect tender plants from cold, as it appeared to me impossible, that a thin mat, or
any such flimsy substance, could prevent them from attaining the temperature of the
atmosphere, by which alone I thought them liable to be injured. But, when I had
learned, that bodies on the surface of the earth become, during a still and serene night,
colder than the atmosphere, by radiating their heat to the heavens, I perceived
immediately a just reason for the practice, which I had before deemed useless.
Being desirous, however, of acquiring some precise information on this subject, I
fixed, perpendicularly, in the earth of a grass-plot, four small sticks, and over their
upper extremities, which were six inches above the grass, and formed the corners of
a square, the sides of which were two feet long, drew tightly a very thin cambric hand-
kerchief. In this disposition of things, therefore, nothing existed to prevent the free
passage of air from the exposed grass, to that which was sheltered, except the four
small sticks, and there was no substance to radiate heat downwards to the latter grass,
except the cambric handkerchief. The temperature of the grass, which was thus
shielded from the sky, was, upon many nights afterwards examined by me, and was
always found higher than that of neighbouring grass which was uncovered, if this was
colder than the air. When the difference in temperature, between the air several feet
above the ground and the unsheltered grass, did not exceed 5°, the sheltered grass was
about as warm as the air. If that difference, however, exceeded 5°, the air was
found to be somewhat warmer than the sheltered grass. Thus, upon one night, when
fully exposed grass was 11° colder than the air, the latter was 3° warmer than the
sheltered grass ; and the same difference existed on another night, when the air was
14° warmer than the exposed grass. One reason for this difference, no doubt, was
that the air, which passed from the exposed grass, by which it had been very much
cooled, to that under the handkerchief, had deprived the latter of part of its heat;
another, that the handkerchief, from being made colder than the atmosphere by the
radiation of its upper surface to the heavens, would remit somewhat less heat to the
grass beneath, than what it received from that substance. But still, as the sheltered
grass, notwithstanding these drawbacks, was upon one night, as may be collected
from the preceding relation, 8°, and upon another 1 1", warmer than grass fully ex-
posed to the sky, a sufficient reason was now obtained for the utility of a very slight
shelter to plants, in averting or lessening injury from cold, on a still and serene night.
1205. The covering has most effect when placed at a little distance above the plants or objects
to be sheltered. A difference in temperature, of some magnitude, was always observed on
still and serene nights, between bodies sheltered from the sky by substances touching them,
and similar bodies, which were sheltered by a substance a little above them. I found, for
example, upon one night, that the warmth of grass, sheltered by a cambric handkerchief
raised a few inches in the air, was 3° greater than that of a neighbouring piece of grass
which was sheltered by a similar handkerchief actually in contact with it. On another
night, the difference between the temperatures of two portions of grass, shielded in the
same manner, as the two above mentioned, from the influence of the sky, was 4°. Pos-
sibly, continues Dr. Wells, experience has long ago taught gardeners the superior ad-
vantage of defending tender vegetables, from the cold of clear and calm nights, by means
of substances not directly touching them ; though I do not recollect ever having seen
any contrivance for keeping mats, or such like bodies, at a distance from the plants
which they were meant to protect.
1206. Heat produced by ivalls. Walls, Dr. Wells observes, as far as warmth is con-
cerned, are regarded as useful, during a cold night, to the plants which touch them, or
are near to them, only in two ways ; first, by the mechanical shelter which they afford
against cold winds, and secondly, by giving out the heat which they had acquired during
the day. It appearing to me, however, that, on clear and calm nights, those on which plants
frequently receive much injury from cold, walls must be beneficial in a third way,
namely, by preventing, in part, the loss of heat, which the plants would sustain from
radiation, if they were fully exposed to the sky : the following experiment was made for
the purpose of determining the justness of this opinion. A cambric handkerchief having
252 SCIENCE OF GARDENING Part II.
been placed, by means of two upright sticks, perpendicularly to a grass-plot, and at right
angles to the course of the air, a thermometer was laid upon the grass close to the lower
edge of the handkerchief, on its windward side. The thermometer thus situated was
several nights compared with another lying on the same grass-plot, but on a part of it
fully exposed to the sky. On two of these nights, the air being clear and calm, the grass
close to the handkerchief was found to be 4° warmer than the fully exposed grass. On
a third, the difference was 6°. An analogous fact is mentioned by Gersten, who says,
that a horizontal surface is more abundantly dewed, than one which is perpendicular to
the ground.
1207. Heat from a covering of snow. The covering of snow, the same author ob-
serves, which countries in high latitudes enjoy during the winter, has been very
commonly thought to be beneficial to vegetable substances on the surface of the
earth, as far as their temperature is concerned, solely by protecting them from the cold
of the atmosphere. But were this supposition just, the advantage of the covering
would be greatly circumscribed ; since the upper parts of trees and of tall shrubs
are still exposed to the influence of the air. Another reason, however, is furnished
for its usefulness, by what has been said in this essay ; which is, that it prevents the
occurrence of the "cold, which bodies on the earth acquire, in addition to that of
the atmosphere, by the radiation of their heat to the heavens during still and clear
nights. The cause, indeed, of this additional cold, does not constantly operate; but
its presence, during only a few hours, might effectually destroy plants, which now
pass unhurt through the winter. Again, as things are, while low vegetable produc-
tions are prevented, by their covering of snow, from becoming colder than the atmo-
sphere in consequence of their own radiation, the parts of trees and tall shrubs, which
rise above the snow, are little affected by cold from this cause. For their outermost
twio-s, now that they are destitute of leaves, are much smaller than the thermometers
suspended by me in the air, which in this situation very seldom became more than 2°
colder than the atmosphere. The larger branches, too, which, if fully exposed to the sky,
would become colder than the extreme parts, are, in a great degree, sheltered by them ;
and, in the last place, the trunks are sheltered both by the smaller and the larger parts,
not to mention that the trunks must derive heat, by conduction through the roots,
from the earth kept warm by the snow. In a similar way is partly to be explained the
manner, in which a layer of earth or straw preserves vegetable matters in our own
fields, from the injurious effects of cold in winter. (Essay on Dew, &c. 1819.)
1208. The nature of light is totally unknown : the light which proceeds from the sun
seems to be composed of three distinct substances. Scheel discovered that a glass mir-
ror held before the fire reflected the rays of light, but not the rays of caloric ; but when
a metallic mirror was placed in the same situation, both heat and light were reflected.
The mirror of glass became hot in a short time, but no change of temperature took place
on the metallic mirror. This experiment shows that the glass mirror absorbed the rays
of caloric, and reflected those of light ; while the metallic mirror, suffering no change of
temperature, reflected both. And if a plate glass be held before a burning body, the
rays of light are not sensibly interrupted, but the rays of caloric are intercepted ; for no
sensible heat is observed on the opposite side of the glass ; but when the glass has reached
a proper decree of temperature, the rays of caloric are transmitted with the same facility
as those of fight. And thus the rays of light and caloric may be separated. But the
curious experiments of Dr. Herschel have*clearly proved that the invisible rays which
are emitted by the sun, have the greatest heating power. In those experiments,^ the dif-
ferent colored rays were thrown on the bulb of a very delicate thermometer, and their heat-
ing power was observed. The heating power of the violet, green, and red rays were found
to be to each other as the following numbers: violet, 16-0; green, 22-4 ; red, 55*0.
The heating power of the most refrangible rays was least, and this power increases as
the refrangibility diminishes. The red ray, therefore, has the greatest heating power,
and the violet, which is the most refrangible, the least. The illuminating power, it has
been already observed, is greatest in the middle of the spectrum, and it diminishes to-
wards both 'extremities ; but the heating power, which is least at the violet end, increases
from that to the red extremity ; and when the thermometer was placed beyond the limit of
the red ray, it rose still higher than in the red ray, which has the greatest heating power
in the spectrum. The heating power of these invisible rays was greatest at the distance
of half an inch beyond the red ray, but it was sensible at the distance of one inch and a
half.
1209. The influence of the (liferent solar rays on vegetation has not yet been stu-
died ; but it is certain tha't the rays exercise an influence independent of the heat they
produce. Thus plants kept in darkness, but supplied with heat, air, and moisture, grow
for a short time, but they never gain their natural colors ; their leaves are white and
pale, and their juices watery and peculiarly saccharine : according to Knight they merely
Book II. ELECTRICITY. — WATER. 253
expend the sap previously generated under the influence of light. (Notes to Sir II.
Davy's Agr. Chem. p. 402.)
Sect. II. Of Electricity.
1210. Electrical changes are constantly taking place in nature, on the surface of the earth,
and in the atmosphere; but as yet the effects of this power in vegetation have not been cor-
rectly estimated. It has been shown by experiments made by means of the voltaic bat-
tery, that compound bodies in general, are capable of being decomposed by electrical
powers, and it is probable that the various electrical phenomena occurring in our system,
must influence both the germination of seeds and the growth of plants. It has been found
that corn sprouted much more rapidly in water positively electrified by the voltaic instru-
ment, than in water negatively electrified ; and experiments made upon the atmosphere
show that clouds are usually negative ; and, as when a cloud is in one state of electri-
city, the surface of the earth beneath is brought into the opposite state, it is probable that
in common cases the surface of the earth is positive. A similar experiment is related
by Dr. Darwin. (Phytologia, sect. xiii. 2, 3.)
1211. Respecting the nature of electricity different opinions are entertained amongst sci-
entific men ; by some, the phenomena are conceived to depend upon a single subtile fluid
in excess in the bodies said to be positively electrified, and in deficiency in the bodies said
to be negatively electrified. A second class suppose the effects to be produced by two
different fluids, called by them the vitreous fluid and the resinous fluid ; and others
regard them as affections or motions of matter, or an exhibition of attractive powers,
similar to those which produce chemical combination and decomposition ; but usually
exerting their action on masses.
1212. A prof table application of electricity, Dr. Darwin observes, to promote the
growth of plants is not yet discovered ; it is nevertheless probable, that in dry seasons,
the erection of numerous metallic points on the surface of the ground, but a few feet
lu'gh, might, in the night-time, contribute to precipitate the dew by facilitating the
passage of electricity from the air into the earth; and that an erection of such points
higher in the air by means of wires wrapped round tall rods, like angle rods, or elevated
on buildings, might frequently precipitate showers from the higher parts of the atmosphere.
Such points erected in gardens might promote a quicker vegetation of the plants in
their vicinity, by supplying them more abundantly with the electric ether. (Phytologia,
xiii. 4.) J. Williams (Climate of Great Britain, 348.), enlarging on this idea, proposes
to erect large electrical machines, to be driven by wind, over the general face of the
country, for the purpose of improving the climate, and especially for lessening that
superabundant moisture which he contends is yearly increasing from the increased
evaporating surface, produced by the vegetation of improved culture, and especially
from the increase of pastures, hedges, and ornamental plantations.
Sect. III. Of Water.
1213. Water is a compound of oxygens and hydrogene gas, though primarily reckoned a
simple or elementary substance. " If the metal called potassium be exposed in a
glass tube to a small quantity of water, it will act upon it with great violence ; elastic
fluid will be disengaged, which will be found to be hydrogen ; and the same effects will
be produced upon the potassium, as if it had absorbed a small quantity of oxygen ; and
the hydrogen disengaged, and the oxygen added to the potassium, are in weight as 2 to
15 ; and if two in volume of hydrogen, and one in volume of oxygen, which have the
weights of 2 and 15, be introduced into a close vessel, and an electrical spark passed
through them, they will inflame and condense into 17 parts of pure water."
1214. Water is absolutely necessary to the economy of vegetation in its elastic and fluid
state ; and it is not devoid of use even in its solid form. Snow and ice are bad con-
ductors of heat ; and when the ground is covered with snow, or the surface of the soil or
of water is frozen, the roots or bulbs of the plants beneath are protected by the congealed
water from the influence of the atmosphere, the temperature of which, in northern win-
ters, is usually very much below the freezing point ; and this water becomes the first
nourishment of the plant in early spring. The expansion of water during its congelation,
at which time its volume increases one twelfth, and its contraction of bulk during a
thaw, tend to pulverise the soil, to separate its parts from each other, and to make it more
permeable to the influence of the air.
254 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
Chap. IV.
Of the Agency of the Atmosphere in Vegetation.
1215. The aerial medium which envelopes the earth may be studied chemically and phy-
sically ; the first study respects the elements of which the atmosphere is composed ; and
the second their action in a state of combination, and as influenced by various causes,
or those phenomena which constitute the weather.
Sect. I. Of the Elements of the Atmosphere.
1216. Water, carbonic acid gas, oxygen, and azote, are the principal substances composing
the atmosphere ; but more minute enquiries respecting their nature and agencies are
necessary to afford correct views of its uses in vegetation.
1217. That ivater exists in the atmosphere is easily proved. If some of the salt, called
muriate of lime, that has been just heated red, be exposed to the air, even in the driest
and coldest weather, it will increase in weight, and become moist ; and in a certain time
will be converted into a fluid. If put into a retort and heated, it will yield pure water ;
will gradually recover its pristine state ; and, if heated red, its former weight : so that it
is evident that the water united to it was derived from the air. And that it existed in
the air in an invisible and elastic form, is proved by the circumstance, that if a given
quantity of air be exposed to the salt, its volume and weight will diminish, provided the
experiment be correctly made.
1218. The quantity of water which exists in air, as vapor, varies with the temperature. In
proportion as the weather is hotter, the quantity is greater. At 50° of Fahrenheit,
air contains about one 50th of its volume of vapor ; and as the specific gravity of vapor
is to that of air nearly as 10 to 15 ; this is about one 75th of its weight. At 100°, sup-
posing that there is a free communication with water, it contains about one 14th part
in volume, or one 21st in weight. It is the condensation of vapor by diminution of the
temperature of the atmosphere, which is probably the principal cause of the formation of
clouds, and of the deposition of dew, mist, snow, or hail.
1219. The power of different substances to absorb aqueous vapor from the atmosphere by
cohesive attraction has been already referred to. (1058.) The leaves of living plants ap-
pear to act upon this vapor in its elastic form, and to absorb it. Some vegetables
increase in weight from this cause, when suspended in the atmosphere and unconnected
with the soil ; such are the house-leek, and different species of the aloe. In very
intense heats, and when the soil is dry, the life of plants seems to be preserved by the
absorbent power of their leaves ; and it is a beautiful circumstance in the economy
of nature, that aqueous vapor is most abundant in the atmosphere when it is most
needed for the purposes of life ; and that when other sources of its supply are cut off,
this is most copious.
1220. The existence of carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere is proved by the following
process : if a solution of lime and water be exposed to the air, a pellicle will speedily
form upon it, and a solid matter will gradually fall to the bottom of the water, and in a
certain time the water will become tasteless ; this is owing to the combination of the lime
which was dissolved in the water with carbonic acid gas, which existed in the atmosphere,
as may be proved by collecting the film and the solid matter, and igniting them strongly
in a little tube of platina or iron ; they will give out carbonic acid gas, and will become
quick-lime, which, added to the same water, will again bring it to the state of lime-
water.
1221. The quantity of carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere is very small. It is not easy
to determine it with precision, and it must differ in different situations ; but where there
is a free circulation of air, it is probably never more than one 500th, nor less than one 800th
of the volume of air. Carbonic acid gas is nearly one third heavier than the other elastic
parts of the atmosphere in their mixed state ; hence at first view it might be supposed
that it would be most abundant in the lower regions of the atmosphere ; but unless it has
been immediately produced at the surface of the earth in some chemical process, this does
not seem to be the case ; elastic fluids of different specific gravities have a tendency to
equable mixture by a species of attraction, and the different parts of the atmosphere are
constantly agitated and blended together by winds or other causes. De Saussure found
lime-water precipitated on Mount Blanc, the highest point of land in Europe ; and
carbonic acid gas has been always found, apparently in due proportion, in the air brought
down from great heights in the atmosphere by aerostatic adventurers.
1222. The jmncipal consumption of the carbonic acid in the atmosphere seems to be in
affording nourishment to plants ; and some of them appear to be supplied with carbon
chiefly from this source.
1223. The formation of carbonic acid gas takes place during fermentation, combustion,
putrefaction, respiration, and a number of operations taking place upon the surface of the
Book II. OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 255
earth ; and there is no other process known in nature by which it can be destroyed but by
vegetation.
1224. Oxygen and azote are the remaining constituents of the atmosphere. After a given
portion of common air has been deprived of aqueous vapor and carbonic acid o-as, it ap-
pears little altered in its properties ; it remains a compound of oxygen and azote which
supports combustion and animal life. There are many modes of separating these two
gases from each other. A simple one is by burning phosphorus in a confined volume of
air : this absorbs the oxygen and leaves the azote ; and 100 parts in volume of air, in
which phosphorus has been burnt, yield 79 parts of azote ; and by mixing this azote with
21 parts of fresh oxygene gas artificially procured, a substance having the original charac-
ters of air is produced. To procure pure oxygen from air, quicksilver may be kept heated
in it, at about 600°, till it becomes a red powder ; this powder, when ignited, will be
restored to the state of quicksilver by giving off oxygen.
1 225. Oxygen is necessary to some functions of vegetables ; but its great importance in na-
ture is in its relation to the economy of animals. It is absolutely necessary to their life.
Atmospheric air taken into the lungs of animals, or passed in solution in water through
the gills of fishes, loses oxygen ; and for the oxygen lost, about an equal volume of car-
bonic acid appears.
1226. The effects of azote in vegetation are not distinctly known. As it is found in some
of the products of vegetation, it may be absorbed by certain plants from the atmosphere.
It prevents the action of oxygen from being too energetic, and serves as a medium in
which the more essential parts of the air act ; nor is this circumstance unconformable to
the analogy of nature ; for the elements most abundant on the solid surface of the
globe, are not those which are the most essential to the existence of the living beings be-
longing to it.
1227. The action of the atmosphere on plants differs at different periods of their orowtb
and varies with the various stages of the developement and decay of their organs. We have
seen (723.) that if a healthy seed be moistened and exposed to air at a temperature not
below 45°, it soon germinates, and shoots forth a plume, which rises upwards, and a
radicle which descends. If the air be confined, it is found that in the process of germin-
ation the oxygen, or a part of it, is absorbed. The azote remains unaltered ; no carbonic
acid is taken away from the air ; on the contrary, some is added. Seeds are incapable of
germinating, except when oxygen is present. In the exhausted receiver of the air-pump, in
pure azote, or in pure carbonic acid, when moistened they swell, but do not vegetate ; and
if kept in these gases, lose their living powers, and undergo putrefaction. If a seed be
examined before germination, it will be found more or less insipid, at least not sweet ;
but after germination it is always sweet. Its coagulated mucilage, or starch, is converted
into sugar in the process ; a substance difficult of solution is changed into one easily
soluble ; and the sugar carried through the cells or vessels of the cotyledons, is the nou-
rishment of the infant plant. The absorption of oxygen by the seed in germination, has
been compared to its absorption in producing the evolution of foetal life in the egg ; but
this analogy is only remote. All animals, from the most to the least perfect classes, re-
quire a supply of oxygen. From the moment the heart begins to pulsate till it ceases to
beat, the aeration of the blood is constant, and the function of respiration invariable ;
carbonic acid is given off in the process, but the chemical change produced in the blood
is unknown ; nor is there any reason to suppose the formation of any substance similar to
sugar. It is evident, that in all cases of semination, the seeds should be sown so as to be
fully exposed to the influence of the air. And one cause of the unproductiveness of cold
clayey adhesive soils is, that the seed is coated with matter impermeable to air. In sandy
soils the earth is always sufficiently penetrable by the atmosphere ; but in clayey soils
there can scarcely be too great a mechanical division of parts. Any seed not fully sup-
plied with air, always produces a weak and diseased plant. We have already seen (756.)
that carbon is added to plants from the air by the process of vegetation in sunshine ; and
oxygen is added to the atmosphere at the same time.
1228. Those changes in the atmosphere which constitute the most important meteorological
phenomena, may be classed under five distinct heads ; the alterations that occur in the
weight of the atmosphere ; those that take place in its temperature ; the changes produced
in its quantity by evaporation and rain ; the excessive agitation to which it* is frequently
subject ; and the phenomena arising from electric and other causes, that at particular times
occasion or attend the precipitations and agitations alluded to. All the above phenomena
prove to demonstration that constant changes take place, the consequences of new com-
binations and decompositions rapidly following each other.
1229. With respect to the changes in the weight of the atmosphere it is generally known
that the instrument called the barometer shows the weight of a body of air immediately
above it, extending to the extreme boundary of the atmosphere, and the base of which is
equal to that of the mercury contained within it. As the level of the sea is the lowest
256
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
Range of the Barometer.
Latitude.
Places.
Greatest. Annual.
0° 0°
Peru - - -
0 20
22 23
Calcutta - -
0 77
53 55
Cape Town -
0 89
40 55
Naples - -
1 00
51 8
Dover - - -
2 47
1 80
53 13
Middlevrich -
3 00
1 94
53 23
Liverpool
2 89
1 96
59 56
Petersburgh -
3 45
2 77
point of observation, the column of air over a barometer placed at that level is the longest
to be obtained.
The variations of the barometer between the tropics are very trifling, and it does not descend more than
half as much in that part of the globe for every two hundred feet of elevation as it does beyond the tropics.
The range cf the barometer increases gradually as the latitude advances towards the poles, till in the end
it amounts to two or three inches. The following Table will explain this gradual increase :
The range of the barometer is considerably less in
North America than in the corresponding latitudes of
Europe, particularly in Virginia, where it never ex-
ceeds 1*1 The range is more considerable at the level
of the sea than on mountains ; and in the same degree
of latitude it is in the inverse ratio of the height of the
place above the level of the sea. Cotte composed a
table, which has been published in the Journal de Phy-
sique, from which it appears extremely probable, that the
barometer has an invariable tendency to rise between
the morning and the evening, and that this impulse
is most considerable from two in the afternoon till nine
at night, when the greatest elevation is accomplished ;
but the elevation at nine differs from that at two by
four twelfths, while that of two varies from the elevation of the morning only by one twelfth, and that in
particular climates the greatest elevation is at two o'clock. The observations of Cotte confirm those of
Luke Howard ; and from them it is concluded, that the barometer is influenced by some depressing
cause at new and full moon, and that some other makes it rise at the quarters. This coincidence is most
considerable in fair and calm weather ; the depression in the interval between the quarters and conjunc-
tions amounts to one tenth of an inch, and the rise from the conjunctions to the quarters is to the same
amount. The range of this instrument is found to be greater in winter than in summer ; for instance, the
mean at York, during the months from October to March inclusive, in the year 1774, was 1*42, and in the
six summer months 1*016.
The more serene and settled the weather, the higher the barometer ranges j calm weather, with a tendency
to rain, depresses it • high winds have a similar effect on it ; and the greatest elevation occurs with easterly
and northerly winds ; but the south produces a directly contrary effect.
12S0. The variations in the temperature of the air in any particular place, exclusive of
the differences of seasons and climates, are very considerable. These changes cannot be
produced by heat derived from the sun, as its rays concentrated have no kind of effect on
air; those, however, heat the surface of our globe, which is communicated to the immediate
atmosphere ; it is through this fact that the temperature is highest where the place is so
situated as to receive with most effect the rays of the sun, and that it varies in each region
with the season ; it is also the cause why it decreases in proportion to the height of the
air above the surface of the earth. The most perpendicular rays' falling on the globe at
the equator, there the heat of it is the greatest, and that heat decreases gradually to the
poles, of course the temperature of the air is in exact unison ; from this, it appears, that
the air acquires the greatest degree of warmth over the equator, where it becomes insensi-
bly cooler till we arrive at the poles ; in the same manner, the air immediately above
the equator cools gradually. Though the temperature sinks as it approaches the pole,
and is highest at the equator, yet as it varies continually with the seasons, it is impossible
to form an accurate idea of the progression without forming a mean temperature for a
year, from that of the temperature of every degree of latitude for every day of the year,
which may be accomplished by adding together the whole of the observations and dividing
by their number, when the quotient will be the mean temperature for the year. The
" diminution," says Dr. Thomson, " from the pole to the equator takes place in arith-
metical progression ; or to speak more properly, the annual temperature of all the lati-
tudes, are arithmetical means between the mean annual temperature of the equator and
the pole. And as far as heat depends in the action of solar rays, that of each month is as
the mean altitude of the sun, or rather as the sine of the sun's altitude."
1231. Inconsiderable seas, in temperate and cold climates, are colder in winter and
warmer in summer than the main ocean, as they are necessarily under the influence of
natural operations from the land. Thus the Gulf of Bothnia, is generally frozen in
winter, but the water is sometimes heated in the summer to 70°, a state, the opposite part
of the Atlantic never acquires ; the German Sea is five degrees warmer in summer than
the Atlantic, and more than three colder in winter ; the Mediterranean is almost through-
out warmer both in winter and summer, which therefore causes the Atlantic to flow into
it ; and the Black Sea being colder than the Mediterranean, flows into the latter.
The eastern parts of North America, as appears from meteorological tables, have a much colder air than
the opposite European coast, and fall short of the standaid bv about ten or twelve degrees. There are
several causes which produce this considerable difference. The greatest elevation in North America is
between the 40th and 50th degree of north latitude, and the 100th and 110th of longitude west from Lon-
don ; and there the most considerable rivers have their origin. The height alone is sufficient to make this
tract colder than it would otherwise be ; but there are other causes, and those are most extensive forests,
and large swamps and morasses, each of which exclude heat from the earth, and consequently prevent it
from ameliorating the rigor of winter. Manv extensive lakes lie to the east, and Hudson's Bay more to
the north • a chain of mountains extends on the south of the latter, and those equally prevent' the accu-
mulation of heat • besides, this bay is bounded on the east bv the mountainous country of Labrador, and
has many islands ; from all which circumstances arise the lowness of the temperature, and the piercing
cold of the north-west winds. The annual decrease of the forests for the purpose of clearing the ground
Deo.; II. OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 257
and the consumption for building and fuel, is supposed to have occasioned a considerable decrease of cold
in the winter ; and if this should be the result, much will yet be done towards bringing the temperature of
the European and American continents to something like a level.
1232. Continents have a colder atmosphere than islands situated in the same degree of
latitude ; and countries lying to the windward of the superior classes of mountains, or
forests, are wanner than those which are to the leeward. Earth always possessing a cer-
tain degree of moisture, has a greater capacity to receive and retain heat than sand or
stones, the latter therefore are heated and cooled with more rapidity : it is from this cir-
cumstance that the intense heats of Africa and Arabia, and the cold of Terra del Fuego,
are derived. The temperature of growing vegetables changes very gradually ; bu* there
is a considerable evaporation from them : if those exist in great numbers, and congre-
gated, or in forests, their foliage preventing the rays of the sun from reaching the earth, it
is perferiiy natural that the immediate atmosphere must be greatly affected by the ascent
of called vapors.
1233. Our next object is the ascent and descent of water : the principal appearances of
this element are vapor, clouds, dew, rain, frost, hail, snow, and ice.
1234. Vapor is water rarefied by heat, in consequence of which becoming lighter than
the' atmosphere, it is raised considerably above the surface of the earth, and afterwards by
a partial condensation forms clouds. It differs from exhalation, which is properly a dis-
persion of dry particles from a body. When water is heated to 212° it boils, and is ra-
pidly converted into steam ; arid the same change takes place in much lower temper-
atures ; but in that case the evaporation is slower, and the elasticity of the steam is
smaller. As a very considerable proportion of the earth's surface is covered with water,
and as this water is constantly evaporating and mixing with the atmosphere in the state of
vapor, a precise determination of the rate of evaporation must be of very great import-
ance in meteorology. Evaporation is confined entirely to the surface of the water; hence
it is, in all cases, proportional to the surface of the water exposed to the atmosphere.
Much more vapor of course rises in maritime countries or those interspersed with lakes
than in inland countries. Much more vapor rises during hot weather than during
cold : hence the quantity evaporated depends in some measure upon temperature. The
quantity of vapor which rises from water, even when the temperature is the same, varies
according to circumstances. It is least of all in calm weather, greater when a breeze
blows, and greatest of all with a strong wind. From experiments, it appears, that the
quantity of vapor raised annually at Manchester is equal to about 25 inches of rain. If
to this we add five inches for the dew, with Dalton, it will make the annual evapor-
ation 30 inches. Now, if we consider the situation of England, and the greater quantity
of vapor raised from water, it will not surely be considered as too great an allowance,
if we estimate the mean annual evaporation over the whole surface of the globe
at 35 inches.
1235. A cloud is a mass of vapor, more or less opaque, formed and sustained at con-
siderable height in the atmosphere, probably by the joint agencies of heat and electricity.
The first successful attempt to arrange the diversified form of clouds, under a few general
modifications, was made by Luke Howard, Esq. We shall give here a brief account of
his ingenious classification.
1236. The simple modifications are thus named and defined: — 1. Cirrus, parallel,
flexuous, or diverging fibres, extensible in any or in all directions (Jig. 75. a) ; 2. Cumulus,
convex or conical heaps, increasing upwards from a horizontal base (b) ; 3. Stratus,
a widely-extended, continuous, horizontal sheet, increasing from below (c).
1237. The intermediate modifications which require to be noticed are, 4. Cirro-cumulus,
small, well-defined, roundish masses, in close horizontal arrangement (rf) ; 5. Cirro-stratus,
horizontal or slightly inclined masses, attenuated towards a part or the whole of their
circumference, bent downward or undulated, separate or in groups consisting of small
clouds having these characters (e).
1238. The compound modifications are, 6. Cumulo-stratus, or twain cloud ; the cirro-
stratus, blended with the cumulus, and either appearing intermixed with the heaps of the
latter, or superadding a wide-spread structure to its base (J) ; 7. Cumulo-cirro-stratus,
vel Nimbus ; the rain-cloud, a cloud or system of clouds from which rain is falling.
It is a horizontal sheet, above which the cirrus spreads, while the cumulus enters it
laterally and from beneath (g, g) ; S. The Fall Cloud, resting apparently on the surface
of the ground (/?)•
1239. The cirrus appears to have the least density, the greatest elevation, the greatest variety of extent
and direction, and to appear earliest in serene weather, being indicated by a few threads pencilled on the
sky. Before storms they appear lower and denser, and usually in the quarter opposite to that from which
the storm arises. Steady high winds are also preceded and attended by cirrous streaks, running quite across
the sky in the direction they blow in.
1240. The cimiulus has the densest structure, is formed in the lower atmosphere, and moves along with
the current next the earth. A small irregular spot first appears, and is, as it were, the nucleus on which
they increase. The lower surface continues irregularly plane, while the upper rises into conical or hemi-
spherical heaps; which may afterwards continue long nearlv of the samebuik, or rapidly rise into mouu-
S
2 8
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
tains. They will begin, in fair weather, to form some hours after sunrise arrive at their maximum in
the hottest part of the afternoon, then go on diminishing, and totally disperse about sunset. Previous to
rain the cumulus increases rapidly, appears lower in the atmosphere, and with its surface full of loose
fleeces or protuberances. The formation of large cumuli to leeward in a strong wind, indicates the ap-
proach of a calm with rain. When they do not disappear or subside about sunset, but continue to rise,
thunder is to be expected in the night.
1241. The stratus has a mean degree of density, and is the lowest of clouds, its inferior surface commonly
resting on the earth in water. This is properly" the cloud of night, appearing about sunset. It compre-
hends all those creeping mists which in calm weather ascend in spreading sheets (like an inundation of
water) from the bottoms of valleys, and the surfaces of lakes and rivers. On the return of the sun, the
levei surface of this cloud begins to put on the appearance of cumulus, the whole at the same time separat-
ing from the ground. The continuity is next destroyed, and the cloud ascends and evaporates, or passes
oft' with the appearance of the nascent cumulus. This has long been experienced as a prognostic of fair
weather.
1242. Transition of forms. The cirrus having continued for sometime increasing or stationary, usually
passes either to the cirro-cumulus or the cirro-stratus, at the same time descending to a lower station in the
atmosphere. This modification forms a very beautiful sky, and is frequently in summer an attendant on warm
and dry weather. The cirro-stratus, when seen in the distance, frequently gives the idea of shoals of fish.
It precedes wind and rain ; is seen in the intervals of storms ; and sometimes alternates with the cirro-
cumulus in the same cloud, when the different evolutions form a curious spectacle. A judgment may be
formed of the weather likely to ensue by observing which modification prevails at last. The solar and
lunar halos, as well as the parhelion and paraselene (mock sun and mock moon), prognostics of foul wea-
ther, are occasioned by thi* cloud. The cumulo-stratus precedes, and the nimbus accompanies rain.
1243. Dew is the moisture insensibly deposited from the atmosphere on the surface of
Book II. OF THE ATMOSPHERE. • 259
the earth. This moisture is precipitated by the cold of the body on which it appears, and
will be more or less abundant, not in proportion to the coldness of that body, but in pro-
portion to the existing state of the air in regard to moisture. It is commonly supposed
that the formation of dew produces cold, but like every other precipitation of water from
the atmosphere, it must evidently produce heat.
1244. Phenomena of dew. Aristotle justly remarked, that dew appears only on calm and clear nights.
Dr Wells shows, that very little is ever deposited in opposite circumstances ; and that little only when the
clouds are verv high. It is never seen on nights both cloudy and windy ; and if in the course of the night
the weather from being serene, should become dark and stormy, dew which had been deposited will disap-
pear In calm weather, V the sky be partially covered with clouds, more dew will appear than if it were en-
tirely uncovered. Dew probably begins in the country to appear upon grass in places shaded from the sun,
during clear and calm weather, soon after the heat of the atmosphere has declined, and continues to be depo-
sited through the whole night, and for a little after sunrise. Its quantity will depend in some measure on
the proportion of moisture in the atmosphere, and is consequently greater after rain than after a "long tract of
dry weather ; and in Europe, with southerly and westerly winds, than with those which blow from the
north and the east. The direction of the sea determines this relation of the winds to dew. For in Egypt,
Oew is scarcely ever observed except while the northerly or Etesian winds prevail. Hence also, dew is
generally more abundant in spring and autumn, than in summer. And it is always very copious on those
clear nights which are followed bv misty mornings, which show the air to be loaded with moisture. And
a clear morning, following a cloudv night, determines a plentiful deposition of the retained vapor. When
warmth of atmosphere is compatible with clearness, as is the case in southern latitudes, though seldom in
our country, the dew becomes much more copious, because the air then contains more moisture. Dew
continues to form with increased copiousness as the night advances, from the increased refrigeration of
the ground.
1245. Cause of dew. Dew, according to Aristotle, is a species of rain, formed in the lower atmosphere,
in consequence of its moisture being condensed by the cold of the night intominute drops Opinions of
thi
fess
Gai...
a little elevated in the air, often become moist with dew, while similar bodies, lying on the ground, remain
dry, though necessarily, from their position, as liable to be wetted, by whatever falls from the heavens, as
the former. The above notion is perfectly refuted by the fact, that metallic surfaces exposed to the air in
a horizontal position, remain drv, while every thing around them is covered with dew. After a long
period of drought, when the air was very still and the sky serene, Dr. Wells exposed to the sky,
28 minutes before sunset, previously weighed parcels of wool and swandown, upon a smooth, unpaintcd,
and perfectly dry fir table, 5 feet long, 3 broad, and nearly 3 in height, which had been placed an hour
before, in the sunshine, in a large level grass field. The wool, 12 minutes after sunset, was found to be
14° colder than the air, and to have acquired no weight. The swandown, the quantity of which was much
greater than that of the wool, was at the same time 13° colder than the air, and was also without any ad-
ditional weight. In 20 minutes more the swandown was 14i° colder than the neighboring air, and was
still without any increase of its weight. At the same time the grass was 15° colder than the air four feet
above the ground. Dr. Wells, by a copious induction of facts derived from observation and experiment,
establishes the proposition, that'bodies become colder than the neighboring air before they are dewed.
The cold therefore, which Dr. Wilson and M. Six conjectured to be the effect of dew, now appears to be
its cause. But what makes the terrestrial surface colder than the atmosphere ? The radiation or pro-
jection of heat into free space. Now the researches of Professor Leslie and Count Rumford have de-
monstrated, that different bodies project heat with very different degrees of force. In th.e operation of
this principle, therefore, conjoined with the power of a concave mirror of cloud, or any other awning, to
reflect or throw down again those calorific emanations which would be dissipated in a clear sky, we shall
find a solution of the most mysterious phenomena of dew.
1246. Rain. Luke Howard, who may be considered as our most accurate scientific
meteorologist, is inclined to think, that rain is in almost every instance the result of the
electrical action of clouds upon each other.
1247. Phe?w?nena of rain. Rain never descends till the transparency of the air ceases, and the invisible
vapors become vascular, when clouds form, and at length the drops fall: clouds, instead of forming
gradually at once throughout all parts of the horizon, generate in a particular spot, and imperceptibly
increase till the whole expanse is obscured.
1248. The cause of rain is thus accounted for by Dalton. If two masses of air of
unequal temperatures, by the ordinary currents of the winds, are intermixed, when
saturated with vapor, a precipitation ensues. If the masses are under saturation, then
less precipitation takes place, or none at all, according to the degree. Also the warmer
the air, the greater is the quantity of vapor precipitated in like circumstances. Hence the
reason why rains are heavier in summer than in winter, and in warm countries than in
cold.
1249. The quantity of rain, taken at an annual mean, is the greatest at the equator, and
it lessens gradually to the poles ; but there are fewer days of rain there, the number of
which increase in proportion to the distance from it. From north latitude 12° to 43° the
mean number of rainy days is 78 ; from 43° to 46° the mean number is 103 ; from 466
to 50°, 134 ; and from 51° to 60°, 161. Winter often produces a greater number of rainy
days than summer, though the quantity of rain is more considerable in the latter than in
the former season ; at Petersburgh rain and snow falls on an average 84 days of the
winter, and the quantity amounts to about five inches ; on the contrary the summer pro-
duces eleven inches in about the same number of days. Mountainous districts are sub-
ject to great falls of rain ; among the Andes particularly it rains almost incessantly, while
the flat country of Egypt is consumed by endless drought. Dalton estimates the quantity
of rain falling in England at 31 inches. The mean annual quantity of rain for the whole
globe is 34 inches.
1250. The cause why less rainfalls in the first six months of tlw year than in the last sir
mo?iths is thus explained. The whole quantity of water in the atmosphere in January
is usually about three inches, as appears from the dew point, which is then about 32°.
S 2
2G0
SCIENCE OF GARDENING
Part II.
Now the force of vapors at that temperature is 02 of an inch of mercury, which is equal
to 2*8 or three inches of water. The dew point in July is usually about 58° or 59°, cor-
responding to 0*5 of an inch of mercury, which is equal to seven inches of water ; the
difference is four inches of water, which the atmosphere then contains more than in the
former month. Hence, supposing the usual intermixture of currents of air in both the
intervening periods to be the same, the rain ought to be four inches less in the former
period of the year than the average, and four inches more in the latter period, making a
difference of eight inches between the two periods, which nearly accords with the preced-
ing observations.
1251. The mean monthly and annual quantities of rain at various places, deduced from
the average for many years, by Dalton, is given in the following Table : —
II
C J;
is
a a
*(5 C
•- -
if
8 s*>
■- 3
*
£*
no
Q
3Q
■— s
c2
Jo
Ci-O
>o
c<
Inch.
Inch.
Inch.
Inch.
Inch.
Inch.
Inch.
Inch.
Fr. In.
Fr. In.
Inch.
January -
2.310
2.177
2.196
3.461
5.299
3.095
1.595
1.464
1.228
2.477
2.530
February -
2.568
1.847
1.652
2.995
5.126
2.837
1.741
1.250
1.232
1.700
2.295
March - -
2.098
1.523
1.322
1.753
3.151
2.164
1.184
1.172
1.190
1.927
1.748
April - -
2.010
2.104
2.078
2.180
2.986
2.017
0.979
1.279
1.185
2.686
1.950
May - -
2.895
2.573
2.118
2.460
3.480
2.568
1.641
1.636
1.767
2.931
2.407
June - -
2.502
2.816
2.286
2.512
2.722
2.974
1.343
1.738
1.697
2.562
2.315
July - -
3.697
3.663
3.006
4.140
4.959
3.256
2.303
2.448
1.800
1.882
3.115
August
3.665
3.311
2.435
4.581
5.089
3.199
2.746
1.807
1.900
2.347
3.103
September -
3.281
3.tb4
2.289
3.751
4.874
4.350
1.617
1.842
1.550
4.140
3.135
October -
3.922
3.724
3.079
4.151
5.439
4.143
2.297
2.092
1.780
4.741
3.537
November -
3.360
3.441
2.634
3.775
4.785
3.174
1.904
2.222
1.720
4.187
3.120
December -
!
3.832
3.288
2.569
3.955
6.084
3.142
1.981
1.736
1.600
2.397
3.058
36.140
34.121
27.664
i 39.714
1 53.994
I 36.919
I 21.331
20.686
18.649
33.977
1252. Frost, being derived from the atmosphere, naturally proceeds from the upper parts
of bodies downwards, as the water and the earth ; so the longer a frost is continued, the
thicker the ice becomes upon the water in ponds, and the deeper into the earth the ground
is frozen. In about 16 or 17 days' frost, Boyle found it had penetrated 14 inches into
the ground. At Moscow, in a hard season , the frost will penetrate two feet deep into
the ground ; and Captain James found it penetrated 10 feet deep in Charlton island, and
the w^ater in the same island was frozen to the depth of six feet. Scheffer assures us, that
in Sweden the frost pierces two cubits (a Swedish ell), into the earth, and turns what
moisture is found there into a whitish substance, like ice ; and standing water to three
ells or more. The same author also mentions sudden cracks or rifts in the ice of the
lakes of Sweden, nine or ten feet deep, and many leagues long ; the rupture being made
with a noise not less loud than if many guns were discharged together. By such means
however the fishes are furnished with air, so that they are rarely found dead.
The history of frosts furnishes very extraordinary facts. The trees are often scorched and burnt up, a?
with the most excessive heat, in consequence of the separation of water from the air, which is therefore
verv drying. In the great frost in 1683, the trunks of oak, ash, walnut, and other trees were miserably
split and cleft, so that they might be seen through, and the cracks often attended with dreadful noises like
the explosion of fire-arms.
1253. Hail is generally defined as frozen rain, it differs from it in that the hailstones
are not formed of single pieces of ice, but of many little spherules agglutinated together ;
neither are those spherules all of the same consistence ; some of them being hard and
solid, like perfect ice ; others soft, and mostly like snow hardened by a severe frost.
Hailstone has a kind of core of this soft matter ; but more frequently the core is solid
and hard, while the outside is formed of a softer matter. Hailstones assume various
figures, being sometimes round, at other times pyramidal, crenated, angular, thin, and
flat, and sometimes stellated with six radii, like the small crystals of snow. Natural
historians furnish us with various accounts of surprising showers of hail in which the
hailstones were of extraordinary magnitude.
1254. Snoio is formed by the freezing of the vapors in the atmosphere. It differs from
hail and hoar frost, in being as it were crystallised, which they are not. As the flakes
fall down through the atmosphere, they are continually joined by more of these radiated
spicula, and they increase in bulk like the drops of rain or hailstones. The lightness of
snow, although it is firm ice, is owing to the excess of its surface in comparison to the
matter contained under it : as gold itself may be extended in surface till it will ride1
upon the least breath of air. The whiteness of snow is owing to the small particles into
which it is divided ; for ice when pounded, will become equally white.
1255. Snow is of great use to the vegetable kingdom. Were we to judge from appearance
only, we might imagine, that so far from being useful to the earth, the cold humidity of
snow would be detrimental to vegetation. But the experience of all ages asserts the con-
Book II. OF THE ATMOSPHERE. -61
trary. Snow, particularly in those northern regions where the ground is covered with it
for several months, fructifies the earth, by guarding the corn or other vegetables from
the intenser cold of the air, and especially from the cold piercing winds. It has been
a vulgar opinion, very generally received, that snow fertilises the land on which it falls
more than rain, in consequence of the nitrous salts, which it is supposed to acquire
by freezing. But it appears from the experiments of Margraaf, in the year 1731, that
the chemical difference between rain and snow water, is exceedingly small ; that the
latter contains a somewhat less proportion of earth than the former ; but neither of
them contain either earth, or any kind of salt, in any quantity which can be sensibly
efficacious in promoting vegetation. The peculiar agency of snow, as a fertiliser in
preference to rain may be ascribed to its furnishing a covering to the roots of vegetables,
by which they are guarded from the influence of the atmospherical cold, and the
internal heat of the earth is prevented from escaping. The internal parts of the earth
are heated uniformly to the fifty-eighth degree of Fahrenheit's thermometer. This degree
of heat is greater than that in which the watery juices of vegetables freeze, and it is pro-
pagated from the inward parts of the earth to the surface, on which the vegetables grow.
The atmosphere, being variably heated by the action of the sun in different climates, and
in the same climate at different seasons, communicates to the surface of the earth, and to
some distance below it, the degree of heat or cold which prevails in itself. Different ve-
getables are able to preserve life under different degrees of cold, but all of them perish
when the cold which reaches their roots is extreme. Providence has, therefore, in the
coldest climates, provided a covering of snow for the roots of vegetables, by which they are
protected from the influence of the atmospherical cold. The snow keeps in the internal
heat of the earth, which surrounds the roots of vegetables, and defends them from the cold
of the atmosphere.
12.56. Ice is water in the solid state, during which the temperature remains constant,
being 32 degrees of the scale of Fahrenheit. Ice is considerably lighter than water, name-
ly, about one eighth part ; and this increase of dimensions is acquired with prodigious
force, sufficient to burst the strongest iron vessels, and even pieces of artillery. Congel-
ation takes place much more suddenly than the opposite process of liquefaction ; and of
course, the same quantity of heat must be more rapidly extricated in freezing, than it is
absorbed in thawing ; the heat thus extricated being disposed to fly off in all directions,
and little of it being retained by the neighboring bodies, more heat is lost than is gained
by the alternation : so that where ice has once been formed, its production is in this manner
redoubled.
1257. The northern ice extends about 9° from the pole ; the southern 1 8° or 20° ; in
some parts even 30° ; and floating ice has occasionally been found in both hemispheres
as far as 40° from the poles, and sometimes, as it has been said, even in latitude 41° or
42°. Between 54° and 60° south latitude, the snow lies on the ground, at the sea-side,
throughout the summer. The line of perpetual congelation is three miles above the
surface at the equator, where the mean heat is 84°; at Teneriffe, in latitude 28°, two
miles ; in the latitude of London, a little more than a mile; and in latitude 80" north,
only 1 250 feet. At the pole, according to the analogy deduced by Kirwan, from a
comparison of various observations, the mean temperature should be 31°. In London
the mean temperature is 50° ; at Rome and at Montpelier, a little more than 60° • in
the island of Madeira, 70° ; and in Jamaica, 80°.
1258. Wind. Were it not for this agitation of the air, putrid effluvia arising from the
habitations of man, and from vegetable substances, besides the exhalations from water,
woidd soon render it unfit for respiration, and a general mortality would be the conse-
quence. The prevailing winds of our own country, which were ascertained by order of
the Royal Society of London, at London are,
Days.
- 16
The south wind blows more upon an average in each month of the year than any other,
particularly in July and August ; the north-east prevails during January, March, April,
May, and June, and is most unfrequent in February, July, September, and December ;
the north-west occurring more frequently from November to March, and less so in
September and October than in any other months.
Near Glasgow, the average is stated as follows : —
Winds. Days. Winds. Days.
South-west - - 174 North-east - - 104
North-west - ' - 40 South-east - - 47
In Ireland, the prevailing winds are the west and south-west.
1 259. The different degrees of motion ofivind next excites our attention j- and it seems al-
S 3
Winds.
Dans.
Winds.
Days.
Jl'inds
South-west
lis
West
53
South
North-east
58
South-east
32
North
North-west
50
East
26
262 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
most superfluous to observe, that it varies in gradations from the gentlest zephyr, which
plays upon the leaves of plants, greatly undulating them, to the furious tempest, calculated
to inspire horror in the breast of the most callous. It is also a remarkable fact, that vio-
lent currents of air pass along, as it were, within a line, without sensibly agitating that
beyond them. An instance of this kind occurred at Edinburgh, where the celebrated
aeronaut Lunardi ascended in his balloon, which was conveyed with great velocity by
the wind at the rate of 70 miles an hour, while a perfect calm existed in the city and
neighborhood.
1260 Causes of wind. There are many circumstances attending the operations of the air, which we term
wind that serve for a basis for well-founded conjectures, and those, united to the result of daily observ-
ation' render the explanation of its phenomena tolerably satisfactory. It must be clear to the most common
capacity that as the rays of the sun descend perpendicularly on the surface of the earth under the torrid
zone that part of it must receive a greater proportion of heat than those parts where they fall obliquely ;
the heat thus acquired communicates to the air, which it rarefies, and causes to ascend, and the vacuum
occasioned by this operation is immediately filled by the chill air from the north and south. The diurnal
motion of the earth gradually lessens to the poles from the equator : at that point it moves at the rate of
fifteen geographical miles in a minute : this motion is communicated to the atmosphere in the same de-
cree • therefore if part of it was conveyed instantaneously from latitude 30°, it would not directly acquire
the velocity of that at the equator; consequently, the ridges of the earth must meet it, and give it the ap-
pearance of an east wind ; the effect is similar upon the cold air proceeding from the north and south, and
this similarity must be admitted to extend to each place particularly heated by the beams of the sun. The
moon being a large body situated comparatively near the earth, is known to affect the atmosphere in its
revolutions by the pressure of that upon the sea, so as to cause the flux and reflux of it, which we term
tides • it cannot therefore, be doubted, that some of the winds we experience are caused by her motion.
1261 The regular motion of the atmosphere, known by the name of land and sea breezes, may be accounted
for upon the above principle : the heated rarefied land air rises, and its place is supplied by the chill damp
air from the surface of the sea; that from the hills in the neighborhood, becoming cold and dense in the
course of the night, descends and presses upon the comparatively lighter air over the sea, and hence the land
breeze Granting that the attraction of the moon, and the diurnal movement of the sun affects our atmo-
sphere there cannot be a doubt but a westward motion of the air must prevail within the boundaries of
the trade-winds, the consequence of which is an easterly current on each side : from this, then, it proceeds
that south-west winds are so frequent in the western parts of Europe, and over the Atlantic Ocean.
Kirwan attributes our constant south-west winds, particularly during winter, to an opposite current
prevailing between the coast of Malabar and the Moluccas at the same period : this, he adds, must be sup-
plied from regions close to the pole, which must be reeruited in its turn from the countries to the south of
it, in the western parts of our hemisphere. . . ., . i^. ...-.
1262 The variable mnds cannot be so readily accounted for ; yet it is evident, that though they seem the
effect of capricious causes, they depend upon a regular system, arranged by the great Author of nature.
That accurate and successful observer of part of his works, the celebrated Franklin, discovered in 1/40, that
winds originate at the precise points towards which they blow. This philosopher had hoped to observe an
eclipse of the moon at Philadelphia, but was prevented by a north-east storm, that commenced at seven in
the evening This he afterwards found did not occur at Boston till eleven ; and upon enquiry, he had
reason to suppose, it passed to the north-east at the rate of about 100 miles an hour. The manner in which
he accounts for this retrogade proceeding is so satisfactory, that we shall give it in his own words, particularly
as his assertions are supported by recent observations, both in America and Scotland. He argued thus : —
" I suppose a lon^ canal of water, stopped at the end by a gate. The water is at rest till the gate is opened ;
then it begins to move out through the gate, and the water next the gate is put in motion and moves on
towards the gate ; and so on successively, till the water at the head of the canal is in motion, which it is
last of all. In this case all the water moves indeed towards the gate ; but the successive times ot beginning
the motion are in the contrary way, viz. from the gate back to the head of the canal. Thus to produce a
north-east storm, I suppose some great rarefaction of the air in or near the Gulph of Mexico ; the air rising
thence has its place supplied by the next more northern, cooler, and therefore denser and heavier air; a
successive current is formed, to which our coast and inland mountains give a north-east direction." Ac-
cording to the observations made by Captain Cook, the north-east winds prevail in the Northern Pacific
Ocean during the same spring months they do with us, from which facts it appears the cold air from Ame-
rica and the north of Europe flows at that season into the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.
1263. Other descriptions of winds may arise from a variety of causes. As the atmosphere
has been ascertained to be composed of air, vapor, and carbonic acid and water, it is well
known these frequently change their aerial form, and combine with different substances,
and the reverse ; consequently partial winds and accumulations must continually occur,
which occasion winds of different degrees of violence, continuance, and direction.
1264. The principal electrical phenomena of the atmosphere are thunder and lightning.
1265. Thunder is the noise occasioned by the explosion of a flash of lightning passing
through the air : or it is that noise which is excited by a sudden explosion of electrical
clouds, which are therefore called thunder-clouds.
The rattling, in the noise of thunder, which makes it seem as if it passed through arches, is probably
owing to the sound being excited among clouds hanging over one another, and the agitated air passing ir-
regularly between them.
The explosion, if high in the air and remote from us, will do no mischief; but when near, it may, and
has, in a thousand instances, destroyed trees, animals, &c. This proximity, or small distance, may be esti-
mated nearly by the interval of time between seeing the flash of lightning and hearing the report of the
thunder, estimating the distance after the rate of 1142 feet for a second of time, or 3| seconds to the mile.
Dr. Wallis observes, that commonly the difference between the two is about seven seconds, which at the
rate above-mentioned, gives the distance almost two miles. But sometimes it comes in a second or two,
which argues the explosion very near to us, and even among us. And in such cases, the Doctor assures
us, he has sometimes foretold the mischiefs that happened.
Season of thunder. Although in this country thunder may happen at any time of the year, yet the
months of July and August are those in which it may almost certainly be expected. Its devastation is of
very uncertain continuance ; sometimes only a few peals will be heard at any particular place during the
whole season ; at other times the storm will' return at the interval of three or four days, for a month, six
weeks, or even longer ; not that we have violent thunder in this country directly vertical in any one place
so frequently in any year, but in many seasons it will be perceptible that thunder-clouds are formed in the
neighbourhood, even" at these short intervals. Hence it appears, that during this particular period, there
must be some natural cause operating for the production of this phenomenon, which does not take place at
ether times. This cannot be the mere heat of the weather, for we have often a long tract of hot weather
Book II. OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 263
without any thunder ; and besides, though not common, thunder is sometimes heard in the winter also.
As therefore the heat of the weather is common to the whole summer, whether there be thunder or not,
we must look for the causes of it in those phenomena, whatever they are, which are peculiar to the months
of July, August, and the beginning of September. Now it is generally observed, that from the month of
April, an east, or south-east wind generally takes place, and continues with little interruption till towards
the end of June. At that time, sometimes sooner and sometimes later, a westerly wind takes place ; but
as the causes producing the east wind are not removed, the latter opposes the west wind with its whole
force. At the place of meeting, there is naturally a most vehement pressure of the atmosphere, and friction
of its parts against one another ; a calm ensues, and the vapors brought by both winds begin to collect
and form dark clouds, which can have little motion either way, because thev are pressed almost equally on
all sides. For the most part, however, the west wind prevails, and what little motion the clouds have is
towards the east : whence, the common remark in this country, that " thunder-clouds move against the
wind." But this is by no means universally true : for if the west wind happens to be excited by any tern-
porary cause before its natural period when it should take place, the east wind will very frequently get the
better of it; and the clouds, even although thunder is produced, will move westward. Yet in either
case the motion is so slow, that the most superficial observers cannot help taking notice of a considerable
resistance in the atmosphere.
1266. Thunderbolts. When lightning acts with extraordinary violence, and breaks or shatters any
thing it is called a thunderbolt, which the vulgar, to fit it for such effects, suppose to be a hard body,
and evon a stone. But that we need not have recourse to a hard solid body to account for the effects
commonly attributed to the thunderbolt, will be evident to any one, who considers those of gunpowder,
and the several chemical fulminating powders, but more especially the astonishing powers of elasticity,
when only collected and employed by human art, and much more when directed and exercised in the course
of nature. When we consider the known effects of electrical explosions, and those produced by lightning,
we shall be at no loss to account for the extraordinary operations vulgarly ascribed to thunderbolts. As
stones and bricks struck by lightning are often found in a vitrified state, we may reasonably suppose,
with Beccaria, that some stones in the earth, having been 6truck in this manner, gave occasion to the
vulgar opinion of the thunderbolt.
1267. Thunder-clouds are those clouds which are in a state fit for producing lightning and thunder. The
first appearance of a thunder-storm, which usually happens when there is little or no wind, is one dense
cloud, or more, increasing very fast in size, and rising into the higher regions of the air. The lower sur-
face is black, and nearly level ; but the upper finely arched, and well defined. Many of these clouds often
seem piled upon one another, all arched in the same manner; but they are continually uniting, swell-
ing and extending their arches. At the time of the rising of this cloud, the atmosphere is coirrmonly full of
a great many separate clouds, that are motionless, and of odd whimsical shapes ; all these, upon the appear-
ance of the thunder-cloud, draw towards it, and become more uniform in their shapes as they approach ;
till, coming very near the thunder-cloud, their limbs mutually stretch towards one another, and they
immediately coalesce into one uniform mass. Sometimes the thunder-cloud will swell, and increase
very fast, without the conjunction of any adscititious clouds ; the vapors in the atmosphere forming
themselves into clouds whenever it passes. Some of the adscititious clouds appear like white fringes,
at the skirts of the thunder-cloud, or under the body of it; but they keep continually growing
darker and darker, as they approach to unite with it. When the thunder-cloud is grown to a great size,
its lower surface is often ragged, particular parts being detached towards the earth, but still connected
with the rest. Sometimes the lower surface swells into various large protuberances, bending uniformly
downward; and sometimes one whole side of the cloud will have an inclination to the earth, and the ex-
tremity of it nearly touch the ground. When the eye is under the thunder-cloud, after it is grown large
and well-formed, it is seen to sink lower, and to darken prodigiously ; at the same time that a number of
small adscititious clouds (the origin of which can never be perceived) are seen in a rapid motion, driving
about in very uncertain directions under it. While these clouds are agitated with the most rapid motions,
the rain commonly falls in the greatest plenty ; and if the agitation be exceedingly great, it commonly
hails.
1268. Lightning. While the thunder-cloud is swelling, and extending its branches
over a large tract of country, the lightning is seen to dart from one part of it to another,
and often to illuminate its whole mass. When the cloud has acquired a sufficient
extent, the lightning strikes between the cloud and the earth, in-two opposite places; the
path of the lightning lying through the whole body of the cloud and its branches. The
longer this lightning continues, the less dense does the cloud become, and the less dark
its appearance ; till at length it breaks in different places, and shows a clear sky. Those
thunder-clouds are sometimes in a positive as well as a negative state of electricity. The
electricity continues longer of the same kind, in proportion as the thunder-cloud is sim-
ple and uniform in its direction ; but when the lightning changes its place, there com-
monly happens a change in the electricity of the apparatus over which the clouds passed.
It changes suddenly after a very violent flash of lightning ; but gradually when the
lightning is moderate, and the progress of the thunder-cloud slow.
1269. Lightning is an electrical explosion or phenomenon. Flashes of lightning are usually seen crooked
and waving in the air. They strike the highest and most pointed objects in preference to others, as hills,
trees, ?pires, masts of ships, &c. ; so all pointed conductors receive and throw off the electric fluid more
readily than those that are terminated by flat surfaces. Lightning is observed to take and follow the
readiest and best conductor ; and the same is the case with electricity in the discharge of the Leyden
phial ; from whence it is inferred, that in a thunder-storm it would be safer to have one's clothes wet than
dry. Lightning burns, dissolves metals, rends some bodies, sometimes strikes persons blind, destroys ani-
mal life, deprives magnets of their virtue, or reverses their poles ; and all these are well-known properties
of electricity.
1270. With regard to places of safety in titties of thunder ami lightning. Dr. Franklin's advice is to sit in
the middle of a room, provided it be not under a metal lustre suspended by a chain, sitting on one chair,
and laying the feet on another. It is still better, he says, to bring two or three mattresses or beds into the
middle of the room, and folding them double, to place the chairs upon them ; for as they are not so good
conductors as the walls the lightning will not be so likely to pass through them. But the safest place o,f all
is in a hammock hung by silken cords, at an equal distance from all the sides of the room. Dr. Priestley
observes, that the place of most perfect safety must be the cellar, and especially the middle of it ; for when
a person is lower than the surface of the earth, the lightning must strike it before it can possibly reach him.
In the fields, the place of safety is within a few yards of a tree, but not quite near it. Beccaria cautions
persons not always to trust too much to the neighborhood of a higher or better conductor than their own
body, since he has repeatedly found that the lightning by no means descends in one undivided track, but
that bodies of various kinds conduct their share of it at the same time, in proportion to their quantity and
conducting power.
S 4
?& SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part IL
Skct. II. Of the Means of jrrognosticating the Weather.
1271. The study of atmospherical changes has, in all ages, been more or less attended to
by men engaged in the culture of vegetables, or the pasturage of animals ; and we, in
this country, are surprised at the degree of perfection to which the ancients attained in
this knowledge. But it ought to be recollected, that the study of the weather in the
countries occupied by the ancients, as Egypt, Greece, Italy, and the continent of Europe,
is a very different thing from its study in an island situated like ours. It is easy to foretel
weather in countries where months pass away without rain or clouds, and where some
weeks together, at stated periods, are as certainly seasons of rain or snow. It may be as-
serted with truth, that there is a greater variety of weather in London in one week, than
in Rome, Moscow, or Petersburg, in three months. It is not therefore entirely a proof
of our degeneracy, or the influence of our artificial mode of living, that we cannot predict
the weather with such certainty as the ancients ; but a circumstance rather to be accounted
for from the peculiarities of our situation.
1272. A variable climate, such as ours, admits of being studied, both generally and lo-
cally ; but it is a study which requires habits of observation and reflection like all other
studies ; and to be brought to any useful degree of perfection must be attended to, not as
it commonly is, as a thing by chance, and which every body knows, or is fit for, but as a
serious undertaking. The weather may be foretold from natural data, artificial data,
and from precedent.
1273. The natural data for this study are, 1. The vegetable kingdom ; many plants
shutting and opening their flowers, contracting or expanding their parts, &c. on ap-
proaching changes in the humidity or temperature of the atmosphere ; 2. The animal
kingdom; most of which, that are familiar to us, exhibiting signs on approaching
changes, of which those by cattle and sheep are more especially remarkable ; and hence
shepherds are generally, of all others, the most correct in their estimate of weather ; 3. The
mineral kingdom ; stones, earths, metals, salts, and water of particular sorts, often
showing indications of approaching changes ; 4. Appearances of the atmosphere, the
moon, the general character of seasons, &c. The characters of clouds, the prevalence of
particular winds, and other signs are very commonly attended to.
1274. Tlie influence of the moon on the weather has, in all ages, been believed by the
generality of mankind : the same opinion was embraced by the ancient philosophers ; and
several eminent philosophers of later times have thought the opinion not unworthy of
notice. Although the moon only acts (as far at least as we can ascertain) on the
Maters of the ocean by producing tides, it is nevertheless highly probable, according to
the observations of Lambert, Toaldo, and Cotte, that in consequence of the lunar in-
fluence, great variations do take place in the atmosphere, and consequently in the wea-
ther. The following principles will show the grounds and reasons for their embracing
the received notions on this interesting topic : —
There are ten situations in the ?noon's orbit when she must particularly exert her influence on the at-
mosphere ; and when, consequently, changes of the weather most readily take place. These are,—
1. The new, and 2. the full moon, when she exerts her influence in conjunction with, or in opposition
to the sun. ««,..-_*.». •.
3. and 4. The quadratures, or those aspects of the moon when she is 90° distant from the sun ; or when
she is in the middle point of her orbit, between the points of conjunction and opposition, namely, in the
first and third quarters. ..... . . j
5. The perigee, and, 6. The apogee, or those points of the moon's orbit, in which she is at the least and
greatest distance from the earth. _
7. 8. The two passages of the moon over the equator, one of which Toaldo calls, 7. I he moon s ascend-
ing, and the other, 8. The moon's descending equinox, or the two lunistices, as De la Lande terms them.
9. The boreal lunistice, when the moon approaches as near as she can in each lunation, (or period be-
tween one new moon and another,;) to our zenith (that point in the horizon which is directly over our
llMtls^
10. The austrc! lunistice, when she is at the greatest distance from our zenith ; for the action of the
moon varies greatly according to her obliquity. With these ten points Toaldo compared a table of forty-
eight years' observations; the result is, that the probabilities, that the weather will change at a certain
period of the moon are in the following proportions : New moon, 6 to 1. First quarter, o to 2 .bull
moon, 5 to 2. Last quarter, 5 to 4. Perigee, 7 to 1. Apogee, 4 to 1. Ascending equinox, 13 to 4.
Northern lunistice, 11 to 4. Descending equinox, 11 to 4. Southern lunistice, 3 to 1.
1275. That the new moon will bring with it a change of weather is in the doctrine of chances as 6 to 1.
Each situation of the moon alters that state of the atmosphere which has been occasioned by the prece-
ding one : and it seldom happens that any change in the weather takes place without a change in the lunar
situations. These situations are combined, on account of the inequality of their revolutions, and the
greatest effect is produced by the union of the syzigies, or the conjunction and opposition of a planet with
the sun with the apsides, or points in the orbits of planets, in which they are at the greatest and least dis-
tance from the sun or earth. The proportions of their powers to produce variations are as follows : Psew
moon coinciding with the perigee, 33 to 1. Ditto, with the apogee, 7 to 1. Full moon coinciding with the
perigee 10 to 1. Ditto, with the apogee, 8 to 1. The combination of these situations generally occasions
storms and tempests : and this perturbing power will always have the greater effect, the nearer these com-
bined situations are to the moon's passage over the equator, particularly in the months ol March and
September At the new and full moons, in the months of March and September, and even at the solstices,
especially the winter solstice, the atmosphere assumes a certain character, by which it is distinguished tor
three, and sometimes six months. The new moons which produce no change in the weather, are those
t hat happen at a distance from the apsides. As it is perfectly true that each situation of the moon alters
that state of the atmosphere which has been produced by another, it is, however, observed that many situ-
ations of the moon are favorable to good and others to bad weather.
Book II. OF THE ATMOSPHERE gfig
K76. The situations of the moon favorable to bad weather are the perigee, new and full moon, passage of
the equator, and the northern lunistice. Those belonging to the former are, the apogee, quadratures,
and the southern lunistice. Changes of the weather seldom take place on the very days of the moon's
situations, but either precede or follow them. It has been found by observation, that the changes
affected by the lunar situations in the six winter months precede, and in the six summer months follow
them.
1277. The octants. Besides the lunar situations to which the above observations refer, attention must be
paid also to the fourth day before new and full moon, which days are called the octants. At these times the
weather is inclined to changes ; and it may be easily seen, that these will follow at the next lunar
situation. Virgil calls this fourth day a very sure prophet. If on that day the horns of the moon are
clear and well defined, good weather may be expected ; but if they are dull, and not clearly marked on the
edges, it is a sign that bad weather will ensue. When the weather remains unchanged on the fourth,
fifth, and sixth day of the moon, we may conjecture that it will continue so till full moon, even sometimes
till the next new moon ; and in that case, the lunar situations have only a very weak effect. Many
observers of nature have also remarked, that the approach of the lunar situations is somewhat critical for
the sick. According to Dr. Herschel, the nearer the time of the moon's entrance, at full, change,
or quarters, is to midnight (that is within two hours before and after midnight), the more fair the weather
is in summer, but the nearer to noon the less fair. Also, the moon's entrance, at full, change, or
quarters, during six of the afternoon hours, viz. from four to ten, may be followed by fair weather; but
this is mostly dependent on the wind. The same entrance during all the hours after midnight, except the
two first, is unfavorable to fair weather ; the like, nearly, may be observed in winter.
1278. Tlie artificial data are the barometer, hygrometer, rain-gauge, and ther-
mometer.
1279. By means of tlie barometer, Taylor observes, we are enabled to regain, in some
degree at least, that foreknowledge of the weather, which the ancients unquestionably
did possess ; though we know not the data on which they founded their conclusions.
We shall therefore annex such rules, as have hitherto been found most useful in ascer-
taining the changes of the weather, by means of the barometer.
1280. The rising of the mercury presages, in general, fair weather; and its falling
foul weather, as rain, snow, high winds, and storms.
The sudden falling of the mercury foretels thunder, in very hot weather, especially if the wind is
south.
The rising in whiter indicates frost; and in frosty weather, if the mercury falls three or four divisions,
there will follow a thaw : but if it rises in a continued frost, snow may be expected.
When foul weather happens soon after the falling of the mercury, it will not be of long duration ; nor are
we to expect a continuance of fair weather, when it soon succeeds the rising of the quicksilver.
//; in foul weather, the mercury rises considerably, and continues rising for two or three days before the
foul weather is over, a continuance of fair weather may be expected to follow.
In fair weather, when the mercury falls much and low, and continues falling for two or three days before
rain comes, much wet must be expected, and probably high winds.
The unsettled motion of the mercury indicates changeable weather.
1281. Respecting the words engraved on the register-plate of the barometer, it maybe
observed, that they cannot be strictly relied upon to correspond exactly with the state of
the weather ; though it will in general agree with them as to the mercury rising and
falling. The words deserve to be particularly noticed when the mercury removes from
' changeable' upwards ; as those on the lower part should be adverted to, when the mer-
cury falls from • changeable' downwards. In other cases, they are of no use : for, as its
rising in any part forebodes a tendency to fair, and its falling io foul weather, it follows
that, though it descend in the tube from settled to fair, it may nevertheless be attended
with a little rain ; and when it rises from the words « much rain' to ' rain' it shows only
an inclination to become fair, though the wet weather may still continue in a less consi-
derable degree than it was when the mercury began to rise. But if the mercury, after
having fallen to ' much rain,' should ascend to ' changeable,' it foretels fair weather,
though of a shorter continuance than if the mercury had risen still higher ; and so, on
the contrary, if the mercury stood at 'fair' and descends to 'changeable,' it announces
foul weather, though not of so long continuance, as if it had fallen lower.
1282. Concavity of the surface of the mercury. Persons who have occasion to travel
much in the winter, and who are doubtful whether it will rain or not, may easily ascer-
tain this point by the following observation : — A few hours before he departs, let the
traveller notice the mercury in the upper part of the tube of the barometer ; if
rain is about to fall, it will be indented, or concave ; if otherwise, convex or pro-
tuberant.
1283. Barometer in spring. Towards the end of March, or more generally in the be-
ginning of April, the barometer sinks very low, with bad weather ; after which, it seldom
falls lower than 29 degrees 5 minutes till the latter end of September or October, when
tlie quicksilver falls again low, with stormy winds, for then the winter constitution of the
air takes place. From October to April, the great falls of the barometer are from 29
degrees 5 minutes to 28 degrees 5 minutes, and sometimes lower ; whereas during the
summer constitution of the air, the quicksilver seldom falls lower than 29 degrees 5
minutes. It therefore follows that a fall of one tenth of an inch, during the summer,
is as sure an indication of rain, as a fall of between two and three tenths is in the
winter.
1284. Barometer relative to situation. It must, however, be observed, that these
heights of the barometer hold only in places nearly on a level with the sea; for expe-
266 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
riments have taught us, that for every eighty feet of nearly perpendicular height that the
barometer is placed above the level of the sea, the quicksilver sinks one tenth of an inch :
observations alone, therefore, must determine the heights of the quicksilver, which in each
place denotes either fair or foul weather.
1285. The hygrometer is of various sorts, but cord, fiddle-string, and most of the sub-
stances commonly used become sensibly less and less accurate, so as at length not to
undergo any visible alteration from the different states of the air, in regard to dryness or
moisture.
A sponge makes a good hygrometer on this account, as being less liable to be changed
by use than cord. To prepare the sponge, first wash it in water, and when dry, wash it
again in water wherein sal ammoniac or salt of tartar has been dissolved ; and let it dry
again. Now, if the air becomes moist, the sponge will grow heavier ; and if dry, it will
become lighter.
Oil of vitriol is found to grow sensibly lighter or heavier in proportion to the lesser or
greater quantity of moisture it imbibes from the air. The alteration is so great, that it
has been known to change its weight from three drams to nine. The other acid oils, or,
as they are usually called, spirits, or oil of tartar, per deliquium, may be substituted for
the oil of vitriol.
Steel-yard hygrometer. In order to make a hygrometer with those bodies which
acquire or lose weight in the air, place such a substance in a scale on the end of a
steel-yard, with a counterpoise which shall keep it in equilibria in fair weather; the
other end of the steel-yard, rising or falling, and pointing to a graduated index, will
show the changes.
Line and plummet. If a line be made of good well dried whipcord, and a plummet
be fixed to the end of it, and the whole be hung against a wainscot, and a line be
drawn under it, exactly where the plummet reaches, in very moderate weather it will
be found to rise above such line, and to sink below it when the weather is likely to be-
come fair.
The whalebone hygrometer, originally invented by De Luc, is esteemed one of the best
now in use.
1286. The rain-gauge, pluviometer, or hyetometer is a machine for measuring the quan-
tity of rain that falls. _ ,_ _
A hollow cylinder forms one of the best-constructed rain gauges : it has
within it a cork ball attached to a wooden stem (Jig. 76.), which passes through
a small opening at the top, on which is placed a large funnel. When this in-
strument is placed in the open air in a free place, the rain that falls within the
circumference of the funnel will run down into the tube and cause the cork
to float ; and the quantity of water in the tube may be seen by the height to
which the stem of the float is raised. The stem of the float is so graduated,
as to show by its divisions the number of perpendicular inches of water which
fell on the surface of the earth since the last observation. After every observ-
ation the cylinder must be emptied.
A copper funnel forms another very simple rain-gauge : the area of the opening must
be exactly ten square inches. Let this funnel be fixed in a bottle, and the quantity of
rain caught is ascertained by multiplying the weight in ounces by -173, which gives the
depth in inches and parts of an inch.
In firing these gauges, care must be taken that the rain may have free access to
them; hence the tops of buildings are usually the best places, though some
conceive that the nearer the rain-gauge is placed to the ground the more rain it will
collect.
In order to compare the quantities of rain collected in pluviometers at different places,
the instruments should be fixed at the same heights above the ground in all such places ;
because, at different heights, the quantities are always different, even at the same
place.
1287. Thermometer. As the weight of the atmosphere is measured by the barometer, so
the thermometer shows the variations in the temperature of the weather ; for every change
of the weather is attended with a change in the temperature of the air, which a thermo-
meter placed in the open air will point out, sometimes before any alteration is perceived
in the barometer.
The scales of different thermometers are as follow. In Fahrenheit's the freezing point is 32 degrees,
and the boiling po'int 212 degrees. In Reaumur's the freezing point is 0, and the boding point 80 dogrees.
In the centigrade thermometer, which is generally used in France, and is the same as that ot Celsius,
/hich is the thermometer of Sweden, the freezing point is 0, and the boiling point 100 degrees. As a rule
•y+ and ;>dd 32 One desrree ot tne cemigrauc scaie is equai iu une uegicc am. iigm-«..iUio ^ . »«.«. ,
and the rule here is to multiply by 9, divide by 5, and add 32. Any of these thermometers may be proved
by immersing it in pounded ice for the freezing poinj:, and in boiling water for the boding point, and if
the "=pace between these points is equally divided, theHhermometer is correct
Book II. OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 169!
1288. The study of the weather from precedent affords useful hints as to the character of
approaching seasons. From observing the general character of seasons for a long period,
certain general results may be deduced. On this principle, Kirwan, on comparing
a number of observations taken in England from 16*77 {Trans. Ir. Acad. v. 20.) to
1789, a period of 1 12 years, found :
That when there has been no storm before or after the vernal equinox, the ensuing summer is generally
dry, at least five times in six.
That ivhcn a storm happens from an easterly point, either on the 19th, 20th, or £lst of May, the suc-
ceeding summer is generally dry, at least four times in five.
That when a storm arises on the 25th, 26th, or 21th of March, and not before in any point, the succeed-
ing summer is generally dry, four times in five.
If there be a storm at S. W. or TV. S. W. on the 19th, 20th, 21st, or 22d of March, the succeeding sum-
mer is generally wet. five times in six.
In this country winters and springs, if dry, are most commonly cold; if moist, war?n : on the contrary,
dry summers and autumns are usually hot, and moist summers cold ; so that, if we know the moistness
or dryness of a season, we can form a tolerably accurate judgment of its temperature. In this country
also, it generally rains less in March than in November, in the proportion at a medium of 7 to 12. It
generally rains less in April than October, in the proportion of 1 to 2, nearly at a medium. It generally
rains less in May than September ; the chances that it does so, are, at least, 4 to 3 ; but, when it rains
plentifully in May, as 1'8 inches or more, it generally rains but little in September ; and when it rains one
inch, or less, in May, it rains plentifully in September.
1289. The jirobabilities of particular seasons being folloived by others, has been calculated
by Kirwan, and although his rules chiefly relate to the climate of Ireland, yet as there
exists but little difference between that island and Great Britain, in the general appear-
ance of the seasons, we shall mention some of his conclusions.
In forty-one years there were six wet springs, 22 dry, and IS variable ; 20 wet summers, 16 dry, and
5 variable ; 11 wet autumns, 11 dry, and 19 variable.
A season is accounted wet, when it contains two wet months. In general, the quantity of rain, which
falls in dry seasons, is less than five inches, in wet seasons more ; variable seasons are those, in which
there falls between 30 lbs. and 36 lbs., a lb. being equal to "157639 of an inch.
January is the coldest month in every latitude ; and July is the warmest month in all latitudes
above 48 degrees : in lower latitudes, August is generally the warmest. The difference between the
hottest and coldest months increases in proportion to the distance from the equator. Every habitable
latitude enjoys a mean heat of 60 degrees for at least two months ; which heat is necessary for the pro-
duction of corn.
Sect. III. Of the Climate of Britain.
1290. The climate of the British isles, relatively to others in the same latitude, is tem-
perate, humid, and variable. The moderation of its temperature and its humidity are
owing to our being surrounded by water, which being less affected by the sun tlian the
earth, imbibes less heat in summer, and from its fluidity is less easily cooled in winter.
As the sea on our coasts never freezes, its temperature must always be above 33° or
34° ; and hence, when air from the polar regions at a much lower temperature passes
over it, that air must be in some degree heated by the radiation of the water. On the
other hand, in summer, the warm currents of air from the south, necessarily give out
part of their heat in passing over a surface so much lower in temperature. The vari-
able nature of our climate is chiefly owing to the unequal breadths of watery surface
which surround us ; on one side, a channel of a few leagues in breadth ; on the other, the
Atlantic ocean.
1291. The British climate varies materially tvithin itself: some districts are dry, as the
east ; others moist, as the west coast ; in the northern extremity, dry, cold, and windy ;
4)4 in the south, warm and moist. Even in moist districts some spots are excessively dry,
as part of Wigtonshire, from the influence of the Isle of Man, in warding off the watery
clouds of the Atlantic ; and, in dry districts, some spots are moist, from the influence of
high mountains in attracting and condensing clouds charged with watery vapor.
1 292. The deterioration of the British climate is an idea entertained by some ; but whether
in regard to general regularity, temperature, moisture, or wind, the alleged changes are
unsupported by satisfactory proofs. It is not improbable but the humidity of our climate,
as Williams alleges {Climate of Britain, &c. 1816), has of late years been increased by
the increase of evaporating surface, produced by the multiplicity of hedges and plant-
ations ; a surface covered with leaves being found to evaporate considerably more than a
naked surface. If the humidity of the climate was greater before the drainage of mo-
rasses and the eradication of forests for agricultural purposes, a comparative return to
the same state by artificial planting and irrigation, must have a tendency to produce
the same results. However, it will be long before the irrigation of lands is carried to
such a degree as to produce the insalubrious effects of und rained morasses; and as to
our woods and hedges, we must console ourselves with the beauty and the shelter which
they produce, for the increase of vapor supposed to proceed from them.
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
BOOK III.
MECHANICAL AGENTS EMPLOYED IN GARDENING.
129:3. Having considered the nature of vegetables, and the nature of the materials by
which their culture or improvement is effected by art, the next step is to consider the
means by which art is applied in the practice of cultivation. In general it may be ob-
served, that every change effected in the circumstances of materials, either consists in,
or must be preceded by, a mechanical change in their position. To effect mechanical
changes, the fundamental engine is the human frame ; but its agency is essentially in-
creased by the use of certain implements, utensils, machines, and buildings. The
primary implements of gardening, as an art of culture, would necessarily be confined to
a few tools for stirring the ground, and one or two instruments for pruning trees or
gathering crops. But in the present state of the art, both the number and kind of agents
are greatly extended and diversified. There are tools, instruments, and machines for
culture, as the spade, knife, and water-engine ; for beautifying scenery, as the broom,
scythe, and roller ; utensils for portable habitations of plants, or conveying materials, as
pots and baskets ; structures for culture, as glass frames, hot-houses, and awnings ; and
buildings for use, convenience, or decoration, as tool-houses, arbors, and obelisks. The
whole may be included under implements, structures, and edifices, as in the following
Table : —
fTools
Implements
f Lever.
Pick.
I Spade.
<! Shovel.
Fork.
I Dibber.
LPlanter's hack.
Planter's trowel.
Planter's pick-axe.
Garden-trowel.
Transplanter.
Hoe.
Rake.
Turf-raser.
Turf- beetle.
Turf-scraper.
Weeder.
Besom.
Implement-cleaner.
|"Of operation
I Of direction
rGarden-knife.
I Garden-chisel.
\ Pruning-bill.
j Forest-axe.
LPruning-saw.
Averruncator.
Shears.
Scythe.
Scarifiers.
Barking-irons.
Hammer.
Pincers.
Fruit-gatherers.
Climbing-spurs.
C Garden-line.
< Ground-measure.
£ Timber-measure.
Ground-compasses.
Boming-piece.
Level.
Staff.
Straight-edge.
Stake.
f Notch numbering-stick. Name-stick.
|.Of designation | Written number-stick
fOf preparation f Screens,
'l and deportation {_ Sieves.
Mould-scuttle.
Pot-carrier.
Basket.
Packing-case.
fPots.
1 Water-saucers.
Plant-box.
Plant-tub.
Watering-pot.
Syringe.
Of protection or f £?v*?'
modification tShade-
^For vermin
Blancher.
Hand-glass.
Bell-glass.
Bird trap-cage.
Beetle- trap.
Wasp and fly trap.
Machines
-I
Of labor
. Barrow.
Watering engine.
' Roller.
Ladder.
Platform.
Tree- transplanter.
Seed-separater.
For vermin
i
I For regulation
Engines of destruction . Engines of alarm or snares Living vermin-killers ■
Registering thermometer Alarum thermometer. Regulating thermometer.
Of adaptation
\ Temporary' coping.
j Horizontal shelter.
t Netting screen.
Garden-hurdle.
Moveable edging.
Protecting bag.
Shoe-scraper.
Of manufacture (Canvass.
I Gauze.
Netting.
Wall-tree nails.
Wall-tree lists.
Of preparation {^ops-
Covering materials.
Planks.
Various articles.
[Portable or moveable
I Partly moveable •
(Fixed
I Permanent -
f Economical
(The flower-stage.
t Opaque covering-frame.
Glazed frame or sash.
Glass case.
Hotbed-frame.
Adapted frame;
Espalier rail.
Hot-house.
Mushroom-house.
Anomalous
f Head gardener's dwelling- Seed-room.
3 house. Fruit-room.
] Official or administrative Under-gardener's lodge.
( apartment. .
Ice-house.
Entrance-lodge and gate.
Building for raising water
Reservoir.
Apiary.
"Usefttr-
f Cottage.
- (.Bridge.
Boat.
Sepulchre.
Gate.
Fence.
Decorative - j Convenient
rProspect-tower.
I Temple,
j Porch.
" •} Portico.
| Arbor.
LCave.
Cavern.
Grotto.
Roofed seat.
Exposed seat.
Swing.
Waterfall.
Cascade.
Jet or spout.
Sun-dial.
Vane.
Characteristic
C Rocks.
< Ruins.
t Antiquities.
Rarities.
Monuments.
Statues.
Vegetable sculptures.
Inscriptions.
Eye- traps.
Book III.
IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING.
269
Chap. I.
Implements of Gardening.
1294. The usual mechanical agents employed in garden-culture, may be classed as fol-
lows : — 1. Tools, or simple implements for performing operations on the soil., and other
dead or mineral matters; 2. Instruments for performing operations on plants, or on living
bodies, as insects and vermin ; 3. Utensils for habitations of plants, or the deportation
or retention of either dead or living materials ; 4. Machines, or compound implements
for any of the above or other purposes ; and, 5. Articles adapted, manufactured, or pre-
pared, so as to serve various useful purposes.
Sect. I. Tools*
1295. The common character of tools is, that they are adapted for labor which re-
quires more force than skill ; they are generally large, and require the use of both hands
and the muscular action of the whole frame, often aided by its gravity. Tools consist
of two parts, the head, blade or acting part ; and the handle or lever, by which the power
is communicated, and the tool put in action. As almost all tools operate by effecting a
mechanical separation between the parts of bodies, they generally act on the principle of
the wedge and lever, and consequently the wedge-shape ought to enter, more or less,
into the shape of the head or blade of most of them, and the lever or handle ought to be
of some length. Where the handle is intended to be grasped and held firm, its form
may be adapted for that end, as in the upper termination of the handle of the shovel or
the spade ; but where the human hand is to slide along the handle, then it should be
perfectly cylindrical, as producing least friction, as in the hoe and the mattock. The
materials of which tools are composed, are almost exclusively iron and timber ; and of
the latter the ash is reckoned to combine most strength and toughness, the willow to be
lightest, and fir or pine deal the straightest. The best quality of both materials should,
if possible, be used, as scrap-iron and cast-steel, and root-cut young ash from rocky steeps.
For light tools, such as the hoe and rake, the willow, or pine deal, may be used for the
handles, but in scarcely any case can inferior iron or steel be admitted for the blades.
1296. The pick (Jig. 77.) is a double or compound lever, and consists of the handle (a),
which ought to be formed of sound ash timber, and the head (b), which ought to be
made of the best iron, and pointed with steel. There are several varieties : the first, the
pick with the ends of the head pointed {Jig. 77.), is used for loosening hard ground,
gravel, &e. ; the second, or pick-axe (Jig. 78.) with both ends wedge-shaped, in reversed
positions, and sharp, is used for cutting through the roots in felling timber ; the third,
or mattock (Jig. 79.), is used chiefly for loosening hard surfaces and for grubbing up
roots of small trees or bushes. It is sometimes called a crow, and also a grubbing-axe,
iioe-axe, &c.
1297. Garden-levers are of two species, the removing and the carrying lever.
1 298. T/ie removing-lever (Jig. SO. ) is a straight and generally cylindrical or polygonal
bar of iron, somewliat tapered and wedge-shaped or flattened in the thick end ; it is used
for the removal of large stones or other heavy bodies, in which its advantage is as the
distance of the power (a), from the fulcrum (6), &c.
1299. The carrying-lever, or hand-spoke, is used in pairs for carrying tubs of plants or other
bodies or materials furnished with hooks or bearing staples, under or in which to insert the
hand-spokes. Two of them united to a platform of boards form the common hand-barrow.
<;1 82 83 85 86 84 89
1300. The spade (Jig. 81.) consists of two parts ; the blade, of plate-iron, and the handle,
270 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
of tough root-cut ash timber, rather longer than the handle of the pick, but generally about
two feet nine inches. Spades are manufactured of different sizes, and generally with a
flat blade ; but perforated blades (fig. 82.) are sometimes prized, as cleaning or freeing
themselves better from earth in adhesive soils ; and semi -cylindrical blades (fig. 83.), or
what canal -diggers call grafting-tools, are preferred for the same reason, and also as enter-
ing the soil easier, because gradually, and in effect as if a flat spade with a pointed or
shield-like curved edge were used. Spades with curved edges or pointed blades are easiest
to thrust into the earth in hard or stiff soils, and clean themselves better, but they are
more apt to leave untouched parts (baulks) in the bottom of the trench than the common
square-mouthed spade. They are the best species for new ground work, but not well
adapted for culture.
1301. The shovel (fig. 84.) consists of two parts, the handle and the blade ; the latter of
plate-iron, and the former of ash timber. There are several species. Such as are turned
up on the edges, and are used for shovelling mud, or, when formed of wood (generally of
beech), for turning grain, seeds, or potatoes ; square-mouthed shovels, for gathering
up dung in stables, and used by the gardener in the melon-ground ; heart-shaped or
pointed-mouthed shovels, used for lifting earth out of trenches in ditch-making, trenching,
or in other excavations ; and long narrow-mouthed shovels, for cleaning out drains, &c.
1302. The fork. (figs. 85, 86, and 87.) Of this tool there are three principal
specie? : — The first (fig. 85.), for working with litter, haulm, or stable-dung: the
second (fig. 86.), for stirring the earth among numerous roots, as in fruit-trees and
flower-borders, or for taking up roots ; and the third (fig- 87.), for plunging pots in
bark-pits, or for taking up asparagus or other roots. The prongs of the last are small,
round, and should be kept clear or polished by use, or by friction with sand. In adhe-
sive soils, a strong two-pronged fork (fig. 86.) is one of the most useful of garden-tools,
and is advantageously used on most occasions where the spade or even the hoe would be
resorted to in free soils, but especially in stirring between crops.
1303. The turf-spade (fig. 104.) consists of a cordate or scutiform blade, joined to a
handle by a kneed or bent iron shank. It is used for cutting turf from old sheep-
pastures, with a view to its being employed either for turfing garden-grounds, or being
thrown together in heaps to rot into mould. It is also used in removing ant-hills and
other inequalities in sheep-pastures, in parks, or rough lawns. A thin section is first
removed, then the protuberance of earth is taken out and the section replaced, which, cut
thin, and especially on the edges, readily refits ; and the operation is finished with gentle
pressure by the foot, back of the spade, beetle, or roller.
1304. The dibber (figs. 88, and 89.) is a short piece of cylindrical wood, obtusely
pointed, and sometimes shod with iron on the one end, and formed into a convenient
spade-like handle in the other. There are three species. The common garden-dibber
(fig. 88.), the potatoe-dibber (fig. 89.), and the forester's or planter's dibber. The
forester's dibber has a wedge-shaped blade, forked at the extremity, for the purpose of
carrying down with it the tap-root of seedling trees ; it has been much used in planting
extensive tracts, but may be considered as a barbarous mode of treating plants, and
deserving reprobation. There are also dibbers that make two holes at once, sometimes
used in planting leeks or other articles that are placed within a few inches of each other ;
dibbers which make several holes for planting beans and other seeds ; and wedge-shaped
dibbers which in soft sandy soils are easily worked, and admit of spreading the roots
better than the round kind. These wedge-shaped tools also admit of putting two plants
in a hole, one at each extremity.
1 305. The planter s hack, or double mattock (fig. 90. ), is used for the same purpose
as the forester's dibber, and is much to be preferred. (See Pontey's Profitable Planter.)
1306. The planter s trowel is a triangular blade of iron joined to a short handle,
used for planting young trees in free but unprepared soils, as heaths, moors, &c. (Sang's
Planters' Kalendar.)
1307. The planter s pick-axe is the tool of that name {fig. 78.) in miniature ; or some-
times merely a small mattock (fig. 79.) used for planting in stony uncultivated soils.
1308. The garden-trowel is a tongue-shaped piece of iron, with a handle attached ; the
blade or tongue either flat (fig. 91.), or semi-cylindrical (fig. 92.), or merely turned up
on the sides. It is used to plant, or take up for transplanting, herbaceous plants and
small trees. Trowels are also used for loosening the roots of weeds, and are then called
weeding-irons. Sometimes they are used for stirring the soil among tender plants in
confined situations. Wooden trowels or spatulae are sometimes used in potting plants to
fill in the earth ; but the garden-trowel with the edges turned up is the best for this and
most other purposes.
1309. The transplanter (fig. 93.) consists of two semi-cylindrical pieces of iron with
handles, and which are so inserted in the ground as to enclose a plant with a ball of earth
between them. In this state they are attached to each other by two iron pins, and, being
pulled up, bring with them the plant to be removed, surrounded with a ball of earth.
I>OOK -III.
IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING.
This being set in a prepared excavation surrounded by loose earth, the transplanter is
then separated as at first, and being wididrawn, one half at a time, the earth is gently
pressed to the ball containing the plant, and the whole well watered. Tender plants so
transplanted receive no check, even if in flower.
103
iOS
1310. Hoes are of two species, die draw-hoe and thrust-hoe, of each of which there are
several varieties.
1311. The draw-hoe {figs. 94. to 97.) is a plate of iron, six or seven inches long by
two or three broad, attached to a handle about four feet long, at an angle less than a right
angle. The blade is either broad for cutting weeds f fig. 94.) ; deep and strong for
drawing earth to die stems of plants (fig. 95.) ; curved so as to act like a double mould-
boarded plough in drawing drills ; formed into two strong broad prongs for stirring hard
adhesive soils (fig. 96.) ; or it is formed to accomplish the first and last purposes, as in
the double hoe. (Jig. 97.)
1312. The thrust-hoe (figs. 98, and 99.) consists of a plate of iron attached somewhat
obliquely to the end of a handle, either by a bow (fig. 98.), or a straight piece, (fig. 99.)
These hoes, which are sometimes called Dutch hoes, are used only for killing weeds, or
loosening ground which is to be afterwards raked. As a man can draw more than he
can push, most heavy work will be easiest done by the draw-hoe.
1313. The wheel-hoe (Jig. 108.) is a compound
between the draw and thrust hoes, being drawn by one
man and thrust by another. It is used for hoeing
garden-walks in the Low Countries and France, where
the walks are either of sand or earth. In this coun-
try it could seldom be employed for this purpose ;
and indeed for this or any other object it is a bad
implement, as it requires two men to work it ; and
two men working with the same tool will never do
as much work as if they used separate tools.
1314. The garden-rake consists of a range of teeth inserted in a straight bar of iron or
wood from six to eighteen inches in length, and attached at right angles across the end of
a handle. Rakes vary in size, and in the length and strength of their teeth, and are used
for covering seeds, or raking off weeds or cut grass, for smoothing surfaces and for
removing or replacing thin strata of pulverised surfaces as in cuffing. For the latter pur-
pose a wooden-headed rake is preferable, for the others iron is generally more eligible.
1315. The drill-rake has large coulter- formed teeth about six inches long and the same
distance apart : it is used for drawing drills across beds for receiving small seeds, and the
same rake serves to stir the soil between the rows after the seeds come up. In very loose
soils, where a wide drill is required a sheadi of wood may be fixed to the upper part of
each prong to spread die earth, but diis is seldom necessary. When the drills are re-
quired not to be quite so wide as six inches, the operator has only to work the implement
diagonally.
1316. The hoe-rake combines a hoe and rake, eidier at opposite ends of the same
handle, as in France, or back to back at one end, as in England, (fig. 100.) They are
used for giving slight dressings to borders.
1317. The turf-raser (raser, Fr. to shave or trim.) (fig. 101.) consists of a narrow
272 SCIENCE OF GARDENING Part II.
kidney-shaped blade fixed to a straight handle, and is used for paring the edges of
verges or borders of turf ; and for cutting the outlines of turves to be raised with the
turf-spade.
1318. The turf-beetle (Jig. 102.) is a cylindrical or conical piece of wood, of one hun-
dred or two hundred pounds' weight, with an upright handle and two cross-handlets
attached ; it is used chiefly for pressing down and levelling new-laid turf. There is a
variety, consisting of a rectangular block with a handle placed obliquely (Jig. 103.), which
is used when a less powerful pressure is desirable.
1319. The turf-scraper is a head or plate of wood (Jig. 105.) or iron (Jig. 106.), fixed at
right angles across the end of a long handle, and is used chiefly to scrape off earth, or the
exuviae of worms, snails, &c. from lawns, grass verges, or walks, early in spring. In some
cases, teeth, like those of a saw, are formed in the edge of the blade of such scrapers, in
order to tear out the moss from lawns ; in many situations, however, a mossy lawn is
much to be preferred to grass, as softer, and requiring less frequent mowing. Wire
besoms are used with good effect for this purpose, as well as for removing moss from
walls or trunks of large trees.
1 320. The dock-iveeder (Jig. 1 07. ) is composed of a narrow iron blade attached to a spade-
like handle, with a protruding iron stay joined to the lower end of the handle, or to the
iron shank of the blade, to act as a fulcrum. It is used for digging up long conical
roots of weeds in pastures or close crops, where the spade or two-pronged fork cannot be
introduced ; or for taking up crops of fusiform roots, as the parsnep, scorzonera, &c.
1321. The besom used in gardening is of three species. The spray broom, consisting of
a small faggot of spray, generally that of the birch, or of spartium, with a handle inserted ;
or a brush of bristles with a similar handle : the former sort are used for the open air, the
latter in hot-houses, seed-rooms, &c. The wire besom consists of a bundle of iron or
copper wires, of one twentieth of an inch in diameter, fixed to a long handle. It is
used for sweeping gravelled paths which have become mossy, mossy walls, mossy trunks
of trees, &c. Such besoms require to be dipt in oil occasionally, to retard the progress
of oxidation.
1322. Implement-cleaners, are small spatula? formed of wood, generally by the operator
himself. A small brush of wire like a painter's large brush is useful for cleaning pots,
and some have a particular description of knife for that purpose, and for spades, hoes, &e.
1323. Of these tools the essential kinds are the spade, the dung-fork, and the rake ; for
with these, all the operations for which the others are employed may be performed, though
with much less facility, expedition, and perfection. There are diminutive sizes of most
of them to be had in the shops for infant gardeners ; and portable and convertible sets for
ladies and amateur practitioners.
Sect. II. Instruments.
1 324. The common character of cutting-implements is, that they require in their use more
skill than physical force : they may be divided into instruments for operations, as the knife,
saw, &c. ; instruments of direction, as the measuring-rod, level, &c. ; and instruments of
designation, as numbering-tallies, name-pieces, &c.
Subsect. 1. Instruments of Operation.
1 325. Operative instmments are used in labors of a comparatively light kind. They may
be used in general with one hand, and commonly bring into action but a part of the mus-
cular system ; the scythe however is an exception. They are similarly constructed to tools,
and act on the same' principles, differing from those only in being generally reducible to
levers of the third kind, or those in which the power or hand is between the weight or
matter to be cut or separated, and the fulcrum or arm, as in cutting off a shoot with a
knife. But in clipping, the fulcrum is between the hand and the weight or object to be
clipt off, and therefore shears act as wedges moved by levers of the second kind. The ma-
terials of instruments are in general the same as tools, but the handles of knives are of
horn, bone, ivory, or ramose fucus, and the greatest attention is requisite as to the iron and
steel of the blades.
1326. The garden-knife is of several species and varieties.
The common garden-knife consists of a blade of prepared steel, fixed without a joint in a handle of bone
or horn, and kept in a sheath of leather or pasteboard. It varies in shape and size, and in the quality
of the blade ; the best in England are generally made in London, but the great mass disposed of in com-
merce are manufactured at Sheffield. Every working-gardener ought to carry one of these knives in a
side-pocket on his thigh, that he maybe ever ready to cut off pieces cf dead, decayed, or injured plants, or
gather crops, independents of other operations.
The common pruning-knife is similar to the former, but less hooked at the point ; for though the hook
be useful in gathering some crops, and in cutting over or pruning herbaceous vegetables, yet as all knives
cut on the same principle as the saw, it is injurious when the knife is used to cut woody shoots : therefore,
wherever a clean section is of importance, the pruning-knife, with a straight-edged blade, and not the
common garden-knife, with a hooked blade, ought to be employed.
The folding priming-knife differs from the other, in having the blade jointed in the handle, for the pur-
pose of rendering it portable with greater ease and in any description of pockets ; such knives are more
Book III.
IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING.
273
especially used by master-gardeners. There are varieties of these, with saws, chisels, penknives, &c. ; the
two latte'r are more curious than useful.
27»<? grafting-knife {fig. 109.) differs from the common prumng-kmfe, in having a thinner and more nar-
row blade fixed in a bone or hom handle. It is used for grafting, inarching, &c.
110
K9
114
The budding-knife (fig. 110.) differs from the grafting-knife, in having the point of the sharp edge of the
blade rounded off in the same manner as is the back or blunt edge of the grafting and pruning knives. It
has also a thin wedge-shaped ivory or bone handle for raising up the bark, in the operation of inocu-
The asparagus-knife consists of a strong blade, fixed in a handle, blunt on both edges, and straight
(fig. 111.) ; or slightly hooked, and serrated at one end. (fig. 112.)
1327. The garden-chisel is of two species, of which there are several varieties.
The grafting-chisel differs from the carpenter's chisel, in being a narrow wedge tapering equally on both
sides. It is used to split stocks where the common pruning-knife is not deemed sufficiently strong.;
The forest-chisel (fig. 113.) is a sharp edge of steel, with or without a sharp steel hook or hooks, generally
called ears : this blade or wedge is attached to a handle, from six to ten feet long or upwards ; or better to
a handle capable of being lengthened by additional joints. It is used for cutting off small branches of
forest-trees close by the bole or trunk ; with one hand it is placed and adjusted under the branch, and with
the other a smart blow is given by a wooden mallet, which, either at once or by repetition, effects separ-
ation, and leaves a smooth section. A variety of this instrument, used for pruning orchards, is furnished
with a guard or plate behind the blade, to prevent its entering too far into the trunk or main branch.
(fig. U4.)
115
120
1328. The pruning bill is generally a hooked blade, sometimes sharpened on one and
sometimes on both edges, attached to a handle of from one to four feet in length,
There are several varieties : one resembles the pruning-knife on a large scale (Jig. 115.),
having a handle four feet long, and is used for pruning hedges in the best hedge-districts,
such as Northumberland and Berwickshire ; another (Jig. 116.) has a handle of only one,
or one foot and a half long, 'and is sharpened in part on the back, forming a sort of halberd-
like blade, and is used where hedges are plashed, as in Middlesex and Hertfordshire ;
and the last we shall mention, contains a saw on one edge of the blade, and a knife on
the other (Jig. 117.); of this and the first-mentioned sorts are small portable varieties
with cases, &c. for amateur foresters.
1329. The Jorest-axe is a steel wedge fixed at right angles to the end of a handle of
wood, from two and a half to four feet long, and is chiefly used for cutting roots or trunks
at the ground's surface, where the saw cannot operate. Axes vary in dimension, and
also in the shape of the head or wedge, which, for the purposes of gardening, ought
to be long and narrow.
1330. Occasional instruments. Besides the above there may be wanted, in extraordinary
cases, adzes, gouges, carving-chisels, and peculiar-shaped instruments, which the intelligent
gardener will search for or procure to be made to answer his intentions.
1331. The pruning-saw (fig. 1 18.) is a blade of steel, serrated in what is called the
double manner on one side, and is either jointed like a folding pruning-knife ; jointless
as in the common knife ; shaped like a carpenter's saw (Jig. 119.); or of some length, say
with a handle of six or eight feet, as in the forest-saw. (fig. 120.) The small saws are
used for cutting off branches where the knife cannot easily act owing to want of room,
and the forest-saw is used in cutting off large branches. In either case the section must
be smoothed with the forest-chisel or pruning-knife, and, if possible, or at least in delicate
cases, should always be covered with some tenacious air-excluding composition.
1332. The averruncator (fig. 121.) is a compound blade attached to a handle from five
T
274
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
to eight feet in length, and operating by means of a lever moved by a cord and pulley.
Its use is to enable a person standing on the ground to prune standard trees, -which it
readily does when the handle is eight feet long, to the height of fifteen feet ; and, by usino-
step-ladders, any greater height may be attained. Branches one inch and a half in
diameter may readily be cut oft' with this instrument. There is a species made entirely
of metal, to be used with one hand for pruning shrubs or hedges : of this species there
are varieties made at Sheffield of different sizes and qualities.
1333. The shears used in gardening are of several species.
1334. T?ie pruning-shcars (fig. 122.) differ from the common sort, in having a moveable centre (a) for
the motion of one of the blades, by which means, instead of a crushing-cut, they make a draw-cut, leaving
the section of the part attached to the tree as firm and smooth as if cut off with a knife. It is used in the
same way as the common shears, and is very convenient in reducing the size of the shrubs or bushes, and
clipping hedges of roses or other select plants.
1335. The ringing-shears (fig. 123.) is an instrument of French invention for expediting the practice of
ringing trees. A two-bladed knife, with both blades open at once, will give the best idea of its mode of
operating, and is, in fact, a good substitute.
123 124
1336. The French pruning-shears (fig. 124.), by the curvature of the cutting blade, cuts in a sort of
medium way between the common crushing and pruning shears : it is an expeditious implement for
pruning the vine.
1337. Hedge-shears (figs. 125 & 126.) are composed of two blades, acting in unison by means of a pivot,
on which they turn, on trie principle of a lever of the second kind. They were formerly much used in
gardening, for hedges, fanciful figures, bowers, and even fruit-shrubs, which were then shorn or trimmed,
into globes, cones, and pyramids, by shears. At present the taste is different. Shears, however, are still
wanted for hedges of privet and yew ; but where the twigs or shoots are stronger, as in the holly, thom,
and beech, the hedge-bill or pruning-shears is preferable, as producing wounds more easily cicatrised, and
not thickening the outer surface of the hedge, by which means the interior shoots rot for want of air,
especially in thom and other deciduous hedges
125 126
13S8. Verge-shears (fig. 127.) are a species in which the blades are joined to the handles by kneed shanks,
to lessen stooping in the operator. They are chiefly used for trimming the sides of box-edgings and grass-
verges. A variety has a small wheel appended, which in cutting grass-edgings is a great improvement.
1339. Turf-shears (fig. 128.) are another variety, for cutting the tops of box-edgings and the tufts of
grass at the roots of shrubs, not easily got at by the scythe. Some of three have also a wheel or even two
wheels on an axle fixed to the shears on the principle of the table-caster.
Book III.
IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING.
275
1340. The scythe {Jig. 129.) is a sharp blade of steel attached to the end of a crooked
wooden handle. It varies somewhat in size and in the angle made by the plate or knife,
which is so contrived as to be varied at the pleasure of the operator ; and in mowing very
short thick grass, is generally placed so as the plane of the blade may be parallel to the
plane of the surface to be mown.
1341. Of the garden-scarifiers, or bark-sealers, there are several sorts. They are gene-
rally hooked edge-tools or blunt knives, used for removing the already scaling off external
epidermis of the stem and branches of fruit-trees of some age. They vary in size and
strength, in order to suit different sorts of trees, and different parts of the same tree.
The two-handed instrument {Jig. 1 30. ) is for removing the bark from the axilla? of the
branches, or other angular parts difficult to be got at. The small hook {Jig. 131.) is for
lateral branches of one and two inches in diameter ; and the knife-hook {Jig. 132.) for
the trunks of the largest trees. This operation should be performed in the middle of
winter ; and to guard against accidents, the whole of a tree should seldom be done in
one season.
132
1342. The moss-scraper, for standards, is a sort of horse curry-comb {Jig. 133.); and
for wall-trees, is a sickle-like instrument. {Jig. 134.) In either form it is used to re-
move moss from the branches, or woody parts of trees ; the existence of which is a cer-
tain indication of the commencement of decay. It must be confessed, however, that
such instruments seldom remove the moss completely, and that the scarifier, by removing
a portion of the outer bark, does the business much more effectually, and is greatly to be
preferred.
1343. The blunt knife {Jig. 135.) has a lanceolate, double-edged blade, somewhat
obtuse on the edges, and is used for the removal of decayed wood from hollow wounds
in old neglected trees. It can never be wanted where there has been any thing like good
management.
137 138
136
139
140
1 344. Of forest bar fang-irons there are two species and several varieties. They are used,
not to scarify or remove the scaly decaying epidermis, but to remove the entire mass of
T 2
276
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
cortical layers of the oak for the purposes of the tanner. The first species includes four
varieties: the smaller instruments (Jigs. 136, 137, & 138.) are for undergrowth, or
copse bark, or small branches ; the largest {fig. 139.) for the larger branches and trunks :
the long blade (fig. 140.) is the second species, and is used for cross-cutting the bark,
before removed by the scarifiers, into proper lengths.
1345. The garden-hammer consists of a head with a flat face and forked claw, and is
generally lighter than the carpenter's hammer. It is used chiefly by gardeners for
driving or drawing the nails in dressing wall-trees.
1346. Of fruit-gatherers there are several species.
1347. Saul 's fruit-gatherer (fig. 141.) consists of
a pair of cutters (a and b) attached to a long pole,
which may be lengthened by screwed joints or other-
wise. The operating lever (c) may be attached to
any part of the pole; the lever of the moving
chop (d) has a spring under it to keep it open ;
and the communicating string passes over a pul-
ley (e) ; the cutters (a, b) are so connected to the
pole by a joint and arch (/), that they may be set
at any angle required, for the purpose of getting
at the fruit readily. Half the. top of the basket
may be covered to prevent the fruit from falling out
when a full basket is brought down.
1348. Lane's fruit-gatherer (fig. 142.) consists of
a pole (a), with a pair of forceps (b, c) at the end ;
one forcep (b) being fixed, and the other (c) move-
able ; a wire (d, d) is attached to the moving forcep,
which passes along a groove to the trigger (e).
The pole being raised by the left-hand, the back of
the right raises the trigger, and opens the forcep,
which, being applied to the fruit, the trigger is
pressed, by which the fruit is secured. The for-
ceps are formed of a ring of metal, covered with
soft leather and padded.
1349. The orange-gatherer used in Spain (^g. 143.)
consists of a rod with a cup at the end, composed of
six Ungulate pieces of plate-iron or hoop, some-
what sharp at the edges. The instrument is made
to enclose the fruit, the stalk being between the iron-
ptetes ; a gentle twist is then given, when the fruit is
detached and brought down in the cup.
1350. The Swiss fruit-gatherer (fig. 145.) is a
small basket, with the ends and edges of the ribs
sharpened and protruding : it is used like the orange-
gatherer, in collecting apples, pears, and walnuts. (Lasteyrie, Collect.
de Mach. &c.) .
13-51. The orchardings hook (fig. 144.) consists of a rod, with an iron
hook fixed at one extremity, and a sliding-piece (a) at the other. The oper-
ator being on the tree, seizes a branch with the hook, draws it towards
him, and holds it in that position till he gathers the fruit, by hooking on
the sliding cross-piece to another branch. This slider passes freely
along the rod, but cannot drop off on account of the pin (6) at the end.
143
141
142
d'
144
^er
145
1352. Garden-pincers are of three species ; those for drawing nails do not differ from
those used by carpenters, consisting of two hooked levers of iron, acting as levers of the
first kind ; those for twisting wire in repairing trellis or flower-baskets, &c. are the sort
used by wire-workers, which operate both as pliers and pincers ; and those for pulling
Book III.
IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING.
277
weeds are, when large {Jig. 146.), formed of wood pointed with plate-iron, and are used
for pulling out large weeds, particularly thistles and other large plants in hedg js, or
other bulky crops. They are also sometimes used for common weeding, to prevent
stooping and treading beds and borders ; but their chief use is to weed ponds, either
reaching from the shores or from boats. A small sort formed of iron is sometimes used
for weeding very hard gravel-walks. Gloves, having the first finger and thumb points
cased with iron or steel, brought to a wedge shape, are also used for the same purpose.
1353. The grape-gatherer (Jig.147.) is a pair of scissars, combining also tweezers or
pincers, attached to the end of a rod six or eight feet long, and worked by a cord and
pulley, or lever and wire. The bunch of grapes to be gathered from the roof of a lofty
vinery, or the sprig of myrtle to be culled from the summit of a green-house stage, is not
only clipped cleanly off the plant by the sheers, but held fast by that part of them acting
as pincers till it is brought down to the operator.
148 151
149
1354. The peach-gatherer (Jig. 148.) consists of a tin funnel or inverted hollow cone,
fixed on the end of a rod or handle at an obtuse angle, the funnel is first introduced under
each fruit, and then gently raised or moved sideways ; if ripe, the fruit will fall into the
funnel. It is used for gathering the peach tribe, apricots, and plums.
1355. The pear-gatherer resembles the above, but the funnel is deeply notched or ser-
rated, in order to aid in gently drawing off ripe fruit. It is used in gathering the finer
sorts of pears and apples from walls. This and the last instrument are also sometimes
used for gathering mulberries. Common pears and apples are often gathered by Lane's
instrument. (Jigs. 142. & 151.)
1356. T/ie berrymgatherer (Jig. 149.) is the combined scissars and pincers above men-
tioned, worked by the hand like common scissars, and is used for gathering gooseberries,
strawberries, raspberries, and such fruits as should be touched by no other hand than that
which conveys them to the mouth. Some opulent proprietors have branches of fruit
shrubs cut off and brought to table, as bouquets, in elegant china vases ; or have their
strawberries grown in pots, and thus served up to be gathered as used, &c. Jerome
Buonaparte, when king of Westphalia, passing through Warsaw, on his way to Moscow,
in the campaign of 1812, had branches of cherry-trees laden with fruit held upright by
soldiers round his table like a sort of grove, from the branches of which, extending over
their heads, he and his guests gathered the fruit.
1357. The seed and cherry gatherer (Jig- 150.) consists of a valvular pocket placed on
the end of a long rod. One valve or jaw of the mouth or pocket is fixed, and the other
is kept open by a spring, and closed at pleasure, and made t( bite or pinch off" seeds of
forest-trees, 'or even fruits, especially cherries,
by operating on it with a string and pulley,
or wire and lever. It is peculiarly use-
ful for gathering ash and sycamore keys,
haws, and such like seeds.
1358. Flower-gatherers are of two sorts, the
long-handled and the small flower-gatherer.
The latter may be the same implement as the
berry-gatherer. (Jig- 149.) The long-han-
dled flower-gatherer (Jig. 152.), and which
is also an excellent grape-gatherer, cuts and
holds on the same principle as the wire-
worker's pincers, or berry-gatherer. It is
worked by means of two small cords, one
(a) serves to vary the direction of the cutting
part or scissars, and the other (b) to effect
the amputation and retention of a flower,
twig, or bunch of fruit.
TS
278
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
1359. Tlie climbing-spur {Jig. 153.) is of two sorts, one with,
and the other without a stem. The first sort (a) is fastened to the
upper part of the leg with a leather belt (b) ; the other sort (c)
is tied to the feet. By means of these spurs, one on each foot,
naked-stemmed trees may be ascended to any height, and when
it is wished to stop a short time at any part, the screw of the ring
{d) is entered in the trunk, and forms a firm point for one foot.
{Lasteyrie, Coll. de Machines, &c.)
1360. The essential operative instruments are the knife, saw, shears, scythe, and hammer.
Subsect. 2. Instruments of Direction.
1361. The common characteristic of directive or preparatory instruments is, that they are
used in actions preparatory to operations, rather than in operations themselves, and depend
on scientific knowledge more than on practical dexterity ; this remark will apply also to
their construction, which is founded on the doctrines of quantities, gravitation, &c.
1362. Tlie garden-line is composed of three parts, the frame, generally of iron, the cord
which is wound upon the frame, and the pin which terminates the cord. The common
use of the line is perfectly understood from the name ; though generally used for straight
lines, yet it is also applied, by means of pegs or small stakes, to form curved lines.
1363. The ground-measure. Of this there are at least three sorts used in gardening.
A Gunter's chain of 100 links, or 66 feet, a rod of one twelfth, or any equal part of the
chain, marked with links on one side, and feet on the other, and a common pocket-rule.
To these may be added a pocket measuring-line, though it is not, from its contraction and
expansion, to be much depended on. The chain is used to ascertain the contents of, or to
lay out and subdivide considerable plots ; the rod for the detail of such plots, or for
marking out rows, &c. ; and the pocket-rule for taking smaller dimensions.
1364. Of timber-measurers and dendrometers there are various kinds, and their use is
lor taking the dimensions of standing timber without climbing the tree. Broad's mea-
surer {Jig. 154.) is composed of two pieces of deal about 13 feet long, with a brass limb or
index (a), on which are engraven figures denoting the quarter girth in feet and inches.
Raising the instrument, the index end (a) is taken hold of, and the other applied to that
part of the trunk where the girth is to be taken, opening it so wide as just to touch at the
same time both sides of it, keeping the graduated index uppermost, on which the quarter
girth will be shown, allowing 1 inch in 13 for the bark. {Trans. Soc Arts, vol. xxv.
p. 20.) There are various other dendrometers, among which is a curious one by
Monteath, which will be afterwards noticed. The above we consider as much the
best.
1 365. For taking tlie height of a tree. Rods of deal or bamboo, seven feet long, made so
as to fit into ferrules at the end of each other, tapering as in a fishing-rod, may be used.
Five of them with feet marked on them would enable a man quickly to measure
the height of a trunk of more than 40 feet, as he would reach above seven feet.
1366. Tlie ground-compasses {Jig. 155.) are generally made of hard wood, such as oak,
shod with iron, and with an iron gauge or segment (a) ; their length may be six feet ;
they are used chiefly for laying out parterres in the ancient manner ; since, by a previous
Book III.
IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING.
279
preparation of the soil, the curvilinear parts of such parterres can be described by them
with perfect accuracy. The stationary foot is placed on a slip of board a few inches
square, with a pin beneath to retain it in its place, and a lead cap above for the point of
the foot.
1367. The borning-piece {fig. 156.) is composed of the body (a), commonly a thin slip
of board, four inches wide, half an inch thick, and four feet two inches long ; the head
(b) of a similar slip of board placed across, but only eighteen inches long ; and the foot
is either of the same form as the head, or merely the squared end of the body (as in the
figure). The upper and under edge of the head and foot must be perfectly straight, and
form right angles with the edges of the body. Borning-pieces are used to prove, com-
plete, and continue level lines, or lines on certain given slopes. One is placed at each
end of a convenient length of the level or slope, and there held perpendicular to its sur-
face, and others, being placed in the interval, and in the same line or vertical plane,
the ground under the feet of the intermediate borning-pieces is raised or lowered till it
is brought to the proper level or slope, when the upper edges of all the heads will range.
Where box-edgings are to be planted with accuracy and beauty, the use of these imple-
ments cannot be dispensed with.
1368. Of levels (figs. 157 & 158.) there are a variety of sorts; but the most con-
venient is half a square, with an iron index in the angle marked with ninety divisions or
degrees. The use of these degrees is to facilitate the laying out of slopes ; at a perfect
level the plummet will hang at 45°, and for a slope it may be any lesser number in ascend-
ing, or any greater number in descending from a fixed point. This level may also be
used as a square to set off right angles, or indeed angles of any description.
158
1369. The adjusting horizontal level (fig. 157.) is peculiarly useful in laying out roads,
or regulating the slope of lawns or borders, as is also the following instrument.
1370. DalzieVs level, (fig. 159.) This is an instrument of a very simple description,
159
lately invented, for ascertaining the relative elevation of unequal surfaces. It consists of a
wooden bar (a) with a foot at one end (6), and at the other another larger foot with a groove
and scale (c), to which the bar is connected by a screw and nut. In using this instru-
ment, two points of different altitude being chosen, the support of the bar (b) is to be
placed on the higher, and (c) the foot of the scale on the lower, while the position of both is
secured by a slight turn of the thumb-screw. The bar being brought parallel to the horizon
with the plummet (d), will indicate, that the upper part of the scale is to be advanced, or
the reverse, keeping its foot on the point of support, until some one of the graduations
coincides with, or is visibly parallel to the upper edge of the bar. The difference of alti-
tude sought is seen in figures, without calculation. Any person that understands the use
of a level will see a variety of levelling operations on a small scale that this implement is
calculated to simplify : for example, if it be required to construct an inclined plane, rising
an inch in a foot, the inner edge of the scale is to be brought six feet from the foot end
of the horizontal piece, and rendered perpendicular to it, by making the graduated line at
six inches coincide with the horizontal edge of the bar. Being fixed immovcably by the
screw in that position, the surface of the ground is then to be worked until the plummet
hangs perpendicularly. The first six feet of the inclined plane having been thus con-
structed, other portions are to be taken successively throughout the remainder. If a plane
of a different inclination is required, as of half an inch in a foot, the scale is to be shifted
to three inches, and so on. (High. Sec* Trans, vol. v. p. 575.)
T 4
280
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
1371. The spirit-level, with a theodolite, compass, and telescope, is used for laying out ex-
tensive scenes. The most convenient are put together, and assume the form of a stout
walking-stick. Smalcalder is at present the best London artist in this line.
1372. The staff is used in laying out straight lines. It may be a straight rod of six or
eight feet long or upwards, and one inch in diameter ; with the first six inches at the top
painted white, the second black, and the third six inches red. Two points of the desired
straight line being found or given, any greater number of points are found by placing
other staffs or rods so as they shall range, and the first staff conceal from the eye placed
behind it, all the rest in the line ; the use of the three different colors is to render the ends
distinctly visible when the ground is fresh dug, white or covered with snow, or green, as
in pastures.
1373. The straight-edge, for a garden, may also serve for a plumb-rule. It is merely a
slip of board with straight parallel edges and sides, of any length from four to ten feet,
with the addition of a plummet for occasional use as a plumb-rule. It is used to form
and prove smaller levels, between points settled, by the borning-pieces ; or to prove beds
or borders of even or plane surfaces. As a plumb-rule, this implement is also used to
place espalier rails, temporary walls of boards, and even standard trees, upright.
1374. The stake is any straight piece of wood of an inch or two in diameter, and from
one to four feet in length. There are two sorts, the one short and thick, of one foot or
eighteen inches in length, and used, by being driven into the ground in levelling, as resting-
places for the level, or fixed indications of surface alterations ; the other, comparatively
slender and long, may either be covered with white-wash, or the lower half dipped in
white- wash, and the upper half in a black-wash, or they may be painted as the staffs. The
last kind are used for tracing out lines of any description, or for indicating the situations
of trees, or other objects. Twigs and bits of lath are commonly used as substitutes, but
wherever correctness is any object, the trifling expense of two or three hundred of such
stakes, should not deter from procuring them.
Subsect. 3. Instruments of Designation.
1375. The object of designating instruments is to record and render ascertainable the
individuality of objects, and chiefly of plants; either as species, genera, or varieties. A
tally or stake driven into the soil and remaining fast, is, mechanically considered, a
wedge held in equilibrium by the resistance of the earth. Wherever there is a variety of
plants cultivated, it becomes necessary to be able to mark and distinguish them, as well
when in a growing state, as when in a state of hybernation, or recent insertion in the
soil. — In sending plants to any distance, the same thing is requisite. For both purposes
the name is either written on some instrument, and attached to or placed beside the
plant ; or a number is made use of instead of the name, from which reference is made to
a written list. Of both these a considerable variety is used in gardening.
1376. Notch number ing-sticks are of several distinct species.
1377. The common tally (tailler, Fr.), or number-stick (Jig. 160.), is a slip of lath, or
170 163
164 165
I / \ /WVTfW, V
9 OSpeciej;
^
deal, or a piece of a rod, nine or twelve inches long, sharpened at one end and squared
at the other. The numbers, to nine inclusive, are cut on the face with a knife in
Roman numerals (I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX.) ; reading always from the
insertion, or sharpened end. Ten is formed by a notch or tally on the near angle, and
placed behind the above numerals, extends the series from eleven to nineteen. Twenty
is formed by two notches, thirty by three, and so on : the nine numerals above being
Book III. IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING. 281
placed after the notches, so as to form the intermediate terms of the series. Fifty,
instead of five notches, is formed by a cross cut, or channel, like I, on the face, with a
similar one on the right side joined to it. One hundred is formed by joining to these
two cuts a similar cut on the other side, that is a channel continued on three sides; and
one hundred and fifty, by a cut or channel continued on the four sides of the stick.
Ninety may be more readily formed by using the mark for one hundred, and placing a
notch behind it, to signify 100 less 10, than using the cuts for fifty, and adding four
notches before. Other high numbers may be simplified in the same manner. A little
reflection will show that this mode of numbering may be carried to almost any extent •
and in some nurseries, particularly in Scotland, we have known it carried as far as five
hundred, which is formed by only three rings for 150 x 3 = 450, and a half ring for 50.
Particular attention must always be had to read from the root, or insertion end.
1378. Setons botanic tally {figs. 161. to 165.) is a highly improved method of
numbering, devised by Alexander and George, sons of the late Dr. Anderson. It proceeds
upon the same general principles as that above, but with different marks, the ten cyphers
(Jig. 162.) being denoted by as many single distinct cuts of easy and expeditious exe-
cution ; and any number, however high, requiring no more marks than it would require
figures written with a pen.
1379. As an example of application, the number 590 (fig. 161.) may be referred to.
" The only way in which the memory is apt to misgive, in this scheme, is by confounding
/ & \, /\ & [v, A & V> with each other, (as a child would confound the figures 6
and 9,) but this slight inconvenience will be remedied by the following key, which may be
easily borne in the mind. Let us recollect that, in writing, we naturally draw a stroke
from the right, at top, to the left, at bottom, thus / , and not in the opposite direction,
thus \ : now, in all the above numbers, which differ from each other in the direction of
the diagonal line, that which is in the direction usual in writing precedes the other,
thus / \ ^ N A A; the other two, A & V> will not be confounded, on recol-
236789 45
lecting that V *s the usual numeral notation of five.
In order to express the numbers which refer to a botanical catalogue, a practice of great use to every cul-
tivating botanist, " we cut the stick in the form of a prism of four sides, whereof one is narrower than the
rest ; or of a triangle, with one of the angles cut off A transverse section of the tally should be a
truncate triangle. {Jig. 162. a) On the narrowest side, notch the number corresponding with that of
the genus, in the catalogue. Its being rather more easy to cut the numbers on the smaller than on the
larger surface, is the reason for preferring the former for the genus, the number of which js, in most cases,
greater than that of the species. On the opposite and wider side, put the number of the species ; and if
there be a variety, put it on one of the intermediate sides. By this simple method, in going over the
garden with the catalogue in our hand, we can see at once the genus, species, and variety of any plant
we wish to look for ; and in putting in plants, we have always the means ready at hand of placing
the numbers with them, without the apparatus of whitened tallies, with ink, blacking, or any or those
troublesome expedients in common use. The sticks themselves, which may be painted of a dark color,
and kept always at hand, are, besides, less conspicuous and unsightly than the usual large white marks
with writing on them, and they are not so easily effaced." {Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 348, 349.)
1380. The ivritten number-stick (figs. 166. to 170.) varies in form, size, and materials.
The first sort (fig. 166.) is a flat piece of lath, smoothed and pointed with the knife, and
either painted, or more commonly rubbed on the face with white lead at the time of
using, and numbers corresponding with those of genus, species, and varieties are written
on it with a lead pencil. Sometimes types and printers' ink are used : when the paint is
dry, common ink, or black paint is also made use of ; and in some cases the number is
impressed by a cold type, or burnt in by one heated to redness. A little white lead
rubbed on with the finger, and the name immediately written with a hard black lead
pencil, will last as long as the wood, and is on the whole the best mode. Various sizes
are used ; from laths formed with the knife three inches long, and half an inch broad, to
pieces sawed out of deal, two or three inches broad, and from eighteen inches to three
feet long ; the upper part painted white, and lower part pitched, charred, or coated with
some preservative liquid, for durability. With respect to materials, fir deal is most
commonly used, but oak boards, or old oak spokes are occasionally made use of in
botanic gardens. Cast-iron is also used, and found by nurserymen to be in the end the
most economical. Earthenware, hoop-iron, lead, and copper have been tried. The general
form in all these cases, is a parallelogram pointed at the insertion end, and somewhat
rounded at the other. To detect stealing, or mark appropriation, the nt me of the proprietors
or of the garden may be cast on the back of all lead, or cast-iron, or earthenware
naming-instruments.
1381. The stamped nnmbering-instrument is formed in various ways; the simplest and
most economical is that of triangular slips of lead dipt or stampt from sheet-lead of 4lbs.
to a superficial foot ; and for plants in pots, they need not be longer than three inches,
nor broader at the head than half an inch. On these the number is stamped with a type,
or the name at length may be stamped in the same manner. Such tallies are durable,
unobtrusive, and not so readily driven out of pots as those of wood ; for herbaceous plants
they may be of double size and weight.
282 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
1382. Number-bricks. For plants in the open ground, bricks set endways and rather
obliquely in the soil, and the number painted on a black or white ground, answers well
where they do not require to be often removed. This mode is extensively used in the
herbaceous and tree arrangements in the nurseries of Messrs. Loddiges.
1383. The name-stick differs from the nuimber-stick in having the name written
or printed at length, instead of a number, figure, or sign referring to some list
or catalogue containing the name. Any of the written number-sticks will serve also for
a name-stick ; but frequently the upper end is broader, square, round, or oblong,
(figs. 167, 168. & 170.) and inclined to the stem, so as the name may meet the eye at
a parallel an°-le for reading. A very neat sort of naming-instrument for plants in hot-
houses, which do not require to be often removed, is formed of white earthenware, on
which the name may be written with ink or pencil, or printed. A variety of other
devices for numbering and naming planted plants, by instruments inserted in the ground,
might be mentioned : in the garden of the Ducal Palace Pitti, at Florence, the name, &c. is
printed on slips of paper, and placed inside a small glass bottle, which is fixed on the end of
an iron rod, a complex mode, and one which can only succeed in climates like that of Italy.
1384 For writing the figures or letters on small sticks, a little white lead is rubbed on with a bit of stiff
leather and a hard pencil is then used ; on a larger scale, and on durable materials, the stick is first
painted and the figures or letters afterwards put on in oil colors. On earthenware instruments either
ink or o'il color may be used. On large sticks the skeleton type may be used. This is the practice in the
Paris garden • the classes, orders, and generic name are cut out of one thin plate of brass, which is
applied to the' face of the stick, and then oil color brushed over it: the specific name is then added in
separate letters, from an alphabet so cut or stampt out of brass lamina.
1385. The plant-label is distinguished from the number and naming sticks, in being
buna- or tied to the plant, or nailed, or otherwise fixed to the wall or trellis against which
it is'trained. There are two species or varieties, the permanent and temporary.
1386. The permanent label is a slip or plate an inch or more in width, and two or three
inches long, of deal, metal, earthenware, leather, horn, bone, ivory, &c. on which the
number or name is impressed or written, and it is then hung to trees or nailed on the wall
or espalier rail to which trees are trained. The difficulty in the case of hanging labels on
trees is to find a durable tie, or thread, and for this purpose, untanned leathern thongs
or catgut is preferred ; silver or lead wire may also be used, the former for select plants,
and the latter for commoner cases.
1387. The temporary label is a shred of paper or parchment, and sometimes of leather,
with a string attached, and is used chiefly by nurserymen to designate plants sold.
1388. The mode of naming or registering by series, chiefly applies to fruit-trees in kitchen-
o-ardens or orchards, and is done by marking down the names in a book or on a plant,
m the same order in which the trees or shrubs are planted in the garden. Thus, suppose
the east side of an east wall is to be planted and registered without the use of naming-
instruments or labels. Begin at the south corner and write down under that title the
sort of trees in the order in which they are planted, placing in the list a number against
each name in regular series. Suppose that at any time afterwards, you wish to find
which tree is the o-olden pippin ; then looking in the list, that name is found opposite
No. 9 ; counting^ nine, therefore, from the south corner, will give you the tree, &c.
This mode of registering by series is always a very good check to any other mode of
numbering or naming. Sometimes it is done on a general plan of the garden, but the
plan must then be on a large scale to admit of writing down all the numbers or names
of the trees in the spots where they are planted.
1389. The essential instruments of direction and designation are the line, rule, level, and
common tally.
Sect. III. Utensils.
1390. Utensils may be characterised by their property of being adapted to hold, con-
tain, or include some material or thing, and either for the preparation of materials, the
deportation of plants and garden-productions, or their culture and protection.
Subsect. 1. Utensils of Preparation and Deportation.
1391. Preparatory utensils are the screen and sieve. Their construction and use em-
brace a variety of operations, mechanical and chemical.
1392. Screens are used in gardening for fining or sort- 171
ing earths, gravel, or tanners' bark. The mould-screen
(fig- l?1') is a w*re frame witn a j°mted fulcrum, by
which it can be placed sloping to any required degree ; its
use is. to separate stones and coarser particles from mould,
either in trenching over ground intended for bulbous or
other tender and succulent roots, or in turning over compost-
heaps. The soil must be well broken with the spade before
thrown on the screen, and it is in vain attempting to use
the utensil, unless the earth is dry.
Book III.
IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING.
283
1393. In gravel-screens the wires are placed wider, according to the use to which the
gravel is to be applied. In general, one quarter of an inch is the width for earth, and
half an inch for garden-gravel ; but for gravel used in the highways, one inch is not
too wide for excluding small stuff, nor two inches too narrow for admitting the stonelets
to be used.
1394. Garden-sieves are of various kinds. The mould-sieve, is a piece of cloth of wire
firmly attached to a circular rim, and the holes or interstices need not be above one
fourth of an inch in diameter. It is used for sifting mould for small pots ; sieves are
also required in gardening, for cleaning seeds; and wooden sieves of different kinds for
airing or keeping fruit.
1 395. Utensils of dejiortaiion are, the mould-scuttle, pot-carrier, basket, and packing-case.
1396. The mould-scuttle is a wooden box for carrying sifted earth in situations where the
wheelbarrow cannot be brought into use. Sometimes it is made of iron, like the
common coal-scuttle.
1397. The pot-carrier is an oblong board, with a hoop-handle in the middle: it is used
for carrying pots of plants from one part of the garden to another. A wire sieve answers
the same purpose ; but it is an ill application of that utensil, and besides occupies both
hands, and requires stooping.
1398. Garden-baskets are of several species and varieties, used for growing, carrying,
measuring, or keeping vegetable productions. They are woven or worked of the spray,
bark, or split woody fibre of trees, or of the young shoots of willow, hazel, and other shrubs.
1399. The plant basket is a vessel of wicker-work, and shaped like a large pot, not less than eighteen inches
wide, by twenty inches deep, and is used by some nurserymen, and particularly by the Dutch, to grow
large peach-trees, vines, &c. for deportation. By the means of these baskets, when new garden-walls or
hot-houses are built, one, and often two years, may be saved in the fruit-trees ; the mode is at present a
good deal out of use, but deserves to be revived.
1400. The planters' basket is a flat, rectangular utensil of wicker-work, or boards partitioned into three or
more parts, for the purpose of carrying with the gardener when about to plant or remove plants. One
division is for the plants taken up ; another for the plants to be planted ; and a third, for the tools which
lie uses, and for any decayed parts of plants, stones, weeds, or other refuse. By using such a basket the
young gardener may proceed in his operations with order, accuracy, and neatness.
1401. The mould-basket is a strong reticulated utensil of unpeeled willows or hazel, used for carrying
earth, gravel, or tanners' bark.
1402. Carrying-baskets and package-baskets are of various sizes, shapes, and qualities of material and
workmanship. Such as are large, coarse, and without handles are called hampers, and about London,
boats, barges, and other local names.
1403. Measuring-baskets are chiefly in use by market-gardeners : the largest are bushels and half-bushels,
formed of unpeeled or peeled willow shoots or withies ; pecks and half-pecks are formed of peeled withies ;
and sieves, punnets, pottles, and thumbs, for the more rare culinary vegetables and fruits, are formed from
shavings of woody fibre.
1404. The pla?it packing-case is of various species, according as plants in a growing
state, plants in a state of rest, and with or without leaves, cuttings, bulbs, or other roots,
or seeds, are to be packed. Each of these species varies also according to the distance to
which it is to be sent, climate, season of the year, and mode of conveyance. In
sending plants in leaf from this country to the continent, and the contrary, a close-bot-
tomed box hooped over (Jig. 172.), is generally used;
the cover of the upper part being either netting, or
if matting very frequently removed.
1405. The glazed jmcking- case is the most suitable
for importing plants from distant countries. One
of this kind employed by Sir It. Farquhar, in send-
ing plants from the Mauritius to the Horticultural
Society (Jig. 173.), was made of inch boards, three
feet long, four feet wide, and twenty inches deep.
The sloping roof consisted of two glazed shutters
173
172
' ! 1
1 I I I T
a
E
a
&
£
284
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
(a, a, a), which opened to admit air (b), and could be covered at pleasure with two
rolls of tarpawling (c, c) ; the trees were planted in wooden boxes just large enough to
contain a single plant and perforated in their sides and bottom (d), and their surface was
carefully covered with moss (e), tied down with cord.
Subsect 2. Utensils of Culture.
1406. The utensils used in growing plants are the pot, water-saucer, box, tub, watering-
pot, and syringe.
1 407. Offloiver-pots there are several species and many varieties.
The common flower-pot is a cylindrical tapering vessel of burnt clay, with a perforated bottom, and of
which there are ten British sorts, distinguished by their sizes thus : the
In. In. In. In.
dia. deep. dia. deep.
lstsizehas 2 to the cast, and are called twos, being 18 4 7thsizehas2itotheca*f,andarecalledtwenty-fours,being5 6
2d 4 .. . .. fours 12 1 Sth 32 .. .. .. thirty -twos 4 5
3d 6 sixes 9 8 9th 48 forty-eighths 3 4
4th 8 eighths 8 7 10th 60 sixties 2 2£
,',th 12 .. .. .. twelves 7 6 11th 80 .. .. .. thumbs or eighties 14 2
6th 16 .. •• ■• sixteens 6 7
Common flower-pots are sold by the cast, and the price is generally the same for all the 10 sorts ; two
pots or a cast of No. 1, costing the same price as eight pots, or a cast of No. 11.
The store-pot is a broad flat-bottomed pot, used for striking cuttings or raising seedlings.
The pot for bulbous roots is narrower and deeper than usual.
The pot for aquatics should have no holes in the bottom or sides.
The pot for marsh-plants should have three or four small holes in the sides about one third of the depth
from its bottom. This third being filled with gravel, and the remainder with soil, the imitation of a
marsh will be attended with success.
The stone-ivare pot may be of any of the above shapes, but being made of clay, mixed with powdered
stone of a certain quality, is much more durable.
The glazed pot is chiefly used for ornament ; they are generally glazed green, but, for superior ocoa-
sions, are sculptured and painted, or incrusted, &c.
1408. The]rropagation-pot(jig.l'J5.) has
a slit in the side, from the rim to the hole in
the bottom, the use of which is to admit a
shoot of a tree for propagation by ringing in
the Chinese manner. Opposite to the slit is
an ear, or round appendage, with a hole for
hanging the pot to a branch. To those
who practise the mode of rooting shoots
without laying them down to the ground,
such pots will prove very convenient. In ° 176 ^
France and Italy they are formed in a similar manner, and for the same purpose, of tinned
iron ; and by such means they propagate the camellia, banksia, &c.
The square pot is preferred by some for the three smallest sizes of pots, as containing more earth in a
given surface of shelf or basis ; but they are more expensive at first, less convenient for shifting, and, not
admitting of such perfection of form as the circle, do not, in our opinion, merit adoption. I hey are used
in different parts of Lombardy and at Paris.
The classic pot is the common material formed into vases, or particular shapes, for aloes and other plants
which seldom require shifting, and which are destined to occupy particular spots m gardens or conserva-
tories, or on the terraces and parapets of mansions in the summer season.
The Chinese pot is generally glazed, and wide in proportion to its depth ; but some are widest below,
with the saucer attached to the bottom of the pot, and the slits on the side of the pot tor the exit or
absorption of the water. Some ornamental Chinese pots are square at top and bottom, and bellied out in
^The^French pot, instead of one hole in the centre of the bottom to admit water, has several small holes
about one eighth of an inch in diameter, by which worms are excluded.
140H Flower-pot sauce, {fig. 174.) In order to form pots of different sizes of a regular ratio to each other,
Knight has suggested a plan, of which this mav be considered the substance. Assume as a convenient
proportion as to width at top, bottom, and height, 8, 5, and 6; lay down the vertical section of a pot of
this proportion on a board or large paper ; from its centre (a) draw two lines (b and c) passing through
the bottom of the sides, and equal distances measured on these lines will give equal accretions to smaller
or larger sized pots. Knight considers 2 inches as forming a proper difference in diameter m the scale ot
sizes of pots, which is nearly double that in common use.
1410. The flower-pot saucer is a flat circular vessel, with a rim from one to two inches
high, and is made somewhat larger than the bottoms of all the above sorts of pots. Its
chief use is to prevent the water, which escapes by the bottom of the pot, from proving
inconvenient on the shelves or stages in rooms or particular situations. In gardens they
arc seldom wanted. A species named the carnation-saucer (Jig. 176.) is formed as
much larger than the pot to be placed in it as to admit of surrounding its base with
water, in order to prevent creeping insects from getting at the pot. In the centre of the
saucer is raised a basement on which to place the pot, in order to keep it dry, &c.
1411. The qualities and durability ofjnts and saucers depend on the sort of clay and
degree of burning, in which a knowledge can only be acquired by observation and ex-
perience. Pots too much burned, crack and fall in pieces; and those which are not
burnt enough, splinter or scale off with the frost and continued moisture. Porous
earthenware°is most congenial to the plants ; but by admitting transpiration by the sides,
Book III.
IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING.
385
dries the earth within sooner. Glazed or stone-ware pots are not congenial, but retain
moisture a long time.
1412. The plant-box (Jigs. 177, 178, & 179.) is a substitute for a large pot; it is of a
cubical figure, and generally formed of wood, though in some cases the frame is formed of
cast-iron, and the sides of slates cut to fit, and moveable at pleasure. Such boxes
are chiefly used for orange-trees. The construction of those of Versailles is generally
?•
LEI
o o o
i L-4_L
177
178
179
approved. Two of the opposite sides are fixed, the other two are moveable, but kept in
their places by a couple of iron bars with hinges, which are fastened on one side, and on
the other are hooks to catch in (Jig. 177.), that the state of the roots may be readily ex-
amined, the old earth taken out, and fresh put in at pleasure. Another material advan-
tage gained in these boxes is, that the plants may be shifted by sliding them into others.
1413. The plant-tub (Jig. 180.) is a circular utensil formed by the cooper for the
same purpose as the plant-box. In shifting, the box is unhooped, and when the old
earth is removed it is refitted on the same or a new bottom by the cooper.
1414. The garden watering-pot is of different species. The common watering-pot is a
tinned iron or copper vessel, used for conveying water to plants. There are several
varieties; but the principal are, 1st, the common large pot, with two roses of different
sizes, the one pierced with small, and the other with large holes ; 2d, the long
spouted pot, for watering plants in pots, at a small distance, either with or without a
rose ; and, 3d, the shelf watering-pot, which is a small cartouche- shaped pot for watering
plants on shelves, or the back part of stoves, close under the glass, consequently ahove
the eye of the gardener.
1415. The French watering-pots (jigs. 181, 182, & 183.) are generally formed of
copper, and some (Jig. 183.) have zig-zag spouts, to break the force of the water when
pouring it on plants without the use of the rose.
180
184
182
183
1416. Tlie Italian watering-pot is formed of earthenware in shapes similar to the
French.
1417. The watering-tube (Jig. 184.) is a tin tube with a funnel joined to it at right
angles at one end, and with or without a rose joined to it in an opposite direction at tne
other. It is used for watering pines, and other potted plants in pits or beds, not easily
reached, and where it is desirable not to moisten the leaves.
1418. The garden-syringe is of different species : the common is made of tinned iron,
copper, or brass, generally about two feet in length, and two inches in diameter.
1419. Read's syringe (Jig. 185.) is by far the best implement of the kind. By means
of a ball valve (d), which can never go out of repair, the water is drawn in through
a large opening, and forced out either through a fine rose (e), a larger rose (b), or in
one spout (a), each forming a separate cap, which screws off and on. In common
syringes the air above the piston proves an obstacle to the operation of the syringe, and
greatly increases the labor of the operator; but in Read's syringe there is a tube (f)
by which this air escapes in the operation of drawing in water, and the space is as readily
replaced with air through the same aperture in pressing the water out again. It is
286
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
If
astonishing how much this lessens the power requisite either to fill
the syringe or empty it. A child may do with Read's engine,
what requires a man in the common kind. This instrument may
be considered as superseding not only the common hand-syringes,
but even the barrow-engine, and other machines of this kind to
which the same improvements are not applied.
Subsect. 3. Utensils of Protection.
1420. Utensils of shade, skelter, and exclusion are the cover,
shade, blancher, hand-glass, and bell-glass.
1421. Plant-covers are of different species.
1422. The portable cloth cover or shelter is of different species:
it consists of a frame of wicker-work, of any size, from that
of a hand-glass, to six or eight feet high, which is covered
with gauze, oiled canvas, matting, and sometimes entirely with
wicker-work. It is used for protecting half-hardy shrubs and plants
in the winter season, and when recently transplanted.
1423. The portable paper cover or shelter is a small frame, like
the skeleton of a hand-glass, covered with oil-paper, and is used
for protecting cauliflower-plants, striking cuttings, &c.
1424. Shades are of three species. The place-umbrella (fig. 186.)
resembles the domestic instrument of that name ; but instead of
the ordinary handle, has a pointed rod, shod with iron, for insertion
in the ground. It is used for shading tender plants from the
sun, or sheltering them from the rain. For both purposes it is conve-
nient to have a joint in the stem, so as to incline the cover accord- /^\
ing to the situation of the sun and the direction of the rain. They B|
are much used in the Paris garden, and at Monza, in Lombardy. ^
1425. The portable wire shade is a bottomless cage of wire or wicker work, to place
over tender plants, to protect them from excess of wind, sun, and rain. They are a
good deal used in the botanic gardens of the continent, for moderating the direct influence
of the sun on plants of cold climates.
1426. The earthenware' shade {figs. 187, & 188.) is in the form of a flower-pot,
but with a section cut from one side to admit the air and light. This open side in the
case of auriculas and Alpine plants, is placed to the north, and in the case of tender
plants to the south, or other points. These utensils are exceedingly useful in transplanting
tender plants, and in cultivating Alpine plants. One species (fig. 188.) is entirely per-
forated with holes, for shading ferns, mosses, and fungi. Common pots are often used
for sheltering and shading newly transplanted articles with the greatest benefit.
1427. Blanchers are any close utensil that when whelmed over a plant will exclude the
light. The most common is the blanching-pot, which is used to exclude light from sea-
cale and rhubarb-stalks, and some other culinary vegetables, where the green color is to
to be avoided. In the Pyrenees they are used for blanching celery.
1428. The conic blanching-pot is in the form of a sugar-loaf, and is used in France for
blanching lettuce and endive. (Lasteyrie.) In Valentia, asparagus is blanched stalk
by stalk, by portions of reed with a knot or joint placed over each. (Ibid.)
187
188
189
190
1429. The hand-glass is of various species.
The leaden hand-glass is a small portable glazed case, formed by grooved strips of lead, and is either
square or polygonal in the plan and roof. It is used for the protection of culinary and other plants,
during the winter months ; its first cost is less than that of any other hand-glass.
Th! copper hand-glass {Jig. 1*9.) is a very light and elegant variety of hand-glass in which the bars are
formed oTcopppr, the sideT bevelled, and the top or roof sometimes projects over the latter, with glass
SveY The S hand-glass is the cheapest, but this is by far the most elegant ; they are manufactured
by Jordem and others, in Birmingham, and constitute one of the most elegant utensils used in gardening
The cast iron hand-glass Cfig. 190.) consists of two parts, the sides either square or polygonal and the
topof suftabk shape? Eacfide is cast separate, with screws and nuts; the four sides are afterwards
Book III.
IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING.
287
192
screwed together and the top, which is always kept separable is cast in one piece. When air is to be
given to the plants enclosed, it is done by biting up the top, and replacing it diagonally, by which means
air is admitted in every direction ; and one advantage of not being obliged to lift the bottom part is/that
in severe weather when it is frozen to the ground, air is admitted without danger of breaking the glass
add also that the leaves of large plants, as of cauliflower, are less liable to be injured in replacing it A
glass case may be composed from two or three of these hand-glasses, of any height, by placing two or three
bottom frames one above the other. The relative prices, the size and shape being the slme, is in the
order of lead, copper, and cast-iron. r 6 M c> IS in Ult-
1430. The wrought -iron hand-glass (Jigs.
191, & 192.) is composed of sobd iron
sash-bars, and may therefore be formed
of any shape or height. It is particularly
eligible for covering tender shrubs, fixed
in the open air, as tree-poeony, some half-
hardy mimosas, &c, and even geraniums
and fuchsias in the south of England.
1431. The bell-glass differs from
the hand-glass in being one entire
piece of glass and commonly bell-
shaped, semi-globular,or cylindrical.
1432. The common green glass bell (Jig.
193.) is formed of bottle glass, and is com-
monly used in the open garden for protect-
ing cauliflowers or other culinary plants, or for striking cuttings or retaining a moist atmosphere about
seeds, &c.
1433. The crystal bell or receiver,
(Jigs. 194, 195, & 196.) used in gar-
dening, is generally from three to
eight inches in diameter, and from
four inches to one foot in height ;
they are employed in striking tender
cuttings in the exotic departments,
especially heaths.
1434. The essential utensils are the sieve, flower-pot, watering-pot, and hand-glass.
Subsect. 4. Utensils for entrapping Vermin.
1435. Bird, beetle, and wasjy traps constitute the only genera of this tribe of the class
■■-orth mentioning. 197
1436. The birdtrap-cage {fig. 197.) is a wicker
utensil with a funnel, through which the bird having
descended in quest of the bait placed within, cannot
ascend. It is successfully employed to catch young
sparrows.
1437. The earwig and beetle trap (fig. 198.) is
often only a hollow cylinder, but from this, if not
taken regularly at certain seasons, the insects escape.
A close box, with an inverted truncated cone of
glass in the centre as a hopper, is better ; because
when earwigs, beetles, wood-lice, or such insects
enter, they cannot escape, and may be drowned or
scalded, or suffered to die there. The common bait
is crumbs of bread.
1438. Tlie wasp and fiy trap, is merely a bottle half full of water honied at the
mouth to entice their entrance. Some assert that the plant hoya carnosa, whilst in
bloom, will attract wasps and all other insects from the fruit in the house in which it
grows (Maker, ixxHort. Trans, vol. i. 197.) ; and others that boiled carrots will have the
same effect.
193
194 195
196
Sect. IV. Machines.
1439. Machines are agents for abridging manual labor. All the operations of gar-
dening may be performed by the simple tools, instruments, or utensils, already mentioned ;
but in practice some labors would be insufferably tedious, and others inconveniently
cumbersome ; and in many operations, the ordinary force of man could not be conveniently
brought into action. Rollers, as opposed to the turf-beetle, are illustrative of the first
case ; the German devil, and Bramah's hydrostatic press, as opposed to a number of
men with ropes or levers, of the second ; and the boat-scythe, as performing the oper-
ations of the pincers or common scythe, of the third case. But the machines of gar-
dening are very few, and chiefly artificial contrivances for the defence of gardens or
scientific machines for measurement or designation of temperature. In contriving either
288
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
of these, simplicity ought to be attended to ; for a complicated machine is not only more
expensive, and more apt to be out of order, but there is also a greater degree of
friction, according to the number of rubbing parts.
200
^
Subsect. 1. Machines of Labor.
1 440. The more cumbrous machines of gardening are the barrow, roller, watering-engine,
boat-scythe, ladder engine, and transplanter. 199
1441. Garden-wlieelbarrows are of several
species. The common garden-wheelbarrow
{fig. 199.) is a box, open at top, placed on
two levers, terminating in a wheel and axle
at one end, and in two handles at the other.
They are commonly made of wood, the levers
of ash or elm, and the sides and bottom of any soft wood. The wheel is either wholly of
cast-iron, or of wood, shod with wrought-iron. Excellent garden- wheelbarrows are now
made of wrought-iron ; but wooden ones are better for new ground work. They are used
for conveying dung, weeds, garden-soils, litter, &c.
1442. The separating barrow is, in appearance, the same as the above, but the body being
kept in its place by two iron bolts at opposite angles of the bottom, may be lifted off by
two men, and thus tan, dung, and other articles are readily carried into hot-houses, where
the wheel and levers could not be pushed along.
1443. The new ground work barrow (Jig. 200.)
differs from the first in having the sides and
back very low, and a front of the same height.
It is made much stronger, and is used chiefly for
wheeling earth, clay, or gravel, in extensive ex-
cavations or removals of these materials.
1444. The haulm-barrow (Jig. 201.) is an open box
or case of wicker or other work placed on or suspended
from a pair of handles, with or without a wheel, and is
useful for carrying litter, leaves, haulm, spray, prunings
of hedges, &c.
1445. The Jlower-pot barrow is a flat surface and
wheel, on which plants, pots, or leaves are placed either
directly, or when small in one or more shallow baskets.
1446. The water-barrow, instead of a box, contains a barrel, tub, or cistern, in ffhich
fluid manure or mere water is conveyed to different parts of the garden.
1447. The hand-barrow is a frame of
wood carried by two levers, which form four
handles, and is used, in gardening, for re-
moving large pots or tubs of trees in blossom
or in fruit, and which wheeling might shake
and otherwise injure.
1448. Watering-engines are of several
species.
1449. The jnimp-syringe, or hand forcing-
pump (fig. 202. ) consists of a barrel-piston
and directing-tube. The water is drawn
up through a perforated base ; and the ad-
vantage of this engine is, that it may be
placed in any common watering-pot or
Ducket, and thus much room and some
trouble and expense saved in small gardens.
1450. The barrow watering-engine (fig-
203.) is a portable forcing-pump so ar-
ranged as to throw the water forty or fifty feet
distance, and either in the form of a spout or a
fine shower. The cistern commonly contains
from twenty to thirty gallons of water, and
the frame which holds it being fitted up as
a wheelbarrow, it may be wheeled round the
garden, and the walks, borders, or even the
compartments to the extent of forty-five feet
from the walk may be watered completely.
The most desirable variety of this machine
Book III.
IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING.
289
204
is that which is furnished with a sucking- 203
pipe ( a), like the fire-engines, by means
of which, if there are ponds or regular sup-
plies by pipes or wells in a garden, the
labor of carrying the water is avoided.
14.51. The curved-barrel engine (Jig. 204.)
has the barrel and piston-rods curved so as to
form part of a circle, &c. By this construc-
tion, the bore of the barrels may be formed
in the lathe, and consequently made perfectly
true : the piston-rods move exactly in the
direction of the axis of the barrels, and there-
fore operate with the least possible friction.
For a portable engine this is one of the best.
— Both these engines would receive great ad-
ditional power, by adopting the improve-
ments on the syringe by Read. (1419.)
1452. The self-acting greenhouse-engine is
a small vessel of cast-iron, one part of which
is filled with air, highly condensed by a piston, and the other
with water, which, by turning the cock, is let out by a spout
either as a shower or stream. The machine may be held in
the hand, and the stream or shower directed against any
particular plant. Instead of water, if tobacco-smoke is intro-
duced, the smoke will be driven with great force to a consider-
able distance. This machine will throw the water from thirty
to fifty feet, but its chief use is in green-houses, for the pur-
poses of fumigation, as a plant on the upper part of a stage
may thus be fumigated without touching it, or the operator
being nearer it than the path. On the whole, it is more an
instrument for the amateur than the practical gardener.
1453. The carriage water-barrel is used for watering lawns
the first season after their formation, when the weather is dry ;
or for watering borders or other cultivated surfaces near a____
broad wall. In the former case, the water is delivered by a ^^^SZ^^^^IBj*
horizontal tube six or eight feet long, perforated at the lower
angle so as to produce a series of horizontal jets ; in the latter, a long leathern tube, ter-
minating in a rose, is made use of. The barrel in the first case is drawn slowly along by a
horse, in the latter it is nearly stationary, and a man waters on each side as far as may
be deemed advisable, or as the leathern tube admits.
1454. The roller water-engine (jig. 205.) consists of a horse, frame, and wheels, on
which is placed a water-barrel, and under it an iron roller. It is an excellent machine
for lawns and roads, as they may be watered and rolled by the same operation. The person
who directs the water, irrigating the space to be rolled, not that which has undergone the
operation.
205
1455. The garden-roller is formed either of wood, stone, or cast-iron. The first requires
to be loaded ; the second, from the smallness of its diameter, is heavy to draw ; and there-
fore the third, which may be formed of any diameter, weight, or breadth, is generally pre-
ferred for garden-walks. The cylinder need not be above four feet wide, which will
cover mosr walks at two or three breadths. For extensive lawns the horse-roller will be
p referred.
U
290
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
1456. Garden-ladders are of three species.
1457. The common ivall-tree ladder differs from those used in other arts in having two
pieces of ten or twelve inches in length, projecting at right angles from the upper end, the
use of which is to avoid injuring the trees, by keeping the top of the ladder at a small dis-
tance from the wall, and thus admit of the operation of nailing, as well there as elsewhere.
1458. The orchard-ladder consists of a frame on low wheels, as a basis for several lad-
ders which fit into each other, and are capable of being hoisted up by machinery so as a
person near the extremity of the ladder may have access to any part of a tree with con-
venience, either to prune it or gather the fruit.
1459. The three-styled, forked, and double ladders {fig. 206. a, b, c) are also well adapted
for the ordinary purposes of gathering fruit or pruning.
206
1460. The rule-joint ladder (fig. 207.) is used for working on curvilinear roofs either
of glass, or domes of lead, stone, &c. which require panes renewed or trees nailed.
Each step or foot-board, has what is called a stop, to prevent the feet from breaking the
glass, and at every joint is a moveable foot to project in the case of training trees on such
surfaces, in order that their leaves, &c. may not be injured. Such ladders are particularly
useful for repairing curvilinear hot-house roofs.
208
1461. The step-ladder (fig. 20S.), instead of round rods on which to place the feet, has
steps or boards, an improvement essentially necessary, where much work is to be done,
because less fatiguing to the feet. Such ladders have a back or fulcrum by which they
stand independently of any other object, and which is removeable at pleasure by drawing
out an iron bolt.
Book III.
IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING.
2-91
1462. The platform is of two species.
1463. The portable platform combines a step-ladder and platform, which in part comes
to pieces, and in part folds together, so as readily to be carried from place to place, and
to occupy little room in a tool-house.
1464. The ivheel-platform (Jig. 209.) is a flat surface of boards
generally five or six feet square, elevated by a frame with wheels ;
it can thus be moved along lawns or walks, and is used chiefly in
clipping lofty hedges. A variety of this, used in some places, has
folding steps or boards on two sides, supported by brackets, by
which three men at different heights, and one on the ground, can
proceed with dressing the whole side of a hedge at once. Such a
machine is used in shearing the magnificent hornbeam hedges in
the imperial gardens at Schcenbrunn, and those of spruce fir at
Petrowsky, near Moscow.
1465. The boat-scythe, for mowing weeds in ponds, is a machine
invented by General Betancourt, now of Petersburgh, consisting of
a boat with a system of wheels and pinions placed in the head, which give motion to a
vertical shaft, containing on its lower end (which passes through the bottom of the boat
into the water) three scythes ; two men communicate motion to the machinery, and one
man rows the boat ; the upright shafts on which the scythes are placed, can be raised or
lowered according to the depth of the weeds, &c. This machine has been improved by
General Betancourt, but is capable of being further simplified.
1466. The garden sharping-engine is of several sorts.
1467. The grindstone, as well as whetstone, scythestone, hone for penknives, (the last used
in making cuttings of heath and such like plants,) are necessary in every garden. Blunt
spades, hoes, or knives should never be used, as they cannot operate properly in the hands
of the most expert gardener.
1468. Tree-transplanting machines of two
or more species have been invented. The pole
and wheels (fig. 210.) is for general pur-
poses the best of any of them. It consists of
a long beam or pole, attached to an axle and
wheels. The tree being prepared for removal,
and the pole placed in a vertical position
against it, the stem or trunk is attached to it
by ropes ; thus attached, they are brought into
a horizontal position, by men or horses, with
the ball of earth attached to the tree. Horses
may then be yoked to the axle at the oppo-
site end of the pole, or root end of the tree,
with or without the aid of another axle, and
the tree drawn to any distance and planted.
In favorable climates, and when a little extra
expence is no object, astonishing effects may
be produced by removing large trees; and
no machine is better adapted for aiding in
the labor than this simple union of the pole and cart-axle.
1469. The German devil is a frame of timber, with a cylinder moved by a combination
of wheels, and a winch, as in raising clay or earth from pits or mines by manual labor.
But instead of the bucket of clay, three hooks are attached to the end of the lifting rope,
and these are fastened to the roots. (See Hunter s Evelyns Sylva.)
1 470. The hydrostatic press ( fig. 211.) may 211
be applied to the same purpose as the Ger-
man devil, with incomparably greater effect.
The only difficulty is in finding a proper and
convenient fulcrum ; that done, mis engine
will root out the largest trees. It is suc-
cessfully employed by engineers in drawing
piles, gate-posts, raising stones, &c. (See
Nicholsons Arch. Diet. art. Hydrostatic
Press. )
1471. The garden-seed separaler is a small
portable threshing machine, on Meikle's prin-
ciple, but fed, in Lee's manner, from a hopper, and with a winnowing machine either under
or connected with it. (fig- 283.)
1472. The essential machines of garden-labor may be considered the wheelbarrow,
roller, and hand forcing-pump.
U 2
292
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
212
Subsect. 2. Machines for Vermin, and Defence against the Enemies of Gardens.
1473. Of engines for entrajnnng or destroying vermin, and for the defence of gardens, there
are but a few. All of them, with their modes of operating, are referable to commonly un-
derstood mechanical and chemical principles, and to certain instincts and propensities of
animated beings, which it is unnecessary to detail.
1474. Engine-traps for man are of two species, the common and the humane.
1 475. The common man-trap is a rat-trap on a large scale, differing from it only in the
mode of setting ; the former being baited and left loose, and the latter not being baited, but
fixed to the ground by a chain. This is a barbarous contrivance, though rendered absolutely
necessary in the exposed gardens around great towns. Its defect is, that its severity defeats
its own purpose ; for though kept and exposed to view in many places in the day-time,
yet few venture to set them at night, and hence intruders, calculating on this humanity,
enter and commit their depredations in spite of these machines.
1476. The humane man-trap, instead of breaking the leg by crushing, and consequently by
the worst of all descriptions of compound fractures, simply breaks the leg, and therefore
is comparatively entitled to the appellation of humane. It is not unfrequently set in market-
gardens near the metropolis.
1477. Engine-traps for quadrupeds are chiefly the mouse, rat, and mole traps.
1478. The garden mouse-trap is generally composed of a slate and a brick, supported by
a combination of three slips of wood, forming the figure 4, and baited by a pea or bean.
A few cats domiciled in the back sheds of hot-houses, will generally keep a walled garden
clear of this enemy ; but the above trap is good for open grounds.
1479. The garden rat-trap {fig. 212.)
should generally be a box, or enticing
engine, of some sort, rather than a toothed
iron trap ; because unless there is a great
scarcity of food, which is seldom the case
as to the field rat, it will not be allured
by the bait of the former ; whereas a trap
may be so disguised by straw, or moss, or
leaves, and so scented by oil of anise, as
to be resorted to or at least not recog-
nised by the rats till they are taken.
148(X The mole-trap (figs. 213, &
214.) is of various forms, and either
made of wood or iron, or of both mate-
rials. There are several varieties to be
obtained in the shops ; none of which
appear superior to the original bow-trap, which any laborer may form for himself.
Moles may be effectually destroyed by taking their nests in spring.
1481. Engines of destruction are the spring-gun, musket, and fumigating bellows : the
musket is essentially necessary, both as a destroyer, and scare of birds.
1482. Thefumigating bellows (fig. 215.) differs from the common
domestic bellows in having a receptacle (a) for leaves of damaged
foreign or of home-grown tobacco, which being ignited, and the
blast sent through it, a powerful issue of smoke is produced by the
rose (b), which can either be directed against insects on particular
plants, or used to fill the atmosphere of a hand-glass, frame, or hot-
house.
1483. Engines of alarm, or scares, are the bell or gong alarm for
man ; and the rattle-engine driven by hand, or a small wind-engine
for herds.
1484. The concealed alarm is a system of wires spread over a gar-
den or orchard, like those of the spring-gun, and terminating in a
bell or gong alarm, which goes off when any of the wires are dis-
turbed. This alarm may be in or near to the gardener's room, watch-
tower, or other suitable place, though at a considerable distance from
the wires. This is, perhaps, on the whole, the best way of detecting
intruders. In addition to setting off an alarm, the same wire may let
loose a watch-dog, drop a heavy body, or a fulminating glass bead,
discharge a gun, &c.
1485. Of living vermin-killers, the ferret is useful for catching rabbits, squirrels, and
ground rats ; the cat for mice, rats, and birds ; the terrier for eradicating foxes ; and ducks
and gulls eat snails, worms, frogs, &c.
1486. The essential vermin engines are the mole and mouse traps, fumigating
bellows, and musket.
¥
o
213
214
215
Book III.
METEOROLOGICAL MACHINES.
293
Subsect. 3. Meteorological Machines.
1487. The garden-indicators of weather differ from those in common
use only in two instances, that of the registering thermometer and regu-
lating thermometer. The barometer, hygrometer, rain-gauge, and vane
or Eolian index, may all be usefully employed in gardening, (1278.)
and should be fitted up in and about the gardener's office. The rain-
gauge and vane may be placed on the roof of his office, and should
communicate with the interior by means of tubes and machinery, the
detail of which is perfectly known to opticians, and such as fit up ap-
paratus of this kind.
1488. Six's registering thermometer (Jig. 216.) is so contrived as to
indicate the extreme points to which it falls or rises in the course of
the day or night, and is, therefore, particularly useful as a check upon
the working gardeners, who have to attend to the fires, or steam, &c. of
hot-houses in the winter time. In the open air it is also a very useful
instrument, by pointing out the extremes of temperature. (Nich.
Enct/c. art. Thermometer.)
* ' 217
216
so *° , •\° s0 ln e0 °o if>Q
r, 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 1 uTT' TTTi JTTiTi iTl ~\ TTTjTj-q rmTiTn i
sss^ss^ 'Ns?^^^^ 1 -| i
i^
tThnTTfchHhiT iiiimL ilnirrtmiTniriTOriTm
U :j
294 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part 11.
1489. Kewleys alarum-thermometer (Jig. 2l7) consists of a glass tube (a, a), about ten
inches in length, hermetically sealed atone endf and united at the other to a capillary tube
(b, b), with an intervening and also a terminating ball (c and d). Imagine this double tube
placed in a horizontal position, the largest tube, and half the intervening ball, filled with
spirits of wine ; and the smaller tube and half of both of the balls, with mercury. If the
tube is now fixed by its centre in a brass frame (e), and nicely balanced, it is evident that
every change in the temperature of the atmosphere will produce a change in the position
of the centre of gravity of the tubes. One degree of heat, by expanding the spirit, will
press on the mercury in the intervening ball (c), and drive part of it over to the termi-
nating tube (rf), which end will, in consequence, descend like the beam of a pair of scales
or of a steam-engine. Hence a moving power of great nicety and certainty is obtained,
the details for the application of which, to the ringing of a bell at any distance, commu-
nicating by a wire (/ ), need not be here entered into. Suffice it to say, that by means of
a scale°(^), it may be set to any required temperature, and will give the alarm at a dif-
ference of even the fourth of a degree, either of depression or elevation. It may be oc-
casionally used in gardening, to convey some idea of the changes taking place in the
temperature of particular hot-houses, to the head gardener's room, in the night-time ; but
its most important uses are in domestic economy, hospitals, &c. This balance-thermo-
meter, as it may be called, has been also applied, by its ingenious inventor, to the open-
ing and shutting of windows or sashes, valves of chimneys, or flues, and steam-cocks,
and either to all of these purposes at once, or to any one of them.
1490. Kewleys regulating thermometer, or automaton gardener (fig. 217.), consists of a
particular application of the alarum thermometer just described. For this purpose, the
thermometer is made from two to three feet in length, and the same principle may be ex-
tended to any length, as ten or twelve feet, with a proportionate increase in the diameter.
The apparatus which Kewley applies to the thermometer, and which enables him to get
the power requisite for opening the sashes or windows of hot-houses or buildings of any
magnitude, is a metal cylinder (h), generally of rolled copper, as being cheapest, from
seven to fourteen inches in diameter, and from eighteen inches to two feet in length,
with an accurately fitted piston (i). This cylinder is placed either within or without the
hot-house or room in any convenient situation, and a cistern, or a barrel of ordinary dimen-
sions, filled with water, is placed on an elevated situation, say on a level with the chimney-
tops. The deeper the cylinder is sunk, the less the cistern requires to be raised above
the level of the floor of the house. If, as is often the case, a pipe of water is conducted
through the house from a distant reservoir of ordinary elevation, then nothing more is
necessary than attaching a branch-pipe. It is requisite that this pipe pass directly to the
point where the thermometer is placed, and at any convenient distance under it, not
higher than the bottom of the cylinder. Here it is joined to a tripartite cock (k), whence
proceed two other pipes, one (/) to the cylinder, and the other (m) to a waste drain. The
stopper to this cock turns only to the extent of about one-fifth of a circle ; and when
turned to this extent to the right, it opens a communication between the supply-pipe (71),
and the cylinder (h), when the pressure of the water in the reservoir, whether a ban-el on
the top of a house or a distant cistern, raises the piston, and by a communication of cords
and pulleys with the sashes (0), they will be raised or opened ; and by another chain (;>),
the fire or steam-damper (q), will be opened also. When the cock is turned to the left,
this communication is stopped, and one opened between the cylinder and waste-pipe (m),
by which the water escaping, the piston descends, and the sashes and dampers are shut.
The equilibrium of the balance-thermometer restored by the temperature, being reduced
or elevated to the proper degree, the plug is neither turned to the right nor left, and
every communication is closed. The cock is worked by two wires (r r), fastened to two
short levers, fixed on each side of the thermometer-frame, and the other ends of the cross
or handle of the cock (s s). To set the machine at work, it is only necessary to place the
scale to a degree at which it is desirable air should be given, taking care that the cistern
is not without water. A small cask of water, regularly supplied, will answer as well as
a large cistern, as the power is not as the body of water, but as its height. As a hot-
house seldom remains many minutes at the same degree of heat in the day-time, it is
evident that the sashes would be in almost continual motion, which, in houses where the
sashes open outwards, and especially the polyprosopic, to be afterwards described, would
have a singular and animated effect in a flower-garden, or on a lawn. Where light
valves or ventilators are used, the balance-thermometer of this size has sufficient power
to open them without the aid of machinery ; and by lengthening the tube, sufficient
power may be obtained to open balanced windows in dwelling-houses, churches, or hos-
pitals. This machine was originally contrived for the use of the inventor's own garden
in Douglas (Isle of Man), and successfully employed to give air to pits and frames there
for two seasons. Having come to London, he employed it with the addition of more
machinery (see the patent, 1816) than he now uses, to ventilate a part of a house in the
New Kent Road, from 1816 to 1817. In 1818 he greatly simplified it, and thus im-
Book III.
ARTICLES OF ADAPTATION.
295
218
proved, it was in operation on a hot-house in Colville's nursery, King's-road, during
the summer of 1819. In both cases the success was perfect and undisputed. The
price of the alarum-thermometer is from two to three guineas ; and of the regulator, from
six to ten pounds complete. These machines were exhibited to Sir Joseph Banks and
to the Horticultural Society. But the president and other individuals of this body
thought such a machine not wanted in gardening. We cannot but regret, however, that
some mark of approbation was not bestowed on the author of so ingenious an attempt to
render a service to our art, and who, like other inventors, had devoted a great part of his
time, and the greater part of his fortune, to bringing the invention to its present state.
We are glad to see that it has been noticed by the Caledonian Horticultural Society
(Mem. vol. iii. p. 170.), and we trust the inventor may yet obtain, at least, credit for his
genius in mechanics.
Sect. V. Various -Articles used in Gardening Operations.
1491. The objects used in gardening, which can neither be denominated implements nor
machines, may be classed as adapted articles, manufactured articles, and prepared articles.
Subsect. 1. Articles of Adaptation.
1492. Of articles fitted for particular situations or objects, we shall notice the temporary
coping, horizontal shelter, moveable edgings, basket-edgings, and a few others.
1493. The temporary coping is commonly a board, or two or more boards joined, so
as to form a breadth of eighteen inches or two feet. To these boards hinges are attached,
which fit into irons on the front upper edge of the permanent coping of the wall ; and
thus, by means of a rod or a cord and pulley, the board is either made to project over
the front of the wall, or is laid flat on the top of the permanent coping.
1494. The horizontal shelter is a board of eighteen inches broad, and of any convenient
length. By means of iron pins inserted in the wall, a number of such are placed hori-
zontally, like shelves, about the middle and top of fruit-walls, to protect the blossom
from perpendicular colds and fronts ; they were first recommended by Lawrence, but
are now seldom used.
1 495. The netting screen (Jig. 218.)
" consists of two deal poles, on
which is nailed a common fish-
ing-net pi'eviously dipped in a
tanner's bark-pit, to prevent its
being mildewed when rolled up
wet. At the top, the ends of the
poles fit into double iron loops, pro-
jecting a few inches from the wall,
immediately under the coping ; and
at the bottom they are fixed by a
hole at the end of each pole upon
a forked iron coupling, which pro-
jects about fourteen inches from the
wall, thereby giving the screen a
sufficient inclination to clear the
branches. When it is wished to
uncover the trees, one of the poles
is disengaged and rolled back to
the side of the other, where it is
fastened as before. The most violent winds have no injurious effects upon shades
of this kind ; a wall is very expeditiously covered and uncovered, and there is not
any danger of damaging the blossoms in using them ; they occupy very little space
when rolled up, are not liable to be out of order, and although rather expensive at first,
seem to be very durable. From the facility with which the screen is put up, it may be
beneficially used in the seasons when fruit ripens, to secure a succession, by retarding
the crop of any particular tree. The lower ends of the poles are advantageously retained
in their places, by means of a small iron spring-key attached to the coupling by a short
chain." (Hort. Trans, vol. iv.) Canvass, oil-cloth, or gauze screens, may be similarly
formed and fixed.
1496. The canvass screen is a sheet of canvass in a moveable frame, to be placed against
blossoming wall-trees during nights, and removed during temperate weather. Bunting,
rendered more transparent by oiling, is considered by Nicol as preferable to canvass.
Others recommend Osnaburgh or Scotch gauze. The screens should have hooks, to
hook into projecting eyes at the top of the wall, from which, as well as at bottom, they
should be kept distant one or two feet. " Canvass screens in frames may be fitted to
move in the manner of a common sash, between rafters, and may be double, as in a
U 4
y96 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
window, to go either up or down, in order to admit air. The rafters being made move-
able, bv being fixed with hooks to stretchers at top and bottom, the whole could easily be
removed or replaced at pleasure. Thus a frame might be made of ten, fifteen, twenty,
or more feet in length, to answer for one or more trees, as may be required ; and if the
whole be packed and laid up in a dry loft, garret, or shed, each season after using, it may
last for many years." (Xicol.)
1497. The canvass curtain is so arranged by means of pulleys and weights, as to be drawn
up over a wall of a hundred feet in length in a few seconds, and let down and spread
out to dry in a short time. It is kept at a distance from the trees by cords stretched
from the "coping to the ground in a sloping direction : a fine example of this occurs at
Dalmeney Park garden, near Edinburgh, erected under the inspection of J. Hay of
Edinburgh, a meritorious designer of kitchen-gardens. " If screens be made in sheets,"
Nicol observes, " they are best to hoist up and lower with pulleys and cords (which
pullevs may be fixed to the coping, as above mentioned, or to a beam or stretcher fixed
at the top of the wall), they should be suspended over small rafters or spars, of an inch
and a half to two inches square, according to their lengths, placed so closely as to pre-
vent the canvass from dashing against the trees, as above hinted. Sheets of this kind may
be of any convenient size, and made to cover one or more trees, as may be required.
I have had one sheet 200 feet in length, which I could join or unjoin at two or three
different places, and could unclew and hoist, or lower and clew up, in fifteen or twenty
minutes. I first contrived it to clew at the top of the wall, but afterwards found it
safer to do it at bottom, as a gust of wind had once nearly torn it away altogether. In
the clew it was hung by loops to the bottom part of the upright spars (which were placed
at four feet asunder), so as to be a few inches clear of the ground. These rafters were
fastened with hooks and eyes to the coping at top ; and at bottom to stakes drove fast
into the earth, eighteen inches clear of the wall." (Calendar.)
1498. The oiled-paper frame consists of a light frame of timber, with cross bars mor-
tised into the sides, and intersected by packthread, forming meshes about nine inches
square. Common printing-paper is then pasted on, and, when quite dry, painted over
with boiled linseed-oil. These frames are then fitted to the wall, or subject of protection,
according to circumstances.
1499. The garden-hurdle is of different species.
Wire hurdles are used as inconspicuous fences, and sometimes for training plants or young hedges.
Wattled hurdles, or such as are woven with shoots or spray, for shelter and shade.
Straw and reed hurdles are used for shelter, for shade, and for covering frames and other plant-habit-
ation*, or for forming temporary cases around plants to exclude cold.
1500. Moveable edsings to borders, beds, or patches of flowers, are of different species.
1 50 1 . The basket-edging (fig.
219.) is a rim or fret of iron- 219 220
wire, and sometimes of laths ;
formed, when small, in entire ^^-^^-- y^^^^^ esLL «bi^bbib«b— ■
pieces, and when large, in seg- (rff/T "jl---*- - ' =2fV^) k / /\ /\ /\ /\ A
ments. Its use is to enclose dug SsM^^ ~~~^^j^ T~~. . ........
spots on lawns, so that when the __-J^/^tt7» -7^-J, ~— "*r^/.^' 1 \ ■ 7 \~|
flowers and shrubs cover the ^pjgJS&fykAJyyigggy
surface, they appear to grow - ■-
from, or give some allusion to,
a basket. These articles are also formed in cast-iron, and used as edgings to beds and
plots, in plant-stoves and conservatories.
1502. The earthenware border (fig. 220.) is composed of long narrow plates of com-
mon tile-clay, with the upper edge cut into such shapes as may be deemed ornamental.
They form neat and permanent edgings to parterres ; and are used more especially in
Holland, as casings, or borderings to beds of florists' flowers.
1503. Edgings of various sorts are formed of wire, basket- willows, laths, boards, plate-
iron, and cast-iron ; the last is much the best material.
1504. Protecting bags, for guarding ripening fruits from -insects, are formed of gauze,
oiled-paper, or muslin-paper ; gauze is preferable, as it admits the air. They are used
with advantage, in the case of grapes and stone-fruit, on walls in the open air, and in
some cases are required even in hot-houses.
1505. The shoe-scraper is a plate of iron, fixed vertically, either in a portable or fixed
frame ; and to render it complete, should always have a rigid brush and dust-box at-
tached, both of which may be taken out and cleaned ; their use in gardening is consi-
derable, portable ones being placed at the entrances to every description of garden-
buildino-, and fixed ones at the exits from compartments to the main walks. They ought to
abound, and their use be effectually insisted on wherever clean and pure gravel or turf-
walks are desired objects.
1506. Garden or bass ?nats, are sheets of cloth, woven or matted from the bast (Russ.)
Book III. ARTICLES OF MANUFACTURE. 297
or inner bark of trees, and generally of the lime. They are manufactured in the inland
parts of Russia and Sweden, and even in some parts of Monmouthshire, of different
sizes. They are used in gardening for a great variety of purposes ; for protecting wall-trees,
by being hung before them, and removed in mild weather ; for protecting espaliers and
standards, by being thrown over them ; for protecting more delicate shrubs, by being
thrown over an envelope of hay or straw, in which way most American trees and standard-
roses are protected in the neighbourhood of Petersburgh ; for protecting tender 'plants
coming through the ground, by being spread on its surface, and such as are of a larger size,
by being supported on hooped framing. They are used to cover hot-beds, hot-houses,
hand-glasses, and every sort of glass case ; to shelter plants from wind, shade them from
the sun, &c.
1507. Prepared coverings are double mats with a layer of hay or straw within, like
mattresses ; they are used for covering hot-beds in mid-winter, but are readily rendered
injurious by heavy rains. A mode which would produce the same effect, is to use three
thicknesses of mats, keeping them apart by small frames of lath or hollow i-ollers ; the
object being to preserve vacuities or strata of air between the glass and first mat,
between the first and second mat, and between the second and third mat, which, if
attended to, would resist any external cold whatever without cumbrous loads of hay,
straw, &c. (See Dr. Wells on Dew, and Remarks on Hot-houses, &c.)
1508. Straiv coverings are formed of straight long wheat or rye straw, tied in handfuls
in the middle, so as each handful may be nearly of the length of two straws, and the hand-
fuls are connected together by packthread. They are thus formed into rolls, and were for-
merly much used, especially in the culture of early salading, and in covering glass cases.
Melons were formerly protected by nothing more than loose wheat-straw, and this mode
by rolls seems merely a more economical and neat mode of practice. Loose wheat-straw
is used by the market-gardeners, to protect early crops of radishes and other saladings.
1 509. Reed coverings are formed exactly like those of straw, and are used chiefly for
protecting glass, or forming protecting cones round tender shrubs, or bee-hives of the
common kind.
Subsect. 2. Articles of Manufacture.
1510. The manufactured articles used in gardening are chiefly canvass, gauze, netting,
mats, and nails.
1511. Canvass, either plain, oiled, tanned, or painted, is used for protecting the blossoms
of wall-trees; excluding cold from plants or plant-structures, shading or sheltering
plants, and for keeping off rain.
1512. Coarse gauze and netting, such as is used by fishers and bird-catchers, may be
prepared similarly to canvass, and used for the same purposes as that article, excepting
excluding rain. Oiling or tanning is best adapted for gauze ; as painting or tarring
destroys its property of transmitting light.
1513. A netting of straiv ropes has been found efficacious in protecting trees from frost, either thrown
over an entire standard-tree, or hung before fruit-walls. They are used at Dalkeith gardens, near Edin-
burgh, and were formerly much resorted to in the Netherlands.
1514. Wall-tree nails are of several sorts, but the principal are, the small 221
cast-iron nail, in most common use with lists ; the flat-headed wrought-iron /^\
nail, used either with lists, loops of cord, or mat ; and the eyed cast-iron
nail {fig. 221.), used with small pieces of spray, dried willow-twigs, or
mat-ties, as in trellis-training. Its chief advantage is the not being so liable
to lodge the larva? of insects as the nails which are used with lists ; and being
once driven, they never require removal, or occasion the injury of the wall,
as the branches may be loosened, or altered, by merely taking out the slips
of spray, or cutting the mat-ties. (Caled. Mem. vol. iii.) V
1515. Wall-tree lists are marginal ends or shreds of broad cloth cut '
into lengths of from two and a half to four inches, and from one half to
one inch in breadth, according to the size of the shoots, &c. Their grand disadvantage
is the harboring of insects, for which some have substituted shreds of leather with ad-
vantage, and others recommend steeping the shreds in a mixture of sulphur and soap-
suds, or better in that of corrosive sublimate, recommended for preserving specimens of
plants. (581.) The colors of black, scarlet, and reddisli-brown are the best for lists, as
contrasting well with vegetation.
Subsect. 3. Articles of Preparation.
1516. The prepared materials used in gardening are numerous : we shall merely enu-
merate props, ties, covering materials, gravel, sand, cinders, lime and straw.
1517. Props for plants are of two kinds, rods or poles, and spray.
Hods vary from six inches to six feet or upwards in length, tapering to a point, and thick in proportion.
I or small plants in pots, and for delicate bulbous roots, as hyacinths, small splinters of lath, dressed with a
i ii ilc or small plane, are the best; and foe hyacinths and florists' flowers in general, they should be painted
gre< n ; for botanical plants, however, this may, in some cases, appear too formal. For hardy plants and
climbing shrubs, young shoots or poles of hazel or ash from copse-woods are the most suitable ; they should
298 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
in general, be straight and tapering to a point, and as delicate as the weight of the plant, and the exposure
of the situation will admit. The side shoots of these props shoidd, in most cases, be cut off; but in others,
as in propping the dahlia, it is desirable to have some lateral studs, from three to eight inches long, near
the top, so as to spread out the head. In lieu of this, several props are sometimes used, placed in form of
an inverted pyramid, or cone, or of a regular prism. One prop, however, judiciously managed, will gene-
rally be found sufficient. In no case should the bark be removed, because its natural tint is less glaring,
and' therefore preferable to that of peeled wood, and also because it preserves better the texture of the
wood. In order that they may last several years, they should be cut in mid-winter, and the thick end
pointed and charred by burning, or dipped in boiling pitch. The elegant propping of plants deserves the
particular attention of the young gardener, as it is frequently done in so slovenly a manner as greatly to
detract from the order and neatness which ought to reign in most descriptions of gardens. In pleasure-
grounds or picturesque scenes, trees and shrubs should, in general, prop themselves, or each other ; but
in flower and botanic-gardens, flower-borders, green-houses, &c. the greatest degree of art and high-
keeping, and a sort of drilled polish, easier felt than described, ought always to prevail. In all that re-
spects this part of gardening, the French and Germans greatly excel the English, who are herein too apt
to look at the end, without regarding the means.
1518. Spray or branches are used as props for plants furnished with tendrils, as the common pea, and
many of the leguminous tribe. Spreading frond-like, and yet thin spray, such as that of the beech, hazel,
or Scotch elm, is generally preferable ; but for early crops the spray of the resinous tribe, and especially of
the spruce and silver firs, is valuable, as producing warmth and shelter, by its numerous chaffy leaves,
which are non-conductors.
1519. Ties are various ; the most general are the ligular threads of bass matts; for
espaliers some use withs, or tarred cords or threads : on the continent, rushes (Juncus
effusus) cut green and dried in the sun are used ; and often wheat-straw. When mat,
bark, rush, willow or other spray or shoots, or straw are used, they should be previously
soaked a short time in water.
1520. Covering materials are straw, reeds, haulm of any sort, spray, &c. They may
either be used loose, which when the weather is dry and calm, is the most effectual way
of excluding cold ; or drawn, that is, with the stalks or spray arranged in parallel lines in
the manner of thatch, by which means the rain runs off, and then they exclude cold
both in dry and wet weather. Sometimes straw and reeds are so prepared in frames, or
rails suited to the size of beds in the manner of the reed, or spray, or wattled hurdle.
(1499.) Sometimes they are covered with mats ; but as the latter readily admit rain,
this mode is much inferior to that of arranging the straw or reeds in the manner of thatch.
1521. Boards and planks are used in gardening, for wheeling up declivities, over steps
and hollows, across borders, walks, &c. The notched or bridge-plank is used to protect
edgings, serving as a bridge across them. Tressels are used for raising planks in ex-
tensive operations on the soil, in forming pieces of water, new gardens, or garden-scenery.
1522. Various prepared articles might be mentioned as of frequent or occasional use.
Scoria from a forge is used for forming a platform impervious to worms, on which to place
pots of plants. Soaper's ashes or waste is used for the same purpose. The use of gravel
and sand is very general ; fine sand, uncontaminated with ferruginous matter, is parti-
cularly useful in propagating heaths and other delicate plants by cuttings. Oyster-
shells are used as crocs or sherds for covering the bottom holes of pots. Quick-lime in
powder or infusions to destroy vermin, especially worms. Tobacco and other prepared
matters are also used for the same purpose. Moss is used in packing and for other
objects. Tanner's bark for its heat and fermentation.
Chap. II.
Structures used in Gardening.
1523. By garden-structures we mean to designate a class of buildings which differ
from all other architectural productions, in being applied to the culture, or used exclu-
sively as the habitations of plants. As edifices, the principles of their construction belong
to architecture ; but as habitations for plants, their form, dimensions, exposition, and,
in many respects the materials of which they are composed, are, or ought to be, guided
by the principles of culture, and therefore under the control of the gardener. They may
be arranged into the moveable, as the hot-bed frame ; fixed, as the wall, trellis, &c. ; and
permanent, as the hot-house.
Sect. I. Temporary or Moveable Structures.
1524. Of these, some are for protecting plants in fixed places, as against walls or trel-
lises, and exemplified in the different methods of covering by frames of canvass, netting, or
glass ; others constitute habitations for plants, as the hot-bed frame, pit, &c.
Subsect. 1. Structures Portable, or entirely Moveable.
1525. Portable structures are the flower-stage, canvass or gauze frame or case, glass
frame or case, glass tent, and glazed frame.
1526. Of the fiou-er-stage there are two principal species ; the stage for florists' flowers
and the stage for decoration.
1527. The stage for florists' flowers, when portable, is commonly a series of narrow shelves
rising in gradation one above the other, and supported by a frame and posts, so as to be
3 or 3| feet from the ground at the lowest shelf. These shelves are enclosed, generally,
Book III.
PORTABLE STRUCTURES.
299
on three sides by boards or canvass, and on the fourth side by glass doors. This stage,
when in use, is placed so as the glazed side may front the morning sun, or the north,
so as the colors of auriculas, carnations, &c. may not be
impaired by him. (See Floriculture, Part III. Book II.
Ch. VIII.)
1528. The decorative stage consists of shelves rising in gra-
dation, in various forms, according to taste, and particular
situation. Those to be viewed on all sides are commonly co-
nical ( fig. 222.) or pyramidal ; those to be seen only on one
side triangular. They are constructed either of boards or
iron work, and placed in parterres, open courts, and large
chambers.
1529. The opaque covering-frames are borders of board, strengthened by cross or diagonal
slips of wood or rods of iron, and covered with canvass, gauze, woollen, or common net-
ting, or soiled paper. They are used for protecting plants from cold, or for sheltering
from wind, or shading, either singly, supported by props, or connected so as to form roofs,
cases, or enclosures.
1 530. The transparent covering, or glazed frame or sash, consists of a boundary frame com-
posed of two side pieces called styles, and two end pieces called the top and bottom rails,
with the interspace divided by rabbeted bars to contain the glass. It is used as the
opaque covering frames, and has the advantage of them in admitting abundance of light.
In general the rabbeted bars are inserted in one plane, as in common hot-bed sashes ;
but in some cases the surface is in angular ridges, or ridge and furrow -work (fig. 223.),
cuneform (Jig. 224.), or trigonal (fig. 225.), in order, in each of these cases, to admit
223
224
225
more of the rays of the sun in the morning and afternoon, and to moderate it in the middle
hours of the day. Such frames are used for placing over beds of hot dung, for growing
cucumbers, forcing roots or flowers, and for a great variety of purposes. The materials of
sashes is commonly timber, but iron, cast and wrought, and copper, are also used.
1531. The common glass case is a glazed wooden frame or frames, so contrived as to fit
together, and cover either single trees, espaliers, or shrubs too large for the hand-glass.
The flavor of plums and cherries on espa- 226
liers in bad seasons is much improved by the
use of this structure. In France it is chiefly
used for peaches. For orange-trees, it con-
sists of a number of frames, chiefly parallelo-
grams, but partly right-angled triangles
(fig- 226.), easily put together and taken
asunder, to be used in the summer months in
growing melons, or covering walls or espalier
rails ; and in winter in protecting orange-trees
in situations where they are planted in rows against walls, or in groves in the open air.
1532. The hot-bed frame is of three species, the common, fixed-bottomed, and move-
able-bottomed.
1533. The common hot-bed frame is a rectangular box of wood, bottomless and highest
at the side to be placed to the north, subdivided by cross bars dove-tailed into the outer
frame, and each subdivision covered by a glazed sash. Knight, instead of having the
north side of the frame highest, has all the four sides of equal height, but forms the base
ment of the dung-bed, and builds the dung-bed itself of that slope which he thinks most
suitable for the sashes of hot-beds.
1534. The fixed-bottomed frame is the common hot-bed frame, with a boarded bottom
for the retention of earth. In the boards are holes for the emission of water.
1535. The adjusting-bottomed frame has a box for the earth, of the size of the inside di-
mensions of the frame, and the frame being deep or placed on walls, like those of a pit,
the bottom and its earth and plants, or its pots and plants, may be raised or lowered by a
SCO
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
227
power composed of a pinion and screw, or any other equally convenient power. The
bottom is composed of perforated boards, and has boarded sides to keep in the earth. The
object is to prevent plants from being burned when the dung is very hot, by raising them ;
to raise them close to the glass when young, and to lower them in cold nights. The chief
difficulty it managing it is, to keep the earth of uniform moisture. Lawrence, in the last
edition of his Kalendar(\l\5), suggests the idea of putting a bottom of wire to the frames
of hot-beds, and of covering it with flat tiles, and over these the earth, &c. so as to admit
of the whole being lifted, and the dung below stirred or renewed at pleasure. He says
he has not seen it done, but merely suggests it as a hint to the ingenious. A century af-
terwards, J. Weeks, of the Horticultural Manufactory, King's Road, London, invented
his patent forcing-frame, which is that just described.
1536. Separating frames. The component parts of any of the above frames, instead of
being mortised into one another, are fastened by keyed iron bolts, which easily admit of
their being taken asunder and put under cover, when not wanted for use ; these frames
may, consequently, be preserved longer from decay, and are also more portable than the
common sort.
1537. Mallet's frame (Jig. 227.) is the invention of
a French horticulturist of that name, and the ad-
vantages it possesses are, 1. The admission of more
light and solar heat from the elevated angle of the
curvilinear roof; and, 2. The direct admission of the
sun's rays when air is given. Professor Thouin (Cours
<V Agriculture, &c. art. Chassis) says that they have not
been much used, owing to the cost of their first con-
struction.
1538. The essential portable structures are the common
hot-bed frame with flat sashes ; and next in order, the can-
vass curtain or netting screen.
Subsect. 2. Structures partly Moveable.
1539. Plant-structures partly moveable are pits and adapted frames : the characteristic
of the pit is, that it is surrounded by a wall of earth or masonry, enclosing a pit or bed
for containing dung or bark. The characteristic of the adapted frame is, as the name im-
ports, a hot-bed frame adapted to some structure of timber, masonry, or iron.
1540. Of the pit. The species are the earth, walled, flued, vaulted, and pillar-pit.
1541. The earth or primitive pit is in part sunk in the earth, and in part raised above it
by walls of loam or turf. On these walls, glass frames are sometimes placed, and at odier
times only mats or canvass frames. Such pits are used by nurserymen and market-gar-
deners, and answer perfectly for the preservation of half-hardy plants.
1542. The walled pit is also partly sunk in the ground, and in part raised above it; but
instead of earth or turf walls, they are formed of brick or stone, finished with a wooden
coping the width of the wall, in which cross rafters are mortised to support the sashes.
For ordinary purposes, such as growing melons or young pines, or half-hardy plants, such
pits need not be above five feet deep, and if only one sash between each rafter is to be used,
they should not be above six or eight feet wide. Where double sashes, one lapping over
the other are to be used, the width of the pit may be from eight to twelve feet. Artificial
heat is supplied to such pits entirely from the' bed of tan or leaves.
1543. The flued pit (fig. 228.) is the
same as the last described, with the addi-
tion of a flue, which either makes the
circuit of the pit, or runs along and re-
turns by its back wall. This is the most
generally useful description of this class
of buildings, as, whenever the heat of
the bark or other fermentable matter
subsides, or whenever the air in the pit
is too moist, and in danger of generating
damps, a fire can be lighted which will
remove both evils.
1544. Scott's flued pit and Knight's pit are both excellent varieties of this species, and will
be described in treating of the pine and melon, for which they are particularly adapted.
1545. Buck's flued pit (fig. 229.), by the interior position of the flues, saves some-
thing in the length of the sashes, at the expense, however, of a greater first cost for
the flues, and the obvious loss of a portion of the fire-heat ever afterwards. It is fully
described in Hort. Trans, iv. 535.
1546. The vaulted pit, in its simplest form, is the walled pit, with an arch thrown from
the front to the back wall. Under the arch the fire is made, or steam admitted ; or in some
Book III.
MOVEABLE STRUCTURES.
301
cases fermenting litter thrown
in. A great improvement on
this species of pit has been
made by J. West, of Castle Ash-
by, Northamptonshire. The
principle of the improvement
is the facilitating the passage
of the heat from the vault to
the bed of earth over it by sub-
stituting a thin floor of boards
or slates, or wattled hurdle, for
brick-work ; the walls are also flued, and the heat supplied is that of fermenting dung,
litter, weeds, &e. On the whole it seems an excellent improvement. Nine years' expe-
rience enable its inventor to recommend it for neatness of appearance, the power of
regulating the heat to the greatest nicety, and for forcing asparagus, strawberries, and
the most delicate kind of cucumbers. By raising the walls of the pit higher above the
earth, it is evident it would answer equally well for growing pines, or forcing shrubs, or
any other purpose to which pits are applied.
1 547. I?i West's pit the dung is placed in a chamber (e) three feet and a half deep,
being about eighteen inches below the surface-line ; the walls (g) which surround it are
nine-inch brick-work ; both on the front and at the back of the chamber are two openings
(n), about two feet six inches square each, with moveable doors through which the dung
is introduced ; the doors fit at bottom into grooves (6), and are fastened by a wooden
pin and staple at top. , In front of the doors, is a small area (c) sunk in the ground,
surrounded by a curb of wood, by which the introduction or removal of the dung
is facilitated. Along the centre of the chamber is a bar (d), which serves as a guide
for packing the dung ; and across the top, at intervals of twelve inches, are placed,
on their edges, cast-iron bars (h), two inches wide, and three quarters of an inch thick,
to support a layer of small wood, bushes, and leaves (i), over which is laid the soil for
the plants (it). Just below the level of the bars all round the dung-chamber, are
holes (/"), passing in a sloping direction through part of the wall into a cavity (g) in
the upper part of the wall at the back front and both ends of the pit. In the exterior
part of the back wall are holes with plugs (I), to let out the steam and heat at discretion.
230
At the commencement of forcing, half the chamber is filled longitudinally with dung,
and if the doors are kept shut, this will afford
sufficient heat from twelve to eighteen days. As
the heat declines the other half of the cham-
ber is filled, and the temperature is kept up by
additions to the top of the dung, on either or
both sides, as it settles. When the united heat
of the two sides ceases to be sufficient, the side
first filled must be cleared out, and mixed with
fresh dung and replaced, and so on, adding and
turning as circumstances require. (Hort. Trans.
iv. 220.)
1548. As an i?nprovement on the construction
302
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
of this pit, we would suggest the perforation of the whole of the side walls (jig. 231. a)
in order to admit the steam more readily than it can find admittance by a single range of
openings adopted by West. Where pits on West's plan are already built, a substitute for
this preparation in the side walls may be found in the application of a wattled hurdle
against them (Jig. 231. b), as has been adopted in the Comte de Vande's garden at
Bayswater. On wet soils a hollow bottom is an obvious improvement.
1549. The jrillar-^nt, or Alderstone pit {Jig. 232.), is constructed with cast-iron pillars of
232
c c c c
/
/
three feet in height (a, a), which being joined by plates of that metal, form a support to the
wall on which the sashes rest. Above ground, this wall (b, b, b, b), of four or nine inches in
thickness, is built on the iron plates, and carried the usual height, of a cucumber-frame.
On this, a coping, or plate, either of wood or iron, is placed, to which is fixed cross rafters
either of wood or iron (c, c, c, c), to hold the sashes (d, d). Around the pit is a trench (e, e)
of the same depth as the cast-iron pillars, and its exterior sides supported by a brick wall.
The centre of the bed, under the sashes, is filled with dung or bark in the usual manner,
and the surrounding trench is destined for linings, which being protected by the wall, and
covered by boards (f, fff)> supported on cross pieces of iron, retain their heat longer, and
are less influenced by changes in the atmosphere. The chief advantage alleged in favor
of this frame, is the greater durability of the brick walls, than of frames of wood, and its
more elegant appearance in a garden.
1550. Of adapted frames there are M'Phail's, or the frame with dung-flues, the pit with
rising frame, and the frame with props.
1551. M'PhaiTs frame (fig. 233.) consists of two parts, the frame (a, a) and lights (b),
which are of wood, and not different from those used for growing cucumbers, and
the basement (c, d) on which the frame is placed, which is flues of brick- work, with
the outer wall uniformly perforated. Against these perforated flues, linings of
dung are formed, the steam of which enters the flue and heats the earth (e, e, e) in the
centre of each light. The chief objections to this plan are the first cost, and the greater
consumption of dung, which some allege is required to keep up the proper heat. Its
advantages are, that hot dung may be used without any preparation, by which much
heat is gained ; and in the winter months, when a powerful artificial heat is required,
and (in the case of common hot-beds) is apt to burn the plants, they are here in the
coldest part of the soil, and cannot possibly be injured by any degree of heat which can
be communicated by dung.
II nc bl;r" 3(ir
"^ii-'"-uir-"-im-" S
b
1
\
I
J
1
1552. The pit with rising frame (Jig. 234.) contains a basement-wall of brick-work of
the height of the dung or bark (a, a), and in this is a perpendicular vacuity (b, b) in which
a common frame (c, c) is placed, and by a spindle, pinion, &c. (d) may be raised or
lowered at pleasure. Its object is the same as that of Weeks's frame already described,
and which it attains with less risk to the plants, but at a great comparative expense.
This variety of pit is the invention of John Nairn, (Hort. Trans, vol. iii.) who has had
it executed, and heated by surrounding tubes (e, e, e). filled with steam.
Book III.
FIXED STRUCTURES.
234
303
1553. The frame on props, in construction, resembles the Alderstone pit, excepting that
the superstructure is a frame instead of masonry. Such frames are much used about
London to grow pines, the back being enclosed by walled hurdles, supported by the
props as stakes, and round the hurdles linings of dung are applied.
1554. There are a great many varieties of this species of frame : that adopted at Ed-
monton for the culture of pines will be noticed in treating of that fruit.
Sect. II. Fixed Structures.
1555. Fixed structures consist chiefly of erections for the purpose of improving the
climate of plants by shelter, by supplying heat, and by exposing them to the influence
of the sun. The genera are walls and espalier rails, of each of which the species are
numerous.
1556. Garden-walls are formed either of brick, wood, stone, or earth, or brick and
stone together ; and they are either solid, flued, or cellular, upright or sloping, straight
or angular.
1557. Brick, stone, or mud ivalls consist of three parts, the foundation, the body of the
wall, and the coping. The foundation should be somewhat broader than the body of
the wall, and of depth proportionate to the quality of the sub-soil, or intended plan of
culture. In some cases where it is intended that the roots should have free access to
both sides of the wall, it should be placed on arches (Jig. 235.), or piers, with plank-
stones, the soffit of the stone or under crown of the arch being within 6 inches, or 1 foot of
the surface, and the openings, smaller or larger, according to the power of the materials
to resist the pressure of the wall. The arch should be a segment of a circle, or an ellip-
sis, and the piers (a, a, a) proportioned to the qualities of the foundation and the super-
structure. Where the body of the wall commences, there will be a set-off or rebate of
one or two inches on each side, which should be commenced below the ground's surface,
both for the sake of appearance, and to prevent the alternate action of the air and rain
from rotting the mortar in the rebate. The body is generally carried up of the same
width to the coping ; but where the walls are high, say 18 feet, it may taper equally on
both sides to 14 inches ; in doing which, great care must be taken by the bricklayer to
make good joints. To facilitate this, some architects have bricks formed of a smaller
size for the upper part of the wall. It is not settled among gardeners whether the cop-
ing should project at all ; or if it projects, how much, and what proportion on each side.
Nicol is of opinion it need not project at all, and that there is no occasion, as is gene-
rally done, to bevel the coping stones to the north, or less useful side of the wall, to
throw off the rain in that direction. Walls without copings have two advantages in their
favor ; the first is, that no insects are harbored in the angle, under the coping, as is
generally the case ; and the second, that trees are more readily trained over from one
face of the wall to the other, a practice which has been found to induce a fruitful state
in trees, which had never produced fruit before. There is also some saving in extent
235
:.rf..j,„. ,£.-.,... I. _r_J~~,.jr . .,.„.■' „,.„.!.. ,,,... ,.,„,_..J....„..il...,....'U,. !.„.,.. .J..,,,...
• -|..J..u.p— i...*.. ..n.n.,T..L..
wfawfwlw™.>ilw.^iwilmiyn
"JZ , !T.Z\.'J'". ""!!!' JuLin'TX'"'™'
-.,...|[..5—fc...p,jij^_ja,._,.l..ji^%ni
'•4:i:±zjL"f~£
M|3ti.y"ai»
•; r rX
...!_.„... I — .IDL.....LL.„i...,....IC..|...
::cj:::3r::^r:;:::i!:i~i!;::';!;;*'^
304
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
of coping. On the other hand, copings which have a considerable projection are
known to protect wall-trees from spring frosts. We prefer for this purpose moveable
copings. (1493.)
1558. The brick and stone wall is a stone wall faced with four inches of brick-work, or
what is called brick and bed, on the side most exposed to the sun, as on the south sides
of east and west walls, and on the insides for the sake of appearance of the two end, or
north and south walls of enclosed gardens. Where free-working stone abounds on the
spot, such walls are erected at much less expense than walls entirely of brick. Whether
they are as dry, durable, and warm, depends on the sort of stone ; some schistous and
other argillaceous stones are apt to be damp, but compact limestones may be accounted
as good as brick, and if they are of a dark grey or blue color, better on account of their
absorption and refraction of heat.
1559. The solid brick zvall is the simplest of all garden-walls, and where the height
does not exceed 6 feet, 9 inches in thickness will suffice ; when above that to 13 feet,
14 inches, and when from 13 to 20 feet, 18 inches in width are requisite. In most
cases, such walls may be contracted in width as they are carried up, so that a 20 feet
wall may begin with 18, and terminate in 9 inches in breadth. The contraction must
be gradual from bottom to top ; or if accomplished by rebates, they must be bevelled,
by means of a course of sloping-edged or flanched bricks at each set off; and these must
be made exactly alike on both sides of the wall, in order to preserve its centre of gravity
exactly in the centre of the foundation.
156*0. The fined wall, or hot-wall, (Jigs. 236, & 237.) is generally built entirely of
brick, though where stone is abundant and more economical, the back or north side may
be of that material. A flued wall may be termed a hollow wall, in which the vacuity is
thrown into compartments (a, a, a, a), to facilitate the circulation of smoke and heat,
from the base or surface of the ground to within one or two feet of the coping. They
are generally arranged with hooks inserted under the coping, to admit of fastening some
description of protecting covers (1495.), and sometimes for temporary glass frames.
A length of 40 feet, and from 10 to 15 feet high, may be heated by one fire, the furnace
of which (b), being placed 1 or 2 feet below the surface of the ground, the first course
or flue (c) will commence 1 foot above it, and be 2 feet 6, or 3 feet high, and the 2d,
3d, and 4th courses (d, e,f), narrower as they ascend. The thickness of that side of the
flue, next the south or preferable side, should for the first course be 4 inches, or brick and
bed ; and for the other courses it were desirable to have bricks cast in a smaller mould ;
say for the second course 3, for the third 2f , and for the fourth, 2§ inches in breadth.
This will give an opportunity of bevelling the wall, and the bricks being all of the same
thickness, though of different widths, the external appearance will be every where the same.
236
wm§mmmm^w \
i c
237
r
W/y////ja7///^///AVjt/7r/l/iZ^
Sometimes a vacuity is formed between the flue and the south or valuable side of the
wall (Hort. Trans, iv. 139.); but this, we think, maybe considered an extravagant
refinement. It cannot be carried into execution without employing a great quantity of
materials and much labor. A wooden or wire trellis is also occasionally placed before
flued walls ; but both modes suppose a degree of forcing which does not appear ad-
Book III.
FIXED STRUCTURES.
90;
visable unless the wall is kept constantly covered with glass, in which case, without
this precaution, constant fires might injure, by occasioning the partial growth of the
trees, or even burning those parts of them immediately opposite the furnace. To
prevent accidents of this kind, the furnace must always be placed at some distance,
say from eighteen inches to three feet from the back of the wall.
1561. The cellular ivall {fig. 238.) is a recent invention (Hort. Trans, vol. iv.), the
essential part of the construction of which is, that the wall is built hollow, or at least
with communicating vacuities, equally distributed from the surface of the ground to the
coping. If the height does not exceed 10 or 12 feet, these walls may be formed
of bricks set on edge, each course or layer consisting of an alternate series of two bricks
set edgeways, and one set across, forming a thickness of nine inches, and a series of cells,
nine inches in the length of the wall, by three inches broad. The second course being
laid in the same way, but the bricks alternating or breaking joint with the first. The
advantages of this wall are obviously considerable in the saving of material, and in the
simple and efficacious mode of heating ; but the bricks and mortar must be of the best
quality. This wall has been tried in several places near Chichester ; and at Twickenham,
by F. G. Charmichael, and found to succeed perfectly as a hot- wall, and at 10 feet high
to be sufficiently strong as a common garden-wall, with a saving of one brick in three.
As a whole, indeed, it is stronger than a solid nine-inch wall, on the same principle that a
hollow tube is less flexible than a solid one. It is evident, that the same general plan
might be adopted in forming cellular walls of greater height, by increasing their width.
A very high wall might have two systems of cells divided vertically, one or both of
which might be heated at pleasure. The same idea may be advantageously applied to
flues, for heating hot-houses by steam, and for other purposes. Piers may be formed
either on both sides of the wall (a), or on one side by bricks on edge (6), so as to bond
in with the rest of the work.
238
111 H ,ii UL, 1 I. I I
II Hi'
X.",.",.,''-
rr— T' 'M 11 \ll
ir~i i ' ^ : ' — n
i, ,u
rrV
n n n ri ,rr~rr
jxzrr
n ■! M i
^rzn
5
r'n' ri ■n"rr'n n n nun ir-rr~- n n n' ir~ rr
wfeefi
H
HHH1
gfecfi
m
1562. Hollow walls may also be formed by using English instead of Flemish bond :
that is, laying one course of bricks along each face of the wall on edge, and then bonding
them by a course laid across and flat. Such a mode has been practised and described by
Dearne, an architect in Kent.
1563. Where wall-fruit is an object of consideration, the whole of the walls should be flued
or cellular, in order that in any wet or cold autumn, the fruit and wood may be ripened
by the application of gentle fires, night and day, in the month of September. It is an
error to light the fires of hot-walls only in the evenings, the effect of heat in the process
of maturition being much greater when accompanied by light. In all hot-walls one
precaution must not be neglected, the building in, on the inferior or outer side, small
cast-iron doors, or framed stones, which may be opened at pleasure, in order to withdraw
the soot. They must be made perfectly air-tight, which is readily accomplished by
having double cast-iron doors, in what is called Count Rumford's manner.
1564. The mud or earth- wall (Jig. 239.) is formed of clay, or better of brick earth in a
state between moist and dry, compactly rammed and pressed together between two
moveable boarded sides (a, a), retained in their position by a frame of timber (6, 6),
which form, between them the section of the wall (c, c) : these boarded sides are placed,
inclining to each other, so as to form the wall tapering as it ascends ; one layer of
the len°th of twelve or twenty feet being completed, another layer is formed on that,
X
306
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
and so on, till the wall attains the given height, which in the Netherlands, and some
parts of Germany, where these walls prevail, is seldom above ten feet. At Lyons they
are often fifteen and eighteen feet. Sometimes a trellis is placed before them, but in
general the branches of the trees are fastened by means of wooden hooks of six or seven
inches long, which are driven into the walls, and from which twigs or rods are stretched
across, from the one to the other. These walls are generally covered with a projecting
coping of thatch, or boards ; the latter is much the neatest, and least liable to harbor
b 239
.—
insects. Peaches are grown on them in France and Germany, but in this country, where
the weather is more, variable, and the atmosphere more generally charged with vapor,
particular attention requires to be paid to the coping. This attended to, these en pise, or
mud- walls, may be useful as shelters to cottagers' gardens, but rarely of much service as
sources of wall-fruit. For a more particular account of their construction, see Commu-
nications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. ii. ; or Nicholson's Arch. Diet, art. Wall.
1565. Boarded or wooden walls (Jig. 240. a)
are variously constructed. One general
rule is, that the boards of which they are
composed, should either be imbricated or
close-jointed, in order to prevent a current
of air from passing through the seams; and
in either case well nailed to the battens
behind, in order to prevent warping from
the sun. When well tarred and afterwards
pitched, such walls may last many years,
parts or supports formed of cast-iron
240
They must be set on stone posts, or the main
Nicol informs us (JTalendar, p. 149.) that he
has " constructed many hundred lineal feet of wooden walls, which recline considerably
towards the north (fig. 240. b), presenting a surface at a better angle with the sun than
if they were upright. They are placed on sloping ground, and range in five ranges or
lines, due east and west, at the distance of seven yards from each other, the southmost
bein<r five feet high, and the northmost seven, composed of imbricated boards, pitched
over to give them durability ; the supports are set on (not in) blocks of stone, which are
sunk in the earth, and firmly laid on solid foundations, three feet under the ground
level."
1566. Inclined fruit-walls seem to have been first suggested about the beginning of the
eighteenth century, by N. F. De Douillier, F. R. S. an able mathematician, author of a
work entitled Fruit-walls improved by inclining them to the Horizon, &c. Some-
walls were formed at Belvoir Castle on this plan, which Switzer informs us he went to
see, but found them damp, and the trees liable to be injured by perpendicular frosts.
De Douillier's work, as being the production of a speculative theorist (he was tutor to
the Marquis of Tavistock), appears to have been rejected, by Miller, Switzer, Lawrence,
and the designers of gardens of that day, but it is replete with ingenuity and mathe-
matical demonstration, and well illustrates the importance of sloping walls where they
are to be protected by glass or gauze. For exposed walls, it does not appear that
this form will ever be adopted, chiefly on account of the difficulty of building them, the
inutility of the northern or inferior side, and because, if formed in the most economical
manner, they would not serve as fences. In particular situations, as in the case of ter-
race slopes, they certainly merit trial ; and if covered in severe weather, there can be no
doubt that their surface, by being more perpendicular to the sun's rays in summer, would
receive a greater accession of light and heat at that season. In a communication to the
Horticultural Society (vol. iv. p. 140.), by Stoffels, gardener at Mechlin, he states, " that
he had an opportunity of comparing the effect of a sloping and perpendicular wall in the
same garden, for the growth of peach-trees, and that the result was greatly in favor of the
former." It appears to us, that for this and other fruit-trees that do not grow very rigid
at the root or main stem, a boarded wall which might be inclined at pleasure, to an angle
of 45° to both sides of the perpendicular, might be advantageously adopted. In the day-
Boot III.
FIXED STRUCTURES.
so:
time, or at least when the sun shone in the beginning of summer, it might be Inclined
to the north, (the trees being planted on the south side,) to give the trees the advantage of
the sun ; and during severe weather in autumn, or at any time when it was either desired
to protect or retard the trees, it could be inclined to the south to protect them from dews
and shade them from the sun's rays.
1567. The wavy or serpentine wall (Jig. 241.) has two avowed objects ; first, the saving of
bricks, as a wall in which the centres of the segments composing the line are fifteen feet
apart, may be safely carried fifteen feet high, and only nine inches in thickness from the
foundations ; and a four-inch wall may be built seven feet high on the same plan. The
next proposed advantage is, shelter from all winds in the direction of the wall ; but this
advantage seems generally denied by practical men. Miller says, he saw them tried at
Le Cour's in Holland, and that the trees which grew on them were in no respect supe-
rior to those on straight walls. They have been tried at different places in the northern
and southern provinces of Britain, but are generally disapproved of as creating eddies.
1568. The angular wall (Jig. 242.) is recommended on the same general principles of
shelter and economy as the above ; it has been tried nearly as frequently, and as generally
condemned on the same grounds.
1569. The zig-zag wall (Jig. 243.) is an angular wall in which ttie angles are all right
angles, and the length of their external sides one brick or nine inches. This wall is built
on a solid foundation, one foot six inches high, and fourteen inches wide. It is then com-
menced in zig-zag, and may be carried up to the height of fifteen or sixteen feet of one
brick in thickness, and additional height may be given by adding three or four feet of
brick on edge. The limits to the height of this wall is exactly that of a solid wall of
fourteen inches thick ; that being the width of the space traversed by the angles or zig-
zag. That as a whole it is sufficiently strong for a fence against cattle, may be proved
by applying to it the first problem in dynamics ; the two diagonal lines formed by the
zig-zag producing an equal resistance to one line directly across a fourteen-inch wall.
In training on these walls, wires are stretched horizontally from angle to angle, and
either four and a half, or nine inches apart, or upright rods of wood (a, a) may be em-
ployed ; they are, however, better adapted for fences, or walls of botanic, flower, or
nursery gardens, than for fruit- walls.
243
1 570. The square fret wall (Jig. 244. ) is a four-inch wall like the former, and the ground-
plan is formed by joining a series of half-squares, the sides of which are each of the pro-
per length for training one tree during two or three years.
244
-nrr
coa 1 1 i.i, a i
' i i ' i ' i i r
r'i M < \
1571. The nurseryman's, or self -supported four-inch wall (Jig. 245. ), is formed in lengths
of from five to eight feet, and of one brick in breadth, in alternate planes, so that the points
of junction form in effect piers nine by four and a half inches. This wall is the inven-
tion of Lee, of the Hammersmith Nursery, and is well calculated for training peaches
X 2
30S
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Paut II.
and other fruit-trees for public sale. It seems to be the most economical wall that can
be devised, as the parts forming piers are as useful as any other parts of the wall, which is
not the case with piered walls of the common sort.
245
1 572. The piered wall (Jig. 246. ) may be of any thickness with piers generally of double
that thickness, placed at regular distances, and seldom exceeding the wall in height, unless
for ornament. These piers are generally made square in the plan ; but they have been
found to be less obstructive to the training of trees, when rounded at the angles (a) ; or
angular (b), and either hollow, or effected by deviation (c). The same remark will
apply to piers formed partly to support the wall, but principally as in the gardens laid
out by London and Wise, Bridgeman, &c. for sheltering the fruit-trees. Where train-
ing is not a leading object, a thin deep projection (rf) is much stronger as a whole, than
the clumsy square piers generally formed by routine practitioners.
1573. Sheltering jners were formerly, in some cases, made of such- a width and depth
as to contain a niche for training a vine, and, in that case, they were frequently raised
above the coping of the wall. Examples of such piers exist in the walls of the kitchen-
garden at Claremont, built from the designs of Brown, and at Hatton in Scotland, built
after a design by London and Wise.
247
1574. Arched, niched, or recessed walls (fig. 247.) were contrived for the same pur-
pose by Switzer, and, at least, had a massive imposing effect to the eye. Such walls were
generally heated by flues, and formed in fact the intermediate link in the progress of im-
provement between hot- walls and forcing-houses.
1575. Trellised ivalls are sometimes formed when the material of the wall is soft, as in
mud walls ; rough, as in rubble-stone walls, or when it is desired not to injure the face of
neatly finished brick-work. Wooden trellises have been adopted in several places, espe-
cially when the walls are flued. Wire has also been used, and the following mode has been
adopted by C. Holford, an ingenious horticultural amateur at Hampstead : " I affix cop-
per wires from the top to the bottom of the wall, in a perpendicular direction, secured at
each end by a small iron hook, two iron stair-staples are also driven in over the wires, at
equal distances, to keep them nearly close to the wall. The wires may be placed at six
to eight inches' distance from each other. The branches and shoots are fastened by means
of thin twine, which is first tied to the wire with a single knot, and then round the shoot
more or less tight, according as it may be required to check or encourage the circulation
of the sap ; with a very little practice this may be done with great expedition. The
wire which I have used is of the substance measuring about twenty yards to the pound
weight, and as it does not oxydate by exposure to the atmosphere, will not require paint-
ing,0 and will last for years. *The expense is about one penny per yard. I have not found
the peaches and nectarines to be at all retarded by this mode of training." (Hort. Trans.
v. 569.)
1576. Espalkr rails are substitutes for walls, and which they so far resemble, that trees
Book III.
FIXED STRUCTURES.
309
248
if
are regularly spread and trained along them, are fully exposed to the light, and having
their branches fixed are less liable to be injured by high winds. They are formed of wood,
cast-iron, or wire and wood.
1577. The wooden espalier, of the simplest kind, is merely a straight row of stakes
driven in the ground at six or eight inches asunder, and four or five feet high, and joined
and kept in a line at top by a rail of wood, or iron hoop, through which one nail is driven
into the heart of each stake. If the lower ends of the stakes are charred, and the sort Oi
wood be larch, oak, ash, or birch, with the bark adhering, they will last for many years ;
but stakes of young Scotch pines or poplars lose their barks and soon decay. Young larch-
trees are much the most durable.
1578. The framed tvooden espalier rail is composed of frames fitted with vertical bars at
six or eight inches asunder, which are nailed on in preference to mortising, in order to
preserve entire the strength of the upper and lower rails. The end styles or uprights of
the frame are set on stone piers, and attached and kept upright by irons leaded into the
stone. This is the most frequent mode of construction, but sometimes the frame is fitted-
in with lattice-work, or wire, or stout laths ; and instead of stones, oak posts, or posts of
fir charred, are driven into the ground, to which to attach the styles of the frames.
1579. The cast-iron espalier rail,
(Jig- 248:) resembles a common street
railing, but it is made lighter. The
columns or styles may either be fixed
in oak or stone («, a) ; or, when this
mode is not adopted, to form their
base in the shape of a reversed jr^,
setting them on a foundation of four-
inch brick- work. Such espalier rails
have been tried in Scotland (Caled.
Mem. i. 483.), and found to come
somewhat cheaper than wooden ones ;
but their great advantage must be
their durability, (especially when well
painted, or oiled, whilst the iron is
hot,) and the elegance of their appear-
ance.
1580. The horizontal espalier rail (figs. 249, & 250.) is a frame of wood or iron, of any
form or magnitude, and either detached or united, fitted in with bars, and placed horizon-
tally, at any convenient distance from the ground. For dwarf trees the common height is
249
__A k k
LL Li. L
- , — ,.
L. _A
XiXl I I I
Mill
"THm
three feet, and for standards, six feet. In the latter case, the frames may be arched, and
the trees trained so as to form a bower, covered way, &c. These have not been much used,
nor, from the loss of ground, and the too violent constraint on the tree, is it likely thev
will ever become general.
1581. The oblique espalier rail is composed of frames of bars, wires, or lattice- work,
placed obliquely. (Hort. Tram. App. to vol. ii.) Trees will no doubt thrive well,
trained on such surfaces, but, unless they run north and south, one side will be of little
use ; and even running north and south, they can only enjoy half the day's sun. The
ground too under them, unless used as a walk, must be in a great degree lost, so that
these rails are on the whole inferior to the common sort.
1582. Of fixed structures, the brick wall, both as a fence, and retainer of heat, may be
reckoned essential to every kitchen-garden ; and in many cases the mode of building them
hollow mav be advantageously adopted.
x ;
310
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
Sect. III. Permanent Horticultural Structures.
1583. Buildings with glass roofs, or artificial habitations for plants, constitute by far the
most important part of garden-structures, whether we regard the expense of their first
erection, the skill required to manage them, or the interesting nature of their products.
1584. Green-houses were known in this country in the seventeenth century. They were
then, and continued to be, in all probability, till the beginning of the 18th century,
mere chambers distinguished by more glass windows in front than were usual in dwelling-
rooms. Such was the green-house in the apothecaries' garden at Chelsea, mentioned by
Ray, in 1684, {Letters, p. 174.-) as being heated by hot embers put in a hole in the floor ;
a practice still extant in some parts of Normandy, and to which, as is well known, the
curfew, or couvrefeu bell refers. The same general form of house with the addition of a
furnace or oven is given by Evelyn in the different editions of his Kalendarium.
1585. The first <era of improvement may be dated 1717, when Switzer published a plan
for a forcing-house, suggested by the Duke of Rutland's graperies at Belvoir Castle.
Miller, Bradley, and others, now published designs, in which glass roofs were introduced ;
and between the middle and the end of the last century, Speechley and Abercrombie in
England, and Kyle and Nicol in Scotland, made various improvements in forcing-
houses, as to general form, internal arrangements, and mode of heating. The largest plant-
stoves were the joint productions of the late W. Aiton, and Sir W. Chambers at Kew,
and the largest pineries were erected at Wellbeck by Speechley.
1586. A second (era of improvement may be dated from the time when Dr. Anderson pub-
lished a treatise on his patent hot-house, and from the publication of Knight's papers in the
Horticultural Society's Transactio?is, both of which happened about 1809. Not that the
scheme of Dr. Anderson ever succeeded, or is at all likely to answer to the extent ima-
gined by its inventor ; but the philosophical discussion connected with its description and
uses, excited the attention of some gardeners, as did the remarks of Knight on the proper
slope of glass roofs {Hort. Trans, vol.i.) ; and both contributed, there can be no doubt,
to produce the patent hot-houses of Stewart and Jorden, and other less known improve-
ments. These, though they may now be considered as reduced au merite historique, yet
were really beneficial in their day. Knight's improvements chiefly respected the angle
of the glass roof; a subject first taken up by Boerhaave about a century before, adopted
by Linnajus {J men. Acad. i. 44.), and subsequently enlarged on by Faccio in 1699,
Adanson {Families des Plantes, torn, i.) in 1763, Miller in 1768, Speechley in 1789,
John Williams of New York {Tr. Ag. Soc. New York, 2d edit.) in 1801, Knight
in 1 806, and by some intermediate authors whom it is needless to name.
1587. The last and most important csra is marked by the fortunate discovery of Sir
G. Mackenzie in 1815, " that the form of glass roofs best calculated for the admission of
the sun's rays is a hemispherical figure." This may be considered as the ultimatum in
regard to the principle and perfection of form ; and has already given rise to many
beautiful curvilinear structures, of which a series of plans are in course of publication
by Messrs. W. and D. Bailey, of Holborn, London, who have erected curvilinear houses
at the following places : —
Karnes of the Proprietors.
Vincent Stuckey,.Esq. -
Samuel Chilvers, Esq.
Their Residences.
{Hill House, Langport,
Somersetshire - -
- Finchley, Middlesex
A'o. of
Houses.
Description of Houses.
Dimensions.
'■> 1 i T Grapery.
- J l (_ Curvilinear roof, with curved ends
{Grapery.
Curvjhnear roof, with curved ends
C 48 ft. long.
< 15 ft. 6 in. wide.
" t lift. 6 in. high.
C Solft. long.
< 13ft. wide.
" t 10 ft. high.
Thomas Andrew Knight, Esq.
P.H.S
Irjownton Castle, Salop
50 ft. long.
10 ft. wide.
9 ft. high.
Charles H. Turner, Esq.
Messrs. Loddiges -
Peter Kendall, Esq.
Thomas Dickens, Esq. -
{Rook's Nest, near
Godstone - -
Hackney -
Walthamstow
{Vale Lodge, Leather-
head
Regent's Park -
"1
1 57 ft. 2i
a > 15 ft. wii
\ 12ft. hig
in. long-
wide,
high.
William Henry Cooper, Esq.
M F S. De Caters De Wolfe Antwerp •
{Pine-stove.
Curvilinear roof, with two brick ends
Store and Grapery.
Plain sloping roof, with sashes opening in
front, and at the back, by means of racks
and pinions - -
C Camellia House. "5 120 ft. long.
1 ■< Curvilinear roof, with curved ends, glazed > 23 ft. wide.
L back sashes - - - - - - - J 18 ft. high.
r Consep-atory. 1 22 ft. 8 in. long.
. J Gothic span roof, with French sash-doors I 20ft 1Qin wi^
1-j in front, and opening sashes on the back I X8 ft. 3 in. high.
~ 31 ft. long.
12 ft. wide.
6 ft. high.
55 ft. long.
15 ft. wide.
11 ft. 6 in. high.
40 ft. long.
16 ft. -wide.
14 it: high.
:}.>
Pine-stove.
\ Curvilinear roof, with upright glazed ends
Curvilinear roof
Green- house.
J On a ci]
J wall £
(_ cast-i
Green-house.
circular plan, with ventilators in back
" and sash doors in front, ornamented
iron pilasters and cornice -
f Pine-stove and Grapery.
2 < Curvilinear roofs, with curved ends, and
I placed at each side of a large orangery
'.}
33 ft. long.
13 ft. wide.
16 ft. high.
Book III. PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN IN HOT-HOUSES. 31]
f Green-house. 7 40 ft. long.
Messrs. Sweets and Miller - Bristol - 1 < Gothic span roof, with folding doors at the J. 15 ft. wide.
(_ ends, and glaied on all sides - - - j yft.6in. high.
C Grapery.
Thomas Fox, Esq. - Beaminster, Dorsetshire 1 < Plain sloping roof, as an addition to an old
(. stove.
f Grapery. 5"??ft-lon£-
CLyndhurst, near 1 I riain sloping roof - -..."") H«. wirte.
Friends of T. Fox, Esq. - < Southampton, Ring- > 2 J (. 9 ft. 6 in. high.
I wood, Hants - - } | Peach-house. \ 33, ft. long.
j Plain sloping roof, in separate sashes - - / in ft hi h
C Conservatory. 1 18 ft. 9 in. long
< Circular front, with domical ventilator, > 22 ft. wide.
t made to rise and fall at pleasure - - ■$ 16 ft. 6 in. high.
T. A, Russell, Esq. - - Cheshunt Park, Herts 1
16 ft. 6 in. high,
i Green-house and Grapery. 1 .„ ft ,0 . .
Sloping roof, with cast-iron gutters and ( « £ ' » «• *J*
frame-work, operung sashes in front, andf „? -, . *!"?•
at the back - - - . . .} 9 ft. ,£ in. high.
Earl of St. Vincent - - Rochetts, Essex - - 1 •) Spherical shape, wifh^a?t-iron coping and \ *°. £• J^™6161
t gutter, ventilators in front and back walls J w mgn"
f Pine-stove. "1
i. u iw, «,„ i Champion Hill, Cam- 1 , | Curvilinear roof, the bars fixed into a cast- viftl™,,
John Hullett, Esq. - -\ bet^lM. '.\\\i iron gutter in front, with ventilators un- I 50 S -f"
I derneath, and in the back walls glazed up- | wme"
I right ends J
f_ s°"th Stove. r 50 ft. long,
j Curvilinear roof, with glazed ends, cast-iron < 12 ft. 3 in. wide.
The Horticultural Society - Turnham Green - - 2 \ c°pinsplate /12 ft. high.
North Stove. 332£t-rng" •->
Curvilinear roof, with brick ends - - -1 iS2"vi2" 6
l;
12 ft. high.
, long,
wide,
high.
a. v
James Burton, tsq. . - lUJgentS ^arfc - - 1 < . cast-iron mitt^r. with,»n™f»n *.„„,„ > 21 ft. diameter.
{Pine-stove. r 51 ft. 4 in. ]ori<.
Curvilinear roof, with brick ends . - 1 15 ft. wide. '
Green-house. r 25 ft. 6 m. long.
Curvilinear roof - . - - - | 12 ft. 10 in. wide.
Charles Hutchins, Esq. - - i1^*0" S1uare> Lon* \ 1 \ Opening sashes irTfront/md ventilators atl 10 ft.' 1
L J t the ends 3 8 ft. 1
i Green-house. ~l
Circular laced roof, the bars fixed in a circu. /
lar cast-iron gutter, with wooden frame (
and'doors underneath - - - • - J
Henry Seymour, Esq. - . J Wooburn, Bedford- 1 1 J Sloping nx>f, with openin'g sashes at the top
L siurc - - j £ fixe(j to a wooden house.
1588. Great emulation now exists in this department of horticulture, not only amono-
country gentlemen, but among commercial gardeners. One house for growing palms
and scitaminae, erected by Messrs. Loddiges, is 45 feet high and 60 feet wide, and
another by the same nurserymen for green-house plants, is 23 feet wide, 18 feet high,
and upwards of 100 feet long, without a single rafter or standard : and these spirited
cultivators, and also Messrs. Gunter, Grange, Wilmot, Andrews, and others, have
heated the whole of their extensive ranges of glass by steam.
1589. The application of steam to the heating of hot-houses appears first to have been
attempted by Wakefield of Liverpool, in 1788, and afterwards effectually applied in
the vault of a cucumber-house at Knowle in that neighbourhood, by Butler, gardener
to the Earl of Derby, in 1792. It made little progress till about 1816, since which it
has extended rapidly, and wherever an extensive range of hot-houses are to be heated, it
will be found a saving of fuel and labor, attended with less risk of over heating or con-
tamination by bad air.
1590. The grand cause of tlie improvements which have been made in hot-houses, may be
traced to their being no longer as formerly under the control of mansion architects. To
civil architecture, as far as respects mechanical and chemical principles, or the laws of the
strength and durability of materials, they are certainly subject in common with every
description of edifice ; but in respect to the principles of design or beauty, the found-
ation of which we consider, in works of utility at least, to be " fitness for the end in
view," they are no more subject to the rules of civil architecture, than is a ship or a
fortress ; for those forms and combinations of forms, and that composition of solids
and openings which are very fitting and beautiful in a habitation for man or domestic
animals, are by no means fitting, and consequently not beautiful in a habitation for
plants. Such, however, is the force of habit and professional bias, that it is not easy
to convince architects of this truth ; for structures for plants are considered by them no
further beautiful than as displaying not only something of architectural forms, but even
of opaque materials. Fitness for the end in view, we repeat, is the basis of all beauty
in works of use, and, therefore, the taste of architects so applied, may safely be pro-
nounced as radically wrong. — We shall consider the subject of hot-houses as to the
principles of construction, external forms, and interior details.
Subsect. 1. Of tlie Principles of Design in Hot-houses.
1591. To ascertain the principles of action, it is always necessary to begin by consider-
ing the end in view. The object or end of hot-houses is to form habitations for veget-
ables, and either for such exotic plants as will not grow in the open air of the country
X 4
312 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
where the habitation is to be erected ; or for such indigenous or acclimated plants as it
is desired to force or excite into a state of vegetation, or accelerate their maturation
at extraordinary seasons. The former description are generally denominated green-
houses or botanic stoves, in which the object is to imitate the native climate and
soil of the plants cultivated ; the latter comprehend forcing-houses and culinary stoves,
in which the object is, in the first case, to form an exciting climate and soil, on general
principles ; and in the second, to imitate particular climates. The chief agents of ve-
getable life and growth are heat, light, air, soil, and water ; and the merit of artificial
climates consists in the perfection with which these are supplied.
1592. Such heat as is required in addition to that of the sun is most generally produced
by the ignition of carbonaceous materials, which heat the air of the house, either directly
when hot embers of wood are left in a furnace or stove, placed within the house, as in
Sweden and Russia ; mediately, as when smoke and heated air, from, or passing through
ignited fuel, is made to circulate in flues ; or indirectly, when ignited fuel is applied to
boil water, and the hot vapor, or the water itself, is impelled through tubes of metal or
other conductors, and either to heat the air of the house at once, as in most cases, or to
heat masses of brick-work, sand, gravel, rubble, or earth, tan, or even water, (Hort.
Trans, vol. iii. ) which materials may afterwards give out the heat so acquired slowly to
the atmosphere of the house. But heat is also occasionally supplied from fermenting
vegetable substances, as dung, tan, leaves, weeds, &c. applied either beneath or around
the whole or a part of the house, or placed in a body within it.
1593. In particular situations heat may be obtained from anomalous sources, as in Iceland,
Tceplitz, and Matlock, from hot springs ; and perhaps in some cases, especially in coal
districts, from a basement composed of certain compounds of sulphur and iron, &c.
Dr. Anderson (Treatise on the Patent Hot-house,) proposed to preserve the superfluous
heat generated by the sun in clear days, and to retain it in reservoirs placed under,
above, or at one side of the house, re-admitting it as wanted to keep up the temperature ;
but the plan, though ingenious and philosophical, required too much nicety of execution,
and the clear days in this country are too few to admit of adopting it as a substitute for
heating by ignition. Heat must not only be produced in hot-houses, but its waste avoided,
by forming as large a portion of the cover as possible of materials through which it
escapes with difficulty, as far as this is consistent with other objects. Hence, in certain
classes of houses, the side to the north is formed of opaque and non-conducting
materials.
1594. Light is admitted by constructing the roof, or cover, of transparent matter, as
oiled paper, talc, or glass, (the last being found much the best material,) joined to as small
a proportion of opaque substances, as timber or metal, as is found consistent with the
strength requisite to bear the weight of the glass, resist the accidents of weather, &c.
All plants require perpendicular light, but some, as many succulents and others, which
throw out, or are allowed to radiate their branches on all sides, require the direct influ-
ence of li°rht on all sides ; others naturally, as creepers or climbers, or artificially, when
rendered creepers or climbers, by the art of training on walls or trellises, require direct
light on one side only ; and hence it is, that for certain purposes of culture, hot-houses
answer perfectly well when the transparent covering forms only a segment of their
transverse section, provided that segment meets the sun's rays at a large angle the greater
portion of the growing season. This, of course, is subject to limitations and variations
according to circumstances, and has given rise to a great variety in the external forms
of hot-houses, and the angles of their roofs. It decides, however, the necessity of
placing all houses whose envelope is not entirely transparent, with their glazed side to
the south.
1595. The introduction and management of light is the most important point to attend to m
the construction of hot-houses. Every gardener knows, that plants will not only not thrive
without abundance of light, but will not thrive unless they receive its direct influence by
being placed near or at no great distance from the glass. The cause of this last fact
has never been satisfactorily explained. (Sowerby on Light and Colors, 1816.) It seems
probable, that the glass acting in some degree like the triangular prism, partially de-
composes or deranges the order of the rays. It is an important fact also, that light in
nature is always accompanied by heat ; and, therefore, it should not only be an object to
admit the sun's direct' rays in clear weather, when he is visible, but even when the rays
are refracted and deranged by clouds and vapors, when he is invisible.
1596. The theory of the transmission of light through transparent bodies, is derived from
a well known law in optics, that the influence of the sun's rays on any surface, both in
respect to light and heat, is directly as the sine of the sun's altitude, or in other words,
directly as his perpendicularity to that surface. If the surface is transparent, tlie num-
ber of rays which pass through the substance is governed by the same laws. Thus, if
1000 rays fall perpendicularly upon a surface of the best crown-glass, the whole will
pass through, excepting about a fortieth part, which the impurities of even the finest
Book III. PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN IN HOT-HOUSES. 313
crystal, according to Bouguer, will exclude ; but if these rays fall at an incidental angle
of 75°, 299 rays, according to the same author, will be reflected. The incidental angle,
it will be recollected, is that contained between the plane of the falling or impinging
ray, and a perpendicular to the surface on which it falls.
1597. The benefit derived from the sun's influence on the roofs of hot-houses depends, as
far as respects form of surface, entirely on this principle. Boerhaave applied it to
houses for preserving plants through the winter, and of course required that the glass
surface should be perpendicular to the sun's rays at the shortest day, when most heat and
light were required. Miller [Diet. art. Sun,) applied it to plant-stoves, and prefers two
angles in the roof; one, as the upright glass, to meet the winter's sun nearly at right
angles, and the other, as the sloping glass, to meet him at an angle of 45° for summer
use, and "the better to admit the sun's rays in spring and autumn." Williamson
(Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 161.) prefers this angle (45°) in all houses, as do most gardeners,
probably from habit ; but Knight prefers, in forcing-houses at least, such a slope of roof
as shall be at right angles to the sun's rays, at whatever season it is intended to ripen the
fruit. In one of the examples given (Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 99.), his object was to
produce a large and highly flavored crop, rather than a very early crop of grapes ; and
he accordingly fixed upon such a slope of roof as that the sun's rays might be perpen-
dicular to it about the beginning of July, the period about which he wished the crop to
ripen. The slope required to effect this purpose in latitude 52°, he found to form
an angle of 34° with the plane of the horizon. In the application of the same principle
to the peach-house (Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 206.) in order to ripen the fruit about mid-
summer, the roof was made to form an angle with the horizon of 28°. Both these
houses, Knight assures us, produced abundant crops perfectly ripened.
1598. As data to determine the angles of glass roofs, the following are laid down by
Wilkinson. The angle contained between the back wall of the forcing-house, and
the inclined plane of the glass roof, always equals the sun's altitude, when his rays fall
perpendicularly on that plane, provided that the inclination of the plane to the horizon be
at an angle not less than 28° 2', nor greater than 75°. Within the above limits, the
sun's rays are perpendicular twice in the year, once in going to, and once in returning
from, the tropic. Hence then, having determined in what season we wish to have the
most powerful effects from the sun, we may construct our houses accordingly by the
following rule. Make the angle contained between the back wall of the house and its
roof, equal to the complement of latitude of the place, less or more the sun's declination
for that day on which we wish his rays to fall perpendicularly. From the vernal to the
autumnal equinox, the declination is to be added, and the contrary. Thus, to apply
these principles to the slope of roof recommended by Knight, for ripening grapes in
July ; say at London we have
Latitude of London 51° 29'
Sun's declination on the 21st July - - 17° 31'
33° 58' or 34" nearly.
Wilkinson adds that " as we want the genial warmth of the sun most in spring,
therefore, for general purposes, that construction would perhaps be best which gives us
the greatest quantity of perpendicular rays then. If the inclination were 45°, the sun's
rays would be perpendicular about April 6th and September 4th. And as the rays
would vary very little from the perpendicular for several days before and after the
6th of April and September 4th, the loss of rays arising from reflexion, would, as appears
from the annexed table, be nearly a minimum. Even at the winter solstice, the loss by
the obliquity of the angle of incidence would be only two in 1000 more than when the
rays fall perpendicularly, as appeal's by Bouguer's Table of Rays reflected from Glass.
Of 1000 incidental rays when the angle of incidence is
87° 3C
584 are reflected.
I 75"
299 are reflected.
40«
34 are reflected
85
543
70
222
30
27
82 30
474
65
157
20
25
80
412
60
112
10
25
77 30
356
50
57
1
25
Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 237.
When, in addition to this, it is considered, that the slope of 45° is the least that will
effectually drain the water from the intervals between the lapping over of the panes of
glass, that angle appears to us, as Williamson suggests, decidedly the best slope for
general purposes.
1599. Air is supplied by the portion of the atmosphere enclosed by the tegu-
ment. This air may be raised in temperature, charged with vapors, or renewed, at the
will of the operator. It might also be put in motion by art, for the sake of obtaining
strength of stem in ramose or tree-like plants ; but the motion communicated to plants, by
opening the cover, and exposing them to the direct influence of the air in fine weather, is
deemed sufficient, either for this purpose, or giving flavor to fruits when advancing to
maturity. A very fit machine for putting air in motion, or for extracting air, was
invented by B. Deacon (Patent- office, 1812, and Remarks on Hot-houses, part 2.) It
314
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
is impelled by manual labor, or clock or jack machinery, and has been successfully used
for ventilating public rooms and churches.
1600. Soil, it must be obvious, is perfectly within the control of ait, which, in fact,
can far surpass nature, when increased dimensions of the parts of plants and improved
quality of fruit are objects.
1601. Water is equally at our command with soil : it may be made to pass through the
house in a surface -rill ; or under the soil in subterraneous channels ; may be retained
in a cistern or basin; or introduced in tubes, either to throw' up innumerable jets from
the floor, or pour them down from the roof to serve as rain. It may be supplied
directly to the roots of plants, without wetting their leaves, in the manner of irrigation ;
be stagnated round them, as in natural marshes, or made to ascend as vapor from
steam-pipes, by pouring it on flues or hot bodies, or even watering the floor or interior
surface of the house. Having ascended and filled the air, it parts with its caloric, and is
precipitated on the plants in the form of dew.
Subsect. 2. Forms of Hot-house Roofs.
1602. The general form and appearance of the roofs of hot -houses, was, till very lately,
that of a glazed shed or lean-to ; differing only in the display of lighter or heavier frame-
work or sashes. But Sir George Mackenzie's paper on this subject, and his plan and
elevation of a semi-dome (Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 175.), have materially altered the
opinion of scientific gardeners. Knight made the first observations on this figure. Sir
George Mackenzie's plan for forcing-houses, he observes, is extremely interesting ; but
contains "some defects which cannot be obviated without deviating from the spherical to
the spheroidal form, which Sir George states to be objectionable, on account of the
great nicety requisite in the workmanship. On making a few trials, to ascertain the
varieties of forms which might be given to forcing-houses, by taking different segments
of a sphere, I, however, soon became perfectly satisfied that forcing-houses, of excellent
forms, for almost every purpose, and of any convenient extent, might be constructed
without deviating from the spherical form ; and I am now perfectly confident, that such
houses will be erected and kept in repair at less expense, will possess the important
advantage of admitting greatly more light, and will be found much more durable than
such as are constructed according to any of the forms which have been hitherto
recommended. By employing a small segment (Jig. 251. b, c) of a large sphere
(Jig. 251. a, a), as low and as wide a forcing-house as can be wanted for any purpose,
may be readily obtained. Instead of the half of a hemisphere of thirty feet diameter,
let the half of one of fifty feet (a, a) be chosen, and from the base of this, cut off thirty-
five degrees (b, b), and from the summit fifteen degrees (c, c) ; and the following pro-
portions for a forcing-house (Jig. 251. b, c) will be given. Its height (including
eighteen inches of upright opaque front, opening as shutters,) will be twelve feet ; its
width in the centre fourteen feet, and its length very nearly forty feet ; and there are
very few purposes for which a house, constructed according to some of the intermediate
forms, between that above mentioned and the acuminated semi-dome, will not be found
c 0
• 251
b 1
extremely well adapted." A few observations on Sir. G.
the improvements on it, proposed by Knight, were made by
Neill (Edin. Encyc. art. Hort.) and the next in order by us in
Remarks on the Construction of Hot-houses, &c. 1 8 1 7. A year be-
fore (1816) we had invented a wrought-iron sash-bar, the section
of which ( fig. 252. a) is not more than half an inch wide,
and a half bar (fig. 252. b) equally light (a specimen of both of
which was presented to the Hort. Soc. in May 1816.) ; and in
1818 we completed a considerable erection of glass roofs at
Bayswater (Jig. 253.), on the curvilinear principle, the first, we
believe, attempted in Britain. The object of such a junction
of different curvatures in the Bayswater example is to show,
Mackenzie's plan,
252
pd
Book III.
FORMS OF HOT-HOUSE ROOFS.
315
that, in regard to form, the strength and tenacity of the iron bar, and the proper choice
of shape in the panes of glass, admits of every conceivable variety of glazed surface.
In this we have completely succeeded, without in the least interfering with the objects
of culture. To render all these improvements available by the public, as matters of trade,
we transferred, in 1818, our right in the invention of the bar to efficient tradesmen (W. and
D. Bailey, 272. Holborn, London), who have since, from our plans, constructed in a most
excellent style of workmanship, the curvilinear houses in different parts of the country,
of which we have already given a list and description. (1587.)
1603. Some forms of hot-houses on the curvilinear principle shall now be submitted, and
afterwards. some specimens of the forms in common use ; for common forms, it is to be
observed, are not recommended to be laid aside in cases where ordinary objects are to be
attained in the easiest manner ; and they are, besides the forms of roofs, the most con-
venient for pits, frames, and glass tents, as already exemplified in treating of these struc-
tures.
1604. The acuminated semi-globe.
(Jig. 254.) The most perfect form ^--ij^s-i — 254
of a hot-house is indisputably that of
a glazed semi-globe. Here plants, as
far as respects light, would be nearly
in the same situation as if in the open
air; and art, as already observed,
(1592. ) can add heat, and all the other
agents of vegetation, nearly to perfec-
tion. But in respect to excluding the
rain, the semi-globe is too flat at top,
and requires to be acuminated ; and in regard to economy, the first cost and expense of
maintaining an artificial heat against its constant abduction through a thin medium, ex-
posed to the north winds, would, for most purposes, be a great objection.
1 605. An acuminated semi-dome, or a vertical section of the last figure, placed against
a wall built in a direction from east to west, removes a great part of the objection as to
heat, and will still admit an adequate supply of light to plants kept constantly in the
same position, or turned very frequently. This, therefore, may be reckoned the second
best form for a plant-habitation for general purposes, and without reference to particular
modes of culture.
1606. Tlie semi-ellipse (Jig. 255.) is a figure which, in the plan (a, c), displays half an
255
316
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
ellipsis, or oval, and in the superstructure {b, b) one-fourth part of the solid figure. Its ad-
vantage over a semi-dome is, that, whether the trees are to be trained on a trellis parallel
to the class, or against the back wall, a greater surface for training is obtained in propor-
tion to the volume of cubic air to be heated- On the other hand, its glass surface is less
perfect in respect to perpendicularity to the sun's rays ; though in this respect the differ-
ence is not of great consequence. Houses of this sort, Adanson informs us, are of Dutch
invention. As the sun retired from them in the afternoon, the eastern parts of the ellipse,
as they fell successively into shade, were covered with reeds or mats ; and, in like manner,
in the morning the east end was uncovered first, and the west end only as the sun came
round on it. {Families des Plantes, vol. i. Pref.)
1607. The parallelogram with curved roof and ends {Jig- 256.) is one of the most con-
venient forms of curvilinear roofs for the common purposes of culture, as it admits of
more regular figures of beds, paths, trellises, &c. within, and of every variety of dimen-
sion. In regard to light, heat, and beauty, they do not differ materially from the semi-
ellipse. Of this form, a considerable number of forcing-houses, and some green-houses,
have been erected. Among the latter may be noticed one for Messrs. Loddiges, and
another for the Horticultural Society. {See the Table, 1587.)
256
1608. The ridge and furrow roof may be effected either in curvilinear or right-lined hot-
houses ; and consists in placing the bars in the rebates of which the glass is put, in such a
manner as that the section of the roof may always be a zig-zag line, in which the space
traversed by each side or zig may either contain several bars {Jig. 257.), or merely one
pane of glass. {Jig. 258.) In both modes it is generally desirable, that the ends of all
...-<'
..V"-*"
>-HK
257
..." f'
* \
4k
i
y--.
258
.*<
.Af
,"
the bars should terminate in one horizontal line on the top of the parapet ; which need
not, however, be the case in their termination against the back wall. Some apparent
difficulty of glazing is thus occasioned in the lower part of the roof; but the difficulty
is only apparent, for as smaller and only triangular pieces of glass can be used there,
it becomes, in fact, more economical, by occasioning the use of pieces of glass which
would otherwise be thrown away. The advantages of ridge and furrow roofing are
chiefly obtainable in countries liable to heavy falls of snow or hail, and in houses which
are parallelograms in plan. Almost any weight of snow may be carried by such roofs,
especially when the bars are not far apart, as the pressure will evidently be almost
entirely on the upper bars, and not on the glass. As to hail, as it will always meet the
surface of the glass in a ridge and furrow roof at an angle of 45°, it can never do it
much, if any, harm. Curvilinear houses with roofs of this description are therefore
peculiarly suitable for the north of Europe, and especially for Russia; and in houses
with triangular and straight-lined roofs, the sun {a, Jigs. 257, & 258.) will be perpendi-
cular to half the roof (by being so to half each ridge) at that period which forms half
Book III.
FORMS OF HOT-HOUSE ROOFS.
31'
the time between his rising and mid-day, and perpendicular to the other half, at half
the period of time between mid-day and sunset. Another advantage of ridge and furrow
roofs is, that the laps between the panes, unless very broad or puttied, are always kept
free from accumulations of dust. This takes place in consequence of their angle of in-
clination, which being about 45°, the gravity of the column of water between the laps
is found to counterbalance the attraction of cohesion, and slides in the lap from the
crown to the bottom of the furrow.
1609. The general form 0cq
and appearance of a ridge and
furrow house {fig' 259.) is
not materially different from
that of others. Where the
curved end is adopted, it will
not be necessary to deviate
from the common mode of
glazing in these parts of the
roof, unless with a view to resist a weight of snow,
the roof, therefore, is ridged
(Jig. 260. a, a), the ends will
present a smooth surface
(Jig. 260. b, b).
1610. The polyprosopic
hot-house (fig> 261. ) re-
sembles a curvilinear house,
but differs in having the
surface thrown into a num-
ber of faces, the chief advan-
tages of which are, 1. That
by hinging all the different
faces at their upper angles, and by having rods connecting the lower outside corners of
the faces terminating in chains which go over pulleys in the top or above the back wall,
the whole roof, including the ends, may be opened or raised sympathetically, like Vene-
tian blinds (Jig- 261. a.), either so as each sash or face may be placed in the plane of the
angle of the sun's rays at the time, or to the perpendicular, to admit a shower of rain.
While the parallelogram part of
260
t^IP^SSS! H&V
In consequence of this arrangement, the plants in a polyprosopic house may, at
any time, and in a few minutes, be placed in effect, or as far as respects light, air, wind,
rain, dew, &c. in the open air ; and being so placed, may, whenever desired, be as
speedily restored again to their proper climate. The arrangement by which this is effected,
and which is perfectly simple, is applicable to every form of hot-house, whether of glass on
all sides, on two, or on three sides ; or whether the roof is formed of curved or straight lines.
We consider it, indeed, to be the ne plus ultra of improvement, as far as air and light are
concerned. One objection to all curvilinear forms in this respect is, that the roof, unless
a considerable expense be incurred, must be fixed, and air admitted by horizontal wooden
or glazed shutters in the parapets, or between the props, and allowed to escape by sky-
lights or shutters at the top of the back wall ; but here the air is equally admitted in every
part of the house, in the most natural manner, without the creation of currents or eddies,
and without excluding any more sun than will be obstructed by the thickness or edge of
the faces or sashes. In like manner, a great objection to straight-lined roofs with sliding
sashes is, that air can only be partially admitted, and that while this is being done, one
glazed frame being slid over the other in all those parts where there is a double portion of
glass, a double portion of light must be excluded ; and as opticians are aware, the light
so transmitted will be doubly decomposed by passing through two surfaces of glass.
1611. This roof, with respect to the sun's rays, may be considered as exactly equivalent
to a curvilinear figure whose curve lines shall touch all the angles of the faces, so that the
sun in general would be nearly perpendicular to some one face every hour in the day,
and every day in the year. A specimen of glass roof, constructed on this principle,
formed a part of the erection at Bayswater (1602.), already referred to, but which
owing to local alterations it became necessary to remove in 1823.
318 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
1612. A range of hot-houses (Jig. 202.) of any or of all the different varieties of cur-
vilinear surfaces, every one will allow to have a better effect than the common glazed
sheds or lean-to hot-houses of kitchen-gardens.
262
1613. Lean-to glass roofs are of various sorts. The simplest and most economical hot-
house of this description may be compared to a large pit. The back and front walls and
ends being of masonry, and a sloping side above of glass, and either fixed or moveable ;
if fixed, then air is admitted by openings in the front wall and top of the back wall ; if
moveable, the sashes slide, or are moved in grooves, the lower one being drawn up, and
the upper sash let down. Such a house will succeed perfectly well for grapes and pines.
The first improvement on this form consists in forming moving glass frames in front, in-
stead of the opaque wall of masonry and shutters ; a second consists in adding glass ends ;
a third, in forming the roof into two slopes ; and a fourth, in bevelling the positions of
the front sashes, and forming the whole roof into three different slopes, the lower for
receiving the sun's rays in winter ; the second for spring and autumn ; and the third, for
midsummer.
1614. A variety of other forms will afterwards be given, both regular and anomalous,
adapted to specific purposes of culture, particular situations, as conservatories or cabinet
appendages to mansions, or for variety in flower-gardens.
Scbsect. 3. Details of the Construction of Roofs, or the glazed Part of Hot-houses.
1615. The glazed tegument, or cover, may either be wholly fixed, wholly moveable, or
partake of both modes. Each of these varieties may be considered in respect to com-
ponent parts and materials.
1616. Fixed roofs are either formed of a series of bars "of iron or; wood, proceeding
at once from the front parapet to the back wall ; or from the base to the centre, or they
may be composed of sashes placed beside each other, or between rafters, as in common
lean-to houses. Roofs of this fixed kind have been approved of by Knight for vines ;
by Beattie, of Scone, for peaches ; and by most cultivators for the culture of pines and
palms ; but, excepting for the two latter purposes, the general experience of gardeners is
(in our opinion, very justly,) against them. -It is to be observed, that in all cases of fixed
roofs, shutters for ventilation are formed in the parapet, and in the upper part of the back
wall immediately under the roof. Economy in first cost, and less breakage of glass after-
wards, are the chief arguments in their favor ; the latter advantage, however, is generally
denied, it being improper glazing rather than the moving of the sashes, which occasions
the breakage of glass.
1617. Moveable roofs are generally composed of sashes, six or eight feet 263
long, and three or four feet wide, which slide over each other, and are
moved by cords and pulleys, and sometimes balanced by weights, to
facilitate their motion ; but they are also occasionally formed of sashes
which open outwards by means of iron levers at their lower extremities,
and hinges at their upper angles (Jig. 263.), in the manner of the poly-
prosopic house. (Jig. 261.)
1618. Roofs jwtaking of both characters generally have a few sashes
which let down or rise up in the roof or front glass ; or in the
case of domes or acuminated roofs, the top part rises in the manner of a sky-light.
1619. The material of fixed roofs is generally iron, as being least bulky in proportion
to the strength required, most durable, and admitting, in the case of curvilinear roofs, a
curvature to be formed at less expense than it could be of timber. In these roofs, in gene-
ral, no other bars or opaque bearers are required than those for receiving the glass ; and
hence their simplicity and unity with regard to component parts, and the equal degree of
transparency in every part of the surface.
1620. The materials of moveable roofs are most commonly timber ; but frequently also
timber and iron, or timber and copper joined together. Thus cast-iron and wrought-iron
rafters are frequently used ; and in these are placed sashes with styles and rails of timber,
and bars of copper, and of cast or wrought iron. Two of the lightest-roofed shed-houses
yet built with sliding sashes are, one by Timmins, of Birmingham, in 1811, at Loddiges'
nursery, in which the rafters are of wrought-iron, cased in copper, to which are screwed
pulleys, on which the sashes, composed of copper bars and timber styles, slide without
grooves ; and the other is at the Union Nursery, King's Road, erected by J. S. Jorden,
in 1815, in which the upper part of the roof only moves ; the rafters are trusses of
wrought-iron, supporting bars of cast-iron ; and the entire sash is formed of hollow sheet-
Boor III. GLAZING OF HOT-HOUSE ROOFS. 319
copper. The use of sheet-copper, however, may now be considered as exploded in hot-
house building, wrought-iron being a much more economical, wholesome, durable, and
equally elegant substitute for timber. In general, it may be observed, that where sashes
and rafters are used in the formation of moveable roofs, a mixture of timber and metal is
better than timber alone, the former in extremes of temperature being liable to expansion
and contraction. Thus sashes with iron bars, and the outer frame or the styles and rails
of timber, move readily in the grooves of cast-iron rafters, because when the metal expands
with great heat, the timber in a slight degree contracts. The reverse is also the case, and
cast-iron sashes slide readily in timber rafters. In both cases small rollers should be in-
serted, either into the sides of the sash or the fillet or groove of the rafters, or both. Cast-
iron rafters need not, for general purposes, be more than half an inch 264
thick, and six or eight inches deep ; where the house is wide, they
require to be supported by slender pillars. Wrought-iron rafters
may be rolled out of broad bar-iron (Jig. 264. ), so as to present as
light and elegant an appearance as our moulded wrought-iron sash-
bar. (Jig. 252.)
1621. Arrangements for covering the roofs of hot-houses by boards, canvass, or mats, to be
lifted or rolled up or down, might be easily contrived and advantageously used ;-but ex-
cepting in pits and low hot-houses, they are not thought worth attending to, it being con-
sidered better to gain the admittance of all the light possible, than lose it for the sake of
a little economy in fuel.
1 622. The pillars or props which are placed on the parapet, to support the rafters, whether
of timber or iron, are generally formed of the same thickness as the rafters, because
similar sashes are placed between them.
1623. Interior uprights to support wide roofs are almost always of iron, either wrought-
metal or small cast-iron columns, sometimes forming intersecting arches, or treillaged
capitals, or connecting imposts for training creepers.
1624. The wall-plate, or cojnng of the parapet, is sometimes a plate of timber, some-
times of stone, and occasionally of cast-iron. Wherever upright glass is not employed,
it must of necessity form also the guttering for the water of the roof, and at the same
time for the water which condenses on the glazed inside of the house.
1625. Objections to metallic roofs. In general it may be observed, that till lately gar-
deners had a prejudice against metallic roofs. Of authors, who have avowed this, Aber-
orombie, Mean, and Nicol, may be mentioned ; others have adopted a cautious neutrality,
as M'Phail, Forsyth, Aiton, &c. Philosophical and amateur gardeners have generally
approved of their introduction ; among which may be named Knight, Sir George Mac-
kenzie, Loddige, and others. We shall here, as briefly as possible, enumerate the ob-
jections to metallic roofs, which are expense, rust, breakage of glass, abduction of heat,
and attraction of electricity.
Expense. Metallic houses are, in general, rather more expensive than wooden ones ; but they admit
more light and are more durable and elegant.
Bust. That all ordinary metals are liable to rust is undeniable. This objection cannot be got rid of.
The reply is, balance against it the advantages of light and durability ; and take into consideration that
careful painting will in a great degree prevent it. Knight observes, if one third of the sum requisite to
keep a wooden roof properly painted be expended upon an iron roof, no injury will ever be sustained from
the liability of that to suffer from rust. (Hort. Trans, v. 231.)
Breakage of glass. This is altogether denied, as respects cast or wrought iron at least, and if appli-
cable at all, can only be so to copper or compound metallic roofs, where weakness produces a bending of
the sash ; or where corrosion or unequal expansion of improper mixtures of metals as iron cased with
copper, occasions a twisting of the bar. Cast-iron or solid wrought-iron frames, have never been known
to occasion the breakage of more glass than wood. The grand cause of the breakage of glass, arises in
almost every case from glazing with broad laps. The expansibility of copper is greater than that of brass,
and that of brass greater than the expansion of iron in the proportion of 95, 89. 60. (Young's Lect.) Con-
sequently copper is above one third part more likely to break glass than iron ; but when it is considered,
that a rod of copper expands only one hundred thousandth part of its length, with every degree of heat,
and that iron only expands the one hundred and sixty-six thousand six hundred and sixty-sixth part,
the practical effects of our climate on these metals can never amount to a sum equal to the breakage of
glass.
Abduction of heat. The power of metals to conduct heat is an objection, which, like those of rusting
and additional expense, cannot be denied. The reply is, the smaller the bars, the less their power of con-
ducting ; and a thick coat of paint, and the covering of half the bar by the putty requisite to retain the
glass, also lessens this power ; it is added, heat may be supplied by art, but solar light, the grand advan-
tage gained by metallic bars, cannot, by any human means, be supplied otherwise than by the transparency
of the roof.
Attraction of electricity. To this objection it is replied, that if metallic hot-houses attract electricity,
they also conduct it to the ground, so that it cannot do any harm. Also that no instance can be produced
of iron hot-hous.es having been injured by the effects of this fluid.
Subsect. 4. Glazing of Hot-house Roofs.
1626. Glazing was formerly performed with the very worst description of glass, called
green glass ; and accordingly, Adanson, in 1710. recommends the adoption of Bohe-
mian glass, then the best in Europe, but now equalled by our best crown or patent crown
tables. If, as Bouguer has shown, one fortieth part of the light which falls perpendicu-
larly on the purest crystal is reflected off, or does not pass through it, it may safely be
320
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
asserted, that green glass reflects off more than three fourths. Economy, as to the
quality of glass, therefore, is defeating the intention of building hot-houses, which is to
imitate a natural climate in all the qualities of light, heat, air, water, earth, &c. as per-
fectly as possible. Without a free influx of light, the sickly pale etiolated appearance of
plants is more painful than agreeable to the eye of any who take an interest in the
vegetable kingdom. As the panes or pieces of glass employed in hot-house roofs lap
over each other, the air which enters by the lap, when uneven glass is employed or care-
less glazing performed, no doubt, suggested the idea of closing the lap with lead or putty.
But both these modes being found to prevent the water which collects on the inner sur-
face of glass roofs, from escaping by the outside surface, gave rise, first, to partially
closing the lap ; and subsequently to various forms of panes, and descriptions of laps, of
which the principal are as follow.
1627. Common sash-glazing is performed by even the best hot-house builders with a
lap of from one fourth to three fourths of an inch ; but by the great majority of glaziers,
with a full inch lap. The objection to this mode is, that the broader the lap, the greater
the quantity of water retained in it by capillary attraction ; and when such water, through
a deficiency of heat in the house, is frozen, the glass is certain of being broken. But
supposing this breakage not to take place, the broader the lap, the sooner it fills up with
earthy matter, forming an opaque space, both injurious by excluding light, and unpleas-
ing because imperfect : or if the lap is to be puttied, the opacity is the same. The
accidental filling up of such spaces (when not puttied by art) with dust and earthy matter,
is what prevents them from being broken, by excluding the water in a great degree.
Where the lap is not more than one fourth of an inch, it may be puttied without a very
disagreeable effect. The rectangular pane is the only form which can with propriety be
admitted in curvilinear roofs ; and the most approved practice as to the lap, whether in
roofs or common sashes, is never to make the lap greater than the thickness of the glass,
and not to close it with putty. It is extremely difficult to get glaziers to attend to this ;
but by employing superior workmen, and obliging them to remove every pane which
shall project over the other more than one sixteenth of an inch, the thing may be accom-
plished. This is not only the most elegant of all modes for a curved roof, or indeed for
any other, but the safest for the glass, which is, we repeat, seldom broken by any other
natural means than the expansion of frozen water retained between the laps. It must
not be forgotten that this form is also by far the easiest to repair, and that no mode of
puttying or closing a narrow lap with lead is of long duration.'
265
266
a b c d e f g
1628. Glazing with a leaden lap (265. a) was formerly practised with a view of ex-
cluding the air by a more permanent material than putty. The sort of lap made use of,
is that used by glaziers in lattice- work windows {Jig. 266. a.) The panes being inserted
in the grooves, formed in the edges of the lap, are of
course all in one plane, and the water in running
down either the outside or inside of the roof, must ac-
cumulate on the upper edge of each riband or cross-
string of lead, and so penetrate between it and the glass,
and drop on the plants in the house. This indeed
forms the chief objection to the leaden lap, which is
now deservedly exploded.
.1629. An imjrroved form of lead lap (Jig. 266. b)
consists in using slips of lead rolled so thin as not to
be thicker than fine drawing paper, in connection with
putty, and for the sole purpose of retaining it in its place. It is never allowed to project
beyond the exterior edges of the glass, so that it readily permits the descent of the water.
Its thinness renders it easily manageable, and the time employed in filling up such laps,
when one man is stationed outside the glass and another within, is not much more than
that occupied in glazing a roof with the common putty lap. Such lead laps may either
have a small opening in the middle, or at the angles, and are equally applicable to any
of the modes of glazing to be described. The lead is rolled to any width, and dipt or
cut to the size wanted as used.
Book III. GLAZING OF HOT-HOUSE ROOFS. 381
1630. The copper lap (Jig. 265. c) is the invention of D. Stewart, and its origin may be
recognised in the ess-shaped shred of lead introduced by glaziers between newly glazed
panes, to retain ihem in their places (jig. 265. d). The lap is drawn through graduated
moulds till at last it is brought into the shape of the letter ess compressed. It adds
greatly to the strength of glazing, by giving each pane a solid firm bearing on the upper
and lower edges, and by preventing water from lodging between the panes. Where the
sashes are flat, however, it occasions droppings of condensed water on the plants, against
which there is a general prejudice among gardeners ; and it. has been alleged, that the
drip from copper becomes in a few years poisonous from the partial oxidation of the
metal. In steep roofs, however, this objection does not hold, and there remains in such
cases only the objection of the opacity produced by the lap. It has been used in the
laro-e conservatories at East Sheen and Woodlands ; but appears to us much too opaque
for hot-house roofs, and only adapted for sky-lights in common buildings. If so much
lidit can be spared as is lost by these laps, it were better to increase the number of sash-
bars, by which the panes would be smaller, and consequently stronger and less expensive,
and no metallic lap would be wanting. It is now entirely or nearly out of use.
1631. Fragment glazing (fig. 265. b). This is the primitive mode adopted by nur-
serymen and market-gardeners, before it was supposed that the productions raised under
glass would pay for any thing better. In steep roofs it answers nearly as well as any
other mode in respect to keeping out rain and air, but as a somewhat greater lap is re-
quired in these crooked or undulated pieces of glass, a flat roof is liable to be covered by
dark lines, formed by the lodging of earthy matter in the laps or interstices. Where the
bars are not placed more than six or seven inches asunder, centre from centre, this method
is much more economical than any other ; and is therefore useful for such country-nur-
serymen or market-gardeners as have not, like the nurserymen of London, the opportu-
nity of purchasing the hot-houses of decayed gentlemen or bankrupts ; and consequently
are obliged to build and construct every part ab origine.
1632. In rhomboidal glazing (Jig. 265. c), the panes are in the form of rhomboids, the
advantage of which is, that the water runs rapidly to the lower angle, and passes off both
inside and outside along the bar ; and what is retained by capillary- attraction, is alleged
to be so small as not to have the power of breaking the glass.
1633. Perforated shield glazing (fig. 265. d). This is a supposed improvement on the last
described mode, which it" would be^ were it not that by the perforation in the upper part
of the shield as it is called, the dexter and sinister chiefs are liable to be broken off; and
by the prolonged acumination of its base, it is rendered obnoxious to the same casualty
in the nombril point.
1634. Entire shield glazing (Jig. 265. e). This plan has been used by Butler, a London
hot-house builder ; but it does not seem either to merit or obtain general adoption. It
is difficult, indeed, to conceive what are the arguments in its favor beyond that of
strength, with a very great loss of light, which may surely be better obtained by Stewart's
lap.
1635. Curvilinear lap glazing (fig. 265. f). This mode appears, unless on very flat
roofs, preferable to the common square mode, because the curve has a tendency to
conduct the water to the centre of the pane. If the lap is broad, however, the globule
retained there by attraction is situated precisely in the point where it is calculated to do
most mischief, being in fact as a power on the end of two levers. When the lap is not
more than one sixteenth of an inch, no evil of this sort can happen ; it also happens less
frequently for the first few years after puttying the lap, and leaving a small opening in
the centre for the water to escape. In time, however, according as the house has been
used, the putty begins to decay, it becomes saturated with water, and during frost, when-
ever the temperature of the house is inadequate to prevent this water from freezing, the
panes are certain of being broken. It can hardly be too often impressed on the mind of
the gardener, that puttying or otherwise filling up the lap is in no case requisite, if care
be taken in the glazing to use flat glass, and never to let the lap exceed one fourth, or
fall short of one sixteenth of an inch. This is now rendered the more easily practicable
since the invention of a variety of glass called patent crown glass, and which, purchased
in panes fit for hot-houses, is hardly more expensive than the other. It may be added,
that taking all circumstances into consideration, and especially that of repairs, the common
rectangular pane of a small size is, according to common consent, decidedly the best.
1636. Reversed curvilinear glazing (fig. 265. g) is a method of throwing the water of
condensation to the bars, so as to carry it off by their means, and, if possible, prevent it
from dropping in the house.
1637. Anomalous surfaces can only be glazed by throwing the panes into triangles,
and by no other manr.er, unless by annealing and bending the glass, because three is the
greatest number of points that will touch a globular surface in one plane. By adopting
triangular panes the most singular-shaped roofs may be glazed as perfectly as the simplest
forms of surface.
Y
322
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
1638. Though the making of putty be hardly within the gardener's province, yet it is
fitting he should know that there are several sorts, of which the following are the prin-
cipal : —
Soft putty, being a well-wrought paste of flour of whitening and raw linseed-oil ;
Hard putty, composed of whitening and boiled linseed-oil ;
Harder putty, in which a portion of turpentine, or what is called, drying, is introduced ; and the
Hardest putty, composed of oil, red or white lead, and sand. The first is the most durable of all, be-
cause it forms an oleaginous coat on the surface, but it requires a longer time for drying. The hard sorts
are apt to crack, if not soon well painted ; and the hardest of all, though it appears to be impenetrable,
and of the greatest durability, yet renders it difficult to replace a pane when broken. It seems, therefore,
quite unfit for hot-houses. Much depends on well working the putty some days before it is to be used ;
and in general, that putty which has been ground and wrought in a putty-mill is to be preferred.
1639. The best sort of paint for hot-houses is that which, for the last twenty years,
has been known by the name of anti-corrosion, which is composed chiefly of the
powdered scoriae of the lead-mines of Col. Beaumont, near Hexham. There are other
sorts, which are called anti-corrosive and impenetrable paints ; but they have not been long
enough in use to enable us to recommend them. It may be a sufficient recommendation
of the anti-corrosion to state, that it is used in government works, and especially on all
cast-iron erections, by Rennie, Telford, and others. As to the color of paint, or washes
of any sort, for the walls or interior of hot-houses, it is almost unnecessary to observe,
that as light is the grand object, white is to be preferred.
Subsect. 5. Walls and Sheds of Hot-houses.
1640. Walls of some sort are necessary for almost every description of hot-house, for
even those which are formed of glass on all sides are generally placed on a basis of
masonry. But as by far the greater number are erected for culinary purposes, they are
placed in the kitchen-garden, with the upper part of their roof leaning against a wall,
which forms their northern side or boundary, and is commonly called the back wall, and
the lower part resting on a low range of supports of iron or masonry, commonly called
the front wall. Behind the back wall a shed is commonly formed, and under this is
placed the furnace, the fuel to be used therein, and other materials or implements con-
nected with the culture or management of the hot-house.
1641. The parapet, or front watt, of hot-houses comes first in order. Where upright
sashes are used, there are generally brick walls, either carried up solid from the found-
ation, or built on piers, according as it may be desirable to have the roots of the plants
within pass through to the soil without, or not. In the case of fixed roofs, that part of
the wall which is above ground is formed with horizontal openings, to which opaque or
glazed shutters are fixed, opening outwards for the purpose of admitting air. A recent
improvement on parapets consists in forming them of cast-iron props or pillars {fig. 267.),
which are placed on a basis of two or three bricks (c, c), three or four feet under the sur-
face : to these props, top and bottom rails are fitted, which are rebated to receive a shut-
ter, (fig. 268.) The wall-plate (a, b,figs. 267, & 268.), which receives the ends (d) of
the rafters or sash-bars, forms also a gutter for carrying off the water of the roof, exter-
nally (a), and the condensed water internally (figs. 267, & 268. 6).
1642. Where the roof is moveable on the polyprosopic plan, no such shutters are re-
quired, and therefore the ends of the rafters may go at once three or four feet into the
soil, according to the nature of the foundations, and rest on brick-work ; the surface of
the ground, and the lower edge of the lowest sash being united by a moveable plate,
forming at once a gutter and a rest for the lower rail of the sash.
Book III. HOT-HOUSE FURNACES AND FLUES. 323
1643. Holes for vine-stems {Jig. 268./, f). In all parapets or front arrangements
where vines are to be introduced from without, particular care must be had to provide for
the withdrawing of the vines, even when their wood is of a considerable age and thick-
ness. For this reason, where horizontal shutters are used, the lower styles or pieces
against which they shut, should always be moveable ; and, in general, it may be stated,
that of the various modes for the introduction of the vine from without which have been
adopted, that by cutting off a corner of the sloping or front sash, is the best ; by this
means, when the sash is opened, a vine of almost any size [Jig. 269. a) may be taken out
with ease. A piece of thin board or cork cut every year to fit the increasing diameter of
the shoot is screwed to the wall-plate or lower style, as the case may be, and the vacuity,
which must necessarily be left around the stem, is closed up with moss. When the vine
is to be taken out by unscrewing the triangular board, and opening the sash, or shutter,
a more than sufficient space for drawing out any ordinary-sized plant is obtained without
the least trouble or chance of fracturing the shoots. It may be added, that in curvilinear
ground plans, some exertion of design and nicety of workmanship is required in framing
the horizontal shutters, so as they shall not twist, and also that they require in such cases
to be hinged with what are called coach-hinges.
1644. Glazed shutters (Jig. 269.) are preferred by some to an opaque panel, the utility
of which must, of course, depend on the relative height of
the pots or plants immediately within. The mode of
opening such shutters, and keeping tliem open (Jig. 270.),
is perfectly simple.
1645. The back wall is in general straight or perpendi-
cular, and carried up one or two feet higher than the glass,
to shelter it from the north. (Jig. 255.) Sometimes, how-
ever, it is bevelled or curved to meet the sun's rays.
(Jig. 261. b)
1646. The back shed (Jig. 256. a) is naturally con-
nected with the back wall, and in form and extent, is ge-
nerally regulated more by its uses as a working^shed, than
by the mere enclosure and covering of the fire-places and
fuel, its original and legitimate objects. The width may be varied at pleasure, but sel-
dom exceeds ten or twelve feet, and the height is generally seven or eight feet in the lower
wall, and nearly of the same height as the back wall ; but where opening shutters are
formed in the back wall, for the purposes of ventilation, the upper angle of the shed-roof
must be kept under the level of the shutters to save intricacy of contrivance. But as these
shutters frequently do not communicate directly with the open air, but with passages
under the shed-roof, or channels in the top of the back wall, the height of the shed may
in such cases be made higher. In some cases, instead of shutters (Jig- 270.), boards slid-
ing in grooves, or a sort of Venetian blind, or which is best, flaps held close by a cord,
pulley, and weight, are used ; but the great heat of hot-houses is apt to warp and derange
some of these contrivances. The essential part of the back shed, as respects the hot-
house, is the situation for the furnace and fuel, or steam-apparatus, with which no other
use to which it may be applied must be allowed to interfere. Sometimes back sheds are
not enclosed, but supported on pillars, in which case they are used for fermenting tan,
leaves, or dung, growing mushrooms on ridges of dung, holding pots, pease-sticks, and
other similar purposes. Where the range of hot-houses is situated in the middle of the
garden, great care must be taken, that it present nothing offensive, and that the sheds
behind neither resemble a row of workshops, alms-houses, brickmakers' sheds, or cattle-
hovels. An effectual way of preventing this, is by carrying up the walls of the sheds as
high as the other walls, thus completely concealing their roofs.
Subsect. 6. Furnaces and Flues.
1 647. The most general mode of heating hot -houses is by Jires and smoke-Jlues, and on a
small scale, this will probably long remain so. Heat is the same material, however pro-
duced ; and a given quantity of fuel will produce no more heat when burning under a
boiler than when burning in a common furnace. Hence, with good air-tight flues,
formed of well burnt bricks and tiles accurately cemented with lime-putty, and arranged
so as the smoke and hot air may circulate freely, every thing in culture, as far as respects
heat, may be perfectly accomplished.
1648. The hot-liouse fire-place, or furnace, consists of several parts : a chamber, or oven,
to contain the fuel, surrounded by brick-work, in which fire-brick (a sort containing a
large proportion of sand, and thus calculated by their hardness not to crumble by heat,
&c.) is used; a hearth or iron grating, on which the fuel is laid; a pit or chamber
in which the ashes drop from this grating, and iron doors to the fuel-chamber and
ash-pit.
Y 2
324
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
271
1649. The iron doors admit of several varieties ; but it does not appear that there is any
great difference in the effect produced by the different plans of Nicol, Hay, Stewart, and
others. A double door has the advantage of durability, of preserving heat, and of not so
readily admitting cool air to pass over the fire ; which air, of course, must be less heated,
and consequently less capable of heating the flue than such as, entering from below, passes
through it. The use of the ash-pit door is to act as a regulator to the current of air, or as
a damper or suffocator.
1 650. Vacuities have been formed around furnaces, and by communications between these
and the open air, and an air -flue in the house, a stream of heated air has been introduced :
but this air is so little at the command of the gardener ; is so dried up or burnt, as the
phrase is, that is, mixed with offensive gases from decomposed water, burned oil, iron,
sulphur, or very fine dust ; and so liable to be mixed with smoke, that such plans are now
generally laid aside. Vacuities, however, are frequently formed round furnaces, and
along the first four or six feet of the flue, in order to temperate the heat in that part ; but
such vacuities rarely have any communication with the air of the house. Where a house
of considerable length and volume is to be heated, it is generally deemed better to increase
the number of furnaces than to increase their size, or have recourse to air-flues ; for when
the latter practice is resorted to, they are necessarih projected so far into the shed, or
otherwise kept back from the house, that a great part of the heat is lost in the mass of
brick-work which surrounds them. Small furnaces, on the contrary, may be built in great
part under the walls or floor of the house. In countries where turf, wood, or inferior
coal, is used for fuel, the chamber of the furnace must be large ; on the contrary, where
the best coal, cinders, charcoal, or coke (the three last, the best of all fuel for hot-houses,
as having no smoke), is used, they may be made smaller in proportion to the different de-
grees of intensity of the heat produced by these different materials. In fixing on the
situation of furnaces, care must be taken that they are always from one to two feet under
the level of the flue, in order to favor the circulation of the hot air and smoke, by allow-
ing it to ascend.
1651. A small lime-kiln {fig- 271. a) is
in some places constructed or fixed over
hot-house furnaces for burning lime ; and
when the heat, which passes through the
limestone, is made to enter the flues (<»),
it is evident a real benefit must result from
the practice, as the heat applied to the
burning of the lime in the common way
escapes in the atmosphere. The grate
or fuel bars (rf) are contrived to draw
out, by means of a grooved frame (c),
so that when the lime is burned, it then
drops into the ash-pit (b).
1652. As to the size of hot-house fire-
places, the door of the furnace may be from
ten inches to one foot square ; the fuel-
chamber from two to four feet long, from
eighteen inches to two feet wide, and of
the same dimensions as to height. Every
thing depends on the kind of fuel to
be used. For Newcastle coal, a chamber
of two feet long, eighteen inches broad,
and eighteen inches high, will answer as well as one of double the size, where smoky
Welsh or Lancashire coal is to be used. Various contrivances, as hoppers, horizontal
wheels, &c. have been invented for supplying fuel to furnace-fires without manual labor,
and especially during night ; but from the nature of combustion, and the common mate-
rials used in this country to supply it, no effectual substitute has yet been discovered. If
wood or charcoal, or even cinders or coke were used, there would be a greater chance of
such inventions succeeding, but we do not think ourselves warranted in detailing any of
them.
1653. The modes of constructing flues are various. The original practice was to build
them on the naked earth, like drains or conduits ; or in the solid walls of the backs and
fronts of the pits, like the flues of dwelling-houses. The first improvement seems to have
been that of detaching them from the soil by building them on flag-stones, or tiles sup-
ported by bricks ; and the next was, probably, that of detaching them from even- descrip-
tion of wall, and building their sides as thin as possible. A subsequent amelioration
consisted in not plastering them within, but in making their joints perfect by lime-putty,
by which means the bricks were left to exert their full influence in giving out the heat of
the smoke to the house.
-.. \.,
\
Book III.
HOT-HOUSE FURNACES AND FLUES.
325
1654. The sides of common jiues are commonly built of bricks placed on edge, and the
top covered by tiles, either of the full width of the flue outside measure, or one inch nar-
rower, and the angles filled up with mortar, which Nicol prefers, as neater. Where a
stone that will endure fire-heat without cracking is found to be not more expensive than
tiles, it is generally reckoned preferable, as offering fewer joints for the escape of the
smoke. Such stones are sometimes hollowed on the upper surface, in order to hold water
for the benefit of plants in pots, or for steaming the house.
1655. Broad and deep flues, agreeably to the Dutch practice, have been 272
recommended by Stevenson {Caled. Mem.) ; that of making them narrow
and deep, agreeably to the practice in Russia, is recommended by Oldacre,
gardener to Sir Joseph Banks, and that of using tliin bricks (Jig. 272.)
with thick edges, by S. Gowen (Hort. Trans, iii.) In Gowen's flues, the
section (Jig. 273. a) shows less materials
than any other brick flue, the covers (6) and
the side wall bricks (c) being quite thin,
the base requisite for building the latter on
one another being obtained by the thickness
of their edges (d, e), which is equal to that
of common bricks.
1656. Can-flues (Jig. 21 A..), long since
used by the Dutch, imbedded in sand, and
for the last fifty years occasionally in Eng-
land, are sometimes employed. They consist
of earthen pipes, straight (a), or rounded at the ends for returns (b), and joined together
by cement, placed on bricks (c). They are rapidly heated, and as soon cooled. None of
the heat, however, which passes through them, can be said to be absorbed and lost in the
mass of enclosing matter, as Knight and Sir Joseph Banks (Hort. Trans.) assert to be the
274
275
case with common flues. They are only adapted for moderate fires, but judiciously
chosen, may frequently be more suitable and profitable than common flues ; as, for
example, where there are only slight fires wanted occasionally ; or where there is a re-
gular system of watching the fires, in which case, but not otherwise, the temperature can
be regulated with sufficient certainty.
1657. The embrasure fine (Jig. 21 5.) is the
invention of Sir G. Mackenzie, and is by him
strongly recommended, as exposing a greater
heated surface in proportion to its length.
(Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 175.)
1658. Cast-iron Jiues have also been recom-
mended on account of their durability, but unless they were to be imbedded in sand, or
masonry, they are liable, in an extreme degree, to the same objections as can-flues. A
triangular cast-iron flue, to be coated over with a mixture of one part clay and three of
sand, is recommended for trial by Sir G. Mackenzie. (Hort. Trans, v. 216.) For our
part we cannot perceive a single circumstance in favor of its adoption.
1659. The best sort of Jiues, after all that has been said on the subject, is, in our opi-
nion, the common form, built of thin well burned bricks neatly jointed, with the bottom
and top of tiles, and no plaster used cither inside or outside. Where only one course of
a flue can be admitted the broader it is the more heat will be given out as it proceeds, and
as a consequence, one extremity of the space to be heated will be hotter than the other ;
a return or double course of a narrow flue is, therefore, almost always preferable to one
course of a broad flue. With respect to the embrasure flue, flues with iron tubes, or iron
coders, and various others that have been recommended or described in recent volumes of
the Horticultural Society s Transactions, they are liable, in our opinion, to great objections,
and chiefly to produce sudden excesses of heat, and in general as tending to extremes of
temperature.
1660. The size of flues is seldom less than nine inches wide, by fourteen or eighteen
inches high inside measure, which suits a furnace for good coal, whose floor or chamber is
two feet long, eighteen inches wide, and eighteen inches high. According as the object
varies, so must the proportion both of furnaces and flues. (Designs for Villas, &c. 1812 :
Y 3
326 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
Hort. Trans, vol. iv.) The furnaces from whence the flues proceed, are generally
placed behind the back wall, as being unsightly objects ; but in point of utility, the best
situation is at the end of the front wall, so as it may enter the house, and proceed a con-
siderable length without making an angle. A greater utility, however, is here given up
for fitness ; it being more fitting in a gentleman's garden that something should be sa-
crificed to neatness, than that all should be sacrificed to profit.
1661. The direction of fines, in general, is round the house, commencing always within
a short distance of the parapet, and after making the course of three sides, that is, of the
end at which the fire enters, of the front, and of the opposite end, it returns (in narrow
houses) near to or in the back wall, or (in wide houses) up the middle, forming a path ;
and in others, immediately over or along side of the first course. In all narrow houses
this last is the best mode.
1662. The power of fines depends so much on their construction, the kind of fuel, the
roof, mode of glazing, &c. that very little can be affirmed with any degree of certainty on
this subject ; 3000 cubic feet of air is in general enough for one fire to command in stoves
or forcing-houses ; and 5000 in lean-to green-houses. In houses exposed on all sides,
2000 cubic feet is enough in stoves, and 3000 cubic feet for green-houses. The safest
side on which to err is rather to attach too little than too much extent to each fire, as ex-
cessive fires generally force through the flues some smoke or mephitic air ; and besides
produce too much heat at that part of the house where the flue enters.
1663. Dampers, or valves, are useful in flues and chimneys, both in case of accident and
also to moderate the heat, or in case of one furnace supplying two flues, to regulate the
passage of smoke and heat. For general purposes, however, the ash-pit door is perfectly
sufficient. The damper, and furnace, and ash-pit doors ought seldom to be all shut
at the same time, as such a confinement of the hot air of the flue is apt, owing to its ex-
pansion by increased heat from the hot masonry, to force some of it through the joints of
the flue into the house.
1664. Chimney-tops are generally built on the coping of the back wall, and some-
times ornamented with mouldings, and even disguised as vases. Where there are
only one or two to a conservatory or other house of ornament, these last modes may
be allowable ; but in culinary ranges, it appears to us an unsuitable application of orna-
ment either to form on the stone or brick chimneys many mouldings, or to disguise them,
as urns or vases. "When these last are to be adopted, cast-iron presents abundant facilities
of economical execution. There is a four-sided composition-stone chimney-pot recently
come into use near London, which will answer extremely well till it becomes so common
as to be reckoned vulgar. Sometimes the flues are carried under ground to some
distance from the hot-house, and the chimney carried up in a group of trees, or other-
wise concealed. This practice is suitable to detached buildings formed of glass on all
sides.
Subsect. 7. Steam Boilers and Tubes.
1665. Steam affords the most simple and effectual mode of heating hot-houses, and indeed
large bodies of air in every description of chamber, for no other fluid is found so con-
venient a carrier of heat. The heat given out by vapor, differs in nothing from that given
out by smoke, though an idea to the contrary prevails among gardeners, from the cir-
cumstances of some foul air escaping into the house from the flues, especially if these are
over-heated or over- watered ; and from some vapor issuing from the steam -tubes when
these are not perfectly secure at the joints. Hence flues are said to produce a burnt or
drying heat, and steam-tubes a moist or genial heat, and in a popular sense this is cor-
rect for the reasons stated. It is not, however, the genial nature of steam heat which
is its chief recommendation for plant-habitations, but the equality of its distribution,
and the distance to which it may be carried. Steam can never heat the tubes, even close
to the boiler, above 212 degrees, and it will heat them to the same degree, or nearly so, at
the distance of 1000, 2000, or an indefinite number of feet. Hence results the convenience
of heating any range or assemblage of hot-houses, however great, from one boiler, and the
lessened risk of over or insufficient heating at whatever distance the house may be from
the fire-place. The secondary advantages of heating by steam are the saving of fuel and
labor, and the neatness and compactness of the whole apparatus. Instead of a gardener
having to attend to a dozen or more fires, he has only to attend to one ; instead of ashes,
and coal, and unsightly objects at a dozen or more places in a garden, they are limited to
one place ; and instead of twelve paltry chimney-tops, there is only one, which being
necessarily large and high, may be finished as a pillar so as to have effect as an object ;
instead of twelve vomitors of smoke and flakes of soot, the smoke may be burned by
using Parkes's or some other smoke-consuming furnace. The steam-tubes occupy much
less space in the house than flues, and require no cleaning ; they may often pass under
paths where flues would extend too deep ; there is no danger of steam not drawing or
circulating freely as is often the case with flues, and always when they are too narrow or
Book III.
STEAM BOILERS AND TUBES.
327
too wide, or do not ascend from the furnace to the chimney ; steam is impelled from the
boiler and will proceed with equal rapidity along small tubes or large ones, and descend-
ing or ascending. Finally, with steam, insects may be effectually kept under in hot-houses,
with the greatest ease, by merely keeping the atmosphere of the house charged with vapor
from the tubes for several hours at a time.
1666. The disadvantages of steam as a vehicle for conveying heat to hot-houses are few.
On a small scale it is more expensive than the mode by flues, and more trouble is required to
attend to one boiler than to one or even two or three furnaces. These are all the dis-
advantages we know of. It has been stated by some that steam draws up or etiolates bo-
tanic plants, and lessens the flavor of fruits ; but we are inclined to consider such effects,
when attendant on plants or fruits in houses heated by steam, as resulting from some de-
ficiency of management in other points of culture.
1667. The boilers used to generate steam are formed of cast or wrought iron, or copper,
and of different shapes. Wrought-iron and an oblong form are generally preferred at
present, and the smoke-consuming furnace most approved is that of Parkes.
1668. The tubes used for conveying steam are formed of the same metals as the boilers;
but cast-iron is now generally used. Earthen or stone ware tubes have been tried ; but it is
extremely difficult to prevent the steam from escaping at their junctions. The tubes are laid
along or around the house or chamber to be heated, much in the same manner as flues, only
less importance is attached to having the first course from the boiler towards the coldest
parts of the house, because the steam-tube is equally heated throughout all its length. As
steam circulates with greater rapidity, and conveys more heat in proportion to its bulk,
than smoke or heated air, steam-pipes are consequently of much less capacity than smoke-
flues, and generally from three to six inches diameter inside measure. Where extensive
ranges are to be heated by steam, the pipes consist of two sorts, mains or leaders for sup-
ply, and common tubes for consumption or condensation. Contrary to what holds in
circulating water or air, the mains may be of much less diameter than the consumption
pipes, for the motion of the steam is as the pressure ; and as the greater the motion, the
less the condensation, a pipe of one inch bore makes a better main than one of any larger
dimension. This is an important point in regard to appearance as well as economy.
In order to procure a large mass of heated matter, M'Phail and others have proposed to
place them in flues, where such exist. They might also be laid in cellular flues built as
27S
Y \
328 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Tart II.
cellular walls. {Jig. 238.) The most complete mode, however, is to have three parallel
ranges of steam-pipes of small diameter, communicating laterally by cocks. Then, when
least heat is wanted, let the steam circulate through one range of pipes only ; when more,
open the cocks which communicate with the second range ; and when most, let all
the three ranges be filled with steam. This plan has been adopted by Messrs. Lod-
diges at Hackney, and Messrs. Bailey in heating the hot-houses at Knowle and other
places.
1669. As an example oj the power and convenience of steam, as a medium of conveying
heat to hot-houses, we may refer to the garden, mansion, and farm-yard of Edward Gray,
Esq. of Harringay House, Hornsey, where ten large hot-houses, and the largest of them
550 feet from the boiler, have been heated in a masterly manner by Messrs. Bailey. There
are for this purpose two boilers (Jig.276. a&b): one smaller than the other for mild weather,
and when the whole of the forcing-houses are not in operation ; and the other larger as a re-
serve boiler in case of accident, as an accessory power in extremely severe weather, or for
use alone in cold weather. A main from these boilers heats in succession two graperies
(c, d) two pineries (e,f), a peach-house {g), strawberry-pit {h), plant-stove (i), grapery {k),
green-house (7), conservatory {m\ and a mushroom-house, in all upwards of 50,000 cubit
feet of air. In addition it supplies a steam-apparatus in the farm-yard {n) ; and it would
also heat the mansion (o) if required. The boilers to this steam-apparatus are on the
most approved construction : they are fitted up with furnaces for consuming the smoke
(j)), have safety-valves (a), a supply-cistern {r), and chimneys (s) sufficiently high to pre-
vent what smoke or contaminated air may pass off by them from injuring the garden. So
effectually is heat carried by steam, that at the extreme distance from the boiler (i) a
thermometer applied to the steam-pipe will rise to within two degrees of what it will stand
at close to the boiler. The whole is a most masterly performance.
1670. Pipes of hot water have been proposed to be circulated through hot-houses
by Knight {Hort. Trans, vol. hi.); the plan was tried many years ago by the late
Gould, gardener to Prince Potemkin, in the immense conservator}' of ie Tauridian palace
at Petersburgh. There, however, pumps were employed to re-deliver the water to the
boiler. It was adopted to a certain extent by Davis, a sugar-boiler in Essex ; but it does
not appear likely to become general. The only advantage proposed is, that should the
boiler or steam- apparatus go wrong in the night-time, pipes filled with water would be
longer of cooling than pipes filled with steam. It has been asserted in reply, that an appa-
ratus capable of circulating hot-water, would be much more likely to go out of order than
one adapted to circulate steam.
Subskct. 8. Trellises.
1671. Trellises are of the greatest use in forcing-houses and houses for fruiting the trees of
hot climates. On these the branches are readily spread out to the sun, of whose influence
every branch, and every twig and single leaf partake alike, whereas, were they left to grow
as standards, unless the house were glass on all sides, only the extremities of the shoots
would enjoy sufficient light. The advantages in point of air, water, pruning, and other
parts of culture, are equally in favor of trellises, independently altogether of the ten-
dency which proper training has on woody fruit-trees, to induce fruitfulness.
1672. The material of the trellis is either wood or metal ; its situation in culinary hot-
houses is against the back wall, close under the glass roof, or in the middle part of
the house, or in all these modes. Sometimes it is in separate parts, and either fixed
or moveable ; and in some cases, though rarely, it is placed across the area of the
house. Sometimes it is introduced or . ly in arches, festoons, &c. The most
general plan is to place it under the glass and at the distance of from ten to twenty
inches from it, according to the length of the footstalk of the leaves of the plants to be
trained.
1673. The back wall trellis was formerly in general use, and considered the principal
part of the house for a crop ; but that is now only the case in narrow houses. In many
cases a trellis is still applied against the back wall for temporary crops, till the plants
trained under the front glass trellis cover the roof ; or for figs, which are found to succeed
better than most trees under the shade of others.
1674. The middle trellis is generally recurvate so as not to exclude the light from the
back wall. Sometimes it is horizontal for the same purpose, and sometimes it is omitted,
and dwarf standards preferred in its room.
1675. The front or roof trellis generally extends under the whole of the roof, at a mo-
derate distance (256. b) from it, according to circumstances. It is generally formed of
wires stretched horizontally at 6 or 8 inches' distance, and retained in their places by being
passed through wrought-iron trellis-rods proceeding from the parapet to the back wall,
or the lower edges of the rafters, when formed in a manner adapted for this end.
Book III. PITS, STAGES, DOORS, PATHS, &c. 329
1676. The Jixed rafter-trellis consists ordinarily of three
wires, which pass through the points of crosses (Jig- 277.), in
breadth from fourteen to eighteen inches, and which crosses arc
screwed to the under edge of the rafter ; the first fixed at the
plate of the parapet, and the last at the upper end of the
rafter, and the intermediate ones at distances of from three
to four feet.
1677. The moveable rafter-trellis consists of a rod bent parallel
to the roof, with horizontal studs or rods, extending from 6 to
10 inches on each side, containing two collateral wires, the rod
itself forming the third. This rod is hinged, or moves in an
eye or loop, fixed either immediately above the plate of the parapet, or near the top of the
front glass. It terminates within one or two feet of the back wall, and is suspended
from the roof by two or more pieces of chain attached to the studs, the links of which are
put on hooks attached to proper parts of the roof. Their advantage is chiefly in the
case of very early forcing, when they can be let down two or three feet from the glass,
and thus is lessened the risk of injury from frost. A whole sheet or tegument of trellis,
if desirable, may be lowered and raised on the same general plan. (See the details,
Hart. Trans, vol. iii.J Rafter-trellises are in general used only for such houses as arc net
chiefly devoted to vines ; such as pineries, peach-houses, and sometimes green-houses.
1678. The secondary trellis is placed from six inches to eighteen inches behind the
first, and is used for training shoots of the current year, while that nearest the light is
devoted to such as are charged with fruit. In ordinary trellises, the wires are generally
placed from nine inches to a foot asunder, in a horizontal direction ; on the secondary
trellis they are placed at double that distance.
1679. The cross trellis has been sometimes employed in peach-houses, and is strongly
recommended by Sir George Mackenzie, in what he calls an economical hot-house. These
trellises, however, unless kept very low, darken the house to such a degree as to prevent
the ripening of fruits. They may be useful for nurserymen for training peaches or fi<>-
trees for sale, but for culinary forcing are worse than useless. Sir G. M.'s house, though
lauded by Dr. Duncan {Caled. Memoirs, vol. ii.), was soon obliged to be cleared of its
cross trellisses, and restored to the common form. The only houses where such trellises
can be used with any reasonable prospect of advantage, are such as are placed south and
north, and span-roofed, or glass on all sides. On these two or more lines of low trellis
may be placed, and the plants will enjoy the forenoon's sun on one side, and tlie after-
noon's sun on the other.
1680. The entrance to hot-houses is commonly at each end, and sometimes in the
middle, either of which modes answers perfectly where the ground-plan is a parallelo-
gram ; but for any description of curvilinear house, the entrance is more commodiously
made through a lobby at each end of the house, and which lobby is best formed behind
the wall. When there are a number of curvilinear houses placed against one wall, one
door in the wall between each will serve every purpose, and the whole will be at once
elegant and commodiously connected. ( Jig. 252.)
Subsect. 9. Paths, Pits, Stages, Shelves, Doors, fyc.
1681. The paths in hot-houses vary in direction, breadth, and construction. In ge-
neral, one path runs parallel to the front, sometimes upon the front flue, but more gene-
rally beside it ; at other times, as in peach-houses, it passes near the back wall, or through
the middle of the house. In pineries and houses with pits, it generally surrounds
these, and in green-houses it is commonly confined to a course parallel to the front
and ends. Some of the most ornamental paths we have yet seen have been formed by
Messrs. Bailey, of cast-iron plates, laid over steam-pipes, and so perforated as to form an
elegant running pattern, or cast-iron carpet.
1682. The materials of which the path is composed in the case of some houses, are
mere planks, or lattice-work, supported on cross pieces of timber, in order to admit the
sun and air to the soil below, and not to indurate it by the pressure of feet. An improve-
ment on this mode consists in using grated cast-iron plates, which are more durable,
and may be set on iron stakes driven in till their tops are on a level, and at a proper
height, &c. These gratings are also particularly preferable when the path is over a flue,
not only as presenting a cooler surface to walk on than the covers of the flue, but also by
readily admitting the ascent of the heat in the interstices, and preventing the movement
of the covers by the motion of walking. But the best material for a permanent path, as
in green-houses, botanic stoves, &c. is argillaceous flag-stone, and of this one of the best
varieties is that obtained from Arbroath, and known by tlie name of Arbroath pavement.
It is a light grey schistus, which rises in lamina of from three to six inches in thick-
ness, and eight or ten feet square ; requires very little work on tlie surface ; and has the
property of but very slightly absorbmg moisture from the atmosphere, or from the
330 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
moist ground on which it may be placed. Thus, unless when watered on purpose, it
always appears perfectly dry and agreeable, however moist the soil below. Where the
paths in a house are on different levels, they are commonly united by steps ; but an
inclined plane, when not steeper than one inch in six, will generally be found more con-
venient for the purposes of culture and management ; and if the slope is one in eight, it
is more agreeable to ascend or descend than a stair.
1683. Pits, as applied to the interior parts of houses, are excavations, or rather en-
closures, for holding bark or other fermentable substances. They should be formed so
as the plants may stand at a moderate distance from the glass, which of course depends
on the nature of these plants, whether dwarf bushy plants, as the pine, or taller, as palms
and hot-house trees. They are generally surrounded by walls of brick, four or nine
inches thick, or to save room, by plates of cast-iron, stone, or slate. Sometimes the slope
of their surface approaches to that of the roof ; but as, in this case, the tan or leaves in
the course of fermentation, do not settle or compress regularly, the pots are thrown off
their level, and therefore the more common way is to adopt a slope not exceeding 5°, or
to form a level surface. Tan will ferment with all the rapidity necessary for bottom heat,
if in a layer of two and a half or three feet thick, and therefore no tan-pits need exceed
that depth. Those for leaves may be somewhat deeper. Heat from fire, or steam, or
water, is sometimes substituted for that afforded by fermentable substances, and in these
cases various forms of construction are adopted. For fire-heat, flues are made to cir-
culate under a covering of pavement, on which sand, gravel, scoria, or sawdust, is
placed to preserve a moist heat round the pots. An air-chamber is thus formed under
the pit, from which the heated air may be allowed to escape, if desired, by upright tubes,
with stops, as in the Chelsea garden, or small openings in the side walls of the pit, as at
N. Kent's, of Clapton, or as we suggested and executed at different places in 1804.
(Tr. on Hoth. 8vo. Edin. 1804. Hort. Trans, vol. ii.) Another mode consists in
filling the vacuities round the flues with loose stones (as in the Glasgow garden), flints,
brick-bats, or large gravel. These materials, when once heated, retain their heat a very
long time, and give it out slowly to the superincumbent mass of sand, gravel, or other
media, in which the pots may be plunged. Sometimes soil is placed over this stratum of
stone and gravel, and the plants inserted in the soil. Pines have been successfully grown
in this way at Underley Park from our suggestions. (XV. on. Hoth. 8vo. Edin. 1804. :
XV. on Country Resid. vol. i. 1806.) Another, and very old method of heating
pits by smoke is by forming a vault under them, building in a furnace and ash-pit
door at one end, and a chimney at that opposite. This is the mode originally used in
France and Germany. Encyc. Method, in vol. d'Aratoire et Jardinage, art. Serre.) Knight
suggests the idea of building the walls of bark-pits cellular, and of admitting at their
bottom a current of external air, to be heated in the cells, and issue in that state into
the house. This he " feels confident" will save fuel, but as it would be at the expense
of the heat of the bark or other fermenting material in the pit, it does not appear to us
that any advantage would result from the plan. (Hort. Trans, vol. v. 246.)
1684. Pits may be heated by steam by substituting tubes for flues, and in the case of
the vault, merely by introducing the steam-tube about the middle of the space, and omit-
ting the chimney. Or the tubes may circulate at once in the tan, sand, or sawdust ; or
a vacuity may be formed not more than six inches deep, the whole width of the pit,
covered by pierced oak boards, and the steam introduced there at proper intervals. All
these and other plans have been tried by Butler, at Knowle, near Pre^cot, in 1791 ;
Mawer, at Dairy, in 1795 ; Thomson, at Tynningham, in 1805 ; Gunter, at Earl's Court,
in 1818; W. Phelps, of Wells, in 1822 (H. Trans, v. 357. , and various other persons;
accompanied, as was to be expected, by different degrees of success. A cistern of water
of the size of the pit has been heated by steam, and left to give out its heat to the superin-
cumbent materials of the pit, by Count Zuboff, at Petersburgh. We have seen cucum-
bers grown over a cistern in which the hot water from a distillery passed through.
The result of all the attempts hitherto made to find a substitute for the heat of ferment-
able substances, as applied to pits in which pots are to be plunged, is not such as to
warrant much deviation from the usual practice. But that bottom heat may be very
generally dispensed with altogether, at least with ornamental plants, modern experience
goes far to prove ; and it is more likely that it will be given up altogether, and bottom
moisture obtained by plunging the pots in gravel or scoria, than that methods so expen-
sive, and attended with so much risk to the plants, will ever come into general use.
1685. Beds and borders in hot-houses are generally formed on the ground level, though
sometimes raised above it. They are either composed of earth, for the direct growth of
plants, or of gravel or scoria, in or on which to place pots. When the use of tan is given
up, as in some plant-stoves, the tan-pits are filled with gravel, on or in which, the pots
are set or plunged. Where heat and moisture are judiciously applied, this mode is found
to succeed perfectly, as at the Comte de Vandes', Bayswater, and Messrs. Loddiges',
Hacknev.
Book III. DETAILS FOR WATER, AIR, &c. 331
1686. Shelves, excepting such as are placed near the ground, or almost close under the
upper angle of the roof, are extremely injurious to the vegetation going forward in the
body of the house by the exclusion of light. This consideration, therefore, must be
kept in view in placing them ; in some cases they are inadmissible, as in conservatories ;
in others, as in propagating-houses, the light they exclude can better be spared, than in
fruiting or flowering departments. For forcing strawberries, they may be introduced
under the roof in vine and peach-houses, and removed when their shade proves inju-
rious, &c. The ordinary form is that of a flat board ; but an improvement consists in
nailing two fillets along its edges, and covering the board with a thin layer of small
gravel or scoria. This preserves a cool genial moisture which keeps the earthen pot
moist, and lessens the effect on the earth of alternate dryings and waterings ; and it also
admits the more ready escape of water from the orifices in the bottoms of the pots. Some,
in the case of forcing strawberries and French beans, have the fillets or ledges of the
shelves so high as to contain two or three inches of water, by which means whole rows of
pots can be inundated at one operation ; but this is too indiscriminate an application of
a material on which so much in the growth of plants depends.
1687. Stages are shelves in series rising above each other, and falling back so as their
general surface may form a slope. They vary in form according to that of the house.
The houses with shed roofs and opaque ends have merely a series of steps reaching from
one end to the other ; but wherever the ends are of glass, by returning each
shelf to the back wall, due advantage is obtained from the light furnished by the glass
ends. The addition of lodgement, or turned-up edges to each shelf, and the covering
them with gravel, is, of course, as advantageous as in separate shelves, and surely
more consonant with natural appearances, than leaving them naked like household, or
book shelves. Shelves and platforms of stone are now very general, and found more
congenial to the plants than dry painted boards.
Subsect. 10. Details for Water, Wind, and Reneival of Air.
1688. The reservoirs of water in hot-houses are commonly cisterns of stone or timber,
lined with lead, or cast-iron troughs or basins. Sometimes, also, tanks are built in the
ground, and lined with lead or cement. The cistern is sometimes placed in an angle, or
other spare part of the house, and the water lifted from it at once with the watering-pots ;
but a more complete plan is to build it in an elevated part of the back wall, where it may
have the benefit of the heat of the house, and whence pipes may branch off to different
parts of the house with cocks, every 30 or 40 feet, for drawing supplies. Tanks and
cisterns below the level of the front gutter may be supplied great part of the year from
the water which falls on the roof; but more elevated cisterns must either be supplied by
pumps, or elevated springs. The sources of supply, and the quality of the water must
be taken into consideration before the situation of the cisterns are determined on. In all
cases, there must be waste-boxes at the cocks, and waste-pipes from the cistern, to coun-
teract the bad effects of leakage.
1689. Artificial rain. A very elegant plan has been invented and executed by Messrs.
Loddiges, for producing an artificial shower of very fine rain in hot-houses, by conduct-
ing pipes horizontally along the roof, at the distance of six or eight feet, and having these
pipes very finely perforated by a needle. According to the power of the supply, one or
more pipes may be set to work at a time, and a very fine shower thrown down on the
leaves of the plants with the greatest regularity. This has been done in one of the
palm-houses of these spirited cultivators at Hackney, and for which a medal was voted
to them by the Horticultural Society, in 1817. The following is a particular account of
this apparatus. (Hort. Trans, vol. iii. p. 15.)
A leaden pipe of half an inch bore is introduced into one end of the house, in such a situation that the
stop-cock, which is fixed in it, and which is used for turning on the supply of water, may be within
reach : it is then carried either to the upper part, or the back of the house, or to the inside of the ridge
of the glass frame-work, being continued horizontally, and in a straight direction, the whole extent of the
house, and fastened to the wall or rafters, by iron staples, at convenient distances. From the point where
the pipe commences its horizontal direction, it is perforated with minute holes, through each of which
the water, when turned on, issues in a fine stream, and, in descending, is broken, and falls on the plants,
in a manner resembling a gentle summer shower. The holes are perforated in the pipe with a needle,
fixed into a handle like that of an awl; it being impossible to have the holes too fine, very small needles
are necessarily used for the purpose, and in the operation great numbers are of course broken. The
situation of the holes in the pipe must be such as to disperse the water in every direction that may
be required, and in this particular the relative position of the pipe, and of the stations of the plants to be
watered, must be considered, in making the perforations. The holes are made, on an average, at about
two inches' distance from each other, horizontally, but are somewhat more distant near the commence-
ment, and rather closer towards the termination of the pipe, allowing thereby for the relative excess and
diminution of pressure, to give an equal supply of water to each end of the house. A single pipe is
sufficient for a house of moderate length : one house of Messrs. Loddiges, which is thus watered, is sixty
feet long, and the only difference to be made in adapting the plan to a longer range, is to have the pipe
larger. The reservoir to supplv the pipe, must of course be so much above the level, as to exert a
sufficient force on the water in tlie pipe, to make it flow with rapidity, as it will otherwise escape only in
drops ; and as too strong a power may be readily controlled by the stop-cock, the essential point to be
attended to, in this particular, is to secure force enough. From the above details it will be observed, that
332
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part It.
some nicety is required in the arrangement and formation of the machinery ; but it is only necessary to
view the operation in Messrs. Loddiges' house, to be convinced of the extreme advantage and utility of
the invention, when it is properly executed. {Sabine, in Hort. Trans, vol. iii. p. 15.) We adopted this plan
on a smaller scale in our erections at Bayswater, and the whole of the plants under the square dome
(in Jig. 253.) were watered from a perforated pipe, which passed round the dome near its apex, and radiated
from thence a very fine shower, which reached every part of the floor beneath.
1690. Wind in hot-houses has been attempted, or rather recommended to be attempted,
by Dr. Anderson and others by means of fans. If any thing of this sort were desirable,
the Eolian machine invented by B. Deacon, already mentioned (1599.) might be
employed, either placed in the house, and kept in motion by human, or mechanical
power, or placed at one end to force in or draw out the air. In a range of houses form-
ing a circle or square, or any endless figure, a perpetual breeze might be readily
produced in the following manner. Place under the floor, a powerful fan of the width
of the house. Exactly over the fan, place a glass division across the house, and let the
fan draw in the air through apertures in the floor on one side of the division, and give it
out through similar apertures, or through tubes of any sort on the other. It is evident,
a regular current would thus be produced, more or less powerful according to the size of
the fan, and the rapidity of its motion.
1691. Ventilators, <£-c. The general mode of renewing the air, is by opening the
sashes or doors of the house, in periods when the exterior temperature and weather is such
as not to injure the plants within. The cool air of the atmosphere being then more
dense than that of the house, rushes in till it cools down the air of the house nearly to an
equilibrium with that without. The next mode most common, is that of having a range
of boards hinged to oblong openings, in the lower and upper parts of the house, and
generally in the front and back wall : those in the back wall opening to the south, or
having the opening otherwise guarded, so as to prevent the rushing in of cold north
winds. Sometimes these ventilators are made with a cylinder and fans to extract the air,
and sometimes, as most generally, they are mere openings of small dimensions ; but, in
order to effect any circulation or renewal with this sort of ventilators, the opening must
have an area of two or three feet, and there must be a considerable difference of temperature
between the air of the house and the open air.
1692. To effect the renewal, or cooling down the air, without manual labor, some con-
trivances have been adopted besides the automaton gardener of Kewley already described.
{Jig. 217.) Dr. Anderson and J. Williams made use of oblong bladders made fast at
one end, and with the other attached by means of a cord to a moveable pane or small
sash. The bladder being filled with air at the common temperature allowed for the
house, and hermetically sealed, the window remains at rest; but as the air of the house
becomes heated, so does that of the bladder, which consequently swells, and assumes the
globular form, its peripheries are brought nearer together, and of course the sash or pane
pulled inwards. In a small house this scheme may answer perfectly well for the pre-
vention of extreme heat. Another mode is by using a rod of metal, such as lead, of
the whole length of the house, and one end being fixed to the wall, on the other is
attached a series of multiplying wheels, the last of which works into one, which in
various ways may open valves or sashes. As the expansion of lead is considerable, the
effect of twenty degrees of increase with proper machinery, might perhaps guard against
extremes, as in the other case. A column of mercury , with a piston-rod and machinery-
attached, has also been used, and a ring on a barometrical principle is suggested by
Silvester; but the only complete mode is that of Kewley. For details at greater length
on all the departments of the construction of hot-bouses, see Remarks, &c. 4to. 1817.
Sect. IV, Mushroom-houses.
1693. The mushroom-house is a genus of plant-habitation, which differs from the other: s
in requiring very little light. The simplest form of the mushroom-house is that of an
open shed or roof, supported on props, for throwing off the rain, and protecting from per-
pendicular cold. Under this, the mushrooms are grown on ridges, covered by straw, &c.
to maintain the requisite temperature.
1694. The Jlued musliroom-house (Jig. 278.) is an improvement on the shed, by being
better calculated for growing them in winter. Provided it be placed in a dry situation,
the aspect, size, proportions, doors, or windows, are of little consequence. To be suffi
278
zmcr
t:
Book III.
MUSHROOM-HOUSES.
333
ciently warmed by one fire in winter, it should not contain more than 10,000 cubic feet
of air. As mushrooms will not thrive without some light, and at all events require air,
it ought to have two or three windows or valves for these purposes.
1695. The German mushroom-house (Jigs. 279, 280 & 281,) It is a common practice with
German gardeners to grow mushrooms on shelves, and in pots and boxes, placed behind
stages, or other dark parts of their forcing-houses otherwise unoccupied, (Dietrich's
Gartner's Lexicon ; Ranslebens Briejfe, &c. ) This practice was carried to Russia,
and from Russia was brought to England by Isaac Oldacre, who thus describes the sort
of house adapted for the German practice. " The outside walls (G, Hi. Jigs. 279, 280.)
should be eight and a half feet high, for four heights of beds, and six feet and a half for
three heights, and ten feet wide witliinside the walls ; this is the most convenient width,
as it admits of a set of shelves three feet and a half wide on each side ; and affords a
space through the middle of the house, three feet wide for a double flue and walk upon
it. The wall should be nine inches thick, and the length of the house as it may be
judged necessary. When the outside of the house is built, make a floor or ceiling over it
''as high as the top of the outside walls) of boards one inch thick, and plaster it on the upper
side (e, e) with road-sand well wrought together, one inch thick (this will be found supe-
rior to lime), leaving square trunks (f) in the ceiling, nine inches in diameter, up the
middle of the house, at six feet distance from each other, with slides (s) under them, to
admit and take off air when necessary ; this being done, erect two single brick walls (v, v),
each five bricks high, at the distance of five feet and a half from the outside walls, to
hold up the sides of the floor-beds (a, a), and form one side of the air-flues (t u, tu),
leaving three feet up the middle (t xt) of the house for the flues. Upon these walls (v, ?>)
lay planks (t v) four and a half inches wide and three inches thick, in which to mortise
the standards (/ k) which support the shelves. These standards should be three inches
and a half square, and placed four feet six inches asunder, and fastened at the top (k, Jc),
through the ceiling. When the standards are set up, fix the cross bearers in, in), that
are to support the shelves (o, o), mortising one end of each into the standards (/), the
other into the walls (n). The first set of bearers should be two feet from the floor, and
each succeeding set two feet from that below it. Having thus fixed the uprights (t k),
and bearers (in), at such a height as the building will admit, proceed to form the shelves
(.), o) with boards an inch and a half thick, observing to place a board (d,d), eight inches
broad and one inch thick, in the front of each shelf, to support the front of the beds.
Fasten this board on the outside of the standards, that the width of the beds may not be
2-79
280
"I ' F
diminished. The shelves being complete, the next thing to be done is the construction of the
flue (P, Jig. 281.), which should commence at the end (L) of the house next to the door,
run parallel to the shelves the whole length of the house, and return back to the fire-place,
where the chimney (S) should be built, the sides of the flue inside to be the height
of four bricks, laid flat-ways, and six inches wide, which will make the widtli of the flues
fifteen inches from outside to outside, and leave a cavity (tu, Jigs. 279, 280.) on each
side, betwixt the flue and the walls that are under the shelves, and one (xy) up the middle,
betwixt the flues, two inches wide, to admit the heat into the house from the sides of the
flues. The middle cavity (xy) should be covered with tiles, leaving a space (h) of one
inch betwixt each tile, for the admission of the heat. The top of the flue, including the
covering, should not be higher than the brick walls that form the front of the floor-beds.
The reason why the sides of the flues are recommended to be built stronger than usual,
is, because they support the walk. The walk itself is formed by three rows of tiles, the
outside rows making the covering of the flues, and those of the centre row are what cover
the middle cavity (xy), as above mentioned ; the outside cavities (t u) of the flue are
left open, the tiles which are placed over the flues being laid so as not to cover these
334
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
Sect. V. Cold Plant-habitations.
1 696. Cold plant-habitations, i though seldom or never erected, yet deserve to be men-
tioned as resources under certain circumstances. These circumstances may be, a desire
to cultivate the alpine plants of Europe in tropical climates, or to cultivate the mosses
and ferns of the north of Europe in its more southern countries.
1697. The principle on which a cold house can be constructed in a warm climate must
either be that of the exclusion of the heat by coverings or envelopes ; or the abduction of
heat by evaporation or contact with cold bodies. Heat will be, to a certain extent, ex-
cluded, by forming the house in the ground ; by excluding the sun's rays from its roof;
by a high wall on three sides, leaving only an opening in the middle of the north side ;
and by a double or treble roof of glass to the excavation. A house to be cooled by eva-
poration may also be sunk in the ground ; or it may be raised above it, shaded from
the sun, and over it may be supported a number of shower-pipes (16890, which, by pro-
ducing a gentle and continual rain on the glass roof and stone or other sides of the house,
would draw off much heat by evaporation. Enclosing it by a line of powerful jets-d'eau
would effect the same purpose. To produce cold by abduction, the house might be sunk ;
its floor supported on pillars ; and its sides and bottom kept in contact with a running
stream ; or, if it could be afforded, ice renewable as it melted. These hints are sufficient
to show how cold plant-habitations may be formed in any climate : to enter more at
length on the subject would be useless, in a work calculated chiefly for the climate of
Britain.
Chap. III.
Edifices used in Gardening.
1698. Edifices of different kinds are required in gardening, for carrying on operations,
for retaining or preserving materials and products, and for recreative or decorative pur-
poses. We" shall consider the leading genera in the order of economical, anomalous,
and decorative edifices. In all of these, the details of construction belong to civil ar-
chitecture ; but the design of the greater part ought to be regulated by the judgment of
the gardener or garden-architect.
Sect. I. Economical Buildings.
1699. Economical buildings are chiefly dwellings, store-rooms, and working-places,
entrance-lodges, and buildings for procuring or retaining water.
1700. The head-gardener s dioelling-house, in small places, often assumes the character
of porter's lodge to the gate or entrance ; or is placed in some point of the grounds requiring
protection. In all cases it should be near to the garden, and if forcing is carried on,
the nearer it is placed to that department the better. Sometimes it is placed in the
back sheds, but that is an unwholesome situation ; such sheds fronting the direct north,
and without a single opening to the south, east, or west, are entirely excluded from the
sun, excepting during a few mornings and evenings in summer. A small enclosure, near
the forcing-department, and, if possible, on rising ground, so as to command a view of
at least that part of the garden, is to be preferred. With respect to accommodation, no
dwelling in this country, for a servant expected to do his duty, ought to contain less on
the ground-floor than a kitchen, back-kitchen, and parlor ; on the floor above that, at
least two bedrooms, with closets, and other requisite appendages, internal as well as ex-
ternal. This will suit a prudent man and his wife, not in circumstances to keep a maid,
or to produce a numerous offspring. But for such as afford to keep a servant, or have,
or deem it right to have, a large family, or persevere without thinking any thing about
Book III.
ECONOMICAL BUILDINGS.
335
the consequences in generating one child after another, more bedrooms will be necessary,
and a larger parlor and kitchen. As a gardener, in common with other domesticated
servants, is liable to be removed from the house he occupies at a short notice, and with-
out ary reference to his having, or being able to procure another, it follows, as a matter
of justice, that what are called house-fixtures should be provided by the master. Water
should be conducted to a pump fixed in the back-kitchen ; a furnace and boiler for
washing affixed ; a proper range, with oven, &c. dressers, tables, shelves, &c. in the prin-
cipal kitchen ; grates, and such closets and clothes-presses placed in the parlor and other
rooms, &c. as the occupier would place there, if he held the house on lease. In general,
we may observe that a master has seldom occasion to repent making his servants' abode
comfortable, and even rather agreeable and elegant, than otherwise. A master of a well
regulated mind, indeed, will be anxious to effect this, as far as lies in his power, for every
portion of animated nature under his protection.
1701. The gardener's office is necessarily omitted in small places; but it is an essential
requisite wherever several men are kept. It should, if possible, adjoin the dwelling, and
be connected with the seed-room, fruit-room and cellar, root-cellar, tool-house, and gar-
dener's lodge. The furniture or appendages to this room are the writing-desk ; a
bookcase, containing a small library, to be lent out to the men ; a map of the garden,
and of all the grounds under the master's care ; a herbarium press, and a cabinet for such
specimens of plants as the gardener may find it useful to dry for his own use, or, as often
happens, for that of his family ; a drawing-board and T square ; a board to be used when
new grounds are laying out, as a plain table (in geometry) ; a theodolite, Gunter's chain,
and measuring laths ; with any similar articles, as spare thermometers, budding-
knives, &c.
1702. The seed-room may be connected with the office by a door in the lobby. This
should be a small room, well ventilated, with a cabinet of drawers, as in a common seed-
shop, but on a smaller scale, and somewhat different system. The lower tier of drawers
should, of course, be the largest, and may be one foot deep by two wide on the face, and
eighteen inches broad within. This tier will serve for beans, peas, acorns, mast, &c. A
second may be three fourths the size, for carrot, turnip, spinage, larch-seed, &c. A third,
half the size, for salad-seeds ; and the fourth for those of pot and sweet herbs, need not be
more than four inches deep on the face. The upper part of the cabinet may consist of
shallow drawers, divided into ten or twelve compartments each, for flower-seeds ; and on
the top of all, as being least in requisition, similar shallow drawers, with moveable parti-
tions for bulbous roots. As the kind or kinds placed in each drawer will probably vary
every year, it seems better that their names should only be written on paper and pasted
on. There ought to be a small counter, with a weighing machine (that of Medhurst is
preferable),- an ink-piece placed on it, and drawers, with paper bags, packthreads, &c.
below. Some seeds, which it is desirable to keep in the fruit, as capsicum, pompion, &c.
may be suspended from rows of hooks, fixed in the ceiling.
1703. The fruit-room may be connected with the seed-room. This ought to be well
ventilated, for which purpose, like the three other rooms, it ought to have a small fire-
place. The fruit-room was formerly a mere loft, where fruits were kept on the floor in
common with onions, with no proper means of separation, or arrangement for systematic
consumption. Now, however, they are regularly fitted up, either with shelves of lattice-
work, on Which to place sieves of different sorts of fruit ; or with close shelves, for jars,
boxes, &c. according to the various modes adopted of preserving them. The room may
be of any form, but one long and narrow (Jig. 282. a, a) is generally best adapted for
ventilation and heating, or drying, when necessary, by a flue. The system of shelves
(6, b) may be placed along one side, and may be raised to the height of six feet or more,
(c, c) according to the number wanted. These shelves are formed of open work (rf, rf),
on which to place square sieves of fruit, each of which should be numbered, and a table
or slate (e), containing the corresponding numbers, may be hung up in the room, and
b
ii
;t-
II
i a
a
c b
282
ft^
t
m
1 — j
§i ^s
— -- : =_ ~
<LL!- ■'
= =3
== 7 - =!
y
■3^
fe= =
1
j
no3
1 _J
H
i
==? ~=q
-T-J
S1 ' ==
■ ' =
1
==_J
^J
-= =-
^^~ ==
E =
r
i
1
|
1
336 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
opposite each number should be a space for noting down daily the number taken out of
each sieve for use. From this table statements may be made from time to time of the
quantity of fruit on hand for the use of the house-steward. {Maker, in Hort. Trans.
vol. ii. 76.) Forsyth directs that all the floors or shelves on which apples are to be kept or
sweated, should be made of white deal, as when red deal is made use of for these purposes,
it is liable to give a disagreeable resinous taste to the fruit, and spoil its flavor ; when white
deal cannot be procured, he advises covering the shelves with canvass. Those sorts of
fruit which keep longest are generally best preserved in jars, excluded from the air, and
placed in cold dry situations, not under 32° nor above 40 -1.
1704. The root-cellar should be placed beneath the office and seed-shop ; and the
fruit-cellar below the fruit-room, and both descended to from the lobby. The great ob-
ject is to keep the air in these apartments cool, and always, as near as possible, of the
same degree of coolness : and for this purpose the windows should be small, placed be-
low the ground level, and furnished with double or treble casements or sashes. These
cellars should also be approached through double doors for the same reason. The frjjit-
cellar may be fitted up with binns or cells, like a wine cellar, in which casks and jars or
sieves of fruit may be placed ; and the root-cellar may have a few divisions on the
ground to keep different roots apart, and sand, to keep them of uniform plumpness or
moisture.
1 705. The seed rooms or garrets may consist
of one for drying and cleaning seeds ; one for 28;i
drying bidhous roots, as onions, hyacinths, &c. ;
and one for drying fruits or preserving them
there. In all of these rooms, there should be
hooks from the roof for hanging bundles.of pot-
herbs, branches of seeds, sieves, bags, &c. and a
moveable table or counter in the centre of each,
with lattice-shelves below for holding sieves of
roots, seeds, or fruits. A very small fanning-
machine, and a couple of grooved cylinders to
act as a threshing-machine, or a IMeikle's hand
threshing-machine (Jig. 283.) to be worked
by two men, are requisite appendages of the
seed-room. Supposing these rooms to form one
wing to the gardener's house, the office opening into his kitchen ; then the other wing
may consist of a tool-house and men's living-room on the ground-floor ; cellars for po-
tatoes and fuel for their use under, and sleeping-apartments over, with a door, lobby,
and stair, corresponding with the other wing.
1706. The tool-house is commonly a small apartment in the back sheds of hot-houses, in
which the tools are laid down or piled up in the angles promiscuously ; but in a proper
tool-room, wherever situated, there should be contrivances of different sorts for hanging
up the tools, so as their important parts, such as the teeth of rakes, blades of hoes, and
spades, cScc. may always be so exposed, that the master may see whether or no they are
properly cleaned. There are certain tools, of which each workman appropriates one to
himself, as spades, scythes, &c. ; in these cases a small space should be allotted to each
hired man, with his' name affixed, &c. Watering-pots, syringes, engines, &c. should
have their moveable parts separated, and be reversed, in order that they may drain and
continue dry. Lists, nails, and mat-ties, should be kept in close drawers. Pruning-
instruments oiled, and laid horizontally on latticed shelves or pins. A grindstone and
other stones, and hones, with a vice, and files for sharpening the tines and teeth of forks
and rakes, are the appropriate furniture of the tool-house.
1707. The lodge/or under-gardeners should never consist of less than three apartments
or divisions ; first, an outer lobby, with a pump and exit for water, in which the work-
men may wash their hands on entering to their meals, and the party who acts as cook or
servant, which is generally taken by turns, may wash, scour, &c. ; secondly, the cook -
ing and living room, in which should be an economical kitchen-range, with an oven and
boiler included, and proper closets, cupboards, tables, &c. to expedite and simplify
cooking ; and, thirdly, the bedroom over, where the bedsteads should be of iron, nar-
row, and without curtains, and for not more than one person. To each bed, there should
be a small clothes-press, in which should be kept the linen, &c. belonging to each bed,
and for which the occupier ought to be rendered responsible. A cellar for fuel and
edible roots should be formed below. It is a common practice to place the lodges for
working o-ardeners behind the hot-houses, or some high wall, in what is called a back
shed. ^There, in one ill-venti!ated apartment, with an earthen or brick floor, the whole
routine of cooking, cleaning, eating, and sleeping is performed, and young men are
rendered familiar with filth and vermin, and lay the foundation of future diseases, by
breathing unwholesome air, and checking the animal functions by cold and damp. How
Book III. BUILDINGS FOR RAISING WATER. 337
masters can expect any good service from men treated worse than horses, it is difficult to
imagine ; but the case is ten-fold worse, when head-gardeners and their families are com-
pelled to'lodge in these shed-houses. Independently of filth and incommodiousness, the
mother never fails to contract, early in life, rheumatism or ague ; and it is only the ex-
treme healthfulness of the employment of gardening, and the consequent vigor of the
operatives, that ward off till a later day the same and similar diseases in the fathers and
journeymen.
1708. As a general arrangement of a gardeners house, office, and other appendages, the
house may form a centre ; the office, seed and fruit apartments, cellar, and garrets, one
wing ; and the lodge for under-gardeners, tool-house, &c. the other.
1709. A line of sheds is generally placed behind the range of hot-houses, or be-
hind the hot-wall, or other high wall of the garden. These are used as stores, or places
of reserve for utensils, machines and implements, and for working-sheds. The width
and height of this line of sheds is necessarily regulated by the height of the wall. The
roof of the shed being towards the north, and therefore without the advantage of the sun
to dry it after rains, should not make an angle of less than 40° degrees with the horizon,
and as the lower wall or line of props ought, at least, to be seven feet higli above the
level of the floor of the shed, the width is guided accordingly. All the fitting up requi-
site for the part destined to hold materials, is a few hooks and projecting pins for ladders,
&c and a sound floor, either paved or prepared with mortar, Roman cement, and scoria ;
and the whole, or the greater part of the division may have props or piers in front, in-
stead of a wall and windows. As these sheds generally contain the hot-house furnaces,
each of these, or every pair or group of them, ought to be enclosed with a low parapet to
retain the fuel, give an orderly and neat appearance, and guard against accidents by fire,
which might communicate with mats, litter, &c. Doors generally communicate with the
hot-houses at different points, and near to each of these should be a bench or table on
which to set or shift pots, &c.
1710. The part of these sheds more particularly set apart for working, ought to be en-
closed with a wall on all sides, and warmed by a fire-place or flue. It ought to be made
perfectly light, and well aired by having numerous windows, and along these a range of
benches or tables, for potting cuttings or bulbs, sowing seeds, preparing cuttings, num-
ber-tallies, painting and naming them, preparing props for plants, hooks for layers, lists
for wall-trees, making baskets, wattled hurdles, and a great variety of other operations
performed in winter, or severe weather, when little or nothing can be done in the open
air. It may by some be thought too great a refinement to place a fire-place or a flue
in such sheds ; but if work is really expected to be done in them in cold weather, the
saving will soon be rendered obvious.
1711. In small gardens, where there are no hot-houses, one small building is generally
devoted to all the purposes for which the office, seed, tool, and fruit rooms, and working-
sheds, are used. This should be fitted up with some degree of attention to the various
uses for which it is designed, and a fire-place never omitted.
1712. Entrance lodges and gates more properly belong to architecture than gardening.
But, as in small places, they are sometimes designed by the garden-architect, or land-
scape-gardener, a few remarks may be of use. In respect to style, the lodge ought al-
ways to bear as much analogy as possible to the mansion. If the one is Grecian, so
should the other ; but the lodge should display less decoration, because, as the mind na-
turally ascends from the less to the greater, the lodge would otherwise prove a false index
to the mansion. In regard to general form, a cubic mass with a central chimney, is an
unvaried comfortless-looking dwelling, especially when small. It is an attempt to form
a whole without composing it of parts. A lodge, however small, to be a picturesque ob-
ject, ought to contain a principal and subordinate mass or masses, and in the composition
of which, the gate and piers may form one gradation. In respect to accommodations for
the occupier, it ought never to contain less than three apartments — a kitchen or living-
room, back kitchen, and sleeping-room, with the usual conveniencies; and, at least, two
sleeping-rooms where there are children. A handsome architectural entrance is but a
poor compensation for its want of harmony with the mansion, of which that at Sion-
House is an instance, and that at Blenheim of the contrary. But architects, like all of
us, are sometimes so wrapt up in their art, or their favorite part of it, that they forget
that congruity of parts is essential to the unity of the whole.
1713. Buildings for raising water. There are various contrivances for procuring
water in garden-scenery, where it is not found in springs, rills, or lakes ; and where it is
found, of collecting and retaining it. The principal of these are wells, conduit-pipes or
drains, and reservoirs.
li'ti/s arc vertical excavations in the earth ; always of such a depth as to penetrate a porous stratum
charged with water, and mostly as much deeper as to form a reservoir in this stratum or in that
beneath it. A well otherwise excavated is a mere tank for the water which may ooze into it from
the surface strata. The form of the well is generally circular, and to prevent the crumbling down or
falling in of the sides, this circle is lined with timber, masonry, or zones of metal. The earthy nu-
338
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
284
terials being thus pressed on equally in every point of this circle, are kept in equilibrium. When Che well
is not very deep, and in firm ground, this casing is built from the bottom to top, after the excavation is
finished ; but when the soil is loose, the excavation deep, or its diameter
considerable, it is built on the top in zones, sometimes separated by hori-
zontal sections of thin oak boards, which, with proper management, sink
down as the excavation proceeds. There are various other modes, which
those who follow this department of architecture are sufficiently conver-
sant with. The height to which the water rises in the well, depends on
the height of the strata which supply the water ; occasionally it rises to
the surface, but generally not within a considerable distance. In this
case it is raised by buckets and levers {fig. 284.), by buckets and hand-
machines placed over the well, or by buckets raised by horse-machines.
{fig. 285.)
1714. The lever and bucket mode is the most ancient and the simplest.
It is common in the market-gardens round London and Paris, and in most
of the villages from France to Berlin, Warsaw, Moscow, Astracan ; and, we are told, it is to be seen in
Turkey, Persia, India, and China. The hand and horse-machines are more recent inventions, applicable
to market-gardens.
1715. The process of boring the earth for water has of late been successfully practised in various places,
and especially at Tottenham, Middlesex, and Mitcham, Surrey. An augur like that used in draining is
employed, and when the spring is reached, the augur hole is kept open by tin tubes soldered one to the
other as they are pushed down. Up these tubes the water rises to the height of the source of the spring,
and when this height does not reach the surface, a well is dug down to the level to which the water will
rise. It is evident that where the spring will rise to the surface boring must be a great saving, but less so
in proportion as the source of the spring is low. {London Journal of Arts, &c. Oct. 1822. p. 204.)
1716. Pumps are of various kinds, as the lifting-pump ; the forcing-pump, for very deep wells ; the suction-
pump ; and the roller-pump, a recent invention for such as do not exceed thirty-three feet in depth. A
good pump for gardens, where the water is not to be raised above twenty-eight or thirty feet in depth, is that
of Robertson Buchannan (author of a Treatise on Heating by Steam, &c), because this pump, which also
acts by the pressure of the atmosphere, will raise drainings of dunghills, or even water thickened by mud,
sand, or graveL " The points in which it differs from the common pump, and by which it excels, are, that it
discharges the water below the piston, and has its valves lying near each other. The advantages of this
arrangement are — that the sand or other matter, which maybe in the water, is discharged without injur-
ing the barrel or the piston-leathers ; so that besides avoiding unnecessary tear and wear, the power of the
pump is preserved, and it is not apt to be diminished or destroyed in moments of danger, as is often the
case with the common and chain pumps ; that the valves are not confined to any particular dimensions,
but may be made capable of discharging every thing that can rise in the suction-piece without danger of
being choked ; and that if, upon any occasion, there should happen to be an obstruction in the valves,
they are both within the reach of a person's hand, and may be cleared at once, without the disjunction of
any part of the pump. It is a simple and durable pump, and may be made either of metal or wood, at a
moderate expense." Where clear water only is to be raised, Aust's (of Hoxton) curvilinear pump is pre-
ferable even to Buchannan's. The advantages depend on the curvilinear form of the barrel, which allows,
and indeed obliges, the rod, the handle, .".nd the lever, on which it works, to be all in one piece. Hence
simplicity, cheapness, precision of au; ion, more water discharged in proportion to the diameter of the
barrel, and less frequent repairs. {Repertory of Arts, Jan. 1821.) Perkins's square-barrelled pump is a
powerful engine {London Journal, &c.x ; but this and other contrivances for raising water will be found
detailed in works on hydraulics.
1717. Conduits for watering gardens are either open or surface conduits, or internal tubes or apertures.
Open conduits are not common in Britain, though very general in France and Italy. They are formed in
the commonest gardens of puddled or well incorporated clay ; in the better sort of brick, or rough stone lined
with stucco or cement; and in the best,of hewn stone, in regular troughs, carefully jointed both by mecha-
nical and chemical means. Internal tubes may be formed of timber, iron, lead, or earthenware. For
mains or large supplies, cast-iron is the most durable, and timber the cheapest material ; but for the minute
ramifications necessary to afford supplies at different points, lead excels every thing else. A beautiful ap-
plication of the principles of chemistry to the jointing of lead pipes, has been made by Kewley (inventor
of the automaton gardener) . Instead of a large gibbous joint, formed by plastering on a mass of solder at
an expense both of material and time, which in inch-pipes amounts to at least 3s. a joint, Kewley prepares
clear transverse sections on the extremities to be joined, places these in perfect contact, heats the pipe
within a few degrees of the melting point, and then, with one drop of solder not larger than a pea, he
forms a junction as perfect as if no separation had previously existed. By proper irons this is done in
three minutes, at an expense, time and materials included, of not more than one penny per joint
Earthen pipes in a clayey sub-stratum may be used with economy, to convey water from one point to
another ; their disadvantages are liability to fracture or derangement from operations performed on the
soil, to guard against which they should be laid at not less than three feet depth from the surface, and
well bedded in worked clay. Conduits of common masonry can seldom be advantageously used on a
small scale, unless for serving jointly as drains and conduits, but where they are eighteen inches or two
feet in diameter, a complete cylinder of masonry may be formed, which, well executed, becomes very
durable. It is observed, however, that all conduits of masonry, and even earthen pipes, can only be used
Book III.
ICE-HOUSE.
339
as such where the water is conducted along a level or declining bed ; whereas by metal or wooden pipes,
water may pass alternately over hollows and eminences, the latter not being higher than the source,
without loss in the ground through which it passes.
1718. Reservoirs may be either tanks, cisterns, basins, or ponds. Tanks and cisterns
are sometimes old barrels well tarred or painted, and then sunk in the soil ; occasionally
they are framed boxes of timber, the joints filled with oxide of lead and oil, and the
whole pitched over, and then placed where they are to remain either above or on a level
with the surface.
1719. Ponds or large basins (Jig' 286.) are reservoirs formed in excavations, either in
soils retentive of water, or rendered so by the use of clay. This clay is tempered, or
made compact and tenacious, by working it so as to exclude the larger globules of air
and water, and intimately unite all its parts with as much moisture as leaves it plastic.
The bottom and sloping sides of the excavation, being smoothed and made firm, this
tempered clay or puddle is to be spread evenly over it, from margin to margin, abotit
a foot thick, and well compacted by beating. To preserve it from injury by the
pressure of feet, or other accidents, it should be covered with gravel, in thickness
according to the supposed liability to accidents. If cattle are to enter it, eighteen
inches of coarse gravel, or stones covered with six inches of fine gravel, will not be
too much. Sometimes these basins are lined with pavement, tiles, or even lead, and
the last material is the best, where complete dryness is an object around the margin.
286
287
288
1720. Tanks or cisterns (Jig. 287.) are generally excavations in the earth, lined with
masonry, and sometimes raised two or three feet above it. This masonry is always
built with mortar which sets or hardens under water, as the Dorking and other sorts
of lime, gypsum, and any lime mixed with oxide of iron, in the form of what is called
Roman cement, or Puzzolana earth. (Davy's Elements of Agr. Chem. lect. vii.) To
protect this, the bottom of the cistern or basin is sometimes covered with six or eight
inches of clay. Sometimes the bottom of the excavation for a pond or tank, is naturally
a retentive clay, while the sides are of porous earth. In this case, the simplest way is to
raise a wall, or vertical stratum of puddle (Jig- 288.), from the horizontal stratum of clay,
to within a few inches of the surface of the ground.
1721. Water for culinary purposes should be preserved in tanks, or in barrels interiorly charred, sunk
deep in the ground, and rendered inaccessible to surface water. Tanks should be arched over with ma-
sonry, leaving, as ought always to be done in wells, a hole for the pump, sufficiently large to admit a man
to clean or repair. A similar construction is proper for reservoirs of liquid manures, but they need not
be so deep, as coolness in them is less sought for. (Ratcliff's Agr. of Fland. 1819.) All reservoirs for pure
water, to be used in gardening, ought to be exposed to the sun and air.
Sect. II. Anomalous Buildings.
1722. Collecting and jrreserving ice, rearing bees, &c. however unsuitable or dis-
cordant it may appear, it has long been the custom to delegate to the care of the
gardener. In some cases also he has the care of the dove-house, fish-ponds, aviary, a
menagerie of wild beasts, and places for snails, frogs, dormice, rabbits, &c. but we shaH
only consider the ice-house, apiary, and aviary, as legitimately belonging to gardening,
leaving the others to the care of the gamekeeper, or to constitute a particular depart-
ment in domestic or rural economy. That the subject of anomalous buildings may not
occur again, we shall here conclude it by treating also of their management.
Subsect. 1. Of the Ice-house and its Management.
1723. The ice-house. Ice is kept on the continent in cellars, at a greater or less
depth from the surface according to the climate. These cellars are without windows,
surrounded by very thick walls, and entered by double and treble doors, sometimes
placed in angular or circuitous passages, and always with intervals of several feet between
them. Sometimes precautions are taken to carry off any water which may arise from a
partial thaw, by forming gutters across the floor, and covering it with a grating of strong
lattice-work, leading to a cess-pool in the passage, whence the water can be taken out by
utensils without opening the inner door ; but very frequently full confidence is had in
the coolness of the situation, especially if the surrounding soil be dry. Where the sur-
rounding soil is moist, a frame-work or cage of carpentry, grated at bottom, is con-
structed in the cellar, so as to be from one to two feet apart from the floor, sides, and
roof, and in this the ice is as perfectly preserved as in a dry soil. (Cours, &c. ; Bordley's
Essays and Notes on Husbandry, Philadelphia, 1780.) Ice is kept in the cellars of con-
Z 2
340
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
289
fectioners, and also by some of the market-gardeners, in heaps, with a very thick covering
of straw or reeds.
1 724. To keep ice in stacks or heaps in the open air,
an elevated circular platform (Jig. 289. a) is raised of
earth ; on this the ice is piled up in a conic form during
a severe frost, and the addition of water enables the
builder to form the cone very steep. On this cone
wheat-straw is laid a foot in thickness (b), over this a
stratum of faggot-wood or spray (c), and finally another
thick stratum of thatch or long litter of any sort (d).
In this way ice will keep a year, care being taken to
expose it to the air as short time as possible in taking
supplies.
1725. The form of ice-houses commonly adopted at
country-seats, both in Britain and in France, is gene-
rally that of an inverted cone, or rather hen's egg, with
the broad end uppermost, (fig. 290. )
1726. The proper situation for an ice-house is that of a dry spot of ground ; as, where-
ever there is moisture, the ice will be liable to dissolve : of course, in all strong soils
which retain the wet, too much care cannot be taken to make drains all round the house
to carry off moisture. The situation should likewise be elevated, that there may be
descent enough to convey off any wet that may arise near it, or from the ice melting ; and
also as much exposed to the sun and air as possible.
1727. The depth and diameter of the ice-well should be proportioned to the quantity of
ice wanted ; but it is always best to have sufficient room, as when the house is well built,
it will keep the ice two or three years : and there will be this advantage in having it large
enough to contain ice for two years' consumption, that if a mild winter should happen,
when there is not ice to be had, there will be a stock in the house to supply the want.
Where the quantity wanted is not great, a well of six feet diameter, and eight feet deep,
will be large enough ; but for a large consumption, it should not be less than nine or ten
feet diameter, and as many deep.
1728. The excavation for the ice-well, where the situation is either of a dry, chalky,
gravelly, or sandy kind, may be made entirely below the surface of the ground ; but in
strong loamy, clayey, or moist ground, it will be better to raise the well so high above
the surface, as that there may be no danger from the wetness of the soil.
1729. In building the ice-
well there should be a space
about two feet deep left at the
bottom (fig. 290. a), for re-
ceiving any moisture which
may drain from the ice, and
a small underground drain
(b) containing a stop or trap
for the exclusion of air (c)
should be laid from this, to
carry off the wet. Over the
space at bottom (a) should be
placed a strong grate of wood
or a cart-wheel, to let the
moisture fall down, which
may at any time happen from
the melting of the ice. The
sides of the well (d) must be
walled up with brick or stone at least two feet thick ; or the wall may be built hollow.
When the proper height is attained the wall may be arched over with two arches with a
vacuity between, and leaving in the centre a hole for the admission of the ice (e), and in
the sides a door for taking it out (/> This door, in order the better to exclude the air
should open into a porch (g) with the three other doors, the spaces between which should
be filled with straw to exclude more effectually the heat of the atmosphere. The whole
being covered first with a layer of tempered clay and next with a hill of earth, the appear-
ance will not be disagreeable (fig. 291. ) and may be made ornamental.
t 1 730. Management. When the house is finished, it should have time to dry before the
ice is put into it ; as when the walls are moist, the damp of them frequently dissolves the
ice. At the bottom of the well, upon the wooden grate, some small faggots should be
laid ; and if upon these a layer of reeds be placed smooth for the ice to rest upon, it will
be better than straw, which is commonly used. In the choice of the ice, the thinner it is,
the better it may be broken to powder ; as the smaller it is broken, the better it will unite
290
Book III.
APIARY.
341
f' '-Oil ^.' _J_ ,,
291
when put into the well. In putting it in, it should be rammed close, and a space left be-
tween it and the wall of the well, by straw being placed for the purpose, so as to give
passage to any moisture that may be collected by the dissolving of the ice on the top or
otherwise. If snow is used instead of ice, it ought to be pressed very firmly together, so
as to exclude air, and in fact approach in texture to ice. To aid in consolidating both ice
and snow, a little water may be occasionally poured over it from the rose of a watering-
pot. In putting the ice into the house, some mix a little nitre or common salt with it, to
make it congeal more fully ; but this is not necessary. As the ice becomes solid in the
well, an iron crow is necessary to take it up with.
1731. An ice-cold chamber is found of great use in horticulture, in preserving gathered
vegetables, as pease, beans, cauliflowers, &c. in a fresh state, for some time after they are
gathered. Potatoes and other tubers and bulbs, also plants in pots, cuttings, &c. may
have their vegetation retarded by being placed in so cold an atmosphere. Several ice-
houses, Neill informs us, excellently adapted not only for the main purpose, but for these
secondary views, which nowise interfere with the other, have lately been constructed in
the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, under the directions of Hay, particularly at Dalmeny
Park and Dundas Castle. These ice-houses have double walls, a passage being left be-
tween the outer and inner. In the thick wall immediately enclosing the ice, are four re-
cesses, with stone shelves for receiving the vegetables or fruits. In the outer wall, the
same object is provided for. The roof, it may be added, is arched with stone, and has a
hole in the top, over the centre of the ice-chamber, for introducing the ice. The passage
between the two walls is likewise arched, and has two or three small grated apertures,
which are closed with fitted stones, and may be opened for the purpose of admitting light
and air when wanted. (Supp. to Encyc. Brit. art. Hort.)
1732. If an ice-cellar was added to the domestic offices of country-seats, and the ice
preserved in it, and placed under the immediate care of the steward or housekeeper, it
would certainly be more convenient for culinary use, and attended with less risk of melt-
ing when ice was taken out. Ice-cold rooms, which would be found useful for various
purposes in domestic economy, might be formed adjoining. It is possible, however, that
artificial modes of producing cold and ice as wanted, may supersede the use of ice-houses
altogether. A very scientific view of the subject of ice-houses will be found in Rozier's
Diet, ofAgr., and in Nouveau Cours a" Agriculture, &c. art. Glaciere.
Subsect. 2. Of the Apiary and the Management of Bees.
1733. The care of bees seems more naturally to belong to gardening than the keeping
of ice ; because their situation is naturally in the garden, and their produce is a
vegetable salt. The garden-bee is found in a wild state in most parts of the globe, in
swarms or governments ; but never in groups of governments so near together as in a
bee-house, which is an artificial and unnatural contrivance to save trouble, and injurious
to the insect directly as the number placed together. Thus, if ten acres are sufficient to
maintain two hives, a hundred acres will be required to maintain twenty ; but while, in
the former case, the hives being placed in the centre of the ten acres, each bee need not
perform a longer journey than two hundred yards ; in the latter, the colony being simi-
larly situated as to the hundred acres, the average journey for each insect will be nearly a
mile. Hence, independently of other considerations, one disadvantage of congregating
hives in bee-houses or apiaries. The advantages are, greater facility in protecting from
heats, colds, or thieves, and greater facilities of examining their condition and progress.
Independently of their honey, bees are considered as useful in gardens, by aiding in the
impregnation of flowers. For this purpose, a hive is sometimes placed in a cherry-house,
and sometimes in peach-houses ; or the position of the hive is in the front or end wall
of such houses, so as the body of the hive may be half in the house and half in the wall,
with two outlets for the bees, one into the house, and the other into the open air. By
this arrangement, the bees can be admitted to the house and open air alternately, and ex-
cluded from either at pleasure.
Z 3
342
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
292
1 734. The apiary, or bee-house. The sim-
plest form of a bee-house consists of a few
shelves in a recess of a wall or other building
(Jig. 292.) exposed to the south, and with
or without shutters, to exclude the sun in
summer, and, in part, the frost in winter.
The scientific or experimental bee-house is a
detached building of boards, differing from
the former in having doors behind, which
may be opened at any time during day to
inspect the hives. In both kinds of houses,
small holes, say half an inch high and three
inches wide, with a small projection as a
landing-place, are made in the front shutters, opposite the situation of each hive on the
shelf. The upper part of these openings or entrances is sometimes guarded by a hori-
zontal fillet to throw off the rain. Bee-houses may always be rendered agreeable, and
often ornamental objects : they are particularly suitable for flower-gardens ; and one
may occur in a recess in a wood or copse, accompanied by a picturesque cottage and
flower-garden. They enliven a kitchen-garden, and communicate particular impressions
of industry and usefulness.
1735. The position of the apiary is thus treated by Huish : in the southern countries
the aspect which is preferred is always to the eastward ; in the northern countries, it is
always to the eastward and the southward ; but in England little or no attention is paid
to the aspect. It is certain, however, that the aspect of the apiary should vary with the
climate of the country ; and in this climate, there can be little doubt that two points to
the eastward of south, is the best.
Protection from high winds is essential in whatever position the hives are placed. In this country,
therefore, a protection from the south-west is advisable. The high winds not only prevent the bees from
leaving the hive in quest of honey, but they also surprise them in the fields, and often kill them by dashing
them against the trees and rocks, or into the rivers.
The hives in an apiary should always be placed in a right line ; but should the number of the hives be
great, and the situation not capacious enough to admit of their being placed longitudinally, it is more ad-
visable to place them over one another, on shelves, than in double rows on the ground. A bee, on leaving
the hive, generally forms an angle of about forty-five with the horizon ; the elevation of the hive should,
therefore, be about two feet from the ground, in order to protect it from humidity. The greater the
elevation of the hive, the longer is the flight of the swarm ; and when they are at a certain point of
elevation, the swarms are lost for ever to the proprietor. If the hives are to be placed in a double row,
the hinder ones should alternate with, and be placed at, such a distance from the front ones, that when
the bees take their flight, no obstruction is offered to their ascent.
Placing several hives upon the same bench, is very injurious, and during the swarming season, it is often
attended with very destructive consequences. Huish was once requested by a gentleman to perform an
experiment upon a hive, which was placed on the same bench with six others, and in attempting to move
the hive destined for the operation, the others were agitated, and the whole apiary became in a little time
in a state of confusion. The easy access also, which the bees of one hive have to those of another, pro-
motes quarrels and murderous battles. It is an erroneous opinion, though held by some skilful apiarians,
that all the bees of one apiary know each other, and that it is only the bees of a foreign apiary, with
whom they quarrel. Huish having been often witness of the destructive animosity of these little insects,
and the wars which they wage upon the weaker hives in their own establishment, endeavours to impress
it strongly upon the attention of every apiarian, to place every hive upon a respective pedestal. In general
a post is placed at each corner of the stand, as some prejudiced people believe that a hive stands firmer
upon four feet than upon one ; but Huish is certain that they who have once used the single pedestal,
will never have recourse again to the four-legged stool. Another advantage particularly arises from the
use of a single pedestal, which is, that the hive may be chained down and locked.
The apiary should be kept particularly clean; all noxious weeds carefully removed, and no rubbish be
left in which the enemies of the bees can conceal themselves. A few low trees or shrubs, planted in the
vicinity of the apiary, will be found useful in arresting the flight of the swarms, for they very often
alight on espalier trees, or on currant and gooseberry bushes. It is essential, however, to observe, that
the apiary should not be incommoded with herbs or plants, which rise to a height equal to, or exceeding
the entrance of the hive ; because the bees, on their arrival from their journeys, being much fatigued,
are impeded by these plants, and regain their habitation with difficulty. If they touch these plants on
passing, they often fall to the ground, and become victims to their enemies, or are unfortunately trodden
under foot. Such plants also serve the purpose of a ladder, for the enemies of the bees to ascend into the
hive, and especially the ants, which in some districts are particularly numerous. These little insects are
a great detriment to a hive, and they baffle the most vigilant attention of the apiarian to prevent their
depredations. I have found that a small leaden reservoir of water, encircling the bottom of the pedestal,
is of great service in preventing the ascent of these insects.
The vicinity of great towns is not a proper situation for an apiary. The smoke of a city is very detri-
mental to bees, and the chimneys are in general the resort of the swallows and martins, who are great
destroyers of these insects.
The proximity of a large river is also injurious, as the bees in their homeward flight are often dashed
into it by the high winds, or fall into it from fatigue.
1736. The position of hives, according to Dr. Howison, should be such as to receive the rays of the
rising as well as meridian sun ; heat and light appearing the principal stimulants to the action of bees.
A hive so situated as not to be touched by the sun until some hours later than the other hives in the same
garden, would, in the course of the season, lose a proportional number of days' labor. Hives should stand
at some distance from walls and hedges. When lately building a garden-wall, with a good exposure for
bees, I ordered a number of niches to be made, into which I afterwards put hives. These were, however,
so much infested with snails in summer, and mice in winter, that I was under the necessity of removing
them to a more open situation.
Book III.
APIARY.
343
1737. The furniture of the apiary, or bee-house, consists of the hives or utensils in which
each hive or swarm is congregated, and lives, and works, and of these there is a great
variety of sorts.
1738. The Polish hive, or log-hive, {Paskka Pol.) {fig. 203.) may be considered as 293
the primitive form of artificial dwellings for bees. It is simply the trunk of a
tree, of a foot or fourteen inches in diameter, and about nine feet long. It is
scooped out (boring in this country would be better) for about six feet from one
end, so to form a hollow cylinder of that length, and of six or eight inches dia-
meter within. Part of the circumference of this cylinder is cut out during the
greater part of its length, about four inches wide, and a slip of board is made to
fit the opening. On the sides of this slip (a), notches are made every two or three
inches, of sufficient size to allow a single bee to pass. This slip may be furnished
with hinges and with a lock and key ; but in Poland it is merely fastened in by a
wedge. All that is wanting to complete the hive is a cover at the top to throw
oft' the rain, and then it requires only to be placed upright like a strong post in
the garden so as the bottom of the hollow cylinder may be not nearer the ground
than two feet, and the opening slip look to the south. When a swarm is to be
put in, the tree, with the door or slip opened, is placed obliquely over it ; when
the bees enter, the door is closed, and the holes stopped with clay till the hive is
planted or placed upright. When honey is wanted, the door is opened during
the finest part of a warm day, when most of the bees are out ; its entire state is
seen from top to bottom, and the operator, with a segar in his mouth, or with a
lighted rag, to keep oft' the bees from his hands, cuts out, with a hooked knife,
as much comb as he thinks fit. In this way fresh honey is obtained during the
whole summer, the bees are never cramped for room, nor does it become neces-
sary to kill them. The old comb, however, is annually cut cut to prevent or
lessen the tendency to swarming, which, notwithstanding thi:> and the size of
their dwelling, they generally do once a year ; for the laws of nature are not
to be changed. Though it is a fact that a small swarm of bees will not do well
in a large hive, yet if the hive extend in length and not in breadth, it is ad-
mitted both by Huber and Huish, that they will thrive in it. " If too great a diameter," says Huber,
" be not given to the abode of the bee, it may without danger be increased in the elevation, their success
in the hollow trees, their natural domicile, incontestably proves the truth of this assertion." We wit-
nessed in 1813, near Grodno, the management by a woman, ''uma Andriewschieskniowna, (2V. M. Ma-
gaxinc, June 1818.) in whose house we lodged, of above a dozen of these hives, for nearly four months,
and are of opinion that they merit a trial in this country. It is singular, that this should be almost
the only continental hive that Huish, who seems to have paid more attention to the subject by foreign
travel, study, and practice, than almost any man, has not Been. In Poland, he says, the inhabitants
have no regular bee-hives. {Treatise on Bees, 3d edit. 1817, p. 52.)
1739. The common hive, called by the French the Scotch hive, is a thimble-shaped basket of rushes, straw,
and sometimes of willows, about a foot in diameter within, and fourteen inches high. It is formed by
coiling ropes of straw of wheat on a mould, sewing the layers to each other in advancing by flattened
shoots of bramble, clematis, or willow. In Georgia, hives of this class are wrought with willows in the
form of a cone, and the bees enter by the apex. {Johnston's Journey overland from India, 1817.)
1740. The glass hive is variously constructed, sometimes with two of the sides of glass in order to seethe
bees at work ; at other times the hive is entirely of wood or straw, but with a flat surface at top, pierced
with holes about an inch diameter, on which to insert crystal bell-glasses or drinking.glasses, in which
the bees may be seen at work, and which glasses, when filled with comb, may be removed and replaced
by empty ones, and thus occasional supplies of fresh honey obtained during summer. In the glass hive of
White and Thorley, one large globe is used, which, as often as filled, is removed and replaced by an empty
one. Such hives must necessarily be placed in the bee-house, or under a proper cover to exclude the
weather. Huish says, " they are fit only for the amateur, or those persons who wish to have a little fine
honey during the season, but who have no inclination to preserve the bees for the benefit of the succeeding
year."
1741. The storying or pyramidal hive admits of increase, by
the addition of horizontal sections of case, whether of straw
or timber. The object is to produce a very strong hive ; but
this, when carried beyond a certain point, is found injurious,
rather than otherwise. {Huish, p. 67.)
1742. The hive of Palteau {fig. 294.) is composed of three or
four frames, each a foot square, by three inches in height.
These square frames are placed the one on the other, and
the first and last can always be lifted without deranging the
work in the others. Each square is strengthened from
every side by a cross piece of eight or ten lines in width,
and two lines in thickness, which serves to sustain the combs
of the bees. All the frames are tied together by means
of these cross pieces ; a board is placed on the top ; and a
general cover is placed over the whole to guard it from the
effects of the seasons. In autumn, when the honey is to be
taken from this hive, the cross pieces are untied, and one or
two of the upper frames are removed, passing the long blade
of a knife or a wire between. This done, an empty frame is
placed above, and another under all the rest, which makeup
for the two removed. " In an hour after," says Bosc, who de-
scribes and recommends this hive, " the bees are at work as if nothing had happened; and the same
operation can be renewed to infinity."
1743. Huish's hive {fig. 295.) is about the capacity of the common straw hive (1739.), in shape like a
flower-pot, placed on its narrow end, with a convex cover (a). It is so constructed interiorly that
each comb (c) may be extracted by itself without deranging the rest; the combs being attached to
slips of board (6) placed across the mouth or top of the hive. Any one of them may be lifted up
and to this the tapering construction of the interior is favorable. To prevent the bees from working
between the sbps, air is admitted by means of pierced plates of tinned iron {fig. 296. a), and to
prevent human thieves from carrying off the whole hive, it is chained and padlocked (Jig. 296. b)
to a strong post, which serves also as a fulcrum. The inventor of this hive has tried it, he
says, for nearly twenty years, and the following he states as the mode of using it, and the ad
vantages attending its construction. " At any time and season when I require some honeycomb, or al
the end of the season, when I deprive my bees of their superfluous store, I open the top, and take the side
boards out, from which having cut the honeycomb, I replace them in the hive, and the operation u
Z 4
294
344
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
29 o
7
facilitated by having some vacant boards ready
to supply the place of the full ones. This oper-
ation is very easily and speedily performed ; it
lias the advantage of not disturbing the middle
combs, and I have often deprived these hives of
their honey without the loss of a single bee, ex-
cepting those few who left their stings in various
parts of my dress. — Two very considerable ad-
vantages arise from the use of this hive : in the
first place, there is never any occasion to make
an addition to the hive at the bottom, when the
bees, by lying out in clusters, declare that they
stand in need of room ; for the operation of de-
priving them of a part of their combs from the
top, will give them the room which they require,
and which they will soon replenish with honey.
In the common hive it is customary, in this pre-
dicament, to place, what is called in Scotland an
eek, which consists of from four to six bands of the same diameter as the hive ; but, on taking away this eek
in the autumn, I have seen the most injurious consequences result to the hive. It is, in general, performed
by cutting the combs with a wire between the hive and the eek, and then, whilst one person lifts up the hive
another draws the eek away : the hive then rests on the stool. Few persons, however, consider that, as
the combs are cut parallel with the bottom of the hive, they will all touch the stool on which it stands, and
I have thus known a whole hive perish. The second advantage is, that the whole of the interior of the
hive is open to your inspection, and you are thus enabled to examine the devastation of the moth, or to
ascertain the presence of any other enemy." {Treatise on Bees, p. 85.)
1744 Dr. Howison's hive (figs. 297. to 299.) for obtaining the honey without killing the bees, " consists of
two distinct hexagons (figs. 297, 298.) ; one placed above the other. The under is formed of six panes of
half-inch deal, each measuring ten inches in width and eight in depth, and covered with a thin board at top.
This forms a box that will contain two pecks' measure of corn, and which he considers as sufficient for
the largest swarm. This is intended for the breeding, as well as winter habitation of the bees. The upper is
of the same dimensions and form as the under at bottom, but, in order to give it a conical shape, for the
more conveniently fixing thereon a coat of straw, the panes at top are only five inches wide, which is also
covered by a piece of board. The upper box has a moulding (fig. 297. a) fixed to its under part, which
projects about a quarter of an inch, and so exactly embraces the upper part of the lower box, as to join
these two firmly together. In the deal which forms the top of the lower box, are cut four oval holes
(fig. 298. c), each one inch wide and two inches long, through which the bees pass into the upper. This
communication, when not wanted, is shut by a board which moves on a nail in its centre. The small pane
297
298
299
of glass (fig.291- b), in the top of the upper box, admits of seeing the progress the bees have made in it,
without separating it from the lower one. This pane is covered to exclude light and cold or heat by a small
shutter (c). When the swarm is first put into the lower box, the communication is shut with the upper,
until the bees have completely filled the lower with combs. The communication is then to be opened,
when the bees will ascend, and, if the season is favourable and the swarm numerous, they will fill it also,
but not until they have completely stocked the lower. By removing the straw covering, and looking
through the glass in the upper box, it may be seen what honey has been collected. Should a part or the
whole of it be wanted, it will only be necessary carefully to separate the upper from the lower box, and shut
the board of communication. The upper box is then" to be removed to some distance, and the bees con-
tained in it driven ofF, on which they will immediately join their companions in the lower. So soon as the
honey is taken from the box, it can be replaced, and if early in the season, the communication opened for
making more honey, but if late, it must be kept shut umil the hive has swarmed next summer. Both the
lower hexagon (fig. 298.) and the upper {fig. 299.) contain the usual cross horizontal sticks (a, a, a) for sup-
porting tiie combs. If honeycomb early next season is preferred to a swarm, then the communication must
be opened about the beginning of June. All the honey procured in this way is remarkable for its purity,
none of the cells having been ever polluted by the hatching of young bees. The greatest advantages, how-
ever, from this method, are the early and large swarms ; the consequence of not killing the bees." (Cale-
donian Memoirs, vol. ii. p. 133.)
Book III. APIARY. 345
1745. Management of bees. Being of opinion that the common straw or Scotch hive
is the best for general purposes, we shall give Dr. Howison's mode of management as
the simplest and most effectual for the common end in view. If the lives of the bees
are to be saved, then some of the others may be tried ; and the most suitable for this
purpose, we think, is the Polish hive, and the next best that of Howison. The
most ingenious, and the fittest for an amateur, is no doubt that of Huish. The latter
author justly remarks, that " there is no certain method, nor will one be ever dis-
covered, by which a great harvest of wax and honey, and great swarms, can be ob-
tained at pleasure : these are chimera?, which it is folly to pursue ; because the former
depends on the seasons being more or less favorable to the secretion of honey, on
the countries which the bees inhabit being more or less wooded and covered with
flowers, and the latter on the fecundity of the queen. Hence that annual difference
between the harvest of honey and wax, and the largeness or smallness of the swarms
which is found in all countries. To the same causes may be attributed the fact,
that a mode of treatment, which has succeeded one year, will not succeed the
next, although the circumstances be almost the same in appearance. It is these dif-
ferences and variations, which, for the period of fifty-five years, have given rise to hives
of different forms and materials, which have only tended to instruct us, that bees can
inhabit, work, and collect provisions in vessels of every form, from the excavated trunk
of the tree, as it is used in Poland and the northern countries, to the expensive and
useless glass hive, or to the hive of Du Hamel ; and, where no hollow trunk of the tree
can be found, in the holes of walls, in chimneys, and under the roofs."
1746. Choice of bees. To the common observer, all working bees, as to external appearance, are nearly
the same ; but to those who examine them with attention, the difference in size is very distinguishable ;
and they aTe in their vicious and gentle, indolent and active natures, essentially different. Of the stock
which I had in 1810, it required 250 to weigh an ounce ; but they were so vicious and lazy, that I changed
it for a smaller variety, which possesses much better dispositions, and of which it requires 296, on an
average, to weigh an ounce. Whether size and disposition are invariably connected, I have not yet had
sufficient experience to determine.
1747. Materials and size of hives. Hives made of straw, as now in use, have a great advantage over
those made of wood or other materials, from the effectual defence they afford against the extremes of heat
in summer, and cold in winter. That the hives in size should correspond as nearly as possible with that
of the swarms, has not had that attention paid to it which the subject demands, as much of the success in
the management of bees depends on that circumstance. From blind instinct, bees endeavour to fill with
combs whatever hive they are put into, before they begin to gather honey. Owing to this, when the hive is
too large for its inhabitants, the time for collecting their winter store is spent in unprofitable labor : and
starvation is the consequence. This evil also extends to occasioning late swarming the next summer ; it
being long before the hive becomes so filled with young bees as to produce a necessity for emigration,
from which cause the season is too far advanced for the young colonies to procure a winter stock. I should
consider it as a good rule in all cases, that the swarm should fill two thirds of the hive. The hives used
by me for my largest swarms, weighing from five to six pounds, will contain two pecks' measure of corn,
and will yield, in a good season, eight Scots pints of honey, and for smaller swarms in proportion. Hives
with empty combs are highly valuable for second swarms, as the bees are thereby enabled much sooner to
begin collecting honey.
1748. Feeding of bees. Near the sea little honey is collected after the first week in August ; but in
high situations, where the flowers are later and heath abounds, the bees labor with advantage until the
middle of September. These are the proper periods, according to situation, for ascertaining if the hives
intended to be kept, contain a sufficient winter stock. The killing of the drones perhaps marks this time
with more precision. If a large hive does not weigh thirty pounds, it will be necessary to allow it half a
pound of honey, or the same quantity of soft sugar, made into a syrup, for every pound that is deficient
of that weight ; and, in like proportion to smaller hives. This work must not be delayed, that time may
be given for the bees to make the deposit in their empty cells before they are rendered torpid by the cold.
1749. Preparing sugar for bees. I must here notice, that sugar simply dissolved in water (which is
a common practice), and sugar boiled with water into a syrup, form compounds very differently suited for
the winter store of bees. When the former is wanted for their immediate nourishment, as in spring, it
will answer equally as a syrup ; but if to be laid up as a store, the heat of the hive quickly evaporating the
water, leaves the sugar indry crystals, not to be acted upon by the trunks of the bees. I have known several
•nstances of hives killed by hunger, while some pounds' weight of sugar in this state remained in their
cells. The boiling of sugar into syrup forms a closer combination with the water, by which it is prevented
from flying off, and a consistence resembling that of honey, retained. I have had frequent experience of
hives not containing a pound of honey, preserved in perfect health through the winter, with sugar so pre-
pared, when given in proper time, and in sufficient quantity.
1751). Covering the hives. Bees are evidently natives of a warm climate, a high temperature being ab-
solutely necessary to their existence ; and their continuing to live in hollow trees during the severe win-
ters of Russia and America, must depend on the heat produced from the great size of the swarms which
inhabit these abodes. From my own observation, the hives which are best covered during winter,
always prosper most the following summer. In consequence, about the end of harvest, I add to the thin
covering of straw put on the hives at the time of swarming a thick coat, and shut up the aperture through
which the bees entered, so that only one can pass at a time. Indeed, as a very small portion of air is
necessary for bees in their torpid state, it were better, during severe frosts, to be entirely shut up, as num-
bers of them are often lost from being enticed to quit the hive by the sunshine of a winter day. It will,
however, be proper at times to remove, by a crooked wire or similar instrument, the dead bees and other
filth, which the living at this season are unable to perform of themselves.
1751. Treatment during the breeding season. To hives, whose stock of honey was sufficient for their main-
tenance, or those to which a proper quantity of sugar had been given for that purpose, no further atten-
tion will be necessary, until the breeding season arrives. This, in warm situations, generally takes place
about the beginning of May, and in cold, about a month after. Owners of hives are often astonished,
that, at this advanced season, when their bees had, for weeks preceding, put on the most promising ap-
pearance, after a few days of rain, they become so weak and sickly as to be unable to leave the hive, and
continue declining until they at last die. From paying attention to this subject, I am convinced that the
cause is as follows : The young bees for a short time previous to their leaving their cells, and some time
after, require being fed with the same regularity that young birds are by their parents ; and if the store
in the hive be exhausted, and the weather such as not to admit of the working bees going abroad to col-
lect food in sufficient quantity for themselves and their brood, the powerful principle of affection for their
346 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
young compels them to part with what is not enough for their support, at the expense of their own lives.
To prevent such accidents, I make it a rule, that if, during the breeding season, it rain for two successive
davs, to feed all the bees indiscriminately, as it would be difficult to ascertain those only who require it.
1752. Swarming. For several years past, my hives have uniformly sent forth their first swarms during
the second week in July, from which it appears, that early or late swarming, in the same situations, is not
so much regulated by good or bad seasons as might have been expected. Near the sea this will, of course,
take place some weeks earlier.
1753. Signs of swarming. The first swarming is preceded by the appearance of drones, and hanging
out of working bees. The signs of the second are more equivocal, the most certain being that of the
queen, a day or two before swarming, at intervals of a few minutes, giving out a sound a good deal re-
sembling that of a cricket. It frequently happens that the swarm will leave the old hive, and return
again several times, which is always owing to the queen not having accompanied them, or from having
dropt on the ground, being too young to fly to a distance. In such cases, I have seen her found near to
the old hive, and on being taken up and placed in the new one, the swarm instantly settled.
1754. Late swar??is. When a hive yields more than two swarms, these should uniformly be joined to
others that are weak, as from the lateness of the season, and deficiency in number, they will otherwise
perish. This junction is easily formed, by inverting at night the hive in which they are, and placing
over it the one you intend them to enter. They soon ascend, and apparently with no opposition from the
former possessors, as I have never observed fighting to be a consequence. It being very universally be-
lieved that two queens cannot live together in the same hive, I have, for several days after this forced
junction, searched for the murdered queen, but never with success. Should the weather, for some days
after swarming be unfavorable for the bees going out, they must be fed with care until it clears up,
otherwise the young swarm will run a great risk of dying. (Howison, in Mem. Caled. Hort. Soc.)
1755. Talcing the honey. This may be effected, even with hives of the common
construction, by three modes, partial deprivation, total deprivation, and suffocation.
1756. Partial deprivation is performed about the beginning of September. " Having ascertained the
weight of the hive, and consequently the quantity of honeycomb which is to be extracted, begin the oper-
ation as soon as evening sets in, by reverting the full hive, and placing an empty one over it ; particu-
lar care must be taken that the two hives are of the same diameter, for if they differ in their dimensions,
it will not be possible to effect the driving of the bees. The hives being placed on each other, a sheet or
large tablecloth must be tied round them at their point of junction, in order to prevent the bees from
molesting the operator. The hives being thus arranged, beat the sides gently with a stick or the hand,
but particular caution must be used to beat it on those parts to which the combs are attached, and which
will be found parallel with the entrance of the hive. The ascent of the bees into the upper hive will be
known by a loud humming noise, indicative of the pleasure in finding an asylum from their enemy ; in a
few minutes the whole' community will have ascended, and the hive with the bees in it may be placed
upon the pedestal from which the full hive was removed. The hive, from which the bees have been
driven, must then be taken into the house, and the operation of cutting out the honeycomb commences.
Having extracted the requisite quantity of comb, this opportunity must be embraced of inspecting the
hive, and of cleaning it from any noxious matter. In cutting the combs, however, particular attention
should be paid not to cut into two or three combs at once, but having commenced the cutting of one, to
pursue it to the top of the hive ; and this caution is necessary for two reasons. If you begin the cutting
of two or three combs at one time, were you to extract the whole of them, you would perhaps take too
much ; and, secondly, to stop in the middle of a comb, would be attended with very pernicious conse-
quences, as the honey would drop from the cells which have been cut in two, and then the bees on being
returned to their native hive, might be drowned in their own sweets. The bees, also, in their return to
their natural domicile, being still under the impression of fear, would not give so much attention to the
honey which flows from the divided cells ; and as it would fall on the board, and from that on the ground,
the bees belonging to the other hives would immediately scent the wasted treasure, and a general attack
upon the deprivated hive might be dreaded. The deprivation of the honeycomb being effected, the hive
may be returned to its former position, and reversing the hive which contains the bees, and placing the
deprivated hive over it, they may be left in that situation till the morning, when the bees will be found to
have taken possession of their native hive, and if the season proves fine may replenish what they have
lost." (Huish's Treatise on Bees.)
1157. Total deprivation is effected in the same manner, but earlier in the season, immediately after the
first swarm ; and the bees, instead of being returned to a remnant of honey in their old hive, remain in
the new empty one, which they will sometimes, though rarely, fill with comb. By this mode, it is to be
observed, very little honey is obtained, the bees in June and July being occupied chiefly in breeding, and
one, if not two, swarms are lost.
1758. Suffocation is performed when the season of flowers begins to decline, and generally in October.
The smoke of paper, or linen rag soaked or smeared with melted sulphur, is introduced to the hive by
placing it on a hole in the ground, where a few shreds of these articles are undergoing a smothering com-
bustion ; or the full hive may be placed on an empty one, inverted as in partial deprivation, and the sul-
phureous smoke introduced by fumigating bellows, &c. The bees will fall from the upper to the lower
hive in a few minutes, when they may be removed and buried, to prevent resuscitation. Such a death
seems one of the easiest, both to the insects themselves and to human feelings. Indeed, the mere depri-
vation of life to animals not endowed with sentiment or reflection, is reduced to the precise pain of the
moment without reference to the past or the future ; and as each pulsation of this pain increases in effect
on the one hand, so on the other the susceptibility of feeling it diminishes. Civilised man is the only
animal to whom death has terrors.
1 759. Estimate of the Itumanity of the three modes. Much has been said about the cruelty
of killing bees ; but if man is entitled to deprive them either totally or partially of their
food, he has an equal right (and in truth by that very act exercising it) of depriving
them of their lives. For of the hives that have been partially or wholly deprived of their
honey, it may be safely affirmed, that there is not one in ten that does any good. 11
they live till the succeeding spring they are commonly too weak to collect food or to
breed, and, being plundered by their neighbours, dwindle away, till at last the hive is
without inhabitants. A prompt death is surely preferable to one so protracted. — Some
judicious observations on this subject will be found in Huish's book, extracted from
the works of La Grenee, a French apiarian.
Subsect. 3. Of the Aviary, and of Menageries, Piscinaries, $c.
1760. The aviary was common to the country-houses of the Romans, but used princi-
pally, as it would appear from Pliny, for birds destined to be eaten. Singing-birds, how-
ever, were kept by the Persians, Greeks, and also the Romans in wicker-cages ; and these
utensils, no doubt, gave rise to the large and fixed cage called an aviary ; but in what
Book III.
AVIARY, &c.
347
country, and in what age, appears uncertain. They are highly prized in China, and
seem there to confer about a similar degree of dignity to a house and family as does a
large conservatory in this country ; for in the altercations which took place during Lord
Amherst's embassy, it was stated, on the part of the emperor, that Sir George Staunton
had profited greatly from China, and had built himself a house and ari avian/. That
they were in use in England in Evelyn's time, is evident from a memorandum entered
in his diary, that the Marquis of Argyle took the parrots in his aviary at Sayes' Court
for owls.
1761. The canary or singi?ig-bird aviary used not unfrequently to be formed in the
opaque-roofed green-house or conservatory, by enclosing one or both ends with a
partition of wire ; and furnishing them with dead or living trees, or spray and branches
suspended from the roof for the birds to perch on. Such are chiefly used for the canary,
bullfinch, linnet, &c.
1 762. The parrot aviary is generally a building formed on purpose, with a glass roof,
front, and ends ; with shades and curtains to protect it from the sun and frost, and a
flue for winter heating. In these, artificial or dead trees with glazed foliage are fixed
in the floor, and sometimes cages hung on them ; and at other times the birds allowed to
fly loose. An aviary of this sort was built at Morden by the late Abraham Goldschmidt.
1 763. The verdant aviary is that in which, in addition to houses for the different sorts
of birds, a net or wire curtain is thrown over the tops of trees, and supported by light
posts or hollow rods, so as to enclose a few poles, or even acres of ground, and water in
various forms. In this the birds in fine weather sing on the trees, the aquatic birds sail
on the water, or the gold-pheasants stroll over the lawn, and in severe seasons they be-
take themselves to their respective houses or cages. Such an enclosed space will of
course contain evergreen, as well as deciduous trees, rocks, reeds, aquatics, long grass
for larks and partridges, spruce firs for pheasants, furze-bushes for linnets, &c. An
aviary, somewhat in this way, was formed by Catherine of Russia, in the Hermitage
Palace ; and at Knowlsley in Lancashire. In short these are the only sorts admissible
in elegant gardens ; since nothing surely to one who is not an enthusiast in this branch
of natural history, can be more disagreeable than an apartment filled with the dirt and
discordant music of innumerable birds, such, for example, as the large aviary at Kew.
Birds from the hot climates are sometimes kept in hot-houses among their native plants,
as in the large conservatories at Vienna. (218.) In this case, the doors and openings
for giving air must be covered with wire cloth, and the number must not be great, other-
wise they will too much disfigure the plants with their excrement.
1764. Gallinaceous aviary. At Chiswick, portable netted enclosures, from ten to
twenty feet square, are distributed over a part of the lawn, and display a curious col-
lection of domestic fowls. In each enclosure is a small wooden box or house for shel-
tering the animals during night, or in severe weather, and for breeding. . Each cage or
enclosure is contrived to contain one or more trees or shrubs ; and water and food are
supplied in small basins and appropriate vessels. Curious varieties of aquatic fowls
might be placed on floating aviaries on a lake or pond.
300 1765. Wire-cages. In a flower-garden 301
or pleasure-ground where the object is the
singing of birds, much the most effectual
mode is to distribute over it a number of
common-sized cages containing different
sorts of birds. They may either be hung
on trees or fixed to iron rods. (Jig. 300.)
The more hardy sorts of British birds
may remain there during night, and the
more delicate sorts and canaries taken in
either by removing the cage only or the
cage and rod together (Jig. 301.), and
placing or fixing it in a shed or conserv-
atory.
1766. Menageries were formerly attach-
ed to most of the royal gardens and parks
of Europe. The most complete example
is that of the Paris garden, constructed
and arranged, as much as possible, ac-
cording to the natures and habits of the different animals enclosed.
The subject, however, can hardly be considered within our depart-
ment.
1767. The piscinary, cochlearium, ranarium, columbarium, &c.
belong to that part of rural economy which forms the connecting link
lK-tween rural and domestic economv.
!
34:
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
Sect. III. Decorative Buildings.
1768. The general characteristic of decorative buildings is, that they are introduced more
for their picturesque effect as parts of external scenery, than as absolutely necessary.
Their construction, like the others, belongs chiefly to civil architecture and sculpture ;
but the choice and emplacement to gardening. Their variety is almost endless ; but we
shall rank a few selections under the different heads of useful, convenient, and character-
istic decorations.
Subsect. 1 . Useful Decorative Buildings.
1769. Useful decorations are such as while they serve as ornaments, or to heighten the
effect of a scene, are also applied to some real use, as in the case of cottages and bridges.
They are the class of decorative buildings most general and least liable to objection.
1770. Cottages are of various 302
sorts ; one grand division is
founded on the style of archi-
tecture employed, as Grecian,
Gothic, Chinese, &c. ; another,
on the materials used, as stone,
brick, timber, trees unbarked
(Jig. 302.), wicker-work, with
moss or mud ; and another, on
the peculiar style of different
countries, as English, Swedish,
Italian, &c. (See Prin. of Design
in Arch'. 8vo. 1821.)
1771. The Gothic cottage is
characterised by the forms of the
Gothic or pointed style of architecture in the openings, as doors, windows, &c. in the
chimney-tops and gable-ends. It may be thatched ; but the most appropriate roof is
grey slate, or slate stone, or flat grey tiles.
1772. The Grecian cottage is that in which the lines of Grecian architecture prevail.
These are generally horizontal, and may be displayed in the windows, roof, and other
parts. The roof is generally flat and projecting, and the best slate or flag stone seems
the most approved covering.
1773 The Chinese cottage {fig. 303.) is characterised by concave lines in the roof, pro-
jecting eaves, small windows, and bell or drop ornaments. The proper roofing is party-
colored tiles, with which the walls may also be covered.
303
1774. The Bengal cottage has walls of mud, the openings surrounded by frames ot
bamboo, the doors and divisions of the windows of the same material, and the roof covered
with reeds or palm-leaves.
1 775. The English cottage is generally Gothic as to style, the lowest order formed oi
mud and that-hcd, with boarded labels over the windows and doors ; the second order of
Book III.
USEFUL DECORATIVE BUILDINGS.
549
304
framed timber, filled up with brick-work, with oaken door and window-frames ; and the
third order of solid brick, with stone door and window-frames, and Gothic mouldings
and labels. There is a very pleasing assemblage of picturesque cottages, mostly thatched,
erected on the grounds at Blaze Castle, near Bristol. They are not only varied in form,
for which much facility is obtained, by including two, and sometimes three dwellings, in
one pile; but their disposition on the ground, and the surface of the ground itself, is
varied ; and by the management of the walks and trees, an eyeful of any part seldom
contains more than two or three groups ; always one in the fore-ground, and the others
in the middle or remote distance. They were designed by Nash.
1776. The Scotch cottage is, as to architectural style, something between Gothic and
Grecian. It is the same with the cottage of France and Flanders, is characterised by
high narrow gable-ends, with notched or step-like finishings. The material of the walls,
almost always stone ; and of the roof, pantiles or grey schistus slate.
1777. The Italian cottage is characterised by Grecian lines, and forms bold projections
and recesses, as far as a cottage admits of these ; high pantiled roofs of a peculiar con-
struction ; the walls white-washed, and in farmers' cottages, especially in Tuscany, often
a part of the roof raised as a sort of watchtower.
1778. The Polish cottage (Jig. 304. ) is formed chiefly of timber,
with some plaster and wicker-work to thicken the walls within.
The roof is covered with shingles or fir- timber split into pieces
of about eighteen inches long, six inches broad, and half an inch
thick. The ends are generally upright, not en pavilion, and
the roofs projecting.
1779. The Russian cottage is also built of timber, but of solid
logs or trees notched, and let into each other at the angles of
the buildings where they intersect. They are roofed as in the
Polish cottage, and sometimes highly ornamented at the ends
by carved imitations of the sun, moon, stars, &c. protruded
from the ends, and protected by the projection of the roof.
1780. The Sivedish and Danish cottage is built of logs and
moss, like the Russian.
1781. The jmmitive hut, or cabin, varies as to material, according to the country in
which it is formed. The rudest description of artificial shelter for man is perhaps
that used by the aboriginal inhabitants of Botany Bay, which is a large plate of the
bark of a tree bent in the middle, and its two ends stuck in the earth. The African
cottage (Jig. 305.) is a low 305
oblong mud hut, con-
structed by the natives as
swallows do their nests.
(Sir W. Ouseley.) The
rudest European hut is
generally a cone formed by
branches, poles, or young
trees, with their ends set
in the ground, made to
lean against each other at
the top, such as are now in
use in Lapland, (jig. 306.) They are then covered with spray, heath, straw, reeds,
or turf. One opening serves the purpose of all others. In countries abounding in
noxious reptiles, this is made in the upper part of the roof, and entered by a trap-door,
as in Stedman's hut at Surinam, or by a ladder as in the huts of Morocco (Jig. 31 1.) ;
but in Europe the entrance is generally made on a level with the floor, as in the huts of
306
~- • £r fm
350
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
1 lIlS
307 308 309 310
Ireland, the Highlands of Scotland, and Lapland.
Modifications of this and other rude forms (Jigs. 307.
to 310.) may sometimes be admitted in garden-scenery,
as tool-houses, or shelters for other materials, game,
&c. — A variety of examples of rustic huts and
cottages are to be found in Kraft's plans, &c. ; and of
highly decorated cottages and ornamented buildings
in Mrs. Hofland's White Knights, and Ackermann's
Repository of the Arts.
1782. The bridge is one of the grandest decorations
of garden-scenery, where really useful. None require
so little architectural elaboration, because every mind
recognises the object in view, and most minds are
pleased with the means employed to attain that object
in proportion to their simplicity. There are an im-
mense variety of bridges, which may be classed accord-
ing to the mechanical principles of their structure ;
the style of architecture, or the materials used.
With respect to the principles of their mechanical structure, the materials of bridges are held together, either
by their gravity, as in all arches, whether of stone, iron, or timber ; or by their tenacity, as in single planks,
flat bridges of iron or timber, and those new and wonderful exertions of ingenuity, suspended bridges, of
which fine examples have been executed across the Menai and the Tweed, and the principles of which we
have elsewhere (Annals of Philosophy, Jan. 1816-) entered into at large.
With respect to styles of architecture, the bridge affords little opportunity of detailed display ; but the
openings may be circular or pointed arches, or right-lined, or a mixture of these.
As to material, bridges of tenacity are formed of timber or wrought-iron ; bridges of gravity, generally
of cast-iron or stone ; but they may be formed of any material. We submit a few examples in different
styles, and composed of different materials.
1783. The fallen tree is the original form, and may sometimes be admitted in garden-
scenery, with such additions as will render it safe, and somewhat commodious.
1784. The foot-plank is the next form, and may or may not be supported in the middle,
or at different distances by posts.
1785. The Swiss bridge (Jigs. 312, 313.) is a rude composition of trees unbarked,
and not hewn or polished.
312
311
1786. The tied plank {fig. 314.) is formed by fixing the ends of one or more planks
in two heads or cases of cast-iron (a, a), and then connecting them by wrought-iron
rods (b, b) fixed to the heads in the manner of a string to a bow. A very light bridge
is thus formed, which acts both by tenacity and gravity. Thus, when a light weight
is on the bridge, the particles of the boards are not moved, but merely pressed on, and
therefore the arched part may then be said to act by gravity ; while this pressure being
propagated to the abutments, these are held in equilibrium by the iron rods acting by
their tenacity. On the other hand, when a bridge of this sort is heavily loaded, the
Book III.
USEFUL DECORATIVE BUILDINGS.
351
arch will bend down, or yield in some places and rise in others ; in which case the whole
acts by its tenacity. 314
^^^^«^^
1787. A very light and strong bridge may be formed by screwing together thin boards in
the form of a segment, or by screwing together a system of triangles of timber. This
principle may be carried to a great extent ; by using so many lamina the elasticity of
the materials is lessened without rupturing their parts, and though from the form of
such arches, they would appear to act by gravity, yet in truth, they act more by
tenacity, for the ends of the segment cannot be pressed out without rupturing the soffit,
or crushing the crown of the arch. For broad tame rivers in flat grounds, such arches
may be considered appropriate, as attaining the end without any appearance of great
effort. [Fulton on Bridges; Howard on Military Bridges.)
1788. Bridges of common carpentry (Jigs. 315, 316.) admit of every variety of form,
and either of rustic workmanship or with unpolished materials, or of polished timber
alone, or of dressed timber and abutments of masonry.
315 31G
1789. Bridges of masonry (Jig. 317.) may either have raised or flat roads ; but in all
317
cases those are the most beautiful (be-
cause most consistent with utility) in
which the road on the arch rises as little
above the level of the road on the shores
as possible ; notwithstanding the pre-
judices of some eminent engineers
(Telford, in Ed. Encyc. art. Bridge) in
favor of the old practice of always
forming the extrados of a considerable curve
It is only where masted vessels are to
pass under, that the raising the arches higher than what is necessary for the transit of the
stream can be considered in good taste.
1790. Cast-iron bridges are necessarily curved; but that curvature, and the lines
which enter into the architecture of their rails, may be varied according to taste or
local indications.
1791. The boat, as to construction, belongs to naval architecture. In gardening,
it is sometimes used as a substitute for the bridge, sometimes worked by a mechanical
power, as the wheel and pinion, and commonly with the deck arranged as part of the
gravel walk, which approaches the edge of the water. But where a river with a cur-
rent is to be crossed, the flying boat, with the deck arranged as part of the walk (Jig. 318.),
352
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part I J.
is preferable. The motion of this boat is de-
rived from the obliquity of its sides to the
direction of the current, which must be kept
up by the use of the rudder. The boat (a)
must be anchored to a post (b) fixed in the
middle of the river ; and the longer the ca-
ble (c), the manoeuvre will be the more easily
executed, provided the movement is not*
made in a greater arc than 90°. The force
of the stream is at a maximum, when the
angle formed by it, and the side of the boat
is 54° 44'. The same purpose may be ef-
fected by a triangular raft without the use of
a rudder. (Howard on Military Bridges,
sect. 4. p. 97).
1792. Sepulchral structures have been
adopted as parts of garden-scenery from
the earliest times. They are most common
in the Protestant countries of Europe, and
in England are to be found in parks and
pleasure-grounds in various characters and
styles, from the consecrated flower-plot, as
at Nuneham Courtenay, to the superb mau-
soleum of Castle Howard, or of Cobham
Hall.
The most ancient form of sepulchres seems to have been tumuli, barrows, or mounds of earth ; some-
times planted, but generally left to acquire a clothing of turf. In cool regions, these maybe considered
the most durable of all tombs, because the roots and clothing of the turf prevent the earth from being
washed or blown away by the weather, and the material presents no temptation to the avarice of man-
kind. Of such tombs there are several on a small scale in Wiltshire, and on a large scale round the city
of Cracow ; the last considered as the sepulchres of the ancient kings of Poland.
The cairn, or cone of rough stones, is the next form, common in some parts of Britain. To this suc-
ceeded the pyramid of Egypt. These are, in their nature and construction, calculated to serve as durable
monuments, and were very properly employed by kings and chiefs in rude ages ; for then, as now, the
idea of being quite forgotten was felt to be unpleasant. But in more modern times, those parts of men's
actions, which are worth remembering, can be recorded in books, which, when good, are the most
durable of all monuments. Such piles as have been mentioned are felt as too expensive, and considered
as too gross a display of the love of fame ; men, therefore, have recourse to what may be called emblems
of monuments, known under the names of mausoleums, obelisks, pillars, tombs, vaults, stone coffins,
sarcophagi, urns, &c. ; all of which exist from general consent, and not from the indestructive nature of
their materials or construction, as in the former class. The most unnatural form of sepulture, and the most
liable ultimately to defeat the very end in view — respect to the memory of the deceased — is that in which
the body is embalmed, richly clothed, and hermetically sealed up in a box or chest of durable materials,
such as lead, and placed in a richly ornamented building of valuable stone. Here, in times of intestine
war and rapine, the building will be broken into, and the lead and other valuable materials taken from
the bodies ; even the stuffs in which the body is wrapped may be an object, as was the case with the
retreating French army at Kowno and other places in 1812 ; or the architectural ornaments, and the dead
bodies themselves, may be objects of research, as in the case of certain Grecian marbles taken by Lord Elgin,
and the despoliation of numerous Egyptian tombs by Signor Belzoni and others. A very natural form of
sepulture for a family residing on their own estate in the country, is a consecrated grove or enclosure,
in which each individual is buried near a tree, inscribed with his name on the bark. All that an enemy
or a new purchaser can do, is to cut down the trees, and change the state of the ground from pasture
to arable. If any of the family have effected any great public good, it will be elsewhere permanently
recorded ; if they have not, it is fitting their names should, as indeed they always will, perish with their
bodies. The utility of epitaphs and tombs in public groves or churchyards, however, it is not meant to
deny ; nor to impugn the different tastes of individuals. The grand object appears to us to be the at-
tainment of the greatest possible quantum of enjoyment, mental and corporal, while living.
179.J. As to monuments for the inferior animals, such as are to be found at Potsdam, Oatlands, and
Bramley Hall, we say, with that enviable and remarkable character the Prince de Ligne,
" Loin ces vains monumens d'un chien ou d"un oiseau,
C'est profaner le deui], insulter au tombeau."
1794. The gate is of various forms and materials, according to those of the barrier of
which it constitutes a part. In all gates, the essential part of the construction, or those
lines which maintain its strength and position, and facilitate its motion, are to be distin-
guished from such (a, a, Jig. 319. ; &Jig. 320.) as serve chiefly to render it a barrier,
or as decorations. Thus a gate with a raised top or head (Jig. 321.) is almost always
in bad taste, because at variance with strength ; while the contrary form (Jig. 320.) is
generally in good taste, for the contrary reason. In regard to strength, the nearer the
arrangement of rails and bars approaches in effect to one solid lamina, or plate of wood
or iron, of the gate's dimensions, the greater will be the force required to tear or break
it in pieces. But this would not be consistent with lightness and economy, and, there-
fore, the skeleton of a lamina is resorted to, by the employment of slips or rails joined
together on mechanical principles ; that is, on principles derived from a mechanical
analysis of strong bodies. Strength of the most perfect kind is resolvable into hard-
ness and tenacity ; and in artificial compositions, the latter is obtained by what in car-
pentry are called ties (Jigs. 319. a, & 322.) and the former by what are called struts
(Jig. 322. b). The art of carpentry, as far as construction is concerned, whether of gates,
Book III.
USEFUL DECORATIVE BUILDINGS.
353
or of roofs, consi&ts in the judicious composition of tics and struts ; the former always re-
sisting a drawing or twisting power, and the latter one of a pressing or crushing nature.
321
319
— _n
a
X
a
a
!N^f ffif^
i i —
m
322
1795. By the maintenance of a gate 's position, we mean the resistance to that tendency
which most gates have to sink at the head or falling-post, and thus no longer to open and
shut freely. If the construction asid hanging of the gate were perfect, this could net
possibly take place ; but as the least degree of laxity in trussing the gate, or want of
firmness in fixing the post in the ground, will occasion, after frequent use, a sensible de-
pression at the head, it becomes requisite either to guard against it as much as possible, in
the first construction ; or, to have, as in N. Parker's gate, a provision in the design of the
upper hinge, for rectifying the deviations as they take place. In order to understand the
construction best calculated to resist depression, suppose a gate hung, and resting on its heel
(fig' 322. c), acting as a strut, and maintained
there by its upper hinge (d), acting as a tie, ". -
then the bottom rail of the gate considered as
representing the whole, becomes a lever of the
second kind, in which the prop is at one end
(c), the power at the other (g), and the weight
placed between them in the line of the centre
of gravity of the gate (i). Now, as two equal
forces, to hold each other in equilibrium, must
act in the same line of direction, it follows,
that the power acting at the end of the lever
(g), will have most influence when exerted at
right angles to it or parallel to the line of
gravity (g e) ; but as this cannot be accom-
plished in a gate where the power must be
applied obliquely, it follows, that a larger
power becomes requisite ; but that the less
the obliquity, the less will be the power, or in other words the less the strain on the con-
struction of the gate, or the less the tendency to sink at the head. The half of the right
angle (g e c), seems a reasonable limit, by which, if the power requisite to hold the
weight in equilibrium, when acting at a right angle, be as the side of a square of the
length of the lower bar of the gate (g c), then the power requisite to effect the same end,
when acting at an angle of 45 degrees, is as the diagonal to this square (g h). By
changing the square to a parallelogram, the relative proportions will still be the same,
and the advantages and disadvantages will be rendered more obvious. (For g d is not
to d c, as g h is to h c. ) It is evident from this principle, that gates whose upper line is
concave, or falls from the posts or piers to the centre (Jig. 320.), are more fitting, and
consequently more beautiful, than such as are of an opposite description (Jig, 321.)
But a person totally ignorant of mechanical principles, but of good taste in visual mat-
ters in general, might prefer the latter, which shows, that a just or true taste must be
founded on science or reason, and is by no means so vague and indefinite, or arbitrary
an exertion of judgment as many are apt to imagine.
1796. Compensatio7i-hhiges. Where there is no choice between a construction calcu-
lated to resist sinking, and the common form, then the corrective or compensation-hinge
of N. Parker (Jig. 323.) is very proper for division-gates in parks or drives ; but a sci-
entific construction, either polished or rustic (Jig. 326.), may be easily contrived for
gates in forests and farms. When Parker's hinge is used, all. that is necessary, when the
gate sinks at the head, is to screw it up by the nut (a, Jig. 323.) till it is replaced in its
original position.
1797. With respect to facilitating the motion of gates, that is to be done by lessening the
friction of their hinges. Friction is as the extent of rubbing surface, and the weight ;
therefore, of the two hinges of a gate, the friction of the heel, when a pivot, is by much
the least, as the rubbing there is limited to one point, instead of the w hole surfaces of two
cylinders. Whatever, therefore, has a tendency to throw the preponderance of weight
on the heel, must lessen the friction of the upper hinge. This will be accomplished in
Aa
354
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
a 323
Part II.
proportion as the centre of gravity is moved from the centre of the gate towards the
heel : and this, as well as additional strength, may be obtained by increasing the dimen-
sions of the materials gradually from the head to the heel. — Some have proposed to
suspend gates by weights, in the manner of windows, instead of hanging them, but ex-
cepting in anomalous cases, this would be an unsightly and inconvenient practice.
(Farmer's ifag. 1819.)
1798. The forces and direct urns of the strains on the hinges of gates has been practically
explained and mathematically demonstrated by Bailey (Agric. Rep. Northumb.) and
N. Parker. (Essay on Gates, 1816.) The turnpike-gate of the last author seems to be a
very near approach to perfection.
1799. Substitutes for gates, such as the gate with falling bars (Jigs. 324, 325.) ; the stile,
which is of various' vorts ; turn-wicket ; horizontal grating ; and various other modes of
permitting man to pass a barrier and yet excluding cattle, belong rather to agriculture
than to gardening.
1800. Gates, as decorations, may be classed according to the prevailing lines, and the
materials used. Horizontal, perpendicular, diagonal, and curved lines, comprehend all
gates, whether of iron or of timber, and each of these may be distinguished more or less
by ornamental parts, which may either be taken from any of the known styles of archi-
tecture, or from heraldry or fancy.
1801. The published designs for gates are numerous, especially those for iron gates ; for
executing which, the improvements made in casting that metal in moulds afford great
facilities. By a judicious junction of cast and wrought iron, the ancient mode of en-
riching gates with flowers and other carved-like ornaments might be happily re-intro-
duced.
1802. Gates in garden-scenery, where architectural elegance is not required to sup-
port character, simple or rustic structures (Jig. 326.), wickets, turn-stiles, and even move-
326
Book III.
CONVENIENT DECORATIONS.
355
327
able or suspended rails, like the German schlagbaum {Jig. 324. ), may be introduced
according to the character of the scene. .
1 803. Rails or fences, for parks and garden- scenery, are, as to lines, similarly character-
ised as gates ; and, like gates,
fences are of many species,
from the rudest barriers with-
out nails or iron work (Jig.
327.) to the numerous sorts
of iron and wire barriers.
Hurdles, whether of wood or
iron, are the most convenient
description of temporary fences. They are manufactured of various forms and dimen-
sions, so as to prove, as to height and openings between the rails, rods, or wires, barriers
to hares, sheep, cattle, or deer. Where iron fences are considered as permanent fixtures,
those parts which are inserted in the ground should be of cast-iron, as resisting oxidation
much better than the wrought material. It ought, at the same time, to be covered with
tar, pitch, or pyroiigneous acid, or, whilst hot, painted over with oil. For interior fences,
poles or laths may be formed into treillage-work of different kinds (Jig. 328.) ; preserv-
ing the bark of the former, and pitching or charring the ends inserted in the earth. A
328
1
i
1 i
neat garden or lawn fence, and one which will last a long time may be made of the stems
of young larch-trees. (Jig. 329. )
329
1804. Walls are unquestionably the grandest fences for parks ; and arched portals,
the noblest entrances ; between these and the hedge or pale, and rustic gate, designs in
every degree of gradation, both for lodges, gates, and fences, will be found in the works
of Wright, Gandy, Robertson, Aikin, Pocock, and other architects who have published
on the rural department of their art. The pattern books of manufacturers of iron gates
and hurdles, and of wire workers, may also be advantageously consulted.
Subsect. 2. Convenient Decorations.
1805. Of convenient decorations the variety is almost endless, from the prospect-tower
to the rustic seat ; besides aquatic decorations, agreeable to the eye and convenient for
the purposes of recreation or culture. Their emplacement, as in the former section, be-
longs to gardening, and their construction to architecture and engineering.
1 806. The prospect-toiver is a noble object to look at, and a gratifying and instructive
position to look from. It should be placed on the highest grounds of a residence in
order to command as wide a prospect as possible, to serve as a fixed recognised point to
strangers, in making a tour of the grounds. It may very properly be accompanied bv
a cottage ; or the lower part of it may be occupied by the family of a forester, fame-
keeper, or any rural pensioner, to keep it in order, &c.
1807. The kiosque is the Chinese prospect-tower, of peculiar construction, charac-
terised by numerous stories, designated by projecting roofs and pendent bells. An ex-
ample exists at Kew, and its details will be found in the Plans of the Buildings, &c,
erected there by Sir W. Chambers. Sometimes the prospect-tower is a hollow column
as in the monumental column of London, that to the memory of Lord Nelson at
Edinburgh, and to Lord Hill, at Shrewsbury ; but the stairs in such buildings are ne-
cessarily too narrow for the prospect-tower of country-residences, and besides there can
A a 2
356
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
be no rooms as resting-places, which are absolutely necessary, where ease and enjoyment
are studied, and where some attention is had to the delicacy of women, and the frailties
of old age.
1808. Temples, either models or imitations of the religious buildings of the Greeks
and heathen Romans, are sometimes introduced in garden-scenery to give dignity and
beauty. In residences of a certain extent and character, they may be admissible as imi-
tations, as resting-places, and as repositories of sculptures or antiquities. Though their
introduction has been brought into contempt by its frequency, and by bad imitations in
perishable materials, yet they are not for that reason to be rejected by good taste. They
may often add dignity and a classic air to a scene ; and when erected of durable mate-
rials, and copied from good models, will, like their originals, please as independent ob-
jects. Knight, and some other connoisseurs of less note, disgusted by the abuse of
temples, have argued, as it appears to us, too exclusively against their introduction, and
contend for cottages as the fittest ornaments of rural scenery : but why limit the resources
of an art because they are liable to abuse ? Thatched roofs may become tiresome, as
well as columns ; and if Stow is an example of the latter carried to excess, White
Knights is as certainly of the former
1809. Porches and porticoes (Jig- 330.) are sometimes employed as decorative marks
to the entrances of scenes ; and sometimes merely as roofs to shelter seats or resting
benches.
18i0. Alcoves (Jig. 331.) are used as winter resting-places, as being fully exposed to
the sun.
1811. jJrbors are used as
summer seats and resting-places :
they may be shaded with fruit-
trees, as the vine, currant, cherry ;
climbing ornamental shrubs, as
ivy, clematis, &c. ; or herba-
ceous, as everlasting pea, gourd,
&c. They are generally formed
of timber lattice-work, some-
times of woven rods, or wicker-
work, and occasionally of wire.
1812. The Italian arbor (Jig.
332.) is generally covered with a dome, often framed of thick iron or copper wire
painted, and covered with vines or honeysuckles.
332 333
330
331
1813. The French arbor (Jig. 333) is characterised by the various lines and surfaces,
which enter into the composition of the roof.
1814. Caves and caverns, where they exist naturally in the grounds of a residence, as at
Piercefield, Corby Castle, &c, or can be readily formed, are to be regarded more as singu-
larities or picturesque objects than as places of use or enjoyment in this climate ; in Italy
and Spain they are great luxuries.
1815. Grottoes are resting-places in recluse situations, rudely covered externally, and
within finished with shells, corals, spars, crystallisations, and other marine and mineral
productions, according to fancy. To add to the effect, pieces of looking-glass are in-
serted in different places and positions.
Book III.
CONVENIENT DECORATIONS.
357
1816. Roofed seats, boat-houses, moss houses, Jlint houses, bark huts, and similar con-
structions, are different modes of forming resting-places containing seats, and some-
times other furniture or conveniences in or near them. Very neat buildings and furni-
ture of this class may be formed of hazel-rods ; or of any tree with a clean bark, and
straight shoots, as young oaks or mountain ash. The spruce fir affords a good outside
material : and five or six young trees coupled together, make good rustic columns. At
White Knights, the Slopes at Windsor, and Bothwell Castle, are good examples of
covered seats of the rustic kind. (tfigs. 334, 335, 336.)
334
335
336
337
338
•tlljnillimhlMinilllllhlL/lU'i — : .
1817. Roofed seats of a more polished description are boarded structures generally
semi-octagonal, and placed so as to be open to the south. Sometimes they are portable,
moving on wheels, so as to be placed in different positions, according to the hour of the
day, or season of the year, which, in confined spots, is a desirable circumstance. Some-
times they turn on rollers, or on a central pivot, for the same object, and this is very
common in what are called barrel-seats. In general they are opaque, but occasionally
their sides are glazed, to admit the sun to the interior in winter.
1818. Folding chairs. A sort of medium seat, between the roofed and the exposed, is
formed by constructing the backs of chairs, benches, or sofas with hinges, so as they may
fold down over the seat, and so protect it from rain. After rain, when these backs are
replaced in their proper position, a dry seat, and dry back to lean against, are at once
obtained.
1819. Elegant structures of the seat kind for summer use, may be constructed of iron rods
and wires, and painted canvas ; the iron forming the supporting skeleton, and the canvass
the protecting tegument. The mushroom or umbrella form (Jig. 337.), and that of the
Turkish tent (Jig. 338.), the oriental pavilion, or any other exotic form free from vul-
garity and meagre lines, may be made choice of on such occasions.
1820. Exposed seats
include a great variety,
rising in gradation from
the turf bank to the
carved couch. Inter-
mediate forms are stone
benches,root stools,sec-
tions of trunks of trees,
wooden, stone, or cast-
iron mushrooms paint-
ed or covered with moss, or mat, or heath ; the Chinese barrel-seat, the rustic stool, chair,
tripod, sofa, the cast-iron couch or sofa, the wheeling-chair, and many sub-varieties.
1821. Swings (Jig. 339.), see-saws, &c.
are not very common in English gardens,
but, as exercising places for children, are
very proper in retired, but airy parts of the
pleasure-ground. Hurley-burleys, riding-
wheels, &c. are better substituted by
donkies and ponies. No greater danger
is incurred, and something of the art of
horsemanship is thus actually acquired.
In every country-residence where there
are children, contrivances for their exercise
and amusement ought to be considered
essential objects ; for these purposes, a riding school, and bath or pond for learning to
swim and row a boat, may be considered essential. The former may also serve for ac-
quiring the infantry and cavalry exercise, and learning to fire at a mark, jump, run,
wrestle, box, climb trees or smooth poles, ascend ropes, &c.
A a 3
339
358
SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
1822. Of constructions for displaying water, as an artificial decoration, the principal are
cascades, waterfalls, jets, and fountains. The foundation of the cascade and waterfall, is
the head or dam which must be thrown across the river or stream ; and in this, two things
are to be considered, its strength, and the materials of which it is composed.
1823. With respect to strength, the pressure of water is as its depth, and consequently a
dam, whose section is a right-angled triangle (Jig. 340. a, b, c), and whose hypothenuse
(a, b) forms an angle of 45°, with the base (a, c) formed of any material of greater specific
gravity than water, would, as far as strength is concerned, hold in equilibrium a body of
still water of a depth equal to its perpendicular. If the hypothenuse, or sloping side,
be placed next the water, it will more than hold the water in equilibrium, by the weight
of the triangle fa, b, d) of the water superincumbent on the triangle of the dam or bank.
1824. That the materials of the bank must be of a nature impervious to water, and also
must adhere to the base or bottom, so as not to admit water to escape beneath it, are ob-
vious conditions of the foregoing proportion. The practice of forming dams or heads, is
derived from tins theory ; but to guard against accident, the base of the triangle is always
made three or more times greater than its height ; the slope next the stream may form an
angle with the horizon, of from 40° to 20°, and that on the lower side is regulated by the
uses of the dam. If for raising water so as to cover a hollow where there is little or no
overflow expected, then the slope is generally of earth, 40° or 35° (jig. 340. e,f), turfed
or planted ; if for a cascade, the slope is regulated by the form or undulations on which
the rocks to produce the breaking of the water are to be placed ; and if for a waterfall, a
perpendicular wall is substituted, over which the water projects itself in a sheet or lamina,
in breadth proportioned to the quantity of the current.
d
340
1 825. In all these cases, instead of forming the dam entirely of materials impervious
to water, it is sufficient if a vertical stratum of wrought-clay be brought up its centre
(Jig. 340. g,f), and the surface of the bank rendered firm by a coating of gravel on the
slope next the water.
1826. The construction of the waterfall, where avowedly artificial, is nothing more than a
strong-built wall across the stream, perfectly level at top, and with a strong, smooth, ac-
curately fitted, and well jointed coping. On the perfection of the coping, both as to level
and jointing, depends the regular distribution of the lamina of water to be projected.
Formerly artificial cascades of this sort were curved in the ground-plan, the concavity
pointing down the stream, by which some strength and a better view of the water were
supposed to be obtained. With respect to strength, this can only hold true, or at least be
of consequence, in cases where the upper slope of the dam is very steep, and the force of
the current great ; and as to a fuller view, this can only take place when the eye of the
spectator is in the focus of the segment. Where a natural waterfall is to be imitated, the
upright wall must be built of huge irregular blocks ; the horizontal lamina of water
broken in the same way by placing fragments of rocks grouped here and there so as to
throw the whole into parts ; and as nature is never methodical, to form it as if in part a
cascade.
1827. In imitating a natural cascade in garden-scenery, the horizontal line must here
also be perfect, to prevent waste of water in dry seasons, and from this to the base of the
lower slope the surface must be paved by irregular blocks, observing to group the promi-
nent fragments, and not distribute them regularly over the surface. In the infancy of
landscape-gardening, the lower bank or slope of the dam was formed into ogee and other
curves, or a serpentine line, and smoothly paved or causeyed, fixing on the convexities of
the curves projecting boards across the current ; and the current being thus interrupted,
was thrown up in arched waves. Such was the sort of beauty then admired ; for it is a
long time in the progress of improvement before man can see any other beauty than that
which he has himself produced.
1828. Tlie greatest danger in imitating cascades and waterfalls, consisting in attempting
too much, a very few blocks, disposed with a painter's eye, will effect all that can be
in good taste in most garden-scenes ; and in forming or improving them in natural
rivers, there will generally be found indications both as to situation and style, especially
if the country be uneven, or stony, or rocky. Nothing can be in worse taste than piles of
stones and rocks across a river either natural or artificial, in a tame alluvial meadow : they
may be well chosen fragments from suitable materials, and arranged so as to form a cas-
cade or waterfall very beautiful of itself, but whose beauty is really deformity or raon-
Book III.
CONVENIENT DECORATIONS.
359
strosity, relatively to the surrounding scenery, or to that, whole of which it should form an
accordant part.
1829. Jets and other hydraulic devices, though now less in repute than formerly, are not
to be rejected in confined artificial scenes, and form an essential decoration where the
ancient style of landscape is introduced in any degree of perfection.
1830. The first requisite for jets or projected sjwuts, or threads of water, by atmospheric
pressure, is a sufficiently elevated source or reservoir of supply. This being obtained,
pipes are to be conducted front it to the situations for the jets. No jets, however con-
structed, will rise as high as the fountain-head ; because the water is impeded by the re-
sistance of the air, the friction against the opening of the pipe or adjutage, and its own
gravity. It is not easy to lay down data on this head ; if the bore of the adjutage be too
small, the rising stream will want sufficient weight and power to divide the air, and so being
dashed against it will fall down in vapor or mist. If too large, it will not rise at all. The
length of pipe between the reservoir and the jet will also impede its rising in a slight degree
by the friction of the water on the pipe. This is estimated by P. J. Francois (Art des
Fontaines, 137.) at one foot for every hundred yards from the reservoir. The proportion
which this author gives to the adjutages relatively to the conducting-pipes, is one fourth ;
and thus for a jet of four lines, or a third of an inch, he requires an adjutage of between
four and five lines, and a conducting pipe of one inch and a half diameter ; for a jet of six
or seven lines, a conducting-pipe of two inches, and so on. From these data, the height
of the fountain and the diameter of the conducting-pipe being given, the height to which
a jet can be forced can be estimated with tolerable accuracy, and the contrary. But where
the pipes are already laid, and the power of the head, owing to intervening obstructions,
not very accurately known, the method by trial and correction by means of a leaden nozzle,
the orifice of which may be readily increased or diminished, will lead to the exact power
under all the circumstances.
1831. Adjutages are of various sorts. Some are contrived so as to throw up the water
in the form of sheaves, fans, showers, to support balls, &c. ; others to throw it out hori-
zontally, or in curved lines, according to the taste of the designer ; but the most usual
form is a simple opening to throw the spout or jet upright. The grandest jet of any is
a perpendicular column issuing from a rocky base, on which the water falling, produces
a double effect both of sound and visual display. A jet rising from a naked tube in
the middle of a basin or canal, and the waters falling on its smooth surface, is unnatural,
without being artificially grand.
1832. Drooping fountains (figs. 341,342,343.), overflowing vases, shells (as the
chama gigas), cisterns, sarcophagi, dripping rocks, and rockworks, are easily formed,
requiring only the reservoir to be as high as the orifice whence the dip or descent pro-
ceeds. This description of fountains, with a surrounding basin, are peculiarly adapted
for the growth of aquatic plants. Both classes of water-works successfully combine.
34i
342
348
1833. Waste-drains. In all water-works in gardens, pipes or drains must be contrived
to carry off such of the water as is not used in culture. The diameter of these should be
somewhat larger than the conducting-pipes, for obvious reasons.
1834. Sun-dials are venerable and pleasing garden-decorations ; and should be placed
in conspicuous frequented parts, as in the intersection of principal walks, where the
" note which they give of time" may be readily recognised by the passenger. Elegant
and cheap forms are now to be procured in cast-iron, which, it is to be hoped, will render
their use more frequent.
1835. Vanes are useful in the same way, but are an unsuitable garden-ornament,
though frequently introduced on the summits of garden-buildings.' The ideas to which
they give rise, as connected with ships, flags, fairs, military standards, &c. are all oppo-
site to the stillness and repose of gardens. Over a library or office they are useful, con-
nected with an internal index ; and they are characteristic and proper over churches,
family-chapels, clock-towers, and domestic offices.
Aa 4
>G0
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
Subsect. 3. Characteristic Decorations.
1 836. As characteristic decorations are purely decorative, without any pretensions to
convenience, they should ever be very sparingly employed, and only by persons of
judgment and experience. A tyro in gardening will be more apt to render himself
ridiculous by the use of decorations, than by any other point of practice, and most apt
by the use of characteristic decorations.
1837. Rocks are generally considered as parts of the foundation of the earth, and their
general character is that of grandeur, sometimes mixed with the singular, fantastic, or
romantic. Their expression forms a fine contrast to that of perishable vegetation, and
therefore they have been eagerly sought after in gardens, both on this account, and as
forming a suitable habitation for certain descriptions of plants. Plant-rockworks are
protuberant surfaces, or declivities irregularly covered with rocky fragments, land-stones,
conglomerated gravel, vitrified bricks, vitrified scoria?, flints, shells, spar, or other earthy
and^hard mineral bodies. Such works are, in general, to be looked on more as scenes
of culture than of design or picturesque beauty.
1838. Iloekworks for effect or character require more consideration than most gar-
deners are aware of. The first thing is to study the character of the country, and of the
strata of earthy materials, whether earth, gravel, sand, or rock, or a mere nucleus of either
of these, such as they actually exist, so as to decide whether rocks may, with propriety,
be introduced at all; or, if to be introduced, of what kind, and to what extent. The
design being thus finally fixed on, the execution is more a matter of labor than of
skill!
1839. 27/6' ruins of objects adapted by their natures or constructions to brave time,
have always excited veneration ; and this sentiment, forming a contrast with those emo-
tions raised by mere verdant scenes, has ever been esteemed very desirable in gardens.
Hence the attempt to produce them by forming artificial ruins, which, being absolute
deceptions, cannot admit of justification. If any thing is admissible in this way, it is the
heightening the expression of ruins which already exist, by the addition of some parts,
which may be supposed to have existed there when the edifice was more entire. Thus,
the remains of a castle- wall, not otherwise recognisable from that of a common house or
enclosure, may be pierced with a window or a loophole, in the style appropriate to its
date, or it may be heightened or extended in some degree. In other cases, turrets, or
pinnacles, or battlements, or chimney-tops may be added according to circumstances, and
as a judicious and experienced taste and antiquarian architect may direct. Unless the
style of the age of the ruins be adopted, the additions become worse than useless to all
such as are conversant in the history of architecture, of which an example may be given
in the modern Gothic turrets, in the grounds of White Knights, intended to represent
the abbey of that name, founded soon after the Norman conquest.
1840. Antiquities {fig. 344.) are nearly allied to ruins, but differ from them in being
of some value 'as objects, independently of locality. They may be valuable from their
<>reat age, as druidical ; from historical traditions connected with them, as stones indi-
cating tfie site of a battle, the cross-stone of an ancient town, &c. ; or from the excel-
344
Book III. CHARACTERISTIC DECORATIONS. 361
lence of the workmanship or the material, as in the fragments of Grecian and Roman
sculpture and architecture. This class of decorations is very common in Italy, and espe-
cially near Rome and Naples. Viewed as parts of landscape, almost every thing depends
on their union with the surrounding scenery.
1841. Rarities and curiosities, like antiquities, possess a sort of absolute value ; but
the sentiments to which they give rise are more allied to wonder than veneration. They
are occasionally introduced in gardening, such as the jaw-bones of the whale, basaltic
columns, lava blocks, pillars of earthy rock-salt. The tuffa, corals, and madrepores
brought from Otaheite by Captain Cook, as ballast, now form part of the rock work in
the Chelsea garden. Chinese rocks, idols, and other Chinese garden-ornaments, are
sometimes admitted, not as imitations of rocks or sculpture, but as curiosities.
1 842. Monumental objects, as obelisks, columns, pyramids, may occasionally be intro-
duced with grand effect, both in a picturesque and historical view, of which Blenheim,
Stow, Castle Howard, &c. afford fine examples ; but their introduction is easily car-
ried to the extreme, and then it defeats itself, as at Stow. In this department may be
truly said, after Buonaparte, " Du sublime an ridicule il ny a qu'un pas f"
1843. Sculptures. Of statues, therms, busts, pedestals, altars, urns, and similar
sculptures, nearly the same remarks may be made. Used sparingly, they excite interest,
often produce character, and are always individually beautiful, as in the pleasure-ground*
of Blenheim, where a few are judiciously introduced ; but profusely scattered about, they
distract attention.
1844. Vegetable sculptures (fig- 345. ) are very appro-
priate in parterres and other scenes in the ancient style.
That they may be executed with correctness and without
loss of time, the skeleton should be formed of wire, with-
in which all the shoots should be confined, and when
once the form is filled up with vegetation, the gardener
has only to clip the protruding shoots. Groups of
figures of different colors may be very curiously executed
by using different colored greens. In the garden of the
convent of the Madre di Dio, near Savonna, is a group
representing the flight of Joseph into Egypt, in yellow
box, variegated holly, myrtle, cypress, laurel, and rose- T^j^^^^^^fc^^g^t.
mary. The attending priest told us these plants com-
pleted their forms in three years.
1845. Inscriptions, as historical records, without comment, may in some cases be ad-
missible ; as the date when any work was begun and finished, the height of elevated
points above the level of the sea, or relatively to other surrounding elevated and conspi-
cuous objects, &c. &c. ; but sentimental and religious inscriptions cannot be approved
of by men in general. They are something superadded to what is or ought to be already
complete, and place nature in the situation of the painter, whose portraits required the
aid of graphical description. " This is a black bear." That is " A happy rural seat of
various view."
1846. Eye-traps, painted perspectives, on walls or boards, as terminations, mock hermits,
soldiers, banditti, wooden lions (as at Hawkstone), sheep in stucco, or any other figures of
men or animals, intended to pass for realities, though still used in Holland and France, may
be pronounced as too puerile for the present age. If they are still admired by the city mob
in a suburban tea-garden, so much the better ; the mob must be pleased as well as their
superiors, and the rich vulgar may join with them ; but the object of all the arts, whether
useful or agreeable, is to elevate our tastes and enjoyments ; and therefore as soon as
men's minds are prepared for any refinement on former things, the particular art to which
these things belong should prepare the way for their removal, by presenting appropriate
substitutes. A few reading tents and portable coffee-houses scattered over the public
parks round London and Edinburgh, as at Paris and Vienna, in umbrageous and pictu-
resque situations, would be fitting resources for one class of pedestrians, as thost"
crowded yards called tea-gardens are for others.
Chap. IV.
Of the Improvement of the Mechanical Agents of Gardening.
1847. The greater number of the implements and buildings enumerated in the fore-
going chapters may no doubt be done unthc.ul, even in the first-rate gardens. A number
more, however, might have been added, which are in use in particular situations and
circumstances, but we have omitted them, some as not meriting to become general, and
362 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Tart II.
others because their forms or constructions were too obsolete for modern practice, or too
new and imperfect in construction to merit recommendation. A gardener of science
and experience is not to be confined in his choice to what is or has been in this or in any
department of his art ; but drawing from the resources of his own mind, he may, and
ought not only to improve what is already in use, but design and get executed, new
tools, instruments, and constructions, better calculated to effect the ends in view gene-
rally, or more suited to the exigencies of his particular case. Notwithstanding the al-
terations and ameliorations which have of late been so frequently made, there are few of
the mechanical agents of gardening now in use, that do not admit of some, and many
of them, unquestionably, of much improvement. The ultimate effect of all these amelior-
ations is to lessen human labor, and increase the quantity, or improve the quality, of gar-
den-productions, so that every attempt to extend them is highly meritorious.
1 848. As a general principle in respect to implej>ients, structures, and buildings, the best
designs should be selected, and their execution procured in the best manner and of the
best materials. This can scarcely be too strongly impressed on the mind of the gardener
or his employer. With tools or instruments made of improper timber or iron, and of in-
different workmanship, the operator can never satisfy himself or his master. The quan-
tity of his labor is less, and the quality inferior ; add to this, that the instrument soon
begins to decay, and requires to be renewed, so that independently altogether of the
loss in the quantity and quality of labor, the loss occasioned by the renewal of the tool,
instrument, or machine, ought to be a sufficient inducement to procure at first only the
very best. The true way to ensure this, where the party are not judges, is to employ
tradesmen of good repute and long standing. In general, seedsmen should be the per-
sons from whom all the implements of gardening ought to be procurable ; but as they
often omit this branch of their business, from the want of regular demand, recourse must
be had to ironmongers, or to those new establishments called Horticultural and Agri-
cultural Repositories.
1849. Hot- houses are by far the most important class of garden-constructions. With respect
to them, no degree of horticultural skill and practical attention will compensate for the
want of light or air, or a bad exposure ; and where the arrangements for supplying arti-
ficial heat are imperfect, the risk is great, and painful for a zealous gardener to contem-
plate. One night may destroy the labors of the past year, and forbid hope for the year
to come ; the blame may be laid where it is not merited, and a faithful servant may lose
his situation and his character, without having committed either errors of ignorance or
carelessness.
1850. In all structures and edifices, the most complete, elegant, or grand design, when
badly executed, is disagreeable to the view, defective in the object of its erection, and
ruinous to the proprietor. Bad foundations and roofs, improper materials, materials of
different degrees of durability, piled incongruously together, and bad workmanship form
the elements of bad execution. In no country are materials and labor obtained in
greater perfection than in England ; and in all regular works coming under the architect
or the engineer, we generally find little to condemn, and often much to admire in the
execution of the work. Garden-buildings, however, and especially that important class,
hot-houses, are, relatively to civil architecture, an anomalous class of structures ; and
hence they are more the subject of chance or caprice in design, and of local convenience
in execution, than those of any department of rural architecture. The subject of horti-
cultural architecture, indeed, till very lately, has not been deemed of sufficient import-
ance, to induce an architect to make himself master of the first step towards improvement
in every art, the knowledge of what has already been done in it by others. Hence it fol-
lows, that garden-buildings, and especially hot-houses, are left either wholly to gardeners,
who understand little of the science of architecture, or wholly to architects, who under-
stand as little of the science of gardening. The consequence in either case, generally is,
incongruity in appearance, want of success in the useful results, and want of permanency
in duration. It would be more easy to adduce examples than to avoid the charge of im-
partiality in the selection.
1851. The recent improvement in the manufacture of iron, and the war-price of timber,
have greatly extended the use of the former material in most erections, and contributed,
from the novelty of the thing, to a good deal of incongruity in the disposition of the ma-
terials of buildings. Thus we have cast-iron sashes in deal frames, cast-iron rafters
placed on timber wall-plates, iron bars sheathed with copper, and many such dis-
cordant arrangements, certain in the end of defeating the purpose for which they were
adopted.
1852. Artists. There are two modes which proprietors may adopt who are desirous of
embodying in garden-erections the modern improvements. The first is, to employ a
first-rate head gardener, and to authorise and require of him, to consult with a regular
architect or engineer, previously to fixing on any plan for a structure or machine ; and
the second is, to employ a regular garden-architect. A connoisseur will, no doubt, think
Book IV. OF THE OPERATIONS OF GARDENING. 363
for himself, and form his own plans ; and a spirited amateur will be the first to adopt
new improvements ; but the policy of a well regulated man, who has no pretensions to
particular skill himself, will certainly lead him to adopt one of the two first modes.
BOOK IV.
OF THE OPERATIONS OF GARDENING.
1853. All tfie operations of gardening are mechanical in the first instance, though the
principal intention of many of them is to effect chemical changes, and of others, changes
on the vital principle. They are also all manual, or effected by man, who, though
possessing little power over nature in his naked, unarmed state, yet taking in his hands
some one of the implements or machines described, becomes thereby armed with a new
power, and operates on the soil, or on the vegetable itself, by effecting changes in
his own centre of gravity, and by muscular movements of his legs and arms, calculated
by pushing, drawing, or lifting, to bring the implement into the action proper for per-
forming the operation in view. All these movements are governed by the laws of me-
chanics, and the operations performed, are all referable to one or more of the mechanical
powers, and chiefly, as we have before observed, to the lever and the wedge.
1854. The operations of gardening present astonishing proof s of the advanced state of the
art. In the infancy of gardening, as the implements were few, so would be also the
operations of culture. The ground would be loosened on the surface with a hooked
stick (Jig. 2.), or scratched with a bone, or a horn in the spring season ; the plants or seeds
rudely inserted, and the produce in autumn broken over or pulled up, as wanted by the
family or band to whom they belonged. But in the present state of human improve-
ment, the operations of gardening have branched out into a number and variety which
at first sight appear astonishing. The operations of pulverisation and sowing, for ex-
ample, are not confined to spring ; but are practised in every month of the year. The
season of reaping or gathering crops is equally extended ; and for such productions as
cannot be produced or preserved in the open air, recourse is had to hot-houses, and fruit
and root store-rooms. Vegetation is accelerated, retarded, and modified, almost at the
will of the operator; and by processes which suppose a considerable degree of physiolo-
gical and chemical science, as well as practical skill, mechanical dexterity, and personal
attention. Thus, shading, airing, and watering, though operations exceeded by none in
manual simplicity, cannot be performed without continual reference to the state of the
plant, of the soil, and of the climate or weather. Hence it is, that an operative gardener
who really knows his profession, requires to be not only a habile workman, but a thinking
and reasoning being, and a steady man. We shall consider the operations of gardening,
1. As consisting of operations or labors in which strength is chiefly required ; 2. As
operations where skill is more required than strength ; and, 3. As operations or pro-
cesses where strength, skill, and science, are combined.
Chaf. I.
Operations of Gardening, in which Strength is chiefly required in the Operator.
1855. To acquire the practice of gardening-operations, a few hours' labor with the im-
plements or machines will be of more use than a volume of words ; all that we shall
submit, therefore, will be some observations relatively to the mechanical action of the
implement and operator, the object of the operation, and the best season of performing
it. They may be arranged as, 1. Mechanical operations common to all arts of manual
labor ; 2. Garden-labors on the soil ; and, 3. Garden-labors on plants.
Sect. I. Mechanical Operations common to all Arts of Manual Labor.
1856. All the operations which man performs with implements or machines are, as far
as his own person is concerned, reducible to lifting, carrying, drawing, and thrusting.
Man himself, considered as an engine, derives his power from alterations in the posi-
tion of his centre of gravity, and he applies it chiefly by his hands, arms, and legs acting
as levers of the third kind.
1857. Lifting is performed by first stooping or lowering the centre of gravity, and at
the same time throwing it to one side v The object being then laid hold of by the hands,
the body is raised, and the centre of gravity, in being restored to its true position,
acts as a counterbalancing weight to the weight to be raised. The weight retained by
364 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
the hand is now raised a certain height, never exceeding half that of the man ; if to be
raised higher, recourse is had to muscular strength, or the power of the arms to act as
levers.
1858. Carrying. To carry a thing is merely to walk with a greater weight than before,
and walking is performed by a series of alternate derangements and adjustments of the
centre of gravity, slow or rapid, according as the person may walk or run. According
to Delolm, the most advantageous weight for a man of common strength to carry hori-
zontally is 112lbs. ; or, if he returns unladen, 135lbs.
1859. Drawing. In this operation, the upper part of the body is thrown forward, so
as to act as a power to counterbalance or lift up the body or weight to be moved ;
and by joining to this lifting motion the operation of walking, the weight is at once
lifted up and drawn along. This compound operation is exemplified in a horse, when
straining at a draught in a plough or cart. He first lowers his chest, then raises it,
and lastly steps forward. When drawing at ease, the lifting motion is scarcely dis-
tinguishable from the progressive one.
1860. Pushing or thrusting is performed exactly on the same principles as drawing,
and differs from it chiefly in the kind of implement or machine which requires to be
employed ; all machines which are to be pushed requiring to be attached to the animal
machine by parts acting by their rigidity ; whereas, those to be drawn may be attached
by parts acting by their tenacity merely.
1861. All these operations may be varied in quantity, either by a variation in the weight
or gravity of the man, or moving power ; or by a variation in the time or rapidity of his
motions. Thus a heavy man may, in one movement, lift a weight ten times greater
than can be done by one of less weight ; but a light man may, by increasing the time of
performance, life the same weight at ten times. A man, who in digging can apply with
his feet five cwt. of his weight towards pushing the wedge or blade of the spade into the
soil, has an evident advantage over a lighter man who can only apply three cwt. for that
purpose ; but yet the latter may equal the former, by accompanying his power or foot
with a proportionate increase of motion. The power in this last case is said to be
obtained by the momentum, or quantity of matter in a body multiplied by the velocity
with which it is moved. Power, therefore, we thus ascertain, is obtained by matter and
motion jointly, and what may be deficient in the one, may be made up by excess in the
other. Thus, a small, light workman may (though with more animal exertion) produce
as much work as a larger or heavier man : for if we suppose the quantity of matter
in the large man to be thirty, and his motion at the rate of two, then if the quantity
of matter in the small man be twenty, and his motion at the rate of three, he will pro-
duce an equal effect with the large man. As small human machines, or little men,
are generally constructed of firmer materials, or more healthy and animated, than large
ones, the small man performs his rapid motions with nearly as great ease to himself
as die heavy man moves his ponderous weight ; so that in point of final result they are
very nearly on a par.
Sect. II. Garden-labors on the Soil.
1862. The simple labors peculiar to arts of culture are performed either in the body of
the soil, as picking, digging ; on its surface, as hoeing, raking ; or on vegetables, as cut-
ting, clipping, &c.
1863. Picking. The pick, as we have seen {Jig. 77.) is a blunt wedge, with a
lever attached to it at right angles, and the operation of picking consists in driving in
the wedge perpendicularly, so as to produce fracture, and then causing it to operate ho-
rizontally by the lever or handle, so as to effect separation, and thus break up and loosen
hard, compact, or stony soils. It is also used to loosen stones or roots ; and the pick-
axe is used to cut the latter. For breaking and pulverising the soil, the most favorable
conditions are, that the earth should be moderately moist, to facilitate the entrance of
the pick, but in tenacious soils not so much so as to impede fracture and separation.
1864. Digging. The spade is a thin wedge, with a lever attached in the same plane,
and the operation of digging consists in thrusting in the wedge, by the momentum
(or weight and motion) of the operator, which effects fracture ; a movement of the lever
next effects separation, whilst the operator, by stooping and rising again, lifts up the
spitful or section of earth on the blade or wedge of the spade, which, when so raised,
is dropt in a reversed position, and at a short distance from the unbroken ground. The
separation between the dug and undug ground is called the trench or furrow ; and
when a piece of ground is to be dug, a furrow is first opened at that end of it where the
work is to commence, and the earth carried to one end where it is to terminate, where
it serves to close the furrow. In digging, regard must be had to maintain a uniform
depth throughout ; to reverse the position of each spitful, so as what was before surface
may now be buried ; to break and comminute every part where pulverisation is the
leading object ; to preserve each spitful as entire, and place it separate, or isolated as
Book IV.
GARDEN-LABORS ON THE SOIL.
365
much as possible where aeration is the object ; to mix in manures regularly where they
are added; to bury weeds not injurious; and to remove others, and all extraneous
matters, as stones, &c. in every case. For all these purposes a deep open trench is
requisite, and that this may not be diminished in the course of the operation, it must
never be increased in length. If allowed to become crooked by irregular advances in
the digging, it is thus increased in length, and necessarily diminished in capacity, unless,
indeed, the dug ground is allowed to assume an uneven surface, which is an equally
great fault.
1865. Weather for the operation. Digging, for pulverisation and mixing in manures,
is best performed in dry weather ; but for the purposes of variation, a degree of moisture
and tenacity in the soil is more favorable for laying it up in lumps or entire pieces. The
usual length of the blade of a spade is from ten inches to a foot, but as it is always in-
serted somewhat obliquely, the depth of pulverisation in gardens attained by simple
digging seldom exceeds nine inches, and in breaking up firm grounds it is seldom so
much.
1866. Shovelling is merely the lifting part of digging, and the shovel being broader
than the spade, is used to lift up fragments separated by that implement or the pick.
1867. Excavating is the operation of working out pits, furrows, or other hollows in
grounds, either for the commencement of other operations, as digging or trenching, or
for planting, burying manures, inserting roots ; or on a large scale, for forming pieces of
artificial water, &c.
1868. Levelling, in the ordinary sense of the term, as used in gardening, consists in
spreading abroad the soil in such a way that its surface may be nearly in one uniform
plane, either level or nearly so ; to be correct, this plane ought to be parallel with that
of the horizon ; but very generally an even surface, if not very far from level, answers
all its purposes. The terms level and even, in ground-work, however, ought to be
considered as quite distinct : the former should be like the surface of still water, and the
latter merely free from inequalities.
1869. Marking ivith the line is an operation preparatory to some others, and consists
in stretching and fixing the line or cord along the surface by means oi its attached pins
or stakes, in the direction or position desired, and cutting a slight continuous notch,
mark, or slit in the ground, along its edge with the spade.
1870. Trenching is a mode of pulverising and mixing the soil, or of pulverising and
changing its surface, to any greater depth than can be done by the spade alone. For
trenching, with a view to pulverising and changing the surface, a trench is formed like
the furrow in digging, but two or more times wider and deeper ; the plot or piece to be
trenched is next marked oft" with the line into parallel strips of this width ; and beginning
at one of these, the operator digs or picks the surface stratum, and throws it in the
bottom of the trench. Having completed with the shovel the removal of the surface
stratum, a second, and a third, or fourth, according to the depth of the soil and other
circumstances, is removed in the same way ; and thus, when the operation is completed,
the position of the different strata is exactly the reverse of what they were before.
In trenching, with a view to mixture and pulverisation {Jig. 346.), all that is necessary
is to open, at one corner of the plot, a trench or excavation of the desired depth, three
or four feet broad, and six or eight feet long. Then proceed to fill this excavation
from one end by working out a similar one. In this way proceed across the piece to
be trenched, and then return, and so on in parallel courses to the end of the plot,
observing that the face or position of the moved soil in the trench must always be that of
a slope, in order that whatever is thrown there may be mixed, and not deposited in
regular layers, as in the other case. To effect this most completely, the operator should
always stand in the bottom of the trench, and first picking down and mixing the
materials, from the solid side {a), should next take them up with the shovel, and throw
them on the slope or face of the moved soil {b), keeping a distinct space of two or three
feet between them. For want of attention to this, in trenching new soils for gardens
and plantations, it may be truly said that half the benefit derivable from the operation
is lost. In general, in trenching, those points which were mentioned under digging,
such as turning, breaking, dunging. &c. require to be attended to, and sometimes an
366
SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
additional object, that of producing a level from an irregular surface is desired. In this
case double care is requisite to avoid forming subterraneous basins or hollows, which
might retain water in the substratum, at the bottom of the moved soil, and also to mix
inferior with better soil, &c. where it becomes requisite to penetrate into depositions of
inferior earthy matters.
1871. Ridging is a mode of finishing the surface, applicable either to dug or trenched
grounds, which, when so finished, are called ridge-dug or ridge-trenched. Instead of
being formed with an even surface, ridged grounds are finished in ridges, or close ranges
of parallel elevations, whose sections are nearly equilateral triangles. Hence, supposing
the triangles to touch at their bases, two thirds more of surface will be exposed to the
influence of the atmosphere and the weather, than in even surfaces.
1872. Forking. The fork is composed of two or three separate, parallel, and uniform
wedges, joined "so as form one general blade, which is acted on like the spade, by
means of a shoulder or hilt, for thrusting it into the matters to be forked, and a lever or
handle for separating and lifting them. In gardening, forking is used for two pur-
poses; for pulverising the soil among growing crops, and for moving vegetable
manures. In the first case the operation is similar to digging, the only difference being
that pulverisation is more attended to than reversing the surface ; in the other, the fork
separates chiefly by drawing and lifting ; hence for this purpose a round-pronged (or
dung) fork {jig. 85.) produces least friction during the discharge of the forkful and re-
insertion; and in the other abroad-pronged (or garden) fork {Jig. 86.) separates and
lifts the soil more readily. Dry weather is essentially requisite in forking soils, and
most desirable for spreading manures; but dunghills may be turned, and hot-beds
built, during rain, with no great injur)-.
1873. Hoeing is performed by drawing or thrusting the wedge or blade of the draw or
thrust hoe along the surface of the soil, so as to cut weeds at or under the surface, and
slightly to pulverise the soil. It is used for four purposes, sometimes together, but
commonly separate ; first, to loosen weeds so as they may die for want of nourishment,
or be gathered or raked off, for which purpose, either the thrust or draw hoe may be used ;
the second, to stir the soil, and for this purpose, when no weeds require killing, the
pronged hoc is preferable, as being thrust deeper with less force, and as likely to cut the
roots°of plants ; the third, is to draw up or accumulate soil about the stems of plants, for
which purpose a hoe with a large blade or shovel will produce most effect ; and the
fourth is to form a hollow gutter or drill, in which to sow or insert the seeds of plants,
for which a large or small draw-hoe may be used, according to the size of the seeds to be
buried. The use of the hoe for any of the above purposes requires dry weather.
1874. Raking is performed by drawing through the surface of the soil, or over it, a
series of small equilateral wedges or teeth, either with a view to minute pulverisation, or
to collecting weeds, stones, or such other extraneous matters as do not pass through the
interstices of the teeth of the rake. The teeth of the rake being placed nearly at right
angles to the handle, it follows that the lower the handle is held in performing the
operation, the deeper will be the pulverisation, and on the contrary, that the higher it is
held, the interstices being lessened, the fewer extraneous matters will pass through the
teeth. The angle at which the handle of the rake is held must therefore depend on the
object in viewt the medium is forty-five degrees. For all raking, except that of
new-mown grass, dry weather is essentially requisite.
1875. Cuffing is a mode of excavating used in preparing a surface for seeds, and in
covering them when sown ; the surface being well pulverised by digging and raking, is
laid out into beds with alleys between, at least three times the breadth of the operator's foot.
Then take a wooden-headed or cuffing-rake (1314.), stand on the alley of the opposite
side of the bed ; turn the rake on its back, and push off the earth from the one half of the
bed to the purposed depth, as far as the side of the alley marked by your feet, being
careful to keep the earth so pushed off quite straight. When one side is finished, turn
round and do the other in the same manner. After the seeds are sown take the rake,
stand on the alley on the opposite side of the bed ; put in the teeth of the rake imme-
diately beyond the cuffing or ridge of earth pressed off, and, by a sudden pull, draw it
on the bed so as to cover its own half equally. And having finished this half, turn
round, and finish the other in the same manner; and the operation is completed.
{Sang's. Plant. Kal. 242.)
1876. Scraping is drawing a broad and blunt wedge along hard surfaces, in gardenmg
generally those of lawns or walks, to remove excrementitious matters thrown out of the
soil by worms. Moist weather best suits the operation on lawns, and dry weather on
gravel.
1877. Sweeping, mechanically considered, is the same operation as scraping. In gar-
dening, it is chiefly used after mowing, and for collecting leaves ; for both which purposes
dewy mornings are preferable, as at such seasons the leaves or grass being moist, conglo-
merate without adhering to the dry soil.
Book IV. GARDEN-LABORS WITH PLANTS. 367
1 878. Wlieeling is a mode of carrying materials in which the weight is divided between
the axle of the wheel and the arms of the operator. The arms or shafts of the barrow
thus become levers of the second kind, in which the power is at one end, and the fulcrum
at the other, and the weight between them. The weight is carried or moved on by the
continual change of the fulcrum with the turning of the wheel ; and this turning is pro-
duced by the operator throwing forward his centre of gravity so as to push against the
wheel by means of the moveable axle, &c. The chief obstacles to wheeling are the
roughness or softness of the surface to be wheeled on. Where this is firm, there wheel-
ing will be best performed with the greater part of the load resting on the axle ; but
when soft and deep, the centre of gravity should be nearest the operator, who will find
it easier to carry than to overcome excessive friction. Dry weather is obviously prefer-
able for this operation. " With wheelbarrows," Dr. Young observes, " men will do half
as much more work as with hods."
1879. Beating is the application of pressure to surfaces or to materials, with a view to
render them more fit for particular uses. Thus, in new-laid turf verges, or gravel alleys,
compactness and adhesion are required and obtained by beating ; in working clay for
puddling or claying the bottom of ponds or cisterns, intimate mixture, exclusion of air,
and of hard particles, are effected by the same means.
1880. Rolling is the application of pressure to surfaces on a large scale, and chiefly to
turf and gravel. 'Die roller, mechanically considered, is the second mechanical power, or
wheel and axle, to which the handle becomes a lever of the second kind, as in the wheel-
barrow. The amount of its action is as the breadth of the wheel and joint weight of it
and of the axle ; it is drawn over the surface, and produces by far the greatest effect when
the ground is saturated with moisture below, but dry on the immediate surface.
1881. Sifting or screening are operations for separating the coarser from the finer par-
ticles of earth, gravel, tanners' bark, &c. The materials require to be dry, well broken,
and then thrown on the screen ( Eg. 1392.), which being a grated inclined plane, in slid-
ing down it, the smaller materials drop through while the larger pass on. In sifting, the
same process is effected, by motion with a sieve or circular and flat grating of limited ex-
tent. The screen is calculated for coarser operations, as with gravel and bark on a large
scale, and the sieve for finer operations with plant-moulds and composts.
Sect. III. Garden-labors with Plants.
1882. The simple ojierations performed on vegetables are sawing, cutting, clipping,
splitting, mowing, and weeding.
1883. Sawing. The saw is a conjoined series of uniform wedges, which, when drawn
or thrust in succession across a branch or trunk gradually wear it through. In perform-
ing the operation, the regularity of the pressure and motion are chiefly to be attended to.
In green or live shoots, the double-toothed saw produces less friction on the sides of the
plate, by opening a larger channel for its motion. Where parts are detached from living
trees, the living section ought generally to be smoothed over with a knife, chisel, or file ;
and a previous precaution in large trees is to cut a notch in the lower part of the branch
immediately under and in the line of the section, in order to prevent any accident to the
bark, when the amputated part falls off. Sawing is a coarser mode of cutting, mowing,
or shaving ; or a finer mode of raking, in which the teeth follow all in one line.
1884. Cutting is performed by means of a very sharp wedge, and either by drawing
this through obliquely or across the body to be cut, as in using the knife ; or by pressing
or striking the axe or hedge-bill obliquely into the body, first, on one side of an imagi-
nary line of section, and then on the other, so as to work out a trench across the branch
or trunk, and so effect its separation. The axe, in gardening, is chiefly used in felling
trees, and for separating their trunks, branches, and roots into parts. The knife is ex-
tensively used for small trees, and the hedge-bill and chisel for those of larger size. In
amputating with the knife, one operation or draw-cut ought generally to be sufficient
to separate the parts ; and this ought to be made with the knife sufficiently sharp,
and the motion so quick as to produce a clean, smooth section, with the bark un-
injured.
1885. Every draw-cut produces a smooth section, and a fractured or bruised section ;
and one essential part of cutting living vegetables, is to take care that the fractured sec-
tion be on the part amputated. Another desirable object is, that the section of the living
or remaining part should be so inclined {a, Jig. 347.) as not to lodge water or overflowing
sap, and so far turned to the ground (d) or to the north, as not to be struck by the direct
rays of the sun. To accomplish both these purposes, as well as to make sure of having
the fractured section on the part amputated, the general practice is to cut from below or
from the under edge of the branch or shoot, unless the position of the leading bud occa-
sions a deviation from the rule (6). The cut should also be made in all shoots of not
more than three or four years old, within from one fourth to half an inch, or a little more
of the bud intended to take the lead ; when this is not done, and half an inch or more of
368
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
shoot left without a bud (c and e), the consequence is, the stump dies back to the bud in
the course of the season (g), and if not carefully cut off (/), will end in a decaying ori-
fice both unsightly and injurious. The bud selected for a leader ought always to be a
leaf-bud, and in general the plane of the section ought to be parallel to the angle which
the bud makes with the stem (d). Exceptions occur in the case of plants with much
pith (A), as the vine, elder, &c. in cutting the year-old shoots of which, an inch or more
ought to be left, as these always die back a few lines ; and thus the leading bud might
be injured, if this precaution were not taken. In like manner, when pruning a large
tree, the section of amputation ought to be made so oblique as to throw off the rain ; as
generally as possible, it should be turned from the sun, and rather downwards than up-
wards, in order to shield it from heat and cracking : and whenever it can be done, it should
be made near a branch, shoot, or bud, which may take the lead in the room of that cut off,
and thus, by keeping the principle of life in action at the section, speedily heal up the wound.
1886. In pruning roots, the same principle, as far as applicable, ought to be attended to ; the trunk or
stem when cut over ought to be sloped to the north (i), and the lateral roots cut so as the section may be
on the under side (/fc), and therefore less likely to rot than when the cut faces the surface of the ground
(I), or is bruised by neglecting to form the smooth section on the attached extremity. When roots are
large always cut to a lateral, and when they are small to a fibre; for in roots as in shoots, naked extremi-
ties always die back to the nearest leader. When a root broken or bruised has neither laterals nor fibres,
then merely cut back to sound wood, leaving a smooth section ; for the sap which always operates first
and most powerfully at the extremities both of roots and shoots, will there originate fibres.
1887. In cutting with the chisel, the blade is applied below the branch to be amputated, so as to rest on
the trunk or main branch, and so applied, a quick blow with a mallet is applied to the handle of the chisel
by the operator or his assistant. If this does not effect a separation, it is to be repeated. In forest-pruning
it is often advantageous to apply one cut of the chisel on the underside of the branch, and then saw it
through with the forest-saw from the upper.
1888. Clipping is an imperfect mode of cutting adapted for expedition and for small
shoots. The separation is effected by bruising or crushing along with cutting, and, in
consequence, both sections are fractured. In gardening it is chiefly applied for keeping
hedges and edgings in shape ; but the hedge-knife {Jig. 115.), which operates by clean,
rapid, draw-cuts given always from below, is generally preferable, as not decreasing the
live ends of the amputated shoots. The new pruning-shears {Jig. 122.), and the
averuncator {Jig. 121.), it is to be observed, by producing cuts much more like the draw-
cuts of knives, are greatly to be preferred to the common hedge-shears.
1889. In respect to the seasons Jor saiuing, cutting, or clipping living trees, the best seem
early in spring, and in midsummer. Early in autumn, trees are apt to bleed ; later, and
in winter, the section is liable to injury from the weather ; but trees pruned early m spring
remain only a short period before the wound begins to heal ; and in those pruned at mid-
summer wounds heal immediately. There are, however, exceptions as to spring pruning
in evergreens, cherries and other gummiferous trees ; and summer pruning is but ill
adapted for forest- work or trees in crowded scenery.
1890. Splitting, as an operation of gardening, is generally performed on roots of trees
remaining in the soil, for the purpose of facilitating their eradication. The wedge in its
simplest form, and of iron, is driven in by a hammer or mallet, till it produces fracture
and separation, when the parts are removed as detached, &c.
1891. Mowing is performed by the rapid motion of a very sharp wedge across the mat-
ters to be cut or mown, and at an oblique angle to them. In gardening it is applied to
grassy surfaces, in order, by repeated amputations, to keep the plants short, spreading,
and thick, and by always admitting light and air to the roots or stools, to render the sur-
face green. This operation requiring great force, and also a twisting motion of the body,
brings almost every muscle into action, and is, in fact, one of the most severe in vegetable
culture.
1892. Mowing frojn a boat, is in use for cutting weeds in rivers and ponds. The operator
stands in the boat, and is rowed forward by another, as required. Sometimes scythe-
blades are tied or rivetted together, and worked by means of ropes like a saw from one
shore to the other ; but the first mode is generally reckoned the best, even in public
canals, and is unquestionably so in gardening.
1893. Weeding is the operation of drawing or digging out such plants from any given
Book IV.
TRANSFERRING DESIGNS OF GARDENS.
369
plot as are foreign to those cultivated there. In this sense every plant may become a weed
relatively ; but absolute or universal weeds are such as are cultivated in no department of
gardening, excepting in that purely botanical. Weeds are drawn out of the ground by
the hand or by pincers {Jig. 146.), or they are dug or forked out by weeding tools.
Aquatic weeds are necessarily drawn up by pincers. The best season for weeding is after
Chap. II.
Operations of Gardening in which Skill is more required than Strength.
1894. Operations of skill require the end to be known and kept in view by the operator,
during the operation. The labors which we have enumerated in the foregoing chapter,
may almost all be performed by the laborer without reference to any plan or design ; but
those which come next to be enumerated, require a greater or lesser degree of reference
to the ultimate object. Of this, even the simple operations of digging a drain to carry off
water, planting in a row, or forming a bed of earth, may be mentioned as examples.
Previously to proceeding to these operations, it becomes necessary to consider the subject
of transferring designs from ground to paper, or to memory, and from paper or memory
to ground ; we shall then be prepared to treat of executing designs.
Sect. I. Of transferring Designs from Ground to Paper or Memory.
1895. The subject of taking plans or designs of objects is to be considered as part of a
gardener's general education, since none who aspire to any degree of eminence in their
art ought to be ignorant of the first principles of geometry, land-surveying, and drawing.
We shall merely, therefore, touch on a few points with a view to assisting a gardener in
bringing the knowledge he has so acquired into action. A gardener may require to take
plans of gardens, or parts of gardens, or of implements or buildings, for his own instruc-
tion, or to execute similar objects for his employer. It is as requisite, therefore, that
a gardener should be able to copy a garden, as a carpenter a gate or a roof.
1896. The dimensions of simple objects, as of a bed of earth or dung, border or other
plot, he may retain in memory, and transfer from memory to the imitation or copy ; but
in general he will require the assistance of graphic memorandums, either of the pen or
pencil, or both. The instruments necessary for taking measurements and angles so as
to transfer plants from the ground to paper, are the measuring-line or chain, the measur-
ing-rod, and occasionally the theodolite ; but for all ordinary purposes the chain and rod
are sufficient.
1897. The simplest form of surface-plan to transfer from ground to paper is a circle ;
for here it is only necessary to find the diameter. The next is a parallelogram or bed, in
which it is only requisite to take the length and breadth. Most of the details of the plans
of kitchen-gardens, may be reduced to parallelograms, so that they are transferred to paper,
or even taken down arithmetically, as in the land-surveyor's field-book, with great ease.
1898. Irregular figures, as parterres, outlines of picturesque plantations (fig. 348.), or
water ; or the plans of winding walks, require greater nicety. In such cases, temporary
or imaginary lines (fig. 348. a, b, c), forming parts of regular figures (as d with b,
fig. 348.), are first to be formed, or partially indicated around, or through the plot to be
transferred ; and dimensions are next to be taken relatively to these known and simple
lines or figures. Of all temporary or skeleton figures, the triangle is the most simple,
the most correct, and the most generally used. The skeleton or temporary figure (e) or
line (a b, &c.) being transferred to paper, the dimensions (d) are set off from it, and the
irregular plot and all its details are thus correctly protracted.
348
1899. Raised or depressed sxirfaces, whether naturally or artificially so, require a sort of
double measurement ; first, horizontally, by true horizontal lines, to get the surface-plan ;
and next, to measure their elevations or depressions from these lines, in order to find their
height or depth. Few gardens of any description are made perfectly flat ; the borders of
Bb
370
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
the kitchen-departments generally rise on each side of the walks; and in large parterres,
one of the chief beauties arises from the inequalities of the surface. The depth of ponds,
excavations for dung, earth, &c. ridges, hot-beds, rockworks, even houses, trees, &c. are
all to be measured with reference both to their horizontal and perpendicular extensions.
Four persons are required in performing such operations accurately ; two to hold the
chain or line in a horizontal position, or in the plane of the general surface ; one to take
the dimensions downwards or upwards from this with the measuring-rod, and one to mark
down the dimensions.
1 900. In protracting elevations and depressions on paper, the simplest way is to introduce
sections, in dotted or otherwise distinguished lines, to prevent their being mistaken for
surface-lines ; or in wavy surfaces, figures may be introduced, thus "5 or 4, to denote their
elevation above, or depression below, some piece of water, or other surface fixed on as a
medium. Some excellent observations on this subject will be found in Major Lehman's
Topographical Plan Drawing, as translated by Lieutenant Siborn, (oblong fol. Lond.
1822,) which it is to be hoped will soon be appropriated in the popular books on land-
surveying, and adopted in practice.
1 901. Where it is in contemplation to form pieces of water, the elevations and depressions
or levels must be taken and recorded either by sections or arithmetically with the greatest
accuracy ; and, in some cases, sections may require to be taken to show particular trees,
buildings, the depth of water, or other objects. (Jig. 349.)
1902. With respect to the elevations and shapes of hills and mountains which may lie
within parks or plantations, they are only to be measured correctly by the quadrant and
theodolite, in the hands of regular land-surveyors ; and, therefore, are not considered as
here included. Their shape and dimensions are laid down in maps in the same manner
as those of smaller deviations from the flat surface. Inaccessible dimensions of height,
as of trees or buildings, are obtained by the quadrant, or by relative comparisons of
shadows ; of depth, as of water or wells, by rods ; of breadth or length, by finding the
two angles of a triangle whose base shall be in one extremity of the distance ; and apex
in the other. These, and many other equally simple problems in trigonometry, need not
be enlarged on, because they must be supposed to form a part of general education.
1903. The greatest accuracy is requisite in transferring plans of garden-scenery. Not
only the mere ground-lines are to be transferred ; but to form a complete plan, the
distances between scattered trees or trees in rows, or otherwise regularly disposed, ought
to be marked, the situations of their stems indicated, and, where they are of considerable
size, representations of the horizontal extension of their heads ( fig. 350. b) should also be
given. The same ought to be done in the case of walls, buildings, and all other raised ob-
jects. The intention of a ground-plan is to give an idea of the superstructure ; and with-
out such additions as these and others of a pictorial nature (fig- 350.), to the mere
ground-lines, that idea must be very imperfect, at least in plans of mixed scenery.
1904. For protracting rural objects various modes have been adopted by land-surveyors :
trees are sometimes shown by small crosses or ciphers, triangles or dots (fig. 350. a) ; by
an orbiculate line representing the extension of the branches or head, and a dot in the
place of the trunk (a and e) ; by the same, with the addition of a shadow, taken when the
sun is south or south-west, and his elevation exactly 45°, by which the points of the com-
pass are readily ascertained throughout the plan, and the shape of the head, and the height
of the tree exhibited (e) ; sometimes an elevation or profile of the tree is given, either
Book IV.
TRANSFERRING DESIGNS OF GARDENS.
371
in foliage (f)y or to show the form of the trunk and branches (g), or merely to give a
rude idea of a tree (c). Hedge-rows, whether with or without trees, are either shown in
elevation or profile (h), or in vertical profile or bird's-eye view (/). They may be de-
lineated either in skeleton or foliage. Buildings may be shown either in general .plan (k),
detailed plan (I), vertical profile of the roof (m), elevation (n), perspective view (o) ; or a
plan may be given (;;), and a diagonal elevation (g) taken and placed opposite the plan
in the margin of the map. A pictorial surveyor, who understands perspective, and is
desirous of conveying a correct idea of the subject he is to measure and delineate, will
readily find expedients for attaining success.
1 905. In portraying the general surface of land-estates, different modes have been
adopted by modern land-surveyors. The first we shall mention is the old mode of giving
what may be called the ground-lines only ; as of roads, fences, water-courses, situations of
buildings and trees, {fig. 351.) This mode has no other pretensions than that of accuracy
of dimensions, and can give few ideas to a stranger who has not seen the property, beside
those of its contents and general outline.
351 352
1 906. In the second, elevations of the objects are added to these lines ; but which, in
crowded parts, tend much to obscure them. (Jig. 352.) This mode is perhaps the best
calculated of any to give common observers a general notion of an estate ; more especially
if ably executed. Very frequently, however, this mode is attempted by artists ignorant
of the first principles of drawing, optics, or perspective, and without taste.
1907. In the third, a vertical profile, or geometrical bird's-eye view, that is, a bird's-eye
view in which all the objects are laid down to a scale is presented. In this the upper sur-
face of every object is seen exactly as it would appear to an eye considerably elevated
above it, and looking centrically down on it. (fig. 353.) This mode, properly executed,
353
372
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
is calculated to give a more accurate idea of the furniture or surface-objects of an estate
than any other ; and if the declivities be correctly indicated, and the shade of the hollows
354
and eminences be laid on with reference to some medium elevation, referred to or illus-
trated by sections, taken in the direction of indicated lines (a...b), it will give an equally
correct idea of the variations of the ground. In short, it is the best mode for most pur-
poses, and is now coming into general use.
1908. A very complete method of giving the plan of an estate, is to adopt the profile
manner and include such a portion of the plans of the adjoining estates or country as
shall be contained within a circle of moderate extent {fig. 354.), the centre of which may
be the centre of the demesne-lands, family-mansion, or prospect-tower. Around a map
so formed, the distant scenery, as seen from the roof of the house or prospect-tower, may
form a panoramic circumference, or margin of prospects, (fig. 354.) In all these modes,
dimensions and contents are given or obtainable along with effect ; in those which follow,
effect or general appearance only is obtained.
1909. The natural bird's-eye view is intended to give a general idea of the external ap-
pearance of an estate. In this the eye of the spectator is supposed to be considerably
elevated above the centre of the estate, and all the objects are portrayed exactly as they
would appear to him in that situation ; largest in the centre, and gradually diminishing to
the circumference of the circle of vision. In such a delineation, parts of other adjoining
estates may often require to be included, in order to complete the circle ; but these are
necessary to the general idea, and can easily be distinguished from the principal property
by minute marks on the delineation.
1910. In the panoramic view, the delineator supposes himself placed on an eminence,
as the roof of the mansion, where centrical, and looking round on all that he sees on
every side. Where there is a prominent hill, or where the mansion is on an eminence,
this is a very desirable mode of giving a general idea of a domain, and by the aid of hori-
zontal lines and lines converging to them from the centre of vision, some idea may be
had, on flat surfaces at least, of the relative heights and distances of objects.
1911. A simple mode is to give a general view, or distant prospect of the estate, or its
Book IV. TRANSFERRING DESIGNS TO PLANE SURFACES.
37:
principal parts {Jig. 355.), as seen from some elevated conspicuous hill, building, or
object near it ; or if the estate, as is frequently the case, is situated on the side of a
hill, or range of hills, a situation on the plain, or flat grounds opposite to it, will be
sufficient.
355
1912. Great improvements have been made in the art of delineating estates by T. Hornor,
an elegant and scientific chorometer and draughtsman. See his Mode of Delineating
Estates, 8vo. 1813; and Lehman's Topographical Plan Drawing, oblong fol. 1822. Mo-
dels of estates are also formed in cork, papier machee, and other substances, which
for hilly scenery are very useful and entertaining.
Sect. II. Of transferring Designs from Paper or Memory to Ground.
1913. Staking or marking out plans is a subject requiring much greater skill than the
last, on account of the inequalities and other obstructions met with on the ground's
surface. It may be considered, 1. As to transferring figures to plane surfaces ; 2. To
irregular or obstructed surfaces ; and, 3. Arranging quantities.
Suesect. 1. Transferring Figures and Designs to plane Surfaces.
1914. The transferring of plane or regular figures to even ground is nothing more than
performing the elementary problems of geometry on a large scale. The subject has been
amply illustrated by Switzer, Le Blond, and other writers of their day ; but a very
few examples will here suffice, as the school education of gardeners is now superior to
what it was in those times.
1915. A perpendkxdar to any line 356
may either be found by taking a
garden-line, doubling a portion of it,
and applying the extremities at equal
distances from the point whence the
perpendicular is to proceed {fig.
356. a) ; or more simply, but on a
large scale with less accuracy, by
applying the garden-square (6), or
on any scale by the use of a rope
or line united at the extremity, and
divided in the proportions of 6, 8,
and 10 (c). The 6 is to be placed
as the perpendicular of a right-angled
triangle, the 8 as the base, and the 10 as the hypothenuse ; or three rods of similar
proportions, or divided into feet, and the proper numbers taken, may be used for this
purpose. Switzer informs us this was the mode in which all right-angled figures in
gardens, and all other works, were set out in his time.
1916. To divide an angle, a line united at the extremities, and divided into four equal
parts {d), may readily be so applied to any angle as to divide it equally ,• or the same
thing may be done by a portion of line bisected, and its extremities applied at equal
distances from the angle (<?). A line divided into three equal parts readily forms an
equilateral triangle {fig- 356. f).
1917. To describe an oval within a given length, the length may be divided into three
equal parts ; then let the two inner points so found be the centres of two circles which
shall form the ends of the oval, and the sides may be formed by segments whose centres
are the intersecting points of the circles (fig. 357. a). The same oval may be formed by
Bb 3
S74
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
b
Part VL
358
357
dividing the given line into four parts ; forming the ends by segments of which the
two outermost points are the centres, and the sides by segments proceeding from a line
passing at right angles through the centre of the given line (Jig. 357. b).
1918. The gardener $ oval, or one in which both diameters are given, is thus formed.
Bisect the long diameter by the transverse one, itself thus bisected by the other. Divide
half the transverse diameter into three parts. Take one of these parts, and set it off
from both extremities of the long diameter. Fix there two pins or stakes, and fix a
third stake one part from the end of the transverse diameter ; double a line and put it
round these stakes, of such a length that when stretched, it may touch the extremities of
one of the diameters. Then, with a pin in this extremity, move it completely round,
and so strike out the oval (Jig. 357. c). The long and short diameters are more easily
divided arithmetically ; thus, supposing the given length of the oval be ninety feet, and
its width sixty feet ; then the third part of half of the width is ten feet, and this distance
set back from the extremities of the diameters gives the situation of the stakes at once.
1919. A spiral line, or volute, may be sometimes re-
quired in gardening, for laying out labyrinths or curious
parterres. The width or diameter of the spiral being
given (Jig. 358. /', h), bisect it, and divide each half into
as many parts as the spiral is to form revolutions (Jig. 358.
g to //). Then, from the centre draw all the halves of
the spirals which are on one side of the diameter line
(be, de, fg, hi) ; and from the point where the first semi-
spiral intersects the diameter line (b), as a centre, draw
all the others (dc,fe, hg ).
1920. Uniting three points in a curved line. A very
useful problem both in laying down plans on paper, and
transferring them to gardening, is that which teaches how,
from any three points (fig. 359. a, b, c), not in a straight
line, to find the centre of' a circle ivhose circumference shall
pass through them. Imagine the three points connected
by two straight lines ; bisect these lines by others (g and e),
perpendicular to them, and where these intersect (at g)
will be found the centre of the circle whose circumference
shall pass through the three points.
1921. The method of laying out polygons on even
ground, or any geometrical figure, will be perfectly sim-
ple to such as can perform the problems on paper ; all
the difference on the ground is, that the line is used in-
stead of the compasses, with or without the assistance of
the square and arithmetical calculation.
1922. Laying out the ground-lines of gardens, parterres, or any large figures on plain
surfaces, is merely a mixed application of geometrical problems". It is only necessary
to premise, that a straight line is found by placing rods upright, so as they may range
one behind the other at convenient distances, and so accurately adjusted, that the one
next the eye may conceal all the rest. A plan
of a garden, &c. (fig. 360. a) being given
with a scale and north and south line attached,
first find its extreme dimensions, and supposing
you have space sufficient for laying it out, find
the central lines (fig. 361. a,a,b, b), and lay
them down first, distinguishing them by rows1
of stakes ; then from these set off the lines of
the central plot, if any, the walks, alleys, walls,
&c, distinguishing them by strong stakes,
which may remain till the ground is put into
proper form.
1923. In laying out polygonal gardens, or
plots, or ponds ( Jig. 360. b), when the dimen-
360
Book IV. TRANSFERRING DESIGNS TO IRREGULAR SURFACES. 375
sions are too great for inscribing a circle of the full size with a line ; the obvious mode
is to form a small circle in the centre, and mark the figure on its circumference ; then
from the points where the sides intersect radii can be extended as far as required, and
361
: ^j. vsC-j.
; -
1.J...J...J.../
~::dj"~:
/S5v
-J J'-i-' <
!-;>'! 1\ |
:^jg'.... j.j,v..j.jq.j....j_ j
■ i
&._
4i:::-:
•-j =^&* i
362
•r"
"IF.
f •'
IT"
■•, r r>
.V-- if.
r — ■■'*-
the length of one being found, the rest can be adjusted accordingly, and the plot thus
laid out of the required size. {Jig- 362.)
363
u
w.
-J5KQ
Bm^^fY^iffl^ n MIT..
Pr
v;5,M~r7rrT-i7iNij'
I nwcck.n-rrniT
O
\J_MI
l. Ll L E l l
\ L Ju C~L
"t L L L U L
fflp
! i i
w ■
n
1924. Intricate and fanciful Jigures of parterres are most correctly transferred to
ground, as they are copied on paper, by covering the figure to be copied with squares
(fig. 363. a) formed by temporary lines intersecting each other at equal distances and right
angles, and by tracing on the ground similar squares, but much larger, according to the
scale (fig. 363. b). Sometimes the figure is drawn on paper in black, and the squares in
red, while the squares on the ground are formed as sawyers mark the intended path of
the saw before sawing up a log of timber ; that is, by stretching cords rubbed with
chalk, which, by being struck on the ground (previously made perfectly smooth), leave
white lines. With the plan in one hand and a pointed rod in the other, the design is
thus readily traced across these indications. The French and Italians lay out their
most curious parterres (fig- 364.) in this way.
364
iiHeiSiaJ^IEii!lS!Pl?: irai.
wvlill!
•i!iiiiiiiJ»'»Mii;iili!ii"
9
'xMMmnmmhmmw
Subsect. 2. Transferring Figures and Designs to irregular Surfaces.
1 925. StaJci?ig or marking out plans on irregular surfaces constitutes the most difficult
part of practice, whether in arranging grounds in the country, or streets, or other
improvements in towns. These difficulties do not arise from the intricacy of the princi-
ples of action ; but from the variety of operations often requisite to overcome the obstruc-
Bb 4
376
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
tions. They may be all classed under three heads, that of transferring a straight line, a
curved line, and a level line.
1926. Where a straight line is to be indicated among objects or inequalities not more
than fifteen or twenty feet high, its plan or tract on the earth (Jig. 365. a ... b) may be
found by the use of poles, a few feet higher than the elevation of the obstructions, the
director being placed on a step-ladder, or other elevation at one end. Where this method
cannot be adopted on account of the height of the inequalities, the line must either be
formed along the summits of these inequalities, which may be done if they are houses,
hills, or trees ; or parallel lines (c, d, e) formed where practicable, and the mam line
found by offsets (/, g, h) from those collateral lines at such places as are suitable. A
third method, but one not always perfectly accurate, is to take a plan of the field or scene
of operations, and on this to set out the proposed line ; then by ascertaining its bearings
and distances relatively to the obstructions, it may be transferred from the paper to the
o-round. In carrying straight lines through woods, lanterns have been used ; but a much
more correct method is to elevate poles above the surface of the wood.
365
1927. Continuous lines may always be made perfectly straight, however irregular the
surface, by following the same parallel as indicated by points of the compass ; or by the
shadow of the operator during sunshine. If the needle does not move, or the shadow of
the spectator is always projected at the same angle to his course, the direction in which
he walks, in either case, must be straight. The mode of forming right lines in such cir-
cumstances being understood, the formation of right-lined figures is merely a repetition
of the process, uniting each side by the required angle.
1928. Curved lines on irregular surfaces are in general only to be laid down by the
previous establishment of straight lines ; first, leading straight lines (jig. 348. a, b, c) and
next secondary straight lines (Jig. 348. d, d), which shall form skeletons to the curves.
A second mode, and on a large scale by much the most certain, is to find the leading
points of the curves by triangles from a known base or known bases ; but as both modes
are rare in the practice of gardening, they need not be enlarged on.
1929. Circles, ovals, and every description of curvilinear figure maybe laid down by
either of the above modes ; but where the obstructions are not great, circles, or parts of
circles, may be transferred more expeditiously by the following method. The diameter
of the circle (Jig. 366.), and any two points (a and c) which
its circumference is to touch, being given, next ascertain the
side of the largest square which the circle will contain. Then,
if the director place himself in the given point of the cir-
cumference, and look either through the sights of a theodo-
lite, or along the edge of a common carpenter's square (d)y
or any right-angled board, the straight line traced by his eye
will intersect the situation of the circumference of the cir-
cle ; if he then causes to be measured along that straight
line, the length of the side of the square contained within the
circle, the extent of the dimension will determine a point in
the circumference. Then looking along the other side of the
square, or through the sights of the theodolite at right angles to the former observation,
he will by a similar process determine another circumferential point; and now, by
chan-ing his position either to the right or left, taking care to set off always the same
dimension from the side of the square, he will trace out the circumference of the circle
or any portion of it. It is evident to any person in the slightest degree acquainted with
Book IV.
ARRANGEMENT OF QUANTITIES.
377
367
practical geometry, that the same object may be attained by an adjusted triangle (such as
e), the extremities of which will indicate points in the circumference without further
trouble.
1930. Other modes on similar principles, well known to
land-surveyors, i are occasionally resorted to in laying out
gardens, especially in the geometric style, and in preparing
the foundations of farmeries, and other rural offices and
appendages. A very obvious application of it is thafc of
reducing an irregular basin of water to a circular figure.
The director moves round with the adjusted triangle
( fig. 367. a) ; his assistant sets off the dimensions and as each
point in the circumference is ascertained, it is marked by a
stake (b, c, d).
1931. A level line {fig. 368./,/), whether straight or
curved in direction, can only be determined on an irregu-
lar surface by measuring down from an elevated level line (a), or from level lines in
parallel directions, and so transferring the points by horizontal levels to the proper line.
Straight rods are the ready means of measuring down, and the points must be marked
by hillocks or hollows (6) ; or by smooth-headed stakes driven into the surface, and pro-
truding above, or sunk under it, according to the obstructions.
368
1932. Lines of uniform acclivity or declivity (fig. 368. e, e, e) are readily formed on
the same principle. In this and the former case, the common level and the borning-
pieces (a and d), with measuring rods and stakes, are all the instruments required. The
formation of level lines and uniform slopes, by the borning-pieces and common level,
ought to be familiar to every working-gardener ; for, without considerable adroitness in
this department of garden-operations, none can be considered as fit to form a walk, or
even plant a box-edging.
1933. Levelling for terrace-slopes (fig. 369.), or for geometrical surfaces, however
varied, is performed by the union of both modes, and requires no explanation to those
who have acquired the rudiments of geometry, or understand what has been described.
369
Subsect. 3. Of the Arrangement of Quantities.
1934. The dividing and subdividing of land is generally the business of the land-sur-
veyor, but it sometimes comes under the practice of the gardener, on a small scale, and on
simple principles. Thus it may be required to determine the dimensions of a square, of a
circle, of an oval, or of a mixed figure of a kitchen-garden, which shall contain a certain
378 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
number of acres, or acres and parts of acres. Or, on a certain compartment in a garden
of given breadth and length, it may be required to sow or plant a certain number of
poles of any given crop, &c.
1935. Wiere the figures are simple and regular, as squares, parallelograms, triangles,
circles, &c, these problems are easily solved ; but where they are irregular, the safest way
for practical gardeners, not much in the habit of calculation, is by trial and correction.
Thus, supposing it required to find the dimensions and ground-plan of a garden-wall,
which shall enclose two acres, the north and south walls to be straight and parallel, and
the two ends parts of ellipses. Try a parallelogram, which shall contain If acres, and
try and adjust two curves to its ends, which shall each contain \ of an acre. If an eighth
of an acre does not give sufficiently curved ends, narrow the parallelogram part a little,
which will admit an increase to the curved ends. All this being laid down on paper to
a scale, when the figure is completed, ascertain its contents by the scale, and vary it as
above, till it corresponds exactly with what is required.
1936. For more intricate figures, first cover the paper with squares, each containing a
certain area ; say a yard, a pole, &c, according to the magnitude of the design to be ad-
justed. Then, on these squares adjust the form and the contents of the given figure,
by alternate delineations of the desired shape, and numbering the squares for the desired
contents. When the end appears to be attained, prove the whole by measuring from the
scale.
1937. With respect to measuring for cropping compartments or borders, supposing it is
desired to sow three poles of turnips on a compartment 60 feet broad, then the first question
is simply, given 60 feet as one side, required the length of another requisite to form a pole.
A pole contains 30^ square yards, or 273i square feet ; dividing the last sum by 60,
the quotient, 4 feet 6|, is the length of one pole at this breadth. Or, if by links, then 60
feet= 136-2 links, and 625 square links = 1 square pole ; hence 625 -s- 136*2 -=6^ links.
3x4 feet 6f inches, or 3 x 6T9ff links = 13 feet 8 inches, or 20 T^ links, the length of
three poles of the given breadth.
1938. For arranging ivork done by contract, it is necessary for the gardener to be able
to determine the superficial and solid consents of ground, whether it is to be cultivated
on the surface, as in digging or hoeing ; turned over to a considerable depth, as in digging
drains or trenching ; or removed from its place, as in former excavation for water or
foundations. All this is abundantly simple, where the first rudiments of mensuration
are understood. The most important part is what relates to digging out large excava-
tions, and wheeling the earth to different distances ; and to guide in this, the following
rules, known to every canal contractor, may be worth attending to by the gardener.
1939. For excavating and transporting earth. In soft ground, where no other tool
than the spade is necessary, a man will throw up a cubic yard of 27 solid feet in an hour,
or ten cubic yards in a day. But if picking or hacking be necessary, an additional man
will be required ; and very strong gravel will require two. The rates of a cubic yard,
depending thus upon each circumstance, they will be in the ratio of the arithmetical
numbers 1, 2, 3. If, therefore, the wages of a laborer be 2s. 6d. per day, the price of a
yard will be 3d. for cutting only, 6d. for cutting and hacking, and 9d. when two hackers
are necessary. In sandy ground, when wheeling is requisite, three men will be re-
quired to remove 30 cubic yards in a day, to the distance of 20 yards, two filling and
one wheeling ; but to remove the same quantity in a day, to any greater distance, an
additional man will be required for every twenty yards.
To find the price of removing any number of cubic yards to any given distance :
Divide the distance in yards by 20, which gives the number of wheelers ; add the two cutters to the quo-
tient, and you will have the whole number emploved ; multiply the sum by the daily wages of a laborer,
and the produce wiU be the price of 50 cubic yards. — Then, as 30 cubic yards is to the whole number, so is
the price of 30 cubic yards to the cost of the whole. . .
Example. What will it cost to remove 2750 cubic yards to the distance of 120 yards jLman s ™aSes
being three shillings per day ? First, 120 -5- 20 = 6, the number of wheelers ; then, + 2 fillers — 8 men
emploved, which, at three shillings per day, gives 24 shillings as the price of oO cubic yards ; then
30 : 24 : : 2750 and24 x 2750 -*■ 30= 110/. . __.
For elementary instructions in this department, see Hutton's Mensuration, Nicholson s Architectural
Dictionary, and the article Canal, in the principal Encyclopaedias.
Sect. III. Of carrying Designs into Execution.
1 940. To realise alterations projected or marked out on the ground, recourse is had to the
mechanical operations of gardening. These require to be directed to the following ob-
jects. Removing surface incumbrances, smoothing surfaces, draining off superfluous
water, forming excavations for retaining water, forming artificial surfaces, and forming
walks and roads.
1941. Removing surface incumbrances is one of the first operations of improvement in
reclaiming neglected lands, or preparing them for ulterior purposes. The obstacles are
generally large blocks of stone, bushes, roots of trees, and sometimes artificial obstacles,
as parts of walls, hedges, buildings, &c. Where the stones cannot ultimately be ren-
Book IV. CARRYING DESIGNS INTO EXECUTION. 379
dered useful or ornamental near to where they lie, they are to be loosened by levers, and
placed on sledges and dragged off; and to facilitate this, they may be previously blown
in pieces by gunpowder ; or large pits may be dug, and they may be buried near to
where they lie. The other obstacles are easily got rid of ; large roots may be split with
wedges, reft with gunpowder, and drawn out by wrenches ; or, the hydrostatic press
applied, as for drawing piles. The use of gunpowder was formerly often attended with
accidents to the operators ; but the risk is now greatly lessened, since it has been dis-
covered that sand may be poured in, instead of ramming clay and stoney matters over the
charge. (Suppl. Encyc. Brit. art. Blasting.)
1942. Smoothing surfaces. Whatever be the nature of the future improvements, this
operation generally takes place to a certain extent after the removal of obstacles. Pits,
quarries, pools, &c. are to be filled up ; banks, dykes, artificial mounds, and excrescences
to be broken down and scattered about, before the natural surface can be duly under-
stood and appreciated, and before drains and other preliminary improvements, as roads,
fences, &c, can be conveniently marked out.
1 943. Draining off" superfluous water by subterraneous drains. The theory of this sub-
ject has been already noticed (1096.), and as it more properly belongs to agriculture than
gardening, we shall confine our remarks to execution. The designer or director of the
improvements, having, by the aid of levelling, and consideration of the causes of the su-
perfluous moisture, marked out by proper stakes the main drain and lateral cuts, the
lowest point or outlet of the former is first to be begun on, and excavated to the proper
width and depth. If the soil is very soft, the materials for filling in, or forming the
channel, or drain, should have been previously carted there, as this operation, performed
on soft ground after the excavation is made, is apt to damage the sides of the drain. No
part of the drain ought to be filled, till the whole has been completed, and any errors in
the level of its bottom or water-way corrected. The height to which the materials are to
be laid, must be regulated by the use to which the surface is to be applied. For
permanent pastures, as in lawns and parks, they may be brought near the surface, but
in kitchen-gardens, or scenery were digging or trenching are occasionally to take
place, they should not come within six inches of the bottom of the loosened strata. As
to materials for drains, whatever will fonn a porous or hollow stratum or vein may
be employed ; but round stones are unquestionably the most durable for collecting-
drains ; and tubes of earthenware, or built drains of stone or bricks, for drains of con-
veyance. The most complete description of master-drain, is one with a built cylinder
or barrel of stone or brick below, covered by a vein or vertical stratum of round stones,
terminating near the surface in coarse gravel. Wherever much draining is to be done,
all the various methods should be considered as detailed in the county surveys, and col-
lected in Marshall's Treatise on Landed Property, and Johnston's System of Draining ;
and those fixed on which may be considered as most suitable to the particular case.
1944. Drauing off superfluous water by surface drains is seldom admissible with good
effect in garden-scenery. Ridges, whether broad or narrow, communicate a vulgar
field-like character to parks or lawns ; and large open gutters are only ditches. Per-
haps the least objectionable mode is to use the mole-plough, or to form underground
gutters with the spade on a similar principle. The blade of the spade should be in the
form of the letter V, rather blunt at the point, and as each spitful is dug out, half
its lower part is to be cut off, and the upper part returned to the gutter, so that no ex-
ternal deformity is produced. Such drains, as well as the channels made by the mole-
plough, required to be renewed every three or four years, especially if cattle and horses
are admitted on the grounds in winter. Hence, many use straw or small faggot-wood
to fill the gutters as in Norfolk, or flints as in Kent, gravel as in Berkshire, or cinders
and scoriae as in some parts of Lancashire.
1945. Forming excavations for retaining water. Previously to commencing this oper-
ation, the levels must be staked out with great accuracy, as well as the places indicated
from which the larger masses of earth are to be moved or to which they are to be taken. Ex-
cavations for water vary in respect to the difficulties and manner of execution, according as
they may be intended for running or stagnated water ; for water already existing on the
spot, or to be brought there, or according to the nature of the soil and surface. For
running water more depends on the design than on the execution ; for a current, if well
directed, will, in a short time, fonn a suitable bed and banks for itself : but for stagnated
water all depends on art, both in the design of the shape and the execution of the bed
and margin. Water already existing in a body on die spot generally implies a suitable-
ness of soil for retaining it, and the existence of springs for an increased supply, and
these serve as useful guides in the course of execution : but where water is to be brought
to a situation, it generally implies an unsuitableness both of soil and surface to retain it,
and hence requires the greatest attention in the application of art, both as to design and
execution. The most suitable surface for water is a hollow or level, and the best soil
a clay or strong loam. In all these cases the executive part reduces itself to three oper-
380
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
ations ; the removal and disposal of the earth, the formation of the bed and margin, and
the formation of the dam or head and sluice.
1 946. In the removal and disposal of the earth, regard should be had to preserve the
best soil for what is to be future surface ; and, in poor lands, it may often be advisable
to dig or pare off the surface of the spots to be covered by the excavated earth, and
preserve them for the same purpose. Where the new soil is to be thinly scattered over
the old, fallowing, trenching, or digging may effect the proper mixture. When large
masses of new earth are to be laid down, that of worse quality must be farthest removed
from the probable reach of the roots of future trees ; or, if the roots of trees will pene-
trate the whole mass, then the whole soil should be mixed. Gravelly materials should
be kept at such a distance from the margin of the water, as not to act as a drain
from it ; and, in forming the mass of earth requisite at most dams or heads, the less
gravel or porous matter used alone, the more compact and retentive will be the head.
In every mode in which excavated earth is disposed of, care is requisite to blend its out-
lines with those already existing, so as to avoid all appearance of patches laid on, bumps,
warts, or excrescences, than which nothing is more disagreeable in surfaces.
1947. In the formation of the bed, where the excavation has been made in a level sur-
face, no farther attention is requisite than attending to the depths indicated in the design,
which will generally be greatest towards the middle, and diminishing to the sides, as
in nature. Few pieces of water require to be deeper in the middle than ten feet, which
will generally deter cattle from wading across them, and prove unfavorable for the
growth of most aquatic plants. Where water is formed by damming up, or throwing a
head across a hollow, of which, perhaps, the most notable instance on record is that of
Blenheim, the bottom does not require any attention, excepting adjoining the head ; the
mass of materials forming which should form an inclined plane under the body of water
for the sake of securing the head ; and to prevent the water from penetrating into this
mass of materials, its surface should be regularly clayed or puddled over, as well as a
part of the firm ground on all sides, and even in the bottom of the excavation. For
if this firm ground is of a sandy or gravelly nature, the water may, by entering it, find
its way to the mass of new and not yet consolidated earthy matters, and by softening
them, speedily ruin the whole mound or head. A safe mode is to leave the head to
consolidate for a year or more before filling with water. This was Brown's practice
at Blenheim, Harewood Hall, and other places.
1948. When water is formed on the side of a hill, the lower part of the excavation must
be raised and clayed with equal care, as in the case of the head or dam, and for the same
reasons. It is almost needless to mention, that claying must never be omitted where
the bottom or sides are either newly formed, or not naturally retentive of water. Where
clay cannot be had, loamy, or calcareous, and even somewhat sandy earth, by abundant
working, becomes retentive of water. This the celebrated engineer Brindley first dis-
covered and practised.
1949. The margin of all water, where nature is imitated, ought, as much as possible,
to be formed of stony or gravelly materials, as most likely to give a dry appearance quite
to the edge of the water, to admit of walking there, of cattle drinking without poaching
and bemiring themselves, and to prevent the growth of such grasses and aquatics as
communicate a morassy or marshy appearance ; and finally as being more natural and
picturesque than banks of mud. For this purpose, during the excavation, all or a suitable
quantity of such gravelly or stony materials as occur, should be reserved for depositing
along the margin, for at least one yard beyond the edge of the water, and two yards down
the slope of the bed. If suitable materials
are not to be had from the excavation, they
should be procured ; for without them
there can be but little beauty in the mar-
gins at least of stagnated water. The
margins of rivers may be left in a great
degree to nature, watching every proper
opportunity after floods or winds, to
heighten indications of picturesque effects,
not materially inconsistent with local cha-
racter and utility.
1950. In the formation of the head, or
dam {fig- 370. d), the points requiring
particular attention are the claying, and
the forming the sluice or valve for empty-
ing the pond. Claying should either be
performed over the whole of the inner
surface of the head, or by a perpendicular
stratum of clay in the middle of the bank.
Book IV.
CARRYING DESIGNS INTO EXECUTION.
381
The last mode is the most simple of execution; but if the great body of loose
materials are of a sandy or porous nature, the former will be found the safest ; either
however, well executed, will suffice ; and in this point of practice, execution is certainly
of more consequence than design.
1951. The sluice is the stopper or valve to a drain (Jig. 370. e), carried through
the bank of a piece of artificial water at the lowest part of its bed, in order to be able
to empty it at pleasure. There are various kinds, from the simple tube and stopper
(Jig. 371. a), to the plank-sluice (c), or grooved frame (6). This last is formed of a plate
of boards, generally two or three feet wide, and six or eight feet high, attached to a stalk,
and worked by means of a pinion and rachet in a frame of timber. The sluice is built
vertically into the drain as a damper is into a flue, and the length of the stalk and frame
is always such as to reach somewhat above the ground's surface for conveniency of work-
ing. ITie grand object as to the sluice is to construct it so as to admit the least possible
escape of water. This will generally be best attained by forming the tunnel, in which
the sluice is to be built, in the solid ground at the side of the head, and not in the new
and loose earth, building it of masonry or brick set in cement, claying it completely on
all sides, and fitting in the sluice with the greatest nicety.
371
®~~
15
o
1952. 'Syphon sluice. As it is practically impossible to form sluices and drains that
do not lose more or less water, owing to the great pressure of the volume in the lake or
pond,' it is better, where the supply is very limited, to have no drain or sluice, and to draw
off the water when required by a large syphon, which may easily be formed of boards ; or
a drain may be formed, and, instead of a sluice, a well of clay adopted as a stopper. The
power of drawing off the water is seldom
used, and, unless in fishponds, or where
frequent clearing is necessary, sluices are
of little use. The superfluous water
which escapes over the head when abund-
ant, may form a cascade or waterfall ; but
where the waste is small, it may escape
at one side (Jig. 371. a) as a small gur-
gling rill over a bed formed of well-
worked clay, to prevent its working out
hollows, and covered by gravel, stones,
&c, to give it a clear and natural-like ap-
pearance. As the head is generally a
straight mound, destitute of natural
beauty, it should be disguised by small
islands (fig. 372. b, c), or varied by plant-
ing on the margin, or both ; but as our
present business is merely to describe the
operations requisite to the formation of
pieces of water, we must refer, for what
concerns it as a material of landscape, to Landscape-gardening. (Part III. Book IV.)
1953. Surfaces to imitate nature, such as hills, knolls, and all the variety of raised
surfaces in pleasure-grounds, are formed by heaping up materials in the indicated shapes ;
and hollows of equal variety, by hollowing them out ; in both cases, studying to keep the
best earth at the surface, and so to blend the forms with those to which they are united,
that no line of demarcation may ever afterwards be discoverable.
1 954. Surfaces avowedly artificial, as levels, terraces, slopes, banks, beds of earth, or
dung-beds, being once distinctly marked out, are executed with equal facility and greater
certainty of attaining the end or effect. Formerly the geometric style of gardening af-
forded an ample field for the exercise of this class of operations ; but at present they are
chiefly confined to the kitchen-garden, the sites of buildings, and a limited space around
382
SCIENCE OF GARDENING
Part II.
the mansion. Whatever may be the surface destined for a court or square of buildings,
as a stable-yard or farmery, it must be reduced to a plane or planes connected in such a
way as not to interfere with utility or effect. It is not essential that the surface be
formed to a perfect level, or to any one slope, but that order and connection should enter
into the choice of the slopes, whatever that may be. In kitchen-gardens it sometimes
happens that a level, or one general slope, may be adopted ; but much more frequently
that different slopes enter into the composition of the enclosed surface. These subordi-
nate planes or surfaces are all so connected as to balance and harmonise, and present to
the intelligent eye a work, not of chance, but of design and reflection. In a seemingly level
garden it often happens that not one of the compartments is level ; but each compartment
of itself forms one plane, diverging from the centre, north wall, or some other point of the
garden, and terminating on the same level, at the extreme corners of the compartment, or
at the lower extremity of the garden. Besides these means, the formation of raised bor-
ders, and the furniture of gardens, such as espaliers, bushes, &c. enable the designer
to harmonise forms and surfaces seemingly the most incongruous and unsuitable for a
scene of culture.
1 9.55. There are two modes of reducing an irregular surface to one jrfane. The first is
by taking sections of the surface in parallel lines at every ten or twenty feet distance,
according as the surface may be more or less irregular ; laying down these sections on
paper geometrically, and from the whole finding a mean section. The stakes of all the
parallel lines of levels still remaining in the ground, it will be easy to transfer the mean
section by raising these stakes in some places, and lowering them in others, as the scale
of the diagram will direct. The second and more general mode is by approximation, or
trial and correction, which, in all ordinary cases, is sufficiently correct. Suppose an irre-
gular surface, 100 feet square, is to be reduced to a level or plane. The degree of slope
is first ascertained (by the American or any other level) from the highest side of the
square to the lower, and it is found, we shall suppose, that the ground will not easily
reduce to a horizontal surface. It is, therefore, determined to reduce it to a slope ; and
for this purpose a certain height is determined on by the eye for the extremities of the
slope ; in fixing on which, the object is to adjust the slope to the earth, so as the former
may be completed without exterior aid or superfluity. Supposing the lower side of the
plot to be twenty-five inches below the level of the upper side, then the fall is a quarter
of an inch in each foot, and a few lines of stakes can be run across the ground in the
direction of the slope, with their tops adjusted to this declivity. Or this may be omitted,
and the same end attained by borning-pieces used after the ground has been roughly
levelled. But this is one, among many parts of the business of a gardener, which can
more readily be acquired by practice than verbal instruction.
1956. Walks are spaces in gardens formed for the purposes of inspecting the garden,
recreation, and carrying on the operations of gardening. As one great requisite is, that
they should always be dry, the bottom of the walk in most cases forms a drain. There
are three descriptions of walks common to gardens, those of gravel, sand, and grass.
All walks consists of two parts, their substrata and surface-covering. The substratum
is generally placed in an excavation, the section of which is a segment of a circle, or an
inverted pointed arch, being deepest in the centre, where, in wet soils and situations, a
notch or drain is often formed to carry off the water which oozes from the sides of the
bottom, or sinks through the gravel. In all ordinary cases, however, the water will run
off without this notch, provided the general levels of the bottoms of the walks or the drains
which cross them, or lead from them, be contrived accordingly. The foundation of the
walks is to be filled with stones, the largest at bottom ; or with rubbish of old buildings,
flints, or any other similar materials, observing always to place the smallest at top. When
this is done, before the covering of gravel, sand, or turf is laid on, the substratum
should be well rolled, so as it may never afterwards vary its position, either with the
weight of the covering, or any weight which may pass over it.
1957. The covering of gravel
(jig. 373. a) need seldom be thicker
than six inches, and generally four
inches will be sufficient. That this
gravel may bind in so thin a stratum,
it is requisite that it be free from
larger stones than those the size of a
pigeon's egg, that the general size be
that of large gooseberries or plums, and that there be about a sixth part of rusty sandy
matter to promote its binding. The choice of gravel is seldom within the power of the
gardener ; but, in general, pit-gravel is to be preferred to river-gravel, as binding better,
and having a better color. Gravel abounding in oxide of iron, if laid down where it is
finally to remain, when newly taken out of the pit, and well watered and rolled, will often
bind into one compact body like what is called pudding-stone. Such gravels, however,
373
Book IV. CARRYING DESIGNS INTO EXECUTION. 383
are seldom well colored. The best in this respect in England, and also a good gravel
for binding, is the gravel of Kensington, to which good qualities it adds that of being the
most beautiful in the world. There are some very agreeable sea-gravels, formed chiefly
of small shells, or fragments of larger ones. The way to make a handsome walk with
this gravel is to mix it with about a tenth part of a composition consisting of equal parts
of brickdust and puzzolana earth or Roman cement. This done, and the gravel laid down
in a wet state, and well rolled, it will form a surface like that of shell-marble.
1 958. Wliere a covering of sand is adopted, its thickness must depend on its qualities,
and whether sand is taken from preference or necessity. When sand is taken from pre-
ference, the intention is to produce soft walks, which shall yield to the feet like turf, in
which case its thickness may be from three to six inches ; but if sand is used because
gravel cannot be procured, then little more should be laid on than what is sufficient to fill
up the interstices of the upper surface of the substrata. Sometimes an attempt is made
to bind such sand, by mixing it with dried clay in a state of powder, or with the scrapings
of stone roads, and then watering and rolling ; but it is not often that this succeeds ; and
it may certainly be considered as unfortunate where the best walks about a residence are
covered with sand.
1959. The covering of turf and earth [fig. 373. b) should not be less than six inches in
thickness, that there may be sufficient pasturage and moisture for the roots of the grasses
in the dry season. For this purpose, the soil laid under the turf should be a medium be-
tween a stiff clayey and a loose sandy soil, so as more completely to serve as a sponge than
either.
1960. Substitutes for gravel and sand are burned lumps of clay reduced to powder,
pounded bricks, stones, or slates, scoria, ashes, soaper's waste, coal, shells, sawdust, tan-
ner's bark, ferruginous earth, and even moss or peat-earth. Bark and peat-earth are
often used in Holland ; the former, when fresh, has much of the color of Kensington
gravel, and assorts well with vegetation.
1961. Substitutes for turf are green mosses recently gathered and stuck on mortar or
cement ; the same process with lichens from trees, or with flow-moss or heath-tops.
1 962. The form of the surface of gravel, sand, and grass walks, should almost always
be flat ; or, in the case of gravel, gently raised in the middle, so as to throw the water
towards the sides, in approaching which it may sink gently into the substrata. But in
turf walks this should never be attempted ; as it is desirable, on account of equally
watering the plants, and retaining an equal firmness throughout their surface, that the
water should sink in where it falls. It is a common practice to form turf walks of solid
earth, without any regard to the substrata ; and this succeeds very well in dry soils, and
where such walks are little used, excepting in summer ; but whenever turf walks are to
be in constant use, the above is much the best way of forming them. Gravel and sand
have, in like manner, been laid on the surface of the soil in small gardens, and in very dry
sub-soils, and where this can be done with the attainment of the desired objects, it has this
advantage, that the roots of trees may range under the walks, as indeed always happens
in shrubberies and plantations. The scoriae of metals, coal-ashes, the refuse of mines and
glass-works, and other similar matters, are often used instead of gravel ; but their color
seldom harmonises well with that of vegetation.
1 963. The breadth ofivalks generally depends on the extent or scale of the whole residence,
and not of the particular garden or scene, which may be small, and yet connected with
greater. They should never be narrower than is sufficient to allow a party of two to walk
abreast, the minimum breadth for which is four feet six inches ; but they may be large
enough for a party of half a dozen, or in public walks, or walks in extensive pleasure-
grounds, avenues, &c, for one or two dozen. For the latter number thirty-six feet suf-
fices. The direction of walks depends on their particular use, and connection with the
different scenes or subjects of gardening.
1964. Alleys are smaller walks generally covered with a thin coat of sand, gravel, or
shells. In parterres they are sometimes of various widths, to suit the particular forms
which constitute the design ; and there also they are sometimes covered with different
sorts of gravels, shells, scoriae, &c, or paved with flints, pebbles, &c. ; but the alleys of
separation, in walled gardens, are generally two feet wide, and formed in right lines,
parallel to the main walks, or borders. Sometimes they are not gravelled, and at other
times they are covered with road-grit, or the scrapings of roads ; which, of course, is to be
considered as the powder of the material of which the road is made, mixed with vegetable
matter from the droppings of horses and cattle, and is considered as well adapted for
binding or forming a compact surface.
1965. Roads are walks on a large scale; they are fonned on the same general plan;
but when of fifteen or twenty feet in breadth, and on a wet or retentive soil, they have
generally a drain on each side instead of one in the centre. On the sides of slopes,
where, during heavy rains, these roads intercept the water from the upper grounds, they
should have frequent gratings, or pierced stones, communicating with the drains on
384
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
the upper side (Jig. 374.), unless pro-
vision is made for intercepting the water
before it comes on the gravel, by a gentle
hollow (a), running parallel and close to
the road, and communicating in like
manner with the drains.
1966. The durability and comfort of
roads and ivalks depend on their power to
resist the action of animals walking on
them, of machines being rolled over them,
of weather, and of vegetation. A dry firm substratum is necessary for all these pur-
poses ; and this, as already observed, is to be obtained by draining either in the centre or
in the sides, and by a stratum of gravel or fragments of stones ; the largest, in walks, of two
or three ounces each, and in garden-roads, of six or eight ounces ; in both cases covered
with smaller gravel. For resisting animals, a degree of compactness, solidity, and homo-
geneous texture of surface is requisite, according to the weight of the animals and their
burdens, and the area of their feet. Thus, supposing a man to weigh seven hundred
weight, and to carry a load of two hundred weight, and the area of one of his feet to be
twenty-five inches, then the walk or road will require to bear at least forty pounds per
square inch, and so on. But an animal not only presses vertically on a walk or road,
but his feet (the feet of man singly, and of quadrupeds relatively to each other),
acting as levers of the third kind, have a tendency to force up and derange the materials
under the point of the foot in the action of walking, in the same way as the lower end of
a ladder, when rearing up against a wall, has a tendency to press into and derange that
part of the ground which acts as a fulcrum. Hence an additional reason for firmness of
surface, and also for using small materials ; for if the end of a ladder, or the extremity of
the foot, or any point of pressure, were to exert itself on one end or extremity of a stone,
it would act as a weight on the end of a lever ; and, depressing one end and raising the
other end, would derange at once the substratum and the surface. During rain, or when
the surface of the road was moist, this operation would go on in at least a duplicate ratio.
Whatever may be the weight of a four-wheeled carriage or waggon, it presses on the road
on four points only, whose united areas seldom exceed one foot ; hence the necessity of
firmness, and also of materials reduced to a size, whose areas are less than the separate
areas of the four pressing points, in order to prevent derangement from leverage or com-
pound action. This subject has been ably illustrated by R. L. Edgeworth, and practi-
cally exemplified, to a great and beneficial extent, by J. L. M'Adam (Rules for repairing
Roads, &c. 1823), and bids fair to effect an entire change in the system of public road-
making followed in this country. (See our Encyc. of Agriculture.)
1967. To resist weather, the grand object is to get rid of superfluous water ; subterra-
neous sources are to be cut off by drains, and surface water is not to be allowed to sink
into the road, but the surface gently raised, and rendered and kept, by rolling and conti-
nualW obliterating foot or machine marks, so smooth and impervious, as to throw the water
entire'ly to the sides. By this means, the effects of frost, heavy carriages, and narrow
wheels, is greatly lessened. .
1968. To resist vegetation, a road must be in constant use ; but firmness is useful even
in this point of view, and also the exclusion of vegetable earths from the gravels or other
materials used in forming the surface of garden-walks and approach-roads.
Chap. III.
Scientific Processes and Operations.
1969. Scientific processes and operations include the master-operations of gardening as
an art of culture. These operations are all mechanical ; but some depend, for their be-
neficial result, on chemical changes, as in the preparation of composts and manures ;
others depend on the prevention of chemical changes, as in the preserving and keeping of
fruits and roots ; some on imitations of climates, as in the management of hot-houses ;
but the o-reater number are dependent on the laws of vegetable life, as in the operations
of propagating, rearing, accelerating, and retarding vegetables. Other processes to be
treated of are of a mixed nature, and some depend on the laws of animal life, as in the
operations for destroying vermin and insects.
Sect. I. Preparation of fermenting Substances for Hot-beds, Manures, and Composts.
1970. The fermenting substances used in forming hot-beds are stable litter or dung in a
recent or fresh state, tanner's bark, leaves of trees, grass, and the herbaceous parts of
plants generally.
Book IV. PREPARATION OF MANURES AND COMPOSTS. 385
1971. Stable-dung is in the most general use for forming hot-beds, which are masses of
this dung after it has undergone its most violent fermentation. These masses are gene-
rally in the form of solid parallelograms of magnitude proportioned to the frames which
are to be placed on them, the degree of heat required, and the season of the year in which
they are formed.
1972. Tanners bark is> only preferred to dung because the substance which undergoes
the process of putrid fermentation requires longer time to decay. Hence it is found
useful in the bark-pits of hot-houses, as requiring to be seldomer moved or renewed
than dung, or any other known fermentable substance that can be procured in equal
quantity.
1973. Leaves, and especially oak-leaves, come the nearest to bark, and have the addi-
tional advantage, that when perfectly rotten like dung, they form a rich mould or excel-
lent manure ; whereas rotten tanners' bark is found rather injurious than useful to vege-
tation, unless well mixed with lime and earth.
1 974. Preparation of manures. The object of preparation in these three substances
being to get rid of the violent heat which is produced when the fermentation is most
powerful ; it is obvious that preparation must consist in facilitating the process. For
this purpose, a certain degree of moisture and air in the fermenting bodies are requisite ;
and hence the business of the gardener is to turn them over frequently, and apply water
when the process appears impeded for want of it, and exclude rain when it seems chilled
and impeded by too much water. Recent stable-dung generally requires to lie a month
in ridges or beds, and be turned over in that time thrice before it is fit for cucumber-beds
of the common construction ; but for M'Phail's hot-beds, or for linings, or for frames
with moveable bottoms, three weeks, a fortnight, or less, will suffice ; or no time at all
need be given, but the dung formed at once into linings. Tan and leaves require in general
a month ; but much depends on the state of the weather, and the season of the year.
Fermentation is always most rapid in summer ; and if the materials are spread abroad
during frost, it is totally impeded. In winter, the process of preparation generally goes
on under cover from the weather, in the back sheds ; which situation is also the best in
summer, as full exposure to the sun and wind dries too much the exterior surface ; but
where sheds cannot be had, it will go on very well in the open air. A great deal of heat
is undoubtedly lost in the process of fermentation ; and some cultivators have recently
devised plans to turn it to some account, by fermenting dung in vineries, which are just
beginning to be forced, or in vaults under pine-pits or plant-stoves. The latter mode
seems one of the best in point of economy, and is capable of being turned to consider-
able advantage where common dung-beds are extensively used ; but the most economical
plan of any seems to be that of employing only M'Phail's pits, or such as are constructed
on similar principles.
1975. The formation of dung-beds is effected by first marking out the dimensions of
the plan, which should be six inches wider on all sides than that of the frame to be placed
over it, and then, by successive layers of dung laid on by the fork, raising it to the de-
sired height, pressing it gently and equally 375
throughout. In general, such beds are formed
on a level surface ; but Knight's mode {fig.
375.) is to form a surface of earth as a basis,
which shall incline to the horizon to the ex-
tent of fifteen degrees ; on this he forms the
dung-bed to the same inclination ; and, finally,
the frame, when placed on such a bed, if, as is
usual, it be deepest behind, will present its
glass at an angle of twenty degrees instead of
six or eight, which is undoubtedly of great ad-
vantage in the winter season. This seems a
very desirable improvement where light is an object, which it must be, in a high degree,
in the case of the culture of cucumbers and melons, as well as in forcing flowers.
1976. Ashes are often mixed with the dung of hot-beds, and are supposed to promote
the steadiness and duration of their heat ; and at first to revive it, if somewhat decayed.
Tan and leaves have also been used for the same purpose ; and it is generally found that
about one third of tan and two thirds of dung will form a more durable and less violent
heat than a bed wholly of dung. The heat of dung-beds is revived by linings or colla-
teral and surrounding walls or banks of fresh dung, the old dung of the bed being pre-
viously cut down close to the frame. These linings, as before observed, require less pre-
paration than the dung for the beds. The dung-bed being formed, and having stood two
or three days with the frame and lights placed over it to protect it from rain, is next to
be covered with earth, of quality and in quantity according to the purpose to which it is
to be applied. In severe weather, the sides of the bed are often protected by bundles of
straw or faggots, which tend to prevent the escape of the heat.
C c
386 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
1977. Collecting and forming comj>osts for manure is an essential part of the economy
of the garden, no less than of the farm. The following judicious observations on this
subject, by Bishop, merit attention : —
Without enumerating the various means that, with careful economy, may be used for increasing the
stock of garden manure, such as collecting the urine of animals, chamber-lie, soap-suds, or mixing fresh
soils of opposite qualities, 1 shall confine myself to a plain statement of a method 1 have practised for these
several years past with much success. Situated the same as many others, to whom the produce of the
stable-yard is the only allowance of dung that can conveniently be allotted for the garden, which, although
every way advantageous for hot-beds, and other purposes of forcing, yet, to use it as a manure for garden
crops, without having its qualities altered by fermentation, or blended with substances of a heavier nature,
would, in many cases, be more injurious than beneficial ; I therefore, during the summer and autumn,
have all the offals in the garden, such as weeds, leaves of strawberries and other vegetables, short grass,
peas and asparagus haulm, with the foliage of trees and shrubs when newly shed, carefully collected into a
heap. These are all turned over and mixed during the winter, that they may be sufficiently rotted to mix
with the dung against the end of summer. I have also another heap formed with the prunings from goose-
berry and currant bushes, fruit-trees, raspberry-shoots, clippings of box-edgings, and loppings from shrubs ;
also the roots of greens and cabbages, which are generally burnt at two different periods in the year, viz. in
spring and autumn ; but previous to each burning, I endeavour to pare up all the coarse grasses around
the garden, with a portion of the soil adhering thereto, and whenever these are sufficiently dried, have
them collected to the heap intended to be burnt. The fire is kindled at a convenient distance from the
heaps, and a portion of such as burn most easily is first applied, until the fire hath gained a considerable
power. After this, the process of burning is continued, by applying lighter and heavier substances alter-
nately, that the one may preserve the action of the fire, and the other prevent it from reducing them too
much to ashes. When the whole are thus consumed, a quantity of mould is thrown over the heap to pre-
vent the fire from breaking through ; and whenever it can be broke into with safety, it is then mixed up
into a dunghill with the rotted vegetables, moss-earth, and stable-yard dung, in such proportions as is
likely to ensure a moderate fermentation, which is generally completed in three or four weeks ; at which
time, I think, it is most advantageously applied, in having it carried to the ground, and instantly dug in.
{Mem. Caled. Hort. Soc. i. 443.)
1978. Liquid manures are highly approved of by many cultivators, and especially by
Knight. They are formed by infusing rich dungs, as those of fowls, sheep, pigs, &c. or
blood, in three or four times their bulk of water ; and the application of the extract so
procured is made at the usual seasons of watering, taking care to apply it only to the
roots. Knight applies this mode of manuring chiefly to plants in pots, and is convinced,
from experience, that trees and shrubs may grow and bear fruit in very small pots, if
abundantly supplied with nourishment in this manner. (Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 127.)
For some plants, as the pine, vine, cauliflower, cucumber, and others which gardeners
consider as gross feeders, liquid manures may be applied during their full vigor of
growth ; but the practice, we think, would be dangerous, if so applied to culinary or
fruit-bearing plants in general, as producing too great excitement.
1979. Collecting and forming composts for moidd. Composts are mixtures of several
earths, or earthy substances or dungs, either for the improvement of the general soil
under culture ; or for the culture of particular plants.
1980. In respect to composts for the amendment of the general soil of the garden, their
quality must depend on that of the natural soil ; if this be light, loose or sandy, it may
be assisted by the addition of heavy loams, clays, &c. from ponds and ditches, cleanings
of sewers, &c. On the other hand, heavy, clayey, and all stubborn soils, may be assisted
by light composts of sandy earth, drift, and sea-sand, the shovellings of turnpike-roads,
the cleansing of streets, all kinds of ashes, rotten tanners' bark, rotten wood, and saw-
dust, and other similar light opening materials that can be most conveniently procured.
1981. Composts for particular plants may be reduced to light sandy loam from old
pastures ; strong loam approaching nearly to brick-earth from the same source ; peat-
earth from the surface of heaths or commons ; bog-earth from bogs or morasses ; veget-
able earth from decayed leaves, stalks, cow-dung, &c. ; sand, either sea-sand, drift-sand,
or powdered stone, so as to be as free as possible from iron, lime-rubbish ; and lastly
common garden-earth. There are no known plants that will not grow or thrive in one
or other of these earths alone or mixed with some other earth, or with rotten dung, or
leaves. Nurserymen, whose practice may be considered a safe criterion to judge from,
have seldom more than three sorts of earth : loam, approaching to the qualities of brick-
earth ; peat or bog-earth, from heaths or morasses ; and the common soil of their nursery.
With these, and the addition of a little sand for striking plants, some sifted lime-rubbish
for succulents, and some well rotted cow-dung for bulbs and some sorts of trees, they
contrive to grow thousands of different species in as great perfection (taking the dif-
ference between plants in pots and plants in the free soil and air) as in their native coun-
tries, and many, as the pine, vine, camellia, rose, &c. in a superior manner.
1982. Practical limit to ingredients for composts. Cushing, one of the best writers on
the propagation of exotics, observes, " Loam, peat, and sand, seem to be the three simples
of nature, if I may so call them, most requisite for our purpose ; to which we occasionally
add, as mollifiers, vegetable or leaf mould, and well rotted dung ; from the judicious
mixture and preparation of which, composts may be made to suit plants introduced from
any quarter of the globe." (Exotic Gardener, p. 153. 1814.) Sweet (Botanical Culti-
vator, 1820,) concurs in this opinion. See also Haynes On Collecting and Forming
Composts, Sec. 1821.
Book IV.
OPERATIONS OF PROPAGATION.
387
1 983. Preparation of composts. The preparation requisite for the heavy and light
composts for general enrichment, and of the above different earths, consists in collecting
each sort in the compost-ground, in separate ridges of three or four feet broad and as
high, turning them every six weeks or two months for a year or a year and half before
they are used. Peat-earth being generally procured in the state of turves full of the
roots and tops of heath, requires two or three years to rot ; but, after it has lain one year,
it may be sifted, and what passes through a small sieve will be found fit for use. Some
nurserymen use both these loams and peats as soon as procured, and find them answer
perfectly for most plants ; but for delicate flowers, and especially bulbs, and all florists'
flowers, and for all composts in which manures enter, not less than one year ought to be
allowed for decomposition, and what is technically called sweetening. The French
gardeners allow for their rich orange-tree composts from three to six years.
1984. The compost-ground may be placed in any situation concealed from the general
view, but at the same time exposed to the free action of the sun, air, and rain. Its size
will depend on that of the garden, and on the sorts of culture for which the moulds are
adapted. It should generally form a part of the parallelogram enclosure used as hot-bed
ground, and where there are hot-houses, both should be situate as near them as possible.
Sect. II. Operations of Propagation.
1985. The operations of propagation are among the most curious and difficult in gardening.
As already observed (830.), plants are universally propagated by seed, but partially also
by germs or bulbs, suckers, runners, slips, and offsets ; and artificially by layers, inarch-
ing, grafting, budding, and cuttings.
Subsect. 1. Propagation by natural Methods.
1 986. By seed. Here the first consideration is to make sure of live seeds ; for some,
as we have seen (717. to 722.) lose their vitality very early after being gathered, while
others retain it only for one or perhaps two seasons ; some seeds also are injured, and
others are improved by keeping. The size of seeds requires also to be taken into con-
sideration, for on this most frequently depends the depth which they require to be buried
in the soil ; the texture of their skin or covering must be attended to, as on this often
depends the time they require to be buried in the soil previously to germination. On the
form and surface of the outer coating of seeds sometimes depends the mode of sowing as
in the carrot, and on their qualities in general depends their liability to be attacked by
insects. The nature of the offspring expected and the proper climate, soil, and season
require also to be kept in view in determining how, where, when, and in what quantity
any seed must be sown. Such are the general considerations, their particular applications
will afterwards occur.
1987. By germs or bulbs. These, whether cauline or radical, require in general to be
planted immediately or soon after removal from the parent plant, in light earth about
their own depth from the surface. Matured bulbs may be preserved out of the soil for
some months, without injury to their vitality ; but infant bulbs are easily dried up and
injured when so treated.
1988. By offsets. This mode is not very easily distinguished from the foregoing and
following, and seems in a strict sense only applicable to young radical bulbs, which, when
separated or taken off from the parent roots, are termed offsets.
1989. By slips. These are shoots {jig. 376. a) which spring from the collar or the
upper part of the roots of herbaceous plants, as in auricula, and under shrubs, as thyme,
&c. The shoot, when the lower part from whence the roots proceed begins to ripen or
acquire a firm texture, is to be slipped or drawn from the parent plant so far as to bring
off' a heel or claw of old wood, stem, or root, to which generally some roots, or rudiments
of roots, are attached. The ragged parts and edges of this claw or rough section are
then to be smoothed with a sharp knife, and the slip planted in suitable soil, and shaded
till it strikes root afresh, or appears to have recovered from the effects of amputation.
376
1990. By division of the plant. This mode is adopted with many species, as most per-
ennial grasses, the daisy, polyanthus, and a great variety of others. The plant is taken
Cc 2
'388
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
up, and the earth shaken from its roots ; the whole is then separated, each piece containing
a portion of root and stem, which may be planted without farther preparation.
1991. By runners (Jig- 376. c). With certain species this is a very convenient and
sure mode of propagation. All that is requisite, is to allow the plantlet on the shoot or
runner to be well rooted before being separated from the parent. It may then be planted
where it is finally to remain.
1992. By suckers. (Jig. 376. b). These are merely runners under ground ; some run
to a considerable distance, as the acacia, narrow-leaved elm, sea-limegrass, alkekengi,
&c. ; others are more limited in their migrations, as the lilac, syringa, Jerusalem arti-
choke, saponaria, &c. All that is necessary is to dig them up, cut off' each plantlet with
a portion of root, after which its top may be reduced by cutting off from one fourth to
one half of the shoot, in order to fit it to the curtailed root, and it may then be planted,
either in the nursing-department, or, if a strong plant, where it is finally to remain.
Subsect. 2. Propagation by Layering.
1993. Layers, as we have already observed (840.) are indicated by nature, and we
shall here point out the improvements of art and their applications. The roots in natural
layers are produced by the stimulus of the moist earth on which the shoots, from the na-
ture of the tree or plant, or accidental causes, recline ; art increases the natural stimuli,
and adds others, especially that of diminishing the resources of the shoot in the parent
plant, by incision or fracture.
1 994. Season. In general, the operation of layering in trees and shrubs is commenced
before the ascent of the sap, or delayed till the sap is fully up, and thence the two seasons
are early in spring or in midsummer. Autumn and winter are resorted to for convenience
in extensive concerns. The shoot, or extremity of the shoot, intended to become a new
plant, is half separated from the parent plant, at a few inches' distance from its extremity,
and while this permits the ascent of the sap at the season of its rising, the remaining half
of the stem being cut through and separated, forms a dam or sluice to the descending
sap, which, thus interrupted in its progress, exudes at the w>ound in the form of a gra-
nulous protuberance, which throws out roots. If the cut or notch in the stem does not
penetrate at least half way through, some sorts of trees will not form a nucleus the first
season ; on the other hand, if the notch be cut nearly through the shoot, a sufficiency of
alburnum or soft wood is not left for the ascent of the sap, and the shoot dies. In deli-
cate sorts it is not sufficient to cut a notch merely, because in that case, the descending
sap, instead of throwing out granulated matter in the upper side of the wound, would
descend by the entire side of the shoot ; therefore, besides a notch formed by cutting out
a portion of bark and wood, the notched side is slit up at least one inch, separating it by
a bit of twig, or small splinter of stone or potsherd.
1995. Manipulation. Shoots when layered are often cut and mangled at random
(fig. 377. a, by c), or buried insufficiently, or so deep in the soil (d) that they throw out
but few roots j or not placed upright (e), by which they make unsightly plants. In order
to give some sort of principle to go upon, it should be remembered, that the use of the notch
is to pi-event the heel or part intended to throw out granulous matter from being bruised,
which it generally is, by the common practice of performing this operation by one cut
sloping upwards; and that the use of the slit is to render it more difficult for the
377
descending sap to return from the extremity of the heel. In conformity with this idea,
Knight recommends taking up the shoot after it has grown some time, and cutting
off a- ring of bark below the notch and slit, so as completely to hinder the return of the
sap, and thereby force the shoot to employ it in forming roots. (Hort. Trans, vol. i. 256.)
In burying an entire shoot (f) with a view to induce shoots to rise from every bud,
notches alone are sufficient without either slitting or ringing. The use of the splinter of
wood, or bit of tile or potsherd, is partly to prevent the union of the parts when the bent
position of the shoot is not sufficient, and partly, and in some cases principally, to act as
a stimulus, Uke the bottom and sides of pots. On what principle it acts as a stimulus
Book IV. PROPAGATION BY LAYERING. 389
has not, we think, been yet determined, but its effects have long been very well known
to gardeners. In all cases the layer must be held firmly in its place by hooked pea's.
The operation of layering is performed on herbaceous plants as well as trees; and
the part to become the future plant is, in both cases, covered with soil about a third of
its length.
1996. Layering by twisting, ringing, piercing, and wiring the shoot intended for the
future plant is also occasionally practised.
1997. Piercing is performed with an awl, nail, or penknife, thrust through two or
three times in opposite directions at a joint ; from which wounds, first, granulated matter
oozes, and finally, fibres are emitted.
1998. Bmging is cutting off a small ring of bark and part of the wood, by which the
return of the sap being wholly prevented, it is, therefore, as it were, compelled to form
roots. Care must be taken, however, that the ring does not penetrate far into the wood,
otherwise the sap will be prevented from ascending in the first instance, and the shoot
killed.
1999. Wiring is performed by twisting a piece of wire round the shoot at a joint,
and pricking it at the same time with an awl on both sides of the wire. It is evident
that all these methods depend on the same general principle, that of permitting the ascent
of the sap through the wood, but checking its descent by cutting off or closing the vessels
of the bark.
2000. Layers which are difficult to strike may be accelerated by ringing. Rino-incr is
an excellent method for making layers of hard-wooded plants strike root with Greater
certainty, and in a smaller space of time than is attained in any other way. The°accu-
raulated vegetable matter in the callus, which is formed on the upper edge of the rino-
when brought into contact with the soil, or any material calculated to excite vegetation,
readily breaks into fibres and roots. (Hort. Trans, iv. 558.)
2001. Ln layering trees in the open garden, whatever mode be adopted, the ground
round each plant intended for laying, must be digged for the reception of the layers ;
then making excavations in the earth, lay down all the shoots or branches properly
situated for this purpose ; pegging each down with a peg or hooked stick ; laying also
all the proper young shoots on each branch or main shoot, fixing each layer from about
three or four to six inches deep, according as they admit, and moulding them in at that
depth, leaving the tops of every layer out of ground from about two or three to five or
six inehes, according to their length, though some shorten their tops down to one or two
eyes. Observe also to raise the top of each layer somewhat upright, especially tongue or
slit layers, in order to keep the slit open. As the layering is completed, levelfin all the
mould finally, and equally in every part close about every layer, leaving an even, smooth
surface, presenting only the tops of each layer in the circumference of a circle, and the
stems or stools in the centre. Sometimes the branches of trees are so inflexible, as not
to be easily brought down for laying; in which case they must be plashed, makino- the
gash or cut on the upper side ; and when they are grown too large for plashing, or'that
the nature of the wood will not bear that operation, they may be thrown on their sides,
by opening the earth about their roots, and loosening or cutting all those on one side,'
that the plant may be brought to the ground to admit of laying the branches.
2002. Layering plants in pots. When layers are to be made from green-house shrubs
or other jrfants in pots, the operation should generally be performed either in their own
pots, or in others placed near that of the stool to receive the layer.
2003. General treatment. After laying in either of the above methods, there is no par-
ticular culture requisite, excepting that of keeping the earth as much as possible
of uniform moisture, especially in pots ; and watering these in the open air in dry
weather.
2004. Management of stools. When the layers are rooted, which will generally be the
case by the autumn after the operation is performed, they are all cleared from the stools
or main plants, and the head of each stool, if to be continued for furnishing layers, should
be dressed ; cutting off all decayed and scraggy parts, and digging the ground round
them. Some fresh rich mould should also be worked in, in order to encourage the
production of the annual supply of shoots for layering.
2005. C/iinese laying. The Chinese method of propagating trees by first ringing, or
nearly so, a shoot, and then covering the ringed part with a ball of clay and earth,
covered with moss or straw, is obviously on the same general principle as layering ; and
is better effected in this country by drawing the shoot through a hole in a pot (such a
pot as Jig. 175.) ; ringing it to the extent of three fourths of its circumference, near the
the bottom or side of the pot, and then the pot, being supported in a proper position, and
filled with earth, it may be watered in the usual way. Some plants difficult to strike,
and for which proper stocks for inarching are not conveniently procured, are thus pro-
pagated in the nursery hot-houses.
2006. Removal of the rooted layer or plantlet. Though layers of trees completed early
Cc 3
390
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
in spring, and of herbaceous plants after the season of their flowering, are generally^ to
remove from the parent plant the end of the succeeding autumn ; yet many sorts of
American trees require two years to complete their roots. On the other hand, some sorts
of roses and deciduous shrubs, if their present year's wood be laid down when about half
grown, or about the middle of August, it will produce roots, and be fit to separate the
succeeding autumn.
Subsect. 3. Propagation by Inarching.
2007. Inarching may be described as a sort of layering, by the common _ or slit
process, in which the talus or heel intended to throw out fibres, instead of being inserted
in the soil, is inserted in the wood, or between the wood and bark of another plant, so as
to incorporate with it. It evidently depends on the same general principles as layering ;
and all the difference is, that the granulated matter which exudes between the bark and
the wood of the talus or heel, instead of throwing out fibres, unites with the wood of the
stock or plant to which it is attached, forming a solid ligneous union, which, when the
layer or shoot is separated from the mother plant, supplies it with nourishment as the
fibres do the common layer. It is the most certain mode of propagation with plants
difficult to excite to a disposition for rooting ; and when all other modes fail, this, when
a proper description of stock or basis is to be found, is sure to succeed. Professor
Thouin (Cours Complet a" Agriculture, &c. art. Greffe) has enumerated thirty-seven
varieties of inarching ; but they may all be reduced to two, crown inarching, in which
the head of the stock is cut off (fig. 378. a), and side inarching (b and c), in which the
head of the stock is left on. With young hardy trees, the first mode is reckoned the
best, as the whole effort of the stock is thereby directed to the nourishment of the
inarched shoot ; the other is resorted to in propagating delicate trees, and for filling up
blanks in branches, and other purposes.
2008. Preparatory measures. The stocks designed to be inarched, and the tree from
which the layer or shoot is to be bent or arched towards them, and put in or united, must
be placed if in pots, or planted if in the open soil, near together. Hardy trees of free-
growing kinds should have a circle of stocks planted round them every year in the same
circumference, every other one being inarched the one year, and when removed, their
place supplied by others, so that there will always be, by this practice, stocks of one year's
standing ready to receive the shoot. If the branches of the tree are too high for stocks
in the ground, they should be planted in pots, and elevated on posts or stands, or sup-
ported from the tree, &c.
2009. Manipulation. Having made one of the most convenient branches or shoots
approach the stock, mark on the body of the shoot the part where it will most easily join
to the stock ; and in that part of each shoot pare away the bark and part of the wood two
or three inches in length, and in the same manner pare the stock in the proper place for
the junction of the shoot ; next make a slit upwards in that part of the branch or shoot, as
in layering, so as to form a heel, but more of a tongue shape than in layering, and make
a slit downward in the stock to admit it. Let the parts be then joined, slipping the
tono-ue of the shoot into the slit of the stock, making both join in an exact manner, and
tie them closely together with bass. Cover the whole afterwards with a due quantity of
tempered or grafting clay or moss. In hot-houses, care must be taken not to disturb the
pots containing the plants operated on.
2010. Seasons for the operation. Inarching, like layering, is commonly performed in
Book IV. PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 391
sjrring, and in general cases, the union is effected in four or five months, when the layer
or inarched shoot may be separated from the mother plant. This must be done with a
very steady hand, so as not to loosen or break out the adhering shoot, sloping it off down-
wards, close to the stock ; and if the head of the stock was not cut down at the time of
inarching, it must now be cut off in a sloping direction close to the union ; and all the
old clay and bandage cleared away and replaced with new, to remain a few weeks longer
till the adhesion is complete, when it may be finally removed. In some cases, however,
the inarched shoot requires to remain two years, during the whole of which period, it
should be carefully covered to exclude the air from the wounds ; nor must the binding be
removed more than once during that period for fear of disturbing the cicatrising parts.
2011. Inarching a branch or shoot on the same tree (Jig- 378. b) is frequently a very
convenient mode of filling up vacancies in trees ; in which case it is generally performed
without heading down. Knight adopted this practice on a peach-tree, for a very in-
genious purpose, that of procuring returning or concocted sap to swell and ripen the fruit.
" In the last season (1812), a peach-tree in my garden, of which I was very anxious to
see the fruit, had lost, by the severity of the weather, all its blossoms, except two, which
grew upon leafless branches : I was very desirous to preserve these, as well as to ascertain
the cause why the peach and nectarine, under such circumstances, fail to acquire maturity.
The most probable cause, according to my hypothesis, appeared to be the want of return-
ing sap (which the leaves, if existing, would have afforded), and the consequent morbid
state of the branch ; I therefore endeavoured to derive the necessary portion of returning
sap from another source. To obtain this object, the points of the branches, which bore
fruit, were brought into contact with other branches of the same age that bore leaves ; and
a part of their bark, extending in length about four times their diameters, was pared off
immediately above the fruit. Similar wounds were then made upon the other branches,
with which these were brought into contact ; and the wounded surfaces were closely
fitted ; and tightly bound together. An union soon took place ; and the fruit, apparently
in consequence of it, acquired the highest state of maturity and perfection." Inarching,
like grafting, may be applied to various curious and useful purposes (c, d). Harte men-
tions that the hornbeam-hedges, in some parts of the Netherlands, were worked in the
lozenge form (d), and that by removing the bark at each intersection, the whole had be-
come united as if one tree. Some curious examples of inarching and grafting combined
are to be seen in the Jardin des Plantes.
2012. Inarching herbaceous vegetables may, in almost all solid or sub-solid stalked
plants, whether annual or of longer duration, be performed with equal certainty as
in ligneous kinds. The vine of the cucumber may be inarched on that of the gourd,
the love-apple on the potatoe, &c. (Baron Tschoudi. )
Subsect. 4. Propagation by Grafting.
2013. Grafting is a mode of propagation applicable to most sorts of trees and shrubs ;
but not easily to very small under-shrubs, as heath or herbaceous vegetables. It is chiefly
used for continuing varieties of fruit-trees. A grafted tree consists of two parts, the scion
and the stock ; their union constitutes the graft, and the performance of the operation is
called grafting. The scion is a part of the living vegetable, which, united or inserted in
a stock or other vegetable of the same nature, identifies itself with it, and grows there as
on its natural stem and roots.
2014. The end of grafting is, 1st. To conserve and multiply varieties and subvarieties
of fruit-trees, endowed accidentally or otherwise with particular qualities, which cannot
be with certainty transferred to their offspring by seeds, and which would be multiplied
too slowly, or ineffectually, by any other mode of propagation. 2. To accelerate the
fructification of trees, barren as well as fruit-bearing ; for example, suppose two acorns
of a new species of oak, received from a distant country ; sow both, and after they have
grown one or two years, cut one of them over, and graft the part cut off on a common
oak of five or six years' growth ; the consequence will be that the whole nourishment of
this young tree of five years' growth being directed towards nourishing the scion of one
or two years', it will grow much faster, and consequently arrive at perfection much sooner
than its fellow, or its own root left in the ground. A French author found the advantage
of this practice in the case of a new species of ash, to be as five to one in point of height.
(Cours Complet d' Agriculture, &c. art. Greffe.) The third use of grafting is to improve
the quality of fruits ; the fourth to perpetuate varieties of ornamental trees or shrubs ;
and the fifth to change the sorts of fruit on any one tree and renew its fruitfulness.
2015. The theory of grafting may be reduced to the following particulars : —
201 6. To graft or unite only varieties of the same species ; species of the same genus ; and
by extension, genera of the same natural family. Unless this union of natures be attended
to, success will not attend the operation.
2017. To observe the analogies of trees, as to the periods of the movement of their sap ;
in the permanence or deciduous duration of their leaves; and the qualities of the juices of
Cc 4
392 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
their fruits, In order to estimate the probable advantage of grafting a fVult of any parti-
cular flavor on another of similar or different qualities.
201 8. To unite exactly the inner bark of the scion with the inner bark of the 6tock in order
to facilitate the free course of the sap.
2019. To make choice of the proper season, and perform the operation with celerity.
2020. Any scion ivill not succeed on any stock. Professor Thouin observes, that the
historians and poets of antiquity have written, and the moderns repeated on the faith of
others, that every scion will take on any sort of stock, provided there be a resemblance in
their barks. Thus Pliny, Varro, Columella, &c. speak of apples and vines grafted on
elms and poplars ; and Evelyn mentions, that he saw a rose grafted on an orange-tree in
Holland. The ancients acknowledged, however, that such grafts were but of very short
duration. " The result of numerous experiments which we have made," observes the
professor, " proves that if any one of these grafts seems at first to succeed, they all perish
more or less promptly."
2021. Certain species of trees, and certain varieties of fruits, take more easily on some
stocks than on others. Sometimes the cause is known, and at other times we are ignorant
of it. Thus the platanus-leaved maple will not receive the scions of any species of its
genus ; the reason of which may perhaps be deduced from its milky sap, which indicates
an organisation different from its congeners. In like manner, the common walnut takes
with difficulty on the late walnut ; because the times of the motion of their sap do not
coincide. But why certain varieties of pear succeed better on the quince than on the
seedling, and others better on the seedling than on the quince, cannot so easily be ac-
counted for. Such anomalies are frequent, and make part of the practical science of
gardeners ; of so much the more importance, because less subjected to general laws.
(Cours Complet, &C ait. Greffe.)
2022. Grafting may be performed on all herbaceous vegetables with solid stems. The
dahlia roots are frequently grafted in this country, and sometimes the stems are grafted
or inarched. Baron Tschoudi at Strasbourg, and other physiologists at Paris, have
grafted melons on cucumbers, love-apples on potatoes, cauliflowers on cabbages, &c. and
made other similar unions with perfect success. Many of them are detailed in Essai sur
la Greffe de V Herbe, &c. by the Baron Tschoudi, 1819.
2023. Grafting may be performed uith the current years shoot, or with shoots of several
years'' growth. This is evident from the general principles of the art, as well as from ex-
perience. Knight, the Baron Tschoudi, and others, have grafted young shoots in leaf;
and Professor Van Mons, at Brussels, has grafted an entire tree, 15 feet high, on the stump
of another of similar diameter. (Neill, in Horticxdtural Tour, 310.)
2024. Influence of the stock. The stock does not change the character of the species of
tree, which may be grafted on it ; nor even that of the variety, if the connection between
the stock and scion is intimate : but by a particular choice of stocks, the tree is often mo-
dified differently in the dimensions of its parts ; in its general aspect ; in the flavor and
size of its fruit, though perhaps in a very slight degree ; and in the duration of its ex-
istence.
2025. The nature of -the fruit is to a certain extent affected by the nature of the stock.
Miller says decidedly, " that crab-stocks cause apples to be firmer, to keep longer, and
to have a sharper flavor ; and he is equally confident, that if the breaking pears be grafted
on quince-stocks, the fruit is rendered gritty or stony, while the melting pears are much
improved by such stocks. This, according to Neill, is scarcely to be considered as incon-
sistent with Lord Bacon's doctrine, ' that the scion overruleth the graft quite, the stock
being passive only ;' which, as a general proposition, remains true ; it being evident, that
the scion, bud, or inarched shoot is endowed with the power of drawing or forming
from the stock that peculiar kind of nourishment which is adapted to its nature, and that
the specific characters of the ingrafted plant remain unchanged, although its qualities may
be partially affected." {Ed. Encyc. art. Hort.)
2026. Fruitfulness and precocity produced by grafting. The effects produced upon the
growth and produce of a tree by grafting, Knight observes, " are similar to those which
occur when the descent of the sap is impeded by a ligature, or by the destruction of a
circle of bark. The disposition in young trees to produce and nourish blossom-buds and
fruit, is increased by this apparent obstruction of the descending sap ; and the fruit of
such young trees ripens, I think, somewhat earlier than upon other young trees of the
same age, which grow upon stocks of their own species ; but the growth and vigor of the
tree, and its power to nourish a succession of heavy crops are diminished apparently by
the stagnation in the branches and stock of a portion of that sap, which, in a tree grow-
ino- upon its own stem, or upon a stock of its own species, would descend to nourish and
promote the extension of the roots. The practice, therefore, of grafting the pear-tree
on the' quince-stock, and the peach and apricot on the plum, where extensive growth
and durability are wanted, is wrong ; but it is eligible wherever it is wished to diminish
the vigor and growth of the tree, and where its durability is not thought important.*'
Book IV.
PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING.
393
He adds, " When great difficulty is found in making a tree, whether fructiferous or
ornamental, produce blossoms, or in making its blossoms set, when produced, sucoess
will probably be obtained in almost all cases, by budding or grafting upon a stock
which is nearly enough allied to the graft to preserve it alive for a few years, but not
permanently. The pear-tree affords a stock of this kind to the apple ; and I have obtained
a heavy crop of apples from a graft which had been inserted in a tall pear-stock, only
twenty months previously, in a season when every blossom of the same variety of fruit in
the orchard was destroyed by frost. The fruit thus obtained was externally perfect, and
possessed all its ordinary qualities ; but the cores were black, and without a single seed ;
and every blossom had certainly fallen abortively, if it had been growing upon its native
stock. The experienced gardener will readily anticipate the fate of the scion ; it perished
in the following winter. The stock, in such cases as the preceding, promotes, in propor-
tion to its length, the early bearing and early death of the graft."
2027. Species and varieties if grafting. The chief modern writers on grafting are,
Quintiney, Du Hamel , Rosier, and Professor Thouin, among the French ; Mayer, Die-
derich, Christ, and Sickler, among the Germans ; Clarici and P. Re, among the Italians ;
and Miller, Curtis, and Knight, among the English. Professor Thouin has refined so
much on the subject, as to have produced or enumerated above forty modes of grafting,
besides a great many kinds of budding and inarching, named chiefly after eminent an-
cient and modern botanists and gardeners, as Pliny, Virgil, Quintiney, Miller, Adanson,
&c. Most of these are, however, varieties of the ordinary species, and separated by such
slender shades of difference, or so remotely connected with utility (as the Greffe Banks),
that they do not appear of sufficient importance for admission here ; and we shall, there-
fore, chiefly describe such varieties as have been long known and practised ; which form
the basis of all the others ; and which every individual may vary according to his taste.
The reader who would enquire further into the subject, may consult Curtis's Lectures on
Botany, vol. iii. and Nouveau Cours Complet a" Agriculture, &c. torn. xvi. art. Greffe.
2028. Whip-grafting (Jig. 379. a), 379
or, as it is sometimes called, tongue-
grafting, is the most generally adopted
in nurseries for propagating fruit-
trees. To effect this mode in the best
style, it is desirable, that the top of
the stock, and the extremity of the
scions should be nearly of equal dia-
meter. Hence this variety admits of
being performed on smaller stocks
than any other. It is called whip-
grafting, from the method of cutting
the stock and scions, sloping on one
side so as Jo fit each other, and thus
tied together in the manner of a whip-
thong to the shaft or handle. The
scion and stock being cut off obliquely
at corresponding angles, as near as the operator can guess, then cut off the tip of the stock
obliquely or nearly horizontally ; make now a slit nearly in the centre of the sloped face
of the stock downwards, and a similar one in the scion upwards. The tongue or wedge-
like process, forming the upper part of the sloping face of the scion, is then inserted down-
wards in the cleft of the stock ; the inner barks of both being brought closely to unite on
one side so as not to be displaced in tying, which ought to be done immediately with a
riband of bass, brought, in a neat manner, several times round the stock, and which is
generally done from right to left, or in the course of the sun. The next operation is to
clay the whole over an inch thick on every side, from about half an inch or more below
the bottom of the graft, to an inch over the top of the stock, finishing the whole coat of
clay in a kind of oval globular form, closing it effectually about the scion and every part,
so as no light, wet, nor wind may penetrate ; to prevent which is the whole intention of
claying. It may be added, that the whip-grafting of Lawson, and other old horticultural
writers, was then practised without a tongue, which addition gave rise to the latter term.
The French mode of whip-grafting differs from the English in their never paring more
off the stock, however large, than the width of the scion (Jig. 380. e,f, g). In both modes,
the stock is sometimes not shortened down to the graft, but a few inches left to serve as a
prop to tie the shoots proceeding from the scion ; or even to admit of fastening the liga-
tures used in the operation more securely. In either case, if the graft has succeeded, this
appendage is cut off at the end of the season.
2029. Cleft-grafting (fig. 379. b) is resorted to in the case of strong stocks, or in head-
ing down and re-grafting old trees. " The head of the stock or branch (which we may
suppose to be two or three inches in diameter) is first cut off obliquely, and then the
394
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Paet II.
380
sloped part is cut over horizontally near the middle of the slope ; a cleft nearly two inches
long is made with a stout knife or chisel in the crown downwards, at right angles to the
sloped part, taking care not to divide the pith. This cleft is kept open by the knife.
The scion has its extremity for about an inch and half, cut into the form of a wedge, it is
left about the eighth of an inch thicker on the outer or back side, and brought to a fine
edo-e on the insfde. It is then inserted into the opening prepared for it ; and the knife
being withdrawn, the stock closes firmly upon it." If it be intended to graft any pretty
laro-e stocks or branches by this method, two or more scions may be inserted in each. The
stock being prepared by cutting over as above, cleave it across in two places parallel and
at a smalf distance apart, and insert a scion in each cleft : or by cutting or sawing the
head otF horizontally, and smoothing the section, a radiated series of clefts may be made,
and scions inserted in each.
2030. Crown-grafting is another mode adopted for thick stocks, shortened branches, or
headed down trees, ft is sometimes called grafting in the bark or rind, frdm the scion
beincr inserted between the bark and wood. This mode of grafting is performed with
best 'effect, somewhat later than the others, as the motion of the sap renders the bark and
wood of the stock much more easily separated for the admission of the scions. In per-
forming the operation, first cut or saw off the head of the stock or branch, horizontally or
level, and pare the top smooth ; then having the scions, cut one side of each flat and some-
what'sloping, an inch and half long, forming a sort of shoulder at the top of the slope, to
rest upon the crown of the stock ; and then raise the rind of the stock with the ivory
wed<*e, forming the handle of the budding-knife {Jig. 110.) ; so as to admit the scion be-
twee°n that and the wood two inches down ; which done, place the scion with the cut side
next the wood, thrusting, it down far enough for the shoulder to rest upon the top of the
stock ; and in this manner may be put three, four, five, or more scions, in one large stock
or branch. It is alleged as a disadvantage attending this method in exposed situations,
that the ingrafted shoots for two or three years are liable to be blown out of the stock by
violent winds ; the only remedy for which is tying long rods to the body of the stock or
branch, and tying up each scion and its shoots to one of the rods.
<?031 Side-Drafting {fig. 379. c) resembles whip or tongue grafting, but differs in
bein"- performed on the side of the stock without bending down. It is practised on wall
trees&to fill up vacancies, and sometimes in order to have a variety of fruits upon the
same tree. Having fixed upon those parts of the branches where wood is wanting to
furnish the head or any part of the tree, there slope off the bark and a little of the wood,
and cut the lower end of the scions to fit the part as near as possible, then join them to
the branch, tie them with bass, and clay them over.
^032. Saddle-grafting is performed by first cutting the top of the stock into a wedge-
like form, and then splitting up the end of the scion and thinning off each half to a
tono-ue shape ; it is then placed on the wedge, embracing it on each side, and the inner
barks are made to join on one side of the stock, as in cleft-grafting. This is a very
stron" and handsome mode for standard-trees when grafted at the standard-height. It is
also desirable for orange-trees, and rose-standards, as it makes a handsome finish, covering
a part of the stock, which by the other methods, long remains a black scar, and some-
times never becomes covered with bark. The stocks for this purpose should not be much
thicker than the scions, or two scions may be inserted. m
903S. A heal variety of saddle-grafting {fig- 379. d, e, f) is thus described by Knight, as
practised upon small stocks, and almost exclusively in Herefordshire It is never at-
tempted till the usual season of grafting is passed, and till the bark is readily detached from
the alburnum. The head of the stock is then taken off by a single stroke of the knife
obliquely, so that the incision commences about a diameter below the point where the me-
Book IV.
PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING.
395
dulla appears in the section of the stock, and ends as much above it, upon the opposite
side. The scion, which should not exceed in diameter half that of the stock, is then to be
divided longitudinally, about two inches upwards from its lower end, into two unequal
divisions, by passing the knife upwards just in contact with one side of the medulla.
The stronger division of the scion is then to be pared thin at its lower extremity, and in-
troduced, as in crown-grafting, between the bark and wood of the stock ; and the more
slender division is fitted to the stock upon the opposite side. The scion consequently
stands astride the stock, to which it attaches itself firmly upon each side, and which it
covers completely in a single season. Grafts of the apple and pear rarely ever fail in
this method of grafting, which may be practised with equal success with young wood in
July, as soon as that has become moderately firm and mature. 381
2034. A subvariety of saddle-grafting (fig. 381.), applicable
to very slender shoots, is practised by Knight, who gives the
rationale and manipulation in his usual masterly manner. As
this mode has rarely " or never been properly executed, it will
be necessary that I describe the motion of the sap as I conceive
it to be, at the period when grafts are most advantageously in-
serted. The graft first begins its efforts to unite itself to the
stock just at the period when the formation of a new internal
layer of bark commences in the spring ; and the fluid, which
generates this layer of bark, and which also feeds the inserted
graft, radiates in every direction from the vicinity of the me-
dulla, to the external surface of the alburnum. The graft is of
course most advantageously placed when it presents the largest
surface to receive such fluid, and when the fluid itself is made to
deviate least from its natural course. This takes place most
efficiently, when a graft of nearly equal size with the stock is
divided at its base and made to stand astride the stock, and
when the two divisions of the graft are pared extremely thin, at
and near their lower extremities, so that they may be brought
into close contact with the stock (from which but little bark or
wood should be pared off) by the ligature. I have adopted this
mode chiefly in grafting cherry-trees, and I have rarely ever seen
a graft fail, even where the wood has been so succulent and immature as to preclude
every hope of success by any other mode." (Hort. Trans, v. 147.)
2035. Shoulder, or chink-grafting, is performed with a shoulder, and sometimes also
with a stay at the bottom of the slope. It is chiefly used for ornamental trees, where the
scion and stock are of the same size {fig. 380. a, b, c, d).
2036. Root-grafting (fg. 380. h) is sometimes performed in nurseries on parts of
the roots of removed trees, when the proper stocks are scarce ; and in which case, the
root of the white thorn has been resorted to as a stock both for the apple and pear. In
general, however, a piece of the root of the tree of the same genus is selected, well fur-
nished with fibres, and a scion placed on it in any of the ordinary ways for small stocks.
Thus united, they are planted so deep as to cover the ball of clay, and leave only a few
eyes of the scion above ground. Some gardeners have thought, that in this way, the
plant must preserve a near resemblance to the parent tree ; but Abercrombie remarks,
that though it is an expeditious way of obtaining a new plant, such a graft cannot be
materially different from a cutting or layer.
2037. A variety of root-grafting, practised by Knight, is thus described. " Trans-
planting, many years ago, some pear-stocks from a seed-bed, of which the soil was soft
and deep, I found that the first emitted roots of many of them descended a foot or more
perpendicularly into the earth, before they divided into any lateral ramifications : and as
I did not like to replant the young trees, with such an inconvenient length of perpendi-
cular root, I cut off about six inches from each. The amputated parts were then accu-
rately fitted and bound, as in splice or whip-grafting, to scions of pear-trees, which were
selected as nearly as possible of the same size ; and the roots, with their attached branches,
were deposited in the ground as cuttings, so deep, that the whole of the root, and about
an inch of the scion, were covered. The soil was then drawn up with the hoe on each
side of the plants, which were placed in rows, so that one bud only of each graft was
above the soil, and another just within it. These grafts succeeded perfectly well ; and I
have subsequently repeated the same experiment with equal success upon the apple, the
plum, and the peach. In the greater part of these experiments, the roots were perfectly
cleansed from mould by washing, before they were fitted to the graft, and were then
placed in wet moss, till a sufficient number were ready to be carried to the nursery ; a.
common dibber only was employed in planting them ; but the mould was washed into
the holes with water, to close it well round the roots, and to supply the place of the clay
used in other methods of grafting." (Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 239.) A variation of this
396 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
mode, consists in leaving that part of the tap-root not wanted with the removed tree undis-
turbed in the soil, and grafting on it there. Such root-grafts grow with uncommon vigor.
2038. Terebration, or peg-grafting (Jig. 380. i), is an old method, in which the stock
being cut off horizontally, a hole was bored in the centre of it ; and the scion being se-
lected to fit the stock, within an inch and a half of its lower end, a circular incision was
made, and the part between that and the end reduced, so as to fit the hole in the stock.
This peg filling the hole was supposed to secure the graft from the effect of the winds.
2039. Future treatment. In a month after grafting, it may be ascertained whether the
scion has united with the stock, by observing the progress of its buds ; but, in general, it
is not safe to remove the clay for three months or more, till the graft be completely cica-
trised. The clay may generally be taken off" in July or August, and at the same time
the ligatures loosened where the scion seems to require more room to expand ; a few
weeks afterwards, when the parts have been thus partially inured to the air, and when
there is no danger of the scion being blown off" by winds, the whole of the ligatures may
be removed. If the stock was not shortened down close to the graft or junction of the
scion with the stock at the time of performing the operation, it may be done now, or as
soon as the ligatures can be entirely dispensed with. In particular cases, a ligature
round the graft, or a stake, or other prop, for the shoots of the scion, may be necessary
for a year to come, to protect against winds ; or a bandage of moss kept over the graft,
to preserve moisture, and encourage the expansion of the parts, and complete filling up
of the wound.
2040. Choice and treatment of stocks. The stocks on which the operation of grafting is
performed, are most commonly the stems of young trees, raised from the seed, or from
suckers, layers, or cuttings, reared for that purpose. For what are called dwarf-trees,
the stock at the time of grafting must always be headed down within a few inches of the
ground for the insertion of the scion ; and for standards, the heading of the stock for the
insertion of the scion may either be near the ground, the scion inserted accordingly, and
one of the first shoots from it trained up to form a stem, or the scion inserted at the pro-
per height. But if, as is the case with standard cherries, the stock is intended to form
the stem, then it must be suffered to grow six or seven feet high, and be afterwards
headed down at five or six feet for the reception of the scion. The French and Americans
graft and bud their stocks much higher than is practised in Britain, which some consider
To contribute to the durability of the tree. J. Wilmot is of opinion, that, by the oppo-
site practice, the whole of the wild or proper stock, in garden-grounds where the soil is
continually raised by manure, becomes buried in the soil, and reduced to a mere root,
and then, he says, the tree begins to decline in vigor, and soon decays and dies. (Hort.
Trans, vol. i. p'. 215.)
2041. The species of stocks for f nut-trees are divided into what are called free-groivmg
and dmirjing stocks. The free-growing are such as naturally attain the full height of the
species to be grafted on them, as the seedlings of the common apple, common pear, plum,
and cherry. The dwarfing stocks are such as naturally form much smaller trees than
the sorts to be grafted on them, and therefore have a tendency to diminish the magnitude
of the adopted sorts ; as the paradise, doucin, and creeper, for apples ; the quince, for
pears ; bullace, for plums ; and perfumed, and wild red cherry, for cherries.
2042. The species of stocks for timber and ornamental trees is generally some hardy spe-
cies or variety of the same genus ; often, however, plants of a different genus, but of the
same family, will answer. This, as already observed (2021.), is partly a matter of
theorv, and partly of experience.
2043. Scions are generally the young shoots of last summer's growth, and should be
chosen from the outside lateral branches of healthy trees. The outside lateral branches
are preferred, because in them the shoots are not so robust and apt to run to wood as m
the centre and top of the tree, nor so weak as those which are at its base, and under the shade
and drip of the rest. Such shoots are uniformly found to be the best bearers, and to pro-
duce the truest specimen of the fruit of the tree on which they grow. An exception to this
rule is to be found in the case of debilitated trees, where, of course, the scions should be
taken from the strongest shoots in the centre of the tree. The middle part of each shoot
makes always the best scion, for the same reasons as those given for choosing the shoots
from the middle part of the tree ; but long shoots, and especially where the scion is of a
rare variety, may be cut into several scions of four or six inches in length, reserving not
fewer than two, nor more than five eyes, to form the future head of the tree.
2044. Preparation of scions. Scions should be gathered several weeks before the sea-
son for grafting arrives ; the reason is, that experience has shown that grafting may
most successfully be performed, by allowing the stock to have some advantage over the
<rraft in forwardness of vegetation. It is desirable that the sap of the stock should be in
brisk motion at the time of grafting ; but by this time the buds of the scion, if left on
the parent tree, would be equally advanced ; whereas the scions, being gathered early,
the buds are kept back, and ready only to swell out when placed on the stock. Scions
Book IV. PROPAGATION BY BUDDING. 897
of pears, plums, and cherries are collected in the end of January, or beginning of Fe-
bruary. They are kept at full length, sunk in dry earth, and out of the reach of frost
till wanted, which is sometimes from the middle of February to the middle of March.
Scions of apples are collected any time in February, and put on from the middle to the
end of March. In July grafting (2033.), the scions are used as gathered.
2045. The materials used in grafting are, a strong pruning-knife for cutting off the
heads of the stocks previous to their preparation by the grafting-knife for the scion ; a
small saw for large stocks ; and a penknife for very small scions ; a chisel and mallet
for cleft-grafting ; bass-ribands as ligatures ; and grafting-clay.
2046. Grafting-clay is prepared either from stiff yellow or blue clay, or from clayey
loam or brick-earth ; in either case, adding thereto about a fourth part of fresh horse-
dung, free from litter, and a portion of cut hay, mixing the whole well together, and
adding a little water ; then let the whole be well beaten with a stick upon a floor, or other
hard substance ; and as it becomes too dry apply more water, at every beating turning
it over ; and continuing beating it well at top till it becomes flat and soft. This process
must be repeated, more or less, according as the nature of the clay may require to render
it ductile, and yet not so tough as to be apt to crack in dry weather ; for instance* it
should be several times beaten the first day ; and next morning repeat the beating, still
moistening it with water, and by thus repeating the beating several times every day for
two or three days, or every other day at least, for a week, it will be in proper order for
use ; observing that it should be prepared a week at least before it is used ; but if a month,
the better, keeping it moist. Some recommend salt to be mixed with the clay, and others
ashes or lime-rubbish, or drift-sand ; the object in these cases being to prevent its crack-
ing with the sun ; which, however, the horse-droppings, if well incorporated, will in
general fully prevent.
2047. The grafting-clay of the French and Dutch, Onguent de St. Fiacre (St. Fiacre
being the patron saint of gardening), is composed of half cow-dung, free from litter, and
half fresh loam, intimately incorporated. They prefer this to all others for exclud-
ing the external air from wounds of every description, and ridicule the idea of certain
complex compositions. Bosc (Ar. C. d'Ag. &c. torn. v. art. Englumen) observes of a
noted English composition for healing wounds, that it is so " complicated and ridiculous
in the eyes of those who have any knowledge of chemistry or natural philosophy, that it is
a matter of astonishment how it could be proposed in our age."
2048. Substitutes for grafting-clay. Abercrombie and various authors mention resinous
substitutes for clay, the details of which are given in the first edition of Miller's Diet.
These substitutes are recommended for small and delicate trees, as camellias, daphnes, &c.
and are composed of wax and pitch, pitch and tallow, tallow and oil, or a compound of
turpentine, bees'-wax, and rosin, at first melted together, and afterwards heated as wanted ;
care being taken not to apply it too hot. A coating laid on with a brush, to the depth of
a quarter of an inch, is said to be less liable to crack than clay ; and it is added, that when
the full heat of summer arrives, the composition melts away of its own accord. This last
circumstance, we must confess, appears a sufficient argument against its use, since its re-
moval must depend on the weather, and not on the state of the graft. We have seen its
use in Italy attended by such consequences. D. Powel, Esq. spreads it on shreds of brown
paper ; wraps these round the graft, and over them some bass ties. (Hort. T?°ans. v. 282.)
2049. The use of compositions for covering grafts is threefold; 1st. To prevent the extra-
vasation of the sap from the wounds ; 2d. The too sudden drying of the wood ; and, 3d.
The introduction of rain-water in the wound or cleft. It is evident, therefore, that what-
ever sort of clay or coating is adopted, much will depend on its immediate application,
and instantaneous repair in future, wherever it cracks or falls off. In addition to
claying, some nurserymen cover the clay with a coating of moss, to preserve a moderate
degree of moisture and tenacity ; and others, in the case of dwarf-trees grafted close to
the ground, earth up the grafts for the same purpose. These practices suit particular
cases, but are not generally necessary. - Earthing up is one of the best accompaniments
to claying, and should seldom be omitted when it caji be adopted.
Subsect. 5. Propagation by Budding.
2050. Budding, or grafting by gems, consists, in ligneous plants, in taking an eye or bud
attached to a portion of the bark, of different sizes and forms, and generally called a shield,
and transporting it to a place in another, or a different ligneous vegetable. In herbaceous
vegetables the same operation may be performed, but with less success. It may also be
performed with buds of two or three years' standing, and on trees of considerable size, but
not generally so. The object in view in budding is almost always that of grafting, and
depends on the same principle ; all the difference between a bud and a scion being, that
a bud is a shoot, or scion, in embryo. In all other respects, budding is conducted on the
same principles as grafting.
205 1 . A new application of budding has been made by Knight. It is that of transferring
398 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
« a part of the abundant blossom-buds from one tree to the barren branches of others."
He tried this first on roses, and afterwards on the pear and peach, with much success. In
this way also he considers that fruit might be produced on yearling trees, not as matter of
utility (as in supplying barren trees with blossom-buds), but as a curious experiment.
2052. Advantages of budding. Budded trees are generally two years later in producing
their fruit than grafted ones ; but the advantage of budding is, that where a tree is rare,
a new plant can be got from every eye, whereas by grafting it can only be got from every
three or four eyes. There are also trees which propagate much more readily by budding
than grafting ; and others, as most of the stone-fruits, are apt to throw out gum when
grafted. When grafting has been omitted or has failed in spring, budding comes in as an
auxiliary in summer.
2053. Season of budding. The operation of common budding is performed any time
from the beginning of July to the middle of August ; the criterion being the formation
of the buds in the axilla? of the leaf of the present year. The buds are known to be ready
by the shield or portion of bark, to which they are attached, easily parting with the wood.
The buds preferred are generally those on the middle of a young shoot, as being neither
so apt to run to wood as those at the extremity, nor so apt to lie dormant as those at the
lower end. In some cases, however, the buds from the middle and extremity of the shoots
are to be rejected, and those taken which are at the base of the annual shoots, as Knight
(Hot*. Trans, vol. iii. 135.) found in the case of the walnut-tree. Scalope-budding may
be performed in spring, or at any season.
2054. Stocks for budding may, in general, be much smaller than for grafting, as the
operation may be performed on the same year's shoot. But it may also be performed on
shoots or stems of several years' growth, and in such, by inserting a number of buds, a
complete tree may be formed at once. Scalope-budding may be performed on trees of
considerable age.
2055. Choice of buds. For gathering the shoots containing the buds, a cloudy day or
an early or late hour is chosen, on this principle, that the leaves being at these periods
in a less active state of perspiration, suffer least from being separated from their parent
plant. They are preserved fresh, and may be sent a great distance by inserting their ends
in water or moist moss ; though, in general, they should be used as soon after gathering
as possible ; indeed, as in grafting and inarching, the whole operation ought to be per-
formed with the greatest celerity.
2056. Kinds of budding, Professor Thouin enumerates twenty-three species and va-
rieties of budding ; but we shall here describe only four, of which but one variety is in
general use in Britain.
2057. Shield-budding, or T budding (fig. 382.) is thus performed : — S82
Fix on a smooth part on the side of the stock, rather from than towards
the sun, and of a height depending, as in grafting, on whether dwarf,
half, or whole standard-trees are desired ; then, with the budding-knife,
make a horizontal cut across the rind, quite through to the firm wood;
from the middle of this transverse cut, make a slit downward, perpendi-
cularly, an inch or more long, going also quite through to the wood.
This done, proceed with all expedition to take off a bud ; holding the
cutting, or scion, in one hand, with the thickest end outward, and with
the knife in the other hand, enter it about half an inch or more below
a bud, cutting near half way into the wood of the shoot, continuing it
with one clean slanting cut, about half an inch or more above the bud,
so deep as to take off part of the wood along with it, the whole about
an inch and a half long {Jig. 382. a) ; then directly with the thumb
and finger, or point of the knife, slip off the woody part remaining to
the bud ; which done, observe whether the eye or gem of the bud re-
mains perfect ; if not, and a little hole appears in that part, it is improper, or as gardeners
express it, the bud has lost its root, and another must be prepared. This done, placing
the back part of the bud or shield between your lips, expeditiously with the flat haft of
the knife separate the bark of the stock on each side of the perpendicular cut, clear to the
wood (c), for the admission of the bud, which directly slip down, close between the wood
and bark, to the bottom of the slit (d). The next operation is to cut off the top part of
the shield (b) even with the horizontal first made cut, in order to let it completely into
its place, and to join exactly the upper edge of the shield with the transverse cut, that the
descending sap may immediately enter the bark of the shield, and protrude granulated
matter between it and the wood, "so as to effect a living union. The parts are now to be
immediately bound round with a ligament of fresh bass (e), previously soaked in water,
to render it pliable and tough, beginning a little below the bottom of the perpendicular
slit, proceeding upw'ard closely round every part, except just over the eye of the bud, and
continue it a little above the horizontal cut, not too tight, but just sufficient to keep the
whole close, and exclude the air, sun, and wet.
Book IV.
PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS.
2058. Shield-budding reversed, or reversed j, budding, differs from the former in having
the transverse cut made at the bottom of the perpendicular slit, instead of at its top, and
of course the shield is reversed in its position. This mode is represented as preferable to
the other by such as contend that the sap rises in the bark equally with the wood ; but as
this opinion is now generally considered as exploded, the first, or T mode, may justly be
considered as the most scientific mode of budding. Professor Thouin describes shield-
budding reversed under the name of Schnerwoogth. The advantages attending it, he says,
are, that it is not easily drowned with sap or srum ; and the disadvantages, that it often
fails when there is a scarcity of sap. It is practised occasionally in the orange-nurseries
near Genoa, as may be seen in the plants imported to this country.
2059. Scalope-budding consists in paring a thin tongue-shaped section of bark from the
side of the stock ; and in taking a similar section from the shoot of buds, in neither
case removing the wood. The section or shield containing the bud is then laid on the
corresponding scollop in the stock ; its upper edge exactly fitted, as in shield-budding,
and at least one of its edges, as in whip-grafting. After this, it is tied in the usual
way. The advantages of this mode are, that it can be performed when the wood and
bark do not separate freely ; on trees having very stiff, thick, suberose barks, and at any
season of the year. Its disadvantages are, that it requires longer time to perform the
operation, and is less certain of success. The French gardeners often bud their roses in
this manner in spring ; and if they fail, they have a second chance in July by using the
common mode.
2060. Budding with double ligatures is a mode invented by Knight, and described
by him (Hort. Trans, vol. i. 194.) as " a new and expeditious mode of budding." The
operations are performed in the manner first above described ; but instead of one liga-
ture, two are applied, one above the bud inserted upon the transverse section through
the bark ; the other, which had no farther office than that of securing the bud, was
applied below in the usual way. As soon as the buds had attached themselves, the
lower ligatures were taken off; but the others were suffered to remain. " The pas-
sage of the sap upwards was in consequence much obstructed, and the inserted buds
began to vegetate strongly in July (being inserted in June) ; and when these had afforded
shoots about four inches long, the remaining ligatures were taken off, to permit the ex-
cess of sap to pass on ; and the young shoots were nailed to the wall. Being there pro-
perly exposed to light, their wood ripened well, and afforded blossoms in the succeeding
spring ; and these would," he adds, " no doubt, have afforded fruit ; but that, leaving
my residence, I removed my trees," &c.
2061. Future treatment. In a fortnight at farthest after budding, such as have adhered
may be known by their fresh appearance at the eye ; and in three weeks all those which
have succeeded will be firmly united with the stock, and the parts being somewhat
swelled in most species, the bandage must be loosened, and a week or two afterwards
finally removed. The shield and bud now swell in common with the other parts of the
stock ; and nothing more requires to be done till spring, when, just before the rising of
the sap, they are to be headed down close to the bud, by an oblique cut, terminating
about an eighth or a quarter of an inch above the shield. In some cases, however, as in
grafting, a few inches of the stalk is left for the first season, and the young shoot tied to
it for protection from the winds.
2062. The instruments and materials for budding are merely the budding-knife
(Jig. 110.) and bass ligatures.
Subsect. 6. Propagation by Cuttings.
2063. Propagation by cuttings has been long known, and is abundantly simple when
applied to such free-growing hardy shrubs, as the willow (Jig. 383. a) or the gooseberry
(b) ; but considered as the chief mode of propagating most of the ericeae, myrteac, pro-
teaceae, &c. becomes one of the most delicate and difficult modes of continuing the
species, and fifty years ago was an operation known to very few of even the first-rate
gardeners. It may be considered, as to the choice of cuttings, their preparation, their
insertion in the soil, and their future management.
400 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
2064. In respect to the choice of cuttings, those branches of trees and shrubs which are
thrown out nearest the ground, and especially such as recline, or nearly so, on the
earth's surface, have always the most tendency to produce roots. Even the branches of
resinous trees, which are extremely difficult to propagate by cuttings, when reclining
on the ground, if accidentally, or otherwise, covered with earth in any part, will there
often throw out roots, and the extremity of the lateral shoot will assume the character of a
main stem, as may be sometimes seen in the larch, spruce, and silver fir. Cuttings then
are to be chosen from the side shoots of plants, rather than from their summits or main
stems ; and the strength and health of side shoots being equal, those nearest the ground
should be preferred. The proper time for taking cuttings from the mother plant
is when the sap is in full motion, in order that, in returning by the bark, it may
form a callus or protruding ring of granular substance, between the bark and wood
whence the roots proceed. As this callus, or ring of spongy matter, is generally best
formed in ripened wood, the cutting, when taken from the mother plant, should contain
a part of the former year, or in plants which grow twice a year, of the wood of the
former growth ; or in the case of plants which are continually growing, as most ever-
green exotics, such wood as has begun to ripen, or assume a brownish color. This is
the true principle of the choice of cuttings as to time ; but there are many sorts of trees,
as willow, elder, &c. the cuttings of which will grow almost at any season, and even
if removed from the mother plant in winter, when the sap is comparatively at rest. In
these and other trees, the principle of life seems so strong, and so universally diffused
over the vegetable, that very little care is requisite for their propagation. Cuttings from
herbaceous plants are chierly chosen from the low growths, which do not indicate a
tendency to blossom ; but they will also succeed in many cases, when taken from the
flower-stems, and some rare sorts of florists' and border flowers, as the dahlia, rocket,
cardinal-flower, scarlet lychnis, wallflower, &c. are so propagated.
2065. The preparation of the cutting depends on, or is guided by this principle, that
the power of protruding buds or roots resides chiefly, and in most cases entirely, at what
are called joints, or at those parts where leaves or buds already exist. Hence it is that
cuttings ought always to be cut across, with the smoodiest and soundest section possible,
at an eye or joint. And as buds are in a more advanced state in wood somewhat ripened
or fully formed, than in a state of formation, this section ought to be made in the wood
of the growth of the preceding season ; or as it were in the point between the two
growths. It is true, that there are many sorts of cuttings, which not only throw out
roots from the ring of granulated matter, but also from the sides of every part of the
stem inserted in the soil, whether old and large (c), or young and small (d, e), as
willows, currants, vines, &c. ; but all plants which are difficult to root, as heaths (f),
camellias, orange-trees, &c. will be found in the first instance, and for several years after
propagation, to throw out roots only, from the ring of herbaceous matter above mentioned ;
and to facilitate the formation of this ring, by properly preparing the cuttings of even
willows and currants, must be an obvious advantage. It is a common practice to cut off
the whole or a part of the leaves of cuttings, which is always attended with bad effects
in evergreens, in which the leaves may be said to supply nourishment to the cutting till
it can sustain itself. This is very obvious in the case of striking from buds (g),
which, without a leaf attached, speedily rot and die. Leaves alone, as in bryophyllum
calycinum, will even strike root and form plants in some instances ; and the same,
as Professor Thouin observes, may be stated of certain flowers and fruits.
2066. Cuttings which are difficult to strike may be rendered more tractable by previous
ringing ; if a ring be made on the shoot which is to furnish the cutting, a callus will
be created, which, if inserted in the ground after the cutting is taken off, will freely emit
roots. A ligature would perhaps operate in a similar manner, though not so efficiently ;
it should lightly encircle the shoot destined for a cutting, and the latter should be taken
off when an accumulation of sap has apparently been produced. The amputation in
the case of the ligature, as well as in that of the ring, must be made below the circles,
and the cutting must be so planted as to have the callus covered with earth. {Hort.
Trans, vol. iv. 558.)
2067. The insertion of the cuttings may seem an easy matter, and none but a practical
cultivator would imagine that there could be any difference in the growth, between cut-
tings inserted in the middle of a pot, and those inserted at its sides. Yet such is actually
the case, and some sorts of trees, as the orange, ceratonia, &c. if inserted in a mere mass
of earth, will hardly, if at all, throw out roots, while, if they are inserted in sand, or in
earth at the sides of the pots, so as to touch the pot in their whole length, they seldom
fail of becoming rooted plants. Knight found the mulberry strike very well by cuttings,
when they were so inserted, and when their lower ends touched a stratum of gravel or
broken pots ; and Hawkins, (Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 12.) who had often tried to strike
orange-trees, without success, at last heard of a method (long known to nurserymen,
but which was rediscovered by Luscome), by which, at the first trial, eleven cuttings
Book IV. SOWING, PLANTING, AND WATERING. 401
out of thirteen grew. " The art is, to place them to touch the bottom of the pot ; they
are then to be plunged in a bark or hot-bed, and kept moist."
2068. The management of cuttings after they are planted, depends on the general prin-
ciple, that where life is weak, all excesses of exterior agency must have a tendency to
render it extinct. No cutting requires to be planted deep, though such as are large
(/) ought to be inserted deeper than such as are small (f, h). In the case of ever-
greens, the leaves should be kept from touching the soil (A) otherwise they will damp
or rot off; and in the case of tubular-stalked plants, which are in general not very
easily struck, owing to the water lodging in the tube, and rotting the cutting, both ends
(7) may in some cases (as in common honeysuckle,) be advantageously inserted in the
soil, and besides a greater certainty of success, two plants will be produced. Too much
light, air, water, heat, or cold are alike injurious. To guard against these extremes in
tender sorts, the means hitherto devised is that of enclosing an atmosphere over the cut-
tings, by means of a hand or bell glass, according to their delicacy. This preserves a
uniform stillness and moisture of atmosphere. Immersing the pot in earth (if the cut-
tings are in pots) has a tendency to preserve a steady uniform degree of moisture at the
roots ; and shading, or planting the cuttings, if in the open air, in a shady situation,
prevents the bad effects of excess of light. The only method of regulating the heat is
by double or single coverings of glass or mats, or both. A hand-glass placed over a
bell-glass will preserve, in a shady situation, a very constant degree of heat. What the
degree of heat ought to be, is generally decided by the degree of heat requisite for the
mother plant. Whatever degree of heat is natural to the mother plant when in a grow-
ing state will, in general, be most favorable to the growth of the cuttings. There are,
however, some variations, amounting nearly, but not quite, to exceptions. Most species
of the erica, dahlia, and geranium strike better when supplied with rather more heat
than is requisite for the growth of these plants in green-houses. The myrtle tribe and
camellias require rather less -r and in general it may be observed, that to give a lesser
portion of heat, and of every thing else proper for plants in their rooted and growing
state, is the safest conduct in respect to cuttings of ligneous plants. Cuttings of deci-
duous hardy trees taken off in autumn should not, of course, be put into heat till spring,
but should be kept dormant, like the mother tree. Cuttings of succulents like geraniums
will do well both with ordinary and extraordinary heat.
2069. Piping is a mode of propagation by cuttings, and is adopted with herbaceous plants
having jointed tubular stems, as the dianthus tribe ; and several of the grasses, and tree
arundos, might be propagated in this manner. When the shoot has nearly done growing,
which generally happens after the blossom has expanded, its extremity is to be separated at a
part of the stem where it is nearly, or at least somewhat indurated or ripened. This se-
paration is effected by holding the root end between the finger and thumb of one hand,
below a pair of leaves, and with the other, pulling the top part above the pair of leaves,
so as to separate it from the root part of the stem at the socket formed by the axillae of
the leaves, leaving the stem to remain with a tubular or pipe-looking termination. These
pipings, or separated parts (&), are inserted without any further preparation in finely
sifted earth, to the depth of the first joint or pipe, gently firmed with a small dibber,
watered, a hand-glass placed over them, and their future management regulated on the
same general principles as that of cuttings.
Sect. III. Operations of Rearing and Cidture.
2070. Operations of rearing and cultivation are various, and some of them of the sim-
plest kind, as stirring the soil, cutting, sawing, weeding, &c. have been already consi-
dered as garden-labors on the soil and on plants (1862. & 1882.) ; we here, therefore,
confine ourselves to the more complex processes of sowing, planting, watering, trans-
planting, pruning, thinning, training, and blanching.
Sub9ect. 1. Sowing, Planting, and Watering.
2071. Sowing is the first operation of rearing. Where seeds are deposited singly, as
in rows of beans or large nuts, they are said to be planted ; where dropt in numbers to-
gether, to be sown* The operation of sowing is either performed in drills, patches, or
broad-cast. Drills are small excavations formed with the draw-hoe, generally in straight
lines parallel to each other, and in depth and distance apart varying according to the
size of the seeds and future plants. In these drills, the seeds are strewed from the hand
of the operator, who, taking a small quantity in the palm of his hand and fingers, re-
gulates its emission by the thumb. Some seeds are very thinly sown, as the pea and
spinage ; others thick, as the cress and small salading. For sowing by bedding-in, see
Pedding-in planting (2091.), and Miffing. (1875.)
2072. Patches are small circular excavations made with the trowel ; in these, seeds
are either sown or planted, thicker or thinner, and covered more or less, according to
D d
402 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
their natures. This is the mode adopted in sowing in pots, and generally in flower-
borders.
2073. In broad-cast sowing, the operator scatters the seed over a considerable breadth
of surface previously prepared by digging or otherwise minutely pulverised. The seed
is taken up in portions in the hand, and dispersed by a horizontal movement of the arm,
to the extent of a semicircle, opening the hand at the same time, and scattering the seeds
in the air, so as they may fall as equally as possible over the breadth taken in by the
sower at once, and which is generally six feet ; that being the diameter of the circle in
which his hand moves through half the circumference. In sowing broad-cast on the
surface of beds, and in narrow strips or borders, the seeds are dispersed between the
thumb and fingers by horizontal movements of the hand in segments of smaller
circles.
2074. Dry weather is essentially requisite for sowing, and more especially for the oper-
ation of covering in the seed, which in broad-cast sowing is done by treading or gently
rolling the surface and then raking it ; and in drill-sowing, by treading in the larger
seeds, as peas, and covering with the rake ; smaller seeds, sown in drills, are covered
with the same implement without treading.
2075. Planting, as applied to seeds, or seed-like roots, as potatoes, bulbs, &c. is most
frequently performed in drills, or in separate holes made with the dibber ; in these, the
seed or bulb is dropt from the hand, and covered with or without treading, according to
its nature. Sometimes planting is performed in patches, as in pots or borders, in which
case the trowel is the chief implement used.
2076. Quincunx is a mode of planting in rows, by which the plants in the one row are
always opposed to the blanks in the other, so that when a plot of ground is planted in
this way, the plants appear in rows in four directions.
2077. Planting, as applied to plants already originated, consists generally in inserting
them in the soil of the same depth, and in the same position as they were before re-
moval, but with various exceptions. The principal object is to preserve the fibrous roots
entire, to distribute them equally around the stem among the mould or finer soil, and to
preserve the plant upright. The plant should not be planted deeper than it stood in the
soil before removal, and commonly the same side should be kept towards the sun.
Planting should, as much as possible, be accompanied by abundant watering, in order to
consolidate the soil about the roots ; and where the soil is dry, or not a stiff clay, it
may be performed in the beginning of wet weather in gardens ; and in forest-planting,
on dry soils, in all open weather during autumn, winter, and spring.
2078. Watering becomes requisite in gardens for various purposes, as aliment to plants
in a growing state, as support to newly transplanted plants, for keeping under insects,
and keeping clean the leaves of vegetables. One general rule must be ever kept in mind
during the employment of water in a garden ; that is, never to water the top or leaves of
a plant when the sun shines. A moment's reflection will convince any one that this
rule is agreeable to the laws of nature, for during rain the sun's rays are intercepted by
a panoply of fog or clouds. All watering, therefore, should be carried on in the even-
ing or early in the morning, unless it be confined to watering the roots, in which case,
transplanted plants, and others in a growing state, may be watered at any time ; and if
they are shaded from the sun, they may also be watered over their tops. Watering over
the tops is performed with the rose, or dispenser attached to the spout of the watering-pot,
or by the syringe or engine. "Watering the roots is best done with the rose ; but in the
case of watering pots in haste, and where the earth is hardened, it is done with the naked
spout. The compartments of gardens are sometimes watered by a leather tube and muzzle
attached at pleasure to different pipes of supply ; but this depends on local circumstances,
and, in general, it may be observed that the great increase of labor occasioned by
watering compartments renders the practice very limited. In new-laid turf, or lawns of a
loose porous soil and too mossy surface, the water-barrel {Jig- 205.) may be advantage-
ously used.
Subsect. 2. Transplanting.-
2079. Transplanting is the next operation of rearing, and consists in removing propa-
gated plants, whether from seeds, cuttings, or grafts, according to their kinds and other
circumstances, to a situation prepared to receive them. The uses of transplanting lig-
neous plants are chiefly to increase the number of fibrous roots, so as to prepare or fit
young subjects for successful removal from the places where they are originated to their
final destination ; but in herbaceous vegetables it is partly used to increase the propor-
tion of fibrous roots in plants, relatively to their ramose roots, by which it is found the
size and succulency of their leaves, flowers, and fruit are increased. Transplanting
involves three things : first, the preparation of the soil to which the plant is to be
removed ; secondly, the removal of the plant ; and, thirdly, the insertion in the pre-
pared soil.
Book IV. TRANSPLANTING. 403
2080. T/ie prqyaration of the soil implies, in all cases, stirring, loosening, mixing, and
comminution ; and, in many cases, the addition of manure or compost, according to the
nature of the soil and plant to be inserted, and according as the same may be in the open
ground, or in pots or hot-houses.
2081. The removal of the plant is generally effected by loosening the earth around it,
and then drawing it out of the soil with the hand ; in all cases avoiding as much as pos-
sible to break, or bruise, or otherwise injure the roots. In the case of small seedling
plants, merely inserting the spade and raising the portion of earth in which they grow
will suffice ; but in removing larger plants, it is necessary to dig a trench round, or on one
side of the plant. In some cases, the plant may be lifted with a ball or mass of earth,
containing all or great part of its roots, by means of the trowel or transplanter {fig. 93.) ;
and in others, as in the case of large shrubs or trees, it may be necessary to cut the roots
at a certain distance from the plant, one year before removal, in order to furnish them
with young fibres, to enable them to support the change. In pots, less care is necessary,
as the roots and ball of earth containing them are, or may be, preserved entire.
2082. Inserting the removed plant in the prepared soil, is performed by making an ex-
cavation suitable to the size of the plant, with the dibber, trowel, or spade, placing the
plant in it to the same depth as before its removal, and then covering its roots with earth
firmly, but not harshly or indiscriminately, pressed to it ; lastly, adding water. There
are various modes of insertion according to the age and kind of plant, tools employed,
object in view, &c. of which the following are the principal species and varieties.
2083. Of spade planting there are a variety of different sorts, known by the names of
hole planting, trench planting, trenching-in planting, slit or crevice planting, holing-in
planting, drill planting, bedding-in planting, furrow planting, &e. All these modes are
almost peculiar to nursery gardening.
2084. Hole planting is the principal method practised in the final planting of all sorts of trees and
shrubs in the open ground; and is performed by opening round holes for the reception of each
plant somewhat larger than its roots, then inserting the plant according to the general principles of
planting. (2077.)
2085. Trench planting is practised in nurseries, in planting out seedlings of trees, and plants in rows, also
for box-edgings, small hedge-plants, asparagus, &c. It is performed by opening a long narrow trench with
a spade, making one side upright, placing the plants against the upright side, and turning in the earth
upon their roots.
2086. Trenching-in planting is practised in light pliable-working ground, for planting young trees in
nurseries, thorn-hedges, &c. It is performed by digging a trench one spit wide, by a line, and planting
from one end of the trench towards the other, as the trench is being dug. Thus, the line being set and
the plants ready, with your spade begin at one end, and standing sideways to the line, throw out a spit
or two of earth, which forming a small aperture, another person being ready with the plants, let him
directly insert one in the opening, whilst the digger proceeds with the digging, and covers the roots of the
plants with the earth of the next spit. Another aperture being thereby also formed, place therein another
plant, and so on.
£087. Another method of trenching-in planting sometimes used for planting certain roots, such as horse-
radish-sets, potatoes, &c. is performed by common trenching, placing a row of sets in each trench or fur-
row. The horse-radish should be planted in the bottom of the open trench, if not above twelve inches
deep, turning the earth of the next over them ; and the potatoe-sets placed about four or six inches deep,
and cover them also with the earth of the next trench.
2088. Slit planting. This method is performed by making slits or crevices with a spade in the ground,
at particular distances, for the reception of small trees and shrub-plants. It is practised sometimes in the
nursery, in putting out rows of small plants, suckers, &c. from about a foot or eighteen inches or two feet
bigh, and that have but small roots : it is also sometimes practised where very large tracts of forest-trees
are to be planted by the most expeditious and cheapest mode of performance ; the following is the method :
— Aline is set or a mark made accordingly; then having a quantity of plants ready, for they must be
planted as you proceed in making the slits, let a man, having a good clean spade strike it into the ground
with its back close to the line or mark, taking it out again directly, so as to leave the slit open : he then
gives another stroke at right angles with the first ; then the person with the plants inserts one immediately
into the second-made crevice, bringing it up to the line or mark, and directly pressing the earth close to
the plant with his foot ; proceed in the same manner to insert another plant, and so on. A man and a boy,
by this method, will plant ten or fifteen hundred, or more, in a day.
2089. Holing-in planting. This is sometimes used in the nursery in light loose ground; and some-
times in planting potatoes, &c. in pliable soils. The ground being previously digged or trenched, and a
line placed, proceed thus : — Let one man, with his spade, take out a small spit of earth, and in the hole so
formed let another person directly deposit a plant ; then let the digger take another spit at a little distance,
and turn the earth thereof into the first hole over the roots ; then placing directly another plant in this
second opening, let the digger cover it with the earth of a third, and so on.
2090. Drill planting. This is by drawing drills with a hoe, from two to four or five
inches deep, for the reception of seeds and roots, and is a commodious method of planting
many sorts of large seeds, such as walnuts, chestnuts, &c. ; sometimes also broad beans,
but always kidneybeans and peas : likewise of planting many sorts of bulbous roots,
when to be deposited in beds by themselves. The drills for all of these purposes should
be drawn with a common hoe, two or three inches deep, though, for large kinds of bul-
bous roots, four or five inches deep will be requisite, and the seeds and roots should al-
ways be covered the depth of the drills.
2091. Bedding-in jrtanting. This is frequently practised for planting the choicer kinds
of flowering buds, such as hyacinths, &c. ; also for larger seeds of trees ; as acorns, large
nuts, and other kinds of seeds, stones, and kernels, and is performed by drawing the earth
from off the tops of the beds, some inches in depth, in the manner of cvffing, then plant-
ing the seeds or roots, and covering them over with the earth, drawn off for that purpose.
Dd 2
404 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
The following is the mode of performance : — The ground must be previously digged or
trenched, raked, and formed into beds three or four feet wide, with alleys between bed
and bed ; then with a rake or spade, trim the earth evenly from off the top of the bed into
the alleys, from two or three to four inches deep for bulbous roots, and for seeds, one or
two inches, according to what they are, and their size ; then, if for bulbous roots, draw lines
along the surface of the bed, nine inches' distance, and place the roots, bottom downward,
along the lines, six or eight inches apart, thrusting the bottom into the earth. Having
thus planted one bed, then with the spade, let the earth that was drawn off into the alley
be spread evenly upon the bed again, over the roots or seeds, being careful that they are
covered all equally of the above depth, and rake the surface smooth. This method is also
practised in nurseries, for sowing such seeds as require great accuracy in covering, as the
larch, pine, and fir tribes ; and, indeed, for most other tree-seeds.
2092. Furrow planting. This is by drawing furrows with a plough, and depositing
sets or plants in the furrow, covering them in also with the plough. It is sometimes
practised for planting potatoe-sets in fields, and has been practised in planting young trees,
for large tracts of forest-tree plantations, where the cheapest and most expeditious method
was required ; but it can only be practised advantageously in light pliable ground. It
is thus performed : a furrow being drawn, one or two persons are employed in placing
the sets or plants in the furrow, whilst the plough following immediately with another
furrow, turns the earth thereof in upon the roots of the plants.
2093. Dibble planting. This is the most commodious method for planting most sorts
of fibrous-rooted seedling plants, slips, off-sets, and cuttings both of herbaceous and
shrubby kinds ; and likewise for some kinds of seeds and roots, such as broad beans, po-
tatoe-sets, Jerusalem artichokes, and horseradish-sets, bulbous roots, &c. It is expedi-
tiously performed with a dibble or setting-stick ; therewith making a narrow hole in the
earth for each plant or root, inserting one in each hole as you go on, &c.
2094. Trowel planting. This is performed with a garden-trowel, which being made
hollow like a scoop, is useful in transplanting many sorts of young fibrous-rooted plants
with balls of earth about their roots, so as they may not be checked by their removal.
2095. Planting with balls. By removing a plant with its roots firmly attached to a
surrounding ball of earth, it continues in a growing state, without receiving any, or but
very little check from its removal. This mode is often practised, more particularly with the
more delicate and choicer kinds of exotics, both trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants ; and
occasionally to many of the fibrous-rooted flowery plants, both annuals and perennials,
even in their advanced growth and flowering state, when particularly wanted to supply
any deficient compartments, or when intended to remove any sort of tree or plant out of
the proper planting season, as very late in spring, or in summer. The most difficult
tribe of plants to transplant, when in a growing state, are bulbous roots ; which succeed
with difficulty, even when removed with balls attached.
2096. Planting by mudding-in (einschlamen) is a German practice in planting fruit-
trees, particularly suitable to the dry sandy soils of that country, and sometimes adopted
in similar situations in this country. The pit being dug out, the mould in its bottom is
watered and stirred so as to form a mass of mud about half the depth of the pit ; the tree
is then inserted, and its roots worked up and down in the mud so as to spread them as
much as possible equally through it. More mud, previously prepared, is poured in till
the pit is full, which is then covered with dry earth, raised round the stem, but hollowed
in the middle, so as to form a basin round its stem, and finally covered with litter (mul-
ched), and, if a standard, it is fastened to a stake to protect it from winds. Diel, a
scientific German author already mentioned (224.), assures his readers, that trees planted
in this way in spring thrive better in cold situations than those planted in the ordinary
way in the preceding autumn ; and, that though it occasions considerable trouble, it should
never be neglected either in spring or autumn. He found it also particularly useful in
the case of planting fruit-trees in pots. (Obst. Orangerie, &c. vol. ii.) Pontey, alluding
to this mode, says " planting in a puddle occasions the soil speedily to firm, not only
too hard for the roots of the plant to spread, but also so far as perfectly to exclude water. "
(Rural Improver, p. 89.)
2097. Planting by fixing ivith water is an excellent variety of the last species. It has
been successfully practised by Pontey, and is thus described by him : — The hole
being made, and the tree placed in it in the usual manner, the root is then slightly
covered with the finer part of the soil ; the tree being at the same time shaken, as is com-
mon, to settle the earth among its roots. Water is then applied by a common garden
watering-pot, by pouring it upon the soil with some force, in order to wash it close to
and among the roots of the plant. But this can only be done effectually by elevating the
pot as high in the hands as can be conveniently used, after first taking off the rose. It
will be obvious, that for such purposes a large pan with a wide spout is to be preferred.
The hole is then filled up with the remainder of the soil, and that again consolidated with
water as before, which usually finishes the business. The foot is never applied except in
Book IV. TRANSPLANTING. 405
the case of bad roots, which sometimes occasion the plants to be left a little leaning. In
such cases, the application of the foot slightly, once or twice, after the soil has become
somewhat firm (which generally happens in less than an hour), sets the tree upright, and
so firm as to require no staking. [Rural Improver, p. 89.)
2098. Panning, mulching, and staking. Panning is an almost obsolete phrase, applied
by Switzer, and writers of his day, to the operation of forming a hollow or basin round
trees, for the purpose of retaining water when given them by art. Mulching consists in
laying a circle of litter round the roots of newly planted trees, to retain the natural humi-
dity of the soil, or to prevent the evaporation of artificial watering. Staking is the oper-
ation of supporting standard-trees, by tying them with straw, or other soft ties, to poles or
stakes inserted firmly in the ground close to the tree.
2099. Planting edgings. Edgings are rows of low-growing plants, as box, daisy, &c.
planted in lines along the margins of walks and alleys, to separate them from the earth
and gravel. They should always be planted before either the gravel or substratum are
deposited. To perform the operation, the first thing is to form the surfaces for the edg-
ings in planes corresponding with the established slopes or levels of the borders or other
parts of the garden, observing, that a line crossing the walk at right angles, and touching
both of the prepared surfaces, must always be a horizontal line, whether the walk be on a
level or slope. Suppose a walk 150 feet long on a gentle declivity, and that the level or
height of both ends are fixed on ; then by the operation of the borning-pieces, any num-
ber of intermediate points is readily formed to the same slope, and the spaces between
these points are regulated by the eye or the application of the straight-edge. The earth,
so formed into a regular slope, need not exceed about a foot in breadth, on which the line
being stretched, half is to be cut down, with a face sloping towards the walk, and against
this sloping, or nearly perpendicular face, the box is to be laid as thin and regular as
practicable, and every where to the same height, say one inch above the soil. The box
is to be previously prepared by separation, and shortening the roots and tops. This is one
of those operations, on the performance of which, witfi accuracy, depends much of the
beauty of kitchen-gardens.
2100. Planting verges. Verges are edgings of turf, generally two feet broad or up-
wards. The turves being cut in regular lamina:, with the edges or sides of each turf per-
pendicular, and the two ends oblique in the same slope, they are to be placed so as the
one may fit exactly to the other. They are next to be beat with the beetle, afterwards
watered, and again beat or rolled, and finally a line applied to their edges, and the raser
(Jig. 101.) used to cut them off neatly and perpendicularly. If the turf is from loamy
soil" this is readily effected ; but if no turf can be got but from sandy soils, then it must
be cut very thin, and placed on good earth or loam, according to circumstances. Verges
are sometimes, though rarely, formed of chamomile, strawberries, dwarf-thyme, &c. in
which situations the wood-strawberry and chamomile produce abundant crops.
2101. Transplanting or laying down turf. Turfing, as this operation is commonly called,
consists in laying down turf on surfaces intended for lawn, in parterres or pleasure-
grounds. The turf is cut from a smooth firm part of an old sheep-pasture, free from
coarse grasses, in performing which the ground is first crossed by parallel lines, about a
foot asunder, and afterwards intersected by others three feet asunder, both made with
a line and the turf-raser. Afterwards, the turf-spade or turfing-iron is employed to
separate the individual turves, which are rolled up, and conveyed to the spot where they
are to be used. It is to be observed, that, in this case, all the sides of each turf are be-
velled ; by which means, when they are laid down exactly as they were before being
taken up, their edges will fit, and in some degree lap over each other, and thereby, after
rolling, a more compact surface will be formed. The surface on which the turves are
to be laid, ought previously to be either dug or trenched, so as to be brought to one de-
gree of consistency, and then rolled, so as it may not afterwards sink ; the turves being
laid so as to fit, are to be first beaten individually, and then watered and rolled till the
whole is smooth and even.
2102. In transplanting in pots, the general practice is to begin with the smallest-sized
pot, and gradually to transplant into others larger, as the plant advances, and as the ob-
ject may be to produce a large or a small plant. In the case of balsams and tender an-
nuals, this may require to be performed three or four times a month, till the plant has
attained its full size ; in the case of heaths, not more than once a year or seldomer.
2103. The operation of potting is thus performed. Having the pots and mould ready for the reception of
the intended plants, observe, previous to planting them, to place some pieces of tile, potsherds, or oyster-
shells, or gravel over the hole at the bottom of the pot, both to prevent the hole from being clogged and
stopped with the earth, and the earth from being washed out with occasional watering ; and also to prevent
the roots of the plants from getting out. Having secured the holes, place some earth in the bottom of
each pot, from two or three to five or six inches or more in depth, according to the size of the pot, and the
roots of the plant. This done, insert the plant in the middle of the pot, upon the earth, in an upright
position ; if without a ball of earth, spread its roots equally every way, and directly add a quantity of fine
mould about all the roots and fibres, shaking the pot to cause the earth to settle close about them ; at the
same time, if the roots stand too low, shake it gently up, as you shall see occasion ; and having filk-d the
Dd 3
40G SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
pot with earth, press it gently all round with the hand to settle it moderately firm in every part, and to
steady the upright posture of the plant, raising the earth, however, within about half an inch, or less, or
the top of the pot. It will soon settle lower, and thereby leave a void space at top, which is necessary to
receive occasional waterings. As soon as the plant is thus potted, give directly a moderate watering to
settle the earth more effectually close about all the roots, and promote their shooting into the new earth ;
repeating the waterings as occasion requires.
2104. Transplanting potted plants from one pot to another is called shifting; and is
performed with the whole ball of earth contained in the pot entire, so as to preserve the
plant in its growing state.
2105. The method of removing them out of the pots with balls is generally easily effected Sometimes in small
plants it is performed by turning the pot upside down, and striking the edge against the side of a bench,
or edge of the boards of a wheelbarrow, or the like,*when the ball comes out entire ; or occasionally a plant
that is verv well rooted, and whose numerous fibres surround the outside of the ball, will readily quit
the pot by drawing it by the stem. But if, by either of the above methods, the ball will not readily
quit the pot, thrust a narrow thin slip of wood down all round the pot, when the ball will come
out by the process of striking the edge of the pot, with the greatest facility. Sometimes, however, the
bellied form of the pot, and the luxuriance of the roots which circulate between the pot and earth, pre-
vent the possibility of removing the ball entire; in which case, either that circumstance must be dispensed
with, or the pot be broken.
2106. In replanting in larger pots, the first step regards the management of the numerous fibres which sur-
round the outside ball. When these are not numerous, the general practice is to leave them untouched ;
but when they are so abundant as to form a sort of matted coat, like the inside of a bird's nest all around,
then the practice is to trim the greater part of them off close to the ball, both on the sides and bottom,
together with some of the outward old earth of the ball ; then having the pots of proper sizes, larger than
the former ones, and having secured the holes at bottom, and put in some fresh compost, deposit the plant
With its entire ball in the pot, taking care that it stands in the centre, erect, and of the same depth as
before. Then fill up all the interstices round the ball with fresh mould, pressing it down, and ramming it
round the sides with a broad stick, adding more mould gradually, and raising it so as to cover the old ball,
and finish with a moderate watering, to settle the new earth close in every part. Hayward has sug-
gested the idea of a moveable bottom for more readily shifting potted plants with matted roots ; and we
have already (1412.) described the orange-boxes used at Versailles, and by Mean at Wormsleybury, by
which fresh earth can be put to the sides of the largest plants with little trouble.
2107. Transplanting with balls is to be avoided in the case of diseased plants, unless it be evident that the
disease has no connection with the ball of earth and the roots. Very frequently, however, the diseases of
plants in pots arise from the want of a proper vent for the water, and from their having had too much
given them ; hence in transplanting such plants, it is eligible to shake the whole entirely out of the earth,
in order to examine its roots, and trim oft' all decayed and other bad parts ; then having a fresh pot, and
some entire new compost, replant as already directed.
2108. In potting plants from the open ground, or beds of earth on dung, or otherwise, if they have been
previously pricked out at certain distances, and have stood long enough to fix their roots firmly, they
may be moved into pots with balls, by the proper use of the trowel, transplanter, or hollow spade. Seed-
lings, however, cannot often be raised with balls, and are therefore planted in the smallest-sized pots first,
and graduallv removed into larger ones with their balls entire.
2109. Plants in pots are never shifted directly from small into large pots, but always into a size only one
gradation larger than that in which they are. Experience proves that this is the best mode, and also that
plants, in general, thrive best in small pots. The reason seems to be that, in large pots, the roots are apt
to be chilled and rotted by the retention of more water than is requisite for their wellbeing.
Subsect. 3. Pruning.
2110. The amjmtation of part of a plant xvith the knife, or other instrument, is practised
for various purposes, but chiefly on trees, and more especially on those of the fruit-bear-
ing kinds. Of two adjoining and equal-sized branches of the same tree, if the one be cut
off, that remaining will profit by the sap which would have nourished the other, and both
the leaves and the fruits which it may produce will exceed their natural size. If part of
a branch be cut off which would have carried a number of fruits, those which remain will
set, or fix better, and become larger. On the observation of these facts is founded the
whole theory of pruning ; which, though like many other operations of art, cannot be
said to exist very obviously in nature, is yet the most essential of all operations for the
culture of fruit-trees.
2111. The objects of pruning may be reduced to the following : promoting growth and bulk ; lessening
bulk ; modifying form ; promoting the formation of blossom-buds ; enlarging fruit ; adjusting the stem
and branches to the roots ; renewal of decayed plants or trees ; and removal or cure of diseases,
2112. Pruning for promoting the growth and bulk of a tree is the simplest object of pruning, and is
that chiefly which is employed by nursery-men with young trees of every description. The art is to cut
off all the weak lateral shoots, that the portion of sap'destined for their nourishment maybe thrown into
the strong ones. In some cases, besides cutting off the weak shoots, the strong ones are shortened, in
order to produce three or four shoots instead of one. In general, mere bulk being the object, upright
shoots are encouraged rather than lateral ones ; excepting in the case of trained trees, where shoots are
encouraged at all angles, from the horizontal to the perpendicular, but more especially at the medium of
45 degrees. In old trees, this object is greatly promoted by the removal, with the proper instruments, of
the dead or alreadv scaling off outer bark.
2113. Pruning for lessening the bulk of the tree is also chiefly confined to nursery-practice, as neces-
sary to keep unsold trees of a portable size. It consists in little more than what is technically called
heading down, that is cutting off the leading shoots within an inch or two of the main stem, leaving, in
some cases, some of the lower lateral shoots.: Care is taken to cut to a leaf-bud (1885.), and to choose such
from among the side, upper, or under buds of the shoot according as the succeeding year's shoots may
be wanted, in radiated lines from the stem, or in oblique lines in some places to fill up vacancies. It
is evident that this unnatural operation persisted in for a few years must render the tree knotty and
unsightlv, and in stone-fruits, at least, it is apt to generate canker and gum.
2114. Pruning for modifying the form of the tree embraces the management of the plant from the
time of its propagation. Almost every tree has a different natural form, and in botanic and landscape
gardening it is seldom desirable to attempt altering these by pruning, or by any other operation. But in
rearing trees planted for timber, it is desirable to throw the timber produced, as much as possible, into
long compact masses ; and hence pruning is employed to remove the side branches, and encourage the
growth of the bole or stem. Where this operation is" begun when the trees are young, it is easily performed
every two or three vcars, and the progress of the trees under it is most satisfactory ; when, however, it is
Book IV. PRUNING. 407
delayed till they have attained a timber size, it is, in all cases, much less conducive to the desired end, and
sometimes may prove injurious. It is safer in such cases to shorten or lessen the size of lateral branches
rather than to cut them off close by the stem, as the large wounds produced by the latter practice either
do not cicatrise at all, or not till the central part is rotten, and has contaminated the timber of the trunk
In all cases, a moderate number of small branches, to be taken off as they grow large, are to be left
on the trunk, to facilitate the circulation of the sap and juices. Where timber-trees are planted for
shelter or shade, unless intermixed with shrubs or copse, it is evident pruning must be directed to clothing
them from the summit to the ground with side branches. In avenues and hedge-row trees, it is generally
desirable that the lowest branches should be a considerable distance from the ground ; in trees intended
to conceal objects, as many branches should be left as possible ; and in others, which conceal distant
objects desired to be seen, or injure or conceal near objects, the form must be modified accordingly. In
all these cases, the superfluous parts are to be cut off with a clean section, near a bud or shoot if a
branch is shortened, or close to the trunk if it is entirely removed; the object being to facilitate
cicatrisation.
2115. Priming fruit-trees. The grand art of pruning, not only as to the modification
of form, but in all its other varieties, relates to fruit-trees, of which the leading characters
are standards and wall-trees ; the former including dwarfs and half-standards, and the
latter, dwarfs and riders.
2116. In pruning to form standards (arbres a plein-vent, Fr.), the first thing to be
determined on after the plant has been received from the nursery and planted, is, whether
the stem is to be tall (liaut-tige) or short (basse-tige) ; and the next, if the head is to be
trained in any particular form, as a cone, globe, semi-globe, radiated pyramid, &c. ; or
left to assume its natural shape. If a cone or pyramid is determined on, then a leading
upright shoot must be carefully preserved, and the side shoots kept at regular distances
from each other, and as far as practicable, equally extended on the one side of the main
stem as on the other, keeping always in view the ultimate figure. If a globe is to be
produced no shoot must be permitted to take the lead, but a number encouraged to ra-
diate upwards from the graft, and these kept as regular as possible, both in regard to distance
from each other, and of their extremities from the centre of the globe. If the tree is to be
left to its natural shape, which in our opinion is by far the best mode, it will, in the ap-
ple, pear, cherry, and most other fruit-trees, assume something of the conical shape, at least
for some years ; but whatever shape it has a tendency to assume, that shape must not be
counteracted by the pruner, whose operations must be chiefly negative, or directed to thin-
ning out weak and crowded shoots, and preserving an equal volume of branches on one
side of the tree as on the other : in technical language, preserving its balance. Knight's
directions for this mode of pruning, both in his Treatise on the Apple and Pear, and in
different papers in the Horticultural Transactions, are particularly valuable. For the apple
and all standard trees he recommends that the points of the external branches should be
every where rendered thin and pervious to the light ; so that the internal parts of the
tree may not be wholly shaded by the external parts : the light should penetrate deeply
into the tree on every side ; but not any where through it. When the pruner has
judiciously executed his work, every part of the tree, internal as well as external, will
be productive of fruit ; and the internal part, in unfavorable seasons, will rather receive
protection than injury from the external. A tree thus pruned, will not only produce
much more fruit, but will also be able to support a much heavier load of it, without
danger of being broken ; for any given weight will depress the branch, not simply in
proportion to its quantity, but in the compound proportion of its quantity and of its
horizontal distance from the point of suspension, by a mode of action similar to that
of the weight on the beam of the steelyard ; and hence a hundred and fifty pounds,
suspended at one foot distance from the trunk, will depress the branch which supports it
no more than ten pounds at fifteen feet distance would do. Every tree will, therefore,
support a larger weight of fruit without danger of being broken, in proportion as the
parts of such weight are made to approach nearer to its centre. Hitt recommends that
the shape or figure of standards should be conical, like the natural growth of the fir-
tree : and this form, or the pyramidal or sub-cylindrical {en quenouille, Fr.) is decidedly
preferred by the French, and universally employed both by them and the Dutch.
2117. In pruning to form dwarf -sUnidards (basse-tiges, Fr.), the plants being received
from the nursery, furnished with shoots of one year's growth, are to be cut down to three
or four buds, which buds will throw out other shoots the following year, to form the
bush or dwarf. If these buds throw out, during the second year, more than can orow
the third year without crossing or intermixing with each other, then the superfluous
shoots must be cut off; but if too few to form a head regularly balanced, or projecting
equally beyond the stem on all sides, then one or more of the shoots in the deficient part
must be cut down to three or four eyes, as before, to fill up by shoots of the third year the
vacancies in the bush. In this way must the tree be treated year after year, cutting
away all cross-placed branches and crowded shoots, till at last it shall have formed a head
or bush globular, oblong, or of any other shape, according to its nature, and with this
property common to every form, that all the shoots be so far distant from each other as
not to exclude the sun's rays, air, or rain, from the blossoms and fruit. Such is the
most approved modern mode of training fruit-tree bushes or dwarf-standards : but,
Dd 4
408
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
about a century ago, when dwarfs were in the greatest vogue, they were trained into re-
gular geometrical shapes, without the least regard to the natural shape or tendency of the
branches of the tree. In the works of Quintiney and Arnaud d'Andilly are described
concave, conical, fusiform, spiral, and other dwarfs.
2118. Concave or cup-shaped dwarfs (arbonjin boomen, Dut. ; en gobelet or en tonnoir,
Fr.), being trained concave or hollow in the middle, having all the branches ranged cir-
cularly around the stem, in an ascending direction, so as to form the heart of the tree
hollow or concave.
21 1 9. Conical or pyramidal dwarfs., tapering like a cone or pyramid from the base to tiie
summit. When pyramidal trees are so pruned that the horizontal branches form stages
above one another, they are termed chandelier-Like, or en girandole.
2120. Fusiform (en quenouille, Fr.) or convex dwarfs, being trained, bellied out, or
somewhat spindle-shaped in the middle, or like a full distaff.
2121. Horizontal dwarfs, in which all the branches were trained in a flat position, pa-
rallel to the surface of the earth.
2122. Spiral dwarfs (fig. 384.), in which the branches were trained spirally round stakes,
which stakes were afterwards removed.
384
2123. Fan-dwarfs (palmettes, Fr.) in which the branches were spread out like the
hand, or like a spread fan.
2124. Natural dwarfs or bushes (arbres en buisson, Fr.), in which the branches were
permitted to advance in their natural mode of growth, being only thinned, or shortened,
or deprived of supernumerary side shoots, as already described.
21 25. Estimate of the forms of dwarfs. Some authors observe that all these forms may be
introduced for the sake of variety ; but of all forms which require constraint, as being con-
trary to the natural shape of the bush and tendency of the branches, it may with certainty
be observed, that they can only be maintained by continual exertion in counteracting
nature ; and that the trees so constrained and cut, generally throw out, at particular
parts, such a superfluity of useless wood, as greatly to lessen their tendency to produce
blossom-buds. Each variety of the apple-tree, observes Knight, " has its own peculiar
form of growth, and this it will ultimately
assume, in a considerable degree, in defi-
ance of the art of the pruner." The same
remark, it is obvious, applies to every sort
of tree.
21 26. Pruning half standards is conducted
exactly on the same general principles as
pruning dwarfs ; the only difference between
them being that, in the one case, the bush
or head is close to ths ground, and in the
other, it is elevated from it three or four
feet. Of the common hardy fruit-trees, it
may be observed, that the apple, plum,
quince, medlar, and mulberry form a forked
irregular head (fig. 385. a), and the pear
and cherry a more regular cone or distaff,
with lateral branches proceeding from an
upright stem (b). The French are particularly expert in pruning their pear-trees into
this last form, assisted sometimes by a rod to train the central shoot.
2127. Crown or umbrella headed standards (kroon boomen, Dut. ) are a sort of half-stand-
ard, formed by the Dutch, and chiefly on dwarfing stocks. The stems are six or seven feet
^s^v^
Book IV. PRUNING. 409
hi«*h, and terminate in a few branches, which stretch out on all sides horizontally : this
position being given by inclining them downwards by ties.
2128. Balloon-headed standard-trees have been formed by a mode of training adopted
by J. Brookhouse, Esq. at Warwick.
The trees are apples, six feet high in their stems, from the tops of which, the branches, which are of
three or four yearsrgrowth, extend outwards, and nearly horizontally in all directions, from five to six
feet from the centre Round the tree, at about three feet from the stem, and at two feet from the ground,
is placed a hoop, fastened to stakes, and towards this hoop the ends of the branches are directed by worsted
cords fastened to their extremities, and to the hoop. The branches, by this means, assume a curved
direction, straighter near to their origin in the centre, much arched afterwards, and having their ex-
tremities turned inwards. The average distance from the ground to the ends ot the branches thus secured
is about four feet. The general outline of the tree has much resemblance to that of a balloon, and the
cords which are attached all round to the hoop in a slanting direction inwards, increase the similitude.
After the fruit has been gathered, the fastenings are removed ; in winter the trees are pruned, the
upright shoots which have been made, are shortened to spurs, except where fresh branches are wanted
to complete the uniformity and regularity of the whole; and in spring the operation of tying is re-
peated. Sabine observes on this mode, " It is scarcely possible to conceive a row of trees in a garden
more beautiful than one thus arranged, not only from the uniformity in size, and regularity of growth
of the trees ; but from the beautiful display of blossoms and fruit in the different seasons, occasioned by
this peculiar mode of training, which is calculated to exhibit the whole so perfectly. The advantages ot
the plan are many and important. The downward inclination given to the branches increases the dis-
position to form blossom-buds, and consequently to produce more abundantly ; the foliage is well exposed
to receive the influence of the light and air ; the fruit is uniformly distributed over the surface ot the
tree, and does not suffer from being shaded by irregularly placed branches ; whilst the ligatures at the
ends of the shoots keep the whole so steady, that they are never so agitated by wind as to lose their
crop prematurely, nor do the branches suffer like those of other trees, by lashing each other in strong
sales of wind." (Hort. Tram. vol. v. 186.-) However fascinating this plan may appear at first sight, and
tor a few vears while the trees are young, it is, like most of the French and Dutch modes of training just
described, radically bad, and certain of ultimately defeating the object in view. The main effort ot trees
so constrained will annually be directed to sending up upright shoots from the apex ol the balloon ;
and though these maybe "shortened to spurs" for a year or two, the spurs so formed will only bear
shoots not blossoms, and will rapidly increase in size till they present only a deformed mass of knots
sending up a crowd of shoots, and depriving the pendent branches of nourishment. Every gardener
can foresee this. There is only one mode of training^that nature approves of, and that is the tan
mode. (2144.)
2129. Pruning, for the modification of fruit-trees trained on ivalls (en espalier, Fr.) or
on espaliers (en contre-espalier, Fr.), depends on the principle of training which maybe
adopted. The selection being made of such shoots as are requisite for carrying on the
form of the training tree ; the others are to be cut off, first on the general principles re-
commended for all cutting (1884.) ; and secondly, according to the particular nature of
the tree. All trees which are much cut or constrained, have a tendency to throw out
over-luxuriant shoots at particular parts of the branches where the sap is suddenly
checked ; such shoots seem to employ the great body of the sap, and thus divert it from
performing its functions in the other parts of the branch or tree. The largest of these
shoots, the French term gourmands, or gluttons ; and the lesser ones, which have their
leaves very distant and the wood slender, with hardly any appearance of buds in the
axilla? of the leaves, they term water-shoots. As soon, in the growing season, as the cha-
racter of both these sorts of shoots, especially of the latter, is known, they ought to be
pinched off, with the exception of some cases, at the discretion of an intelligent pruner,
where the gourmand may fill up a vacancy, supply a decaying branch, or otherwise be so
situated as to assist in forming the tree. This chiefly happens when they are thrown
out on the sides of wall-trees, so as to admit of being checked by a horizontal or ob-
lique position in training. What are called fore-right and back shoots, or such as are
thrown out nearly at right angles to the training surface, ought to be rubbed or
pinched off, as ill adapted for training, or being applied to the training surface ; but
with the same exceptions as for gourmands. Where the grand object is fruit, however.,
it is well remarked by Marshall (Introd. to Gard.), "that in this matter, the end in view
is not to be sacrificed to fanciful precision."
2130. Pruning to promote the formation of blossom-buds depends on the nature of the
tree. The peach and nectarine, for example, produce their blossoms on the preceding
year's wood ; consequently the great art of pruning a peach-tree is to have a regular
distribution of young wood over every part of it. This the tree has a natural tendency
to effect itself, and all that is required from the pruner is, when these shoots are too
abundant, to rub them off in the summer pruning, and where they are too few, to cut
or shorten some of the least valuable branches or shoots in the winter pruning. In
apples and pears, on the contrary, the blossoms are chiefly produced on short leafy
protuberances, called spurs, which form themselves naturally along the sides of the
shoots, chiefly of apples and pears, but also of plums, cherries, quinces, medlars, and
to a certain degree, the apricot, which produces blossoms on last year's wood, and on
spurs and small twigs from the shoots of the second year preceding. The production
of bearing or blossom buds is sometimes promoted by cutting out weak wood, by
which what remains is strengthened ; and shortening or stopping the shoots of the vine
in summer is believed by many to have the same effect. The rose, syringa, spiraea frutex,
and many shrubs, produce their blossoms in the wood of the present year, and to give
410 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Pari II.
vigor to such plants, it is desirable, when blossoms are wanted in these shrubs, to cut
down both old and new wood.
2131. Pruning for the enlargement of the fruit is effected either by diminishing the
number of blossom-bearing branches, or shortening them ; both which operations depend
on the nature of the tree : the mode of shortening is particularly applicable to the vine,
the raspberry, and to old kernel fruit-trees.
2132. Pruning for adjusting the stem and branches to the roots is almost solely applica-
ble to transplanted trees, in which it is an essential operation ; and should be performed
in o-eneral in the interval between removal and replanting, when the plant is entirely
out°of the ground. Supposing only the extremities of the fibres broken off, as is the
case in very small plants and seedlings, then no part of the top will require to be re-
moved ; but if the roots have been broken or bruised in any of their main branches or
ramifications, then the pruner, estimating the quantity of root of which the plant is
deprived by the sections of fracture and other circumstances, peculiar and general, will
be able to form a notion of what was the bulk of the whole roots before the tree was
undisturbed. Then he may state the question of lessening the top to adjust it to the
roots thus : As the whole quantity of roots which the tree had before removal is to the
whole quantity of branches which it now has or had, so is the quantity of roots which it
now has to the quantity of top which it ought to have. In selecting the shoots to be re-
moved, regard must be had to the ultimate character the tree is to assume, whether a
standard, or trained fruit-tree, or ornamental bush. In general, bearing-wood and weak
shoots should be removed, and the stronger lateral and upright shoots, with leaf or shoot
eyes, left. _
' 2133. Pnuwigfor renewal of the head is performed by cutting over the stem a little
way, say its own" thickness, above the collar or the surface of the ground. This practice
applies to old osier-beds, coppice-woods, and to young forest-trees. Sometimes also it is
performed on old or ill-thriving fruit-trees, which are headed down to the top of their
stems. This operation is performed with the saw, and better after scarification, as in
cutting off the broken limb of an animal. The live section should be smoothed with the
clmel or knife, covered with the bark, and coated over with grafting clay, or any conve-
nient composition which will resist drought and rain for a year.
2134. Pruning for curing disease has acquired much celebrity since the time of For-
syth, whose amputations ancf scarifications for the canker, together with the plaster or
composition which he employed to protect the wounds from air, are treated of at large
in his Treatise on Fruit Trees. Almost all vegetable diseases either have their origin in
the weakness of the individual, or induce a degree of weakness ; hence to amputate a
part of a diseased tree is to strengthen the remaining part, because the roots remaining of
the same force, the same quantity of sap will be thrown upwards as when the head and
branches were entire. If the disease is constitutional, or in the system, this practice
may probablv, in some cases, communicate to the tree so much strength as to enable it to
throw it off; if it be local, the amputation of the part will at once remove the disease,
and strengthen the tree.
For the removal of diseases, whole branches, the entire head, single shoots, or merely the diseased spot
in the bark or wood, mav require to be cut off. In the removal of merely leased spots, care must be
taken to remove the whole extent of the part affected with a part of the sound wood and bark; and, in
like manner, in amputating a diseased shoot or branch, a few inches or feet of healthy wood should be
taken awav at the same time, to make sure of removing every contamination
Insects may be removed, or at least prevented from spreading on trained trees, especially such a* are
in houses, and on dwarf-trees, where the whole plant comes readily under ft e eye, either by cutting off,
in the summer season, the young shoots or the individual leaves on which the in,serts. asthecwcus,
aphis, acarus, &c. are found This is frequently practised on gooseberry-plants, and Sir Brook Boothby
(Hort. Trails, vol. i.) asserts that he keeps his peach-trees free from the red spider by cutting off every
leaf the moment he sees an insect on it.
2135. Pruning the roots of trees. What effect it would have on the roots of trees, if
thev could be exposed to view, and subjected to pruning: and training, as well as the
branches, it is not easy in many cases, to determine; but where they are diseased, or
crowing on soil with an injurious substratum, could the pruning-knife be applied to their
descending and diseased roots annually, the advantages would be considerable. The
practice of laying bare the roots of trees to expose them to the frost, and render the tree
fruitful, is mentioned by Evelyn and other writers of his time ; but in doing so, it does
not appear that pruning was any part of their object. The pruning of roots can therefore
only take place, according to the present state of things, in, the interval between taking
up "and replanting ; as such roots are generally small, and some of them broken or in-
jured, all that the pruner has to do, is to facilitate the healing of the ends of broken roots
by a more perfect amputation ; and in fruit-trees he may shorten such roots as have a
tendency to strike too perpendicularly into the soil. The form of the cut in either case
i* a matter of less consequence than in the shoot ; but like it, it ought in general to be
made from the under side of the shoot, that only one section may be fractured, and that
the removed section may be the fractured one ; and also that water or sap may rather de-
Book IV. TRAINING. 411
scend from than adhere to the wound. The chief reason for this practice, however, is
the facility of performing it, for a section directly across, as if made with a saw, will, in
roots, heal as soon, if not sooner, than one made obliquely ; but to make such a section
in even small roots would require several distinct cuts, whereas the oblique section is
completed by a single operation. The Genoese gardeners, in pruning the roots of the
orange-trees, always make a section directly across, which, in one year, is in great part
covered by the protruding granulated matter. (See 1886).
The roots of trees might be completely pruned, if done by degrees ; say that the roots extended in every
direction in the form of a circle ; then take a portion, say one eighth, of that circle every year till it is
completed ; and remove the earth entirely from above and under the roots ; then cut otf the diseased
parts, or those roots which penetrate into bad soil ; and laying below them such a stratum as shall be
impenetrable by them in future, intermix and cover them with suitable soil.
2136. Pruning herbaceous plants, or what is called trimming, consists generally in
thinning the stems to increase the size and flowers of those which remain ; but it may
also be performed for all the purposes before mentioned ; and for some other purposes,
such as the prolongation of the lives of annuals by pinching off their blossoms,
strengthening bulbous roots by the same means, increasing the lower leaves of the
tobacco-plant by cutting over the stem a few inches above ground, &c. In trimming
the roots of herbaceous plants, the same general principles are adopted as in pruning
the roots of trees. In transplanting seedlings, the tap-root merely requires to be
shortened ; and in most other cases merely bruised, diseased, or broken roots cut off,
and fractured sections smoothed.
2137. The seasons for pruning trees are generally winter and midsummer ; but some
authors prefer spring, following the order of the vegetation of the different species and
varieties. According to this principle, the first pruning of fruit-trees begins in Fe-
bruary with the apricot, then the peach, afterwards the pears and plums, then the cher-
ries, and lastly the apples, the sap of which is not properly in motion till April. Some
have recommended the autumn and mid-winter ; but though this may be allowable in
forest-trees, it is certainly injurious to tender trees of every sort, by drying and harden-
ing a portion of wood close to the part cut, and hence the granulous matter does not so
easily protrude between the bark and wood, as in the trees where those parts are fur-
nished with sap. For all the operations of pruning, therefore, which are performed on
the branches or shoots of trees, it would appear the period immediately before, or com-
mensurate with, the rising of the sap, is the best.
2158. Summer pruning commences with the rubbing off of the buds, or disbudding, soon after they have
begun to develope their leaves in April and May, and is continued during summer in pinching off or
shortening such as are farther advanced. It is obviously, to a certain extent, guided by the same general
rules as winter or general pruning ; but the great use of leaves in preparing the sap being considered,
summer pruning wisely conducted will not extend farther than may be necessary to maintain as much as
possible an equilibrium of sap among the branches ; to prevent gourmands and water-shoots from depriv-
ing the fruit of their proper nourishment, and to admit sufficient air and light to the fruit. Most authors
are of opinion, that the other objects of pruning will be better effected by the winter operations. Summer
pruning is chiefly applicable to fruit-trees, and among these to the peach ; but it is also practised on forest
and ornamental trees when young, and is of great importance in giving a proper direction to the sap in
newly grafted trees in the nursery.
2139. Thinning the branches of individual trees may be considered as included
in pruning. In herbaceous vegetables, or young trees growing together in quantities,
it consists in removing all such as impede the others from attaining the desired bulk,
form, or other properties for which they are specially cultivated, and is generally per-
formed in connection with weeding or hoeing.
Subsect. 4. Training.
2140. By training is to be understood the conducting of the shoots of trees or plants
over the surface of walls, espalier rails, trellises, or on any other flat surface. It is per-
formed in a variety of ways, according to the kind of tree, the object in view, and the par-
ticular opinions of gardeners.
2141. The object of training is, either to induce a disposition to form flower-buds in rare
and tender trees or plants ; to mature and improve the quality of fruits which would not
otherwise ripen in the open air ; or to increase the quantity and precocity of the fruit of
trees which mature their fruit in the open air. Such are the principal objects of training :
which are effected by the shelter and exposure to the sun of the surface to which they are
trained, by which more heat is produced, and injuries from severe weather better guarded
against ; by the regular spreading of the tree on this surface, by which the leaves are more
fully exposed to the sun than they can be on any standard ; and by the form of training :
which, by retarding the motion of the descent of the sap, causes it to spend itself in the
formation of flower-buds.
2142. The leading modes of training woody-stemmed trees are the fan, horizontal, and
vertical (fig. 386. a,f, h). To which may be added the wavy or curvilinear. Their
varieties are, the herring-bone (a), the irregular fan (6), the stellate fan (c), the drooping
412
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
386
fan (d), the wavy fan (e) ; the horizontal, with screw stem (g), and with double stem (k) ;
the vertical, with screw or wavy shoots (h), and with upright shoots (i). Haywood pro-
poses a sort of wavy training (Jig. gg7
387.), little different from that of . ?
the wavy fan, but which is cer-
tainly superior to some of the other
of the above modes in principle,
as it has no tendency to constrain
the shoots, and produce an irregu-
lar distribution or exhibition of the
sap in gourmands, &c. (Science of
Horticulture, 8vo. 1818.)
2143. Trees ivith Jlexible stems,
such as the vine and other climbers,
admit of three other varieties of
training (Jig- 388.), which, as
vines bear the sweetest fruit at the
greatest distance from the root, is
particularly suitable for them.
2144. Fan training, as the name
imports, directs the spreading out
of all the branches like the spokes
of the fan : it is reckoned of universal application and peculiarly suitable for peaches
and other stone-fruits.
388
d
?&^J*
2145. Horizontal training is that in which, from a main stem, lateral branches are led
out horizontally on each side, and is more especially adapted for pear-trees.
2146. Horizontal training
with the screw stem is chiefly
applicable to pears and apples,
and the use of the screw is to
cause buds to push at proper
places for the horizontal
shoots. Where this is not
adopted, the annual heading
down of the vertical shoot is
resorted to, by which the same
effect is produced; but the tree
requires in this case a longer
period to fill the wall. It may
be effected either with one or
two main stems ; but, in ge-
389
Book IV.
TRAINING.
413
390
neral, the latter mode is preferable (Jig. 389.), as distributing the sap or vigor of the tree
more equally.
2147. Oblique training resembles the two last, with this difference, that the lateral
shoots are trained obliquely to the main stem. It is particularly adapted for cherries.
Thouin remarks, that the shoots should not be raised above an angle of forty-five degrees,
unless in the case of a very weak shoot, which, for one season, may be led perpendicularly ;
nor lowered below the horizontal line, unless in the case of an excessively strong gourmand
or water-shoot. The angle of forty-five degrees indeed is recommended by the French
writers, as the best for all shoots of fm it-trees to assume, whether by the training against
walls or the pruning of standards. See the articles Espalier and Treille in Cours Complet
(V Agriculture, &c.
2148. Perpendicular training is performed by leading one horizontal shoot from each
side of the stem, and within a foot or eighteen inches of the ground ; the shoots which
proceed from these are led up perpendicularly to the top of the wall ; sometimes such
shoots are trained in the screw or serpentine manner, particularly in vines and currants
which bear remarkably well in this form. This is the original mode of training practised
by the Dutch, and is still more common in Holland and Flanders than any where else.
2149. Stellate training refers chiefly to standards trained on walls, or what by some are
called riders. The summit of the stem being elevated six or eight feet from the ground
by its length, the branches are laid in like radii from a centre.
2150. The open fan
(jig. 390.) is a mode of
training described by
Professor Thouin, and
exemplified in the Jar-
din des Plantes. It does
not appear to differ
much from a mode de-
scribed by Knight, which
he applied to the peach,
and considers, with a
little variation, appli-
cable, even with supe-
rior advantages, to the
cherry, plum, and pear-
tree. This form, he
adds, " might with much
advantage be given to
trees whilst in the nursery ; and perhaps it is the only form which can be given without
subsequent injury to the tree." There is nothing very peculiar in this form the first and
second year of training (a, b), after being headed down ; but in the third year (c), the
reversing of the lateral shoots (d), becomes a characteristic.
2151. Wavy or curvilinear training, Haywood considers as combining " all the grand
requisites stated to be produced" by the modes recommended by other writers on fruit-
trees. " The stems (Jig. 391. a) being two prineipal branches through which the sap will
391
flow in equal portions from the root, to the length of three feet, before it is permitted to
form collaterals, the same effect will be produced as if the whole sap was to pass up a
single stem of a standard of six feet, which is justly observed by Bradley, ' to make
fruit-branches in such plenty, that hardly any barren shoots are to be found upon
them.' It also is conformable to the idea of Hales, that ' light, by freely entering
the extended surfaces of leaves and flowers, contributes much to the ennobling the
principles of vegetables.' By avoiding the precise horizontal position in which Hitt
414 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
directs the branches to be fixed, the sap is more regularly and uniformly disposed of,
and there will be no necessity for cutting branches short to form studs for producing
bearers, nor to adopt the method recommended by Forsyth for furnishing bearers, that of
repeatedly pinching off the tops, and shortening the leading shoots. The whole of the
sap will, by this mode, be expended in profitable and increasing production, and all the
desirable effects which these authors describe to be attainable, will be produced in less
time and with less difficulty. By this mode, also, it is possible to train a tree to its ut-
most extent without ever using the knife for any odier purpose than for removing worn-
out branches, or old bearers, nor need a branch ever be shortened. It will be found like-
wise to support Knight's ideas, ' and expose a greater surface of leaf to the light,' in the
shortest possible time. It will also ' promote an equal distribution of the circulating
fluids ;' and without cutting off the strongest and weakest branches, ' each annual shoot,
as produced, will possess nearly an equal degree of vigor.' And, as the horizontals will
be formed of the most luxuriant shoots, they will find sufficient space to be trained in, and
thus by ' proper treatment,' will, in due season, be found to ' have uniformly produced
the finest possible bearing wood for the succeeding year,' and this without pinching off
shoots. Thus, also, the same square of walling will be furnished with more bearing
wood, in the third and fourth years, than can possibly be done by any other mode, and
than can be effected by the common mode of practice, in less than eight or ten years."
2152. Preparatory training. Nearly the same routine is gone through when the trees
are young, for all the different modes of training. The shoots of grafted trees newly
received from the nursery (Jig. 392. a) are not shortened by the best modern practi-
tioners : at the end of the first season the side branches are left at an elevated angle (b),
to encourage them to throw out laterals ; afterwards they are brought down (c, d) to an
oblique or nearly horizontal position, and each shoot, placed in its final position, as it
increases in size.
392
2153. Materials used in training. The operation of training on walls is performed chiefly
by means of nails and shreds, on trellises by bass ties, and on espalier rails osier-twigs are
most commonly used. The bass, after being applied, is gently twisted round with the
finger and thumb, in order that it may run into a firm knot without tearing and weaken-
ing the ligament. The osier tie is made fast by twisting the two ends, somewhat in the
manner done by reapers in tying up sheaves of corn, and well known in the nurseries.
But the nicety of the operation of training consists in the proper use of nails and shreds
on a wall ; in which business, as Marshall has observed, " ingenuity will evidence itself
in neatness and symmetry. " When a shoot requires some constraint to retain it in its
position, the pressure must always be against the shred and never against the nail. Of
both nails and shreds there should be two sizes used, the larger for strong, and the smaller
for weak shoots. Trees trained to boards can hardly have nails too small ; and those
trained to stone or old brick walls generally require a larger size.
2154. Shreds should be adapted to the strength of the branches, and the distance of
the buds from each other ; so that with strong shoots, having their buds wide, such broad
shreds may be used as would make weak shoots unsightly, and spoil them by covering
the buds ; many a well cut tree has been made disgusting, merely by irregular and dang-
lino- shreds. A uniformity of color can hardly be accomplished, but a regularity of size
may ; scarlet, if all alike, looks best, and white the worst. The general width of shredc
should be from half an inch to three quarters, and the length two inches to three, having
some wider, longer, and stronger, for large branches. In the disposition of shreds, some
must have their ends turned downwards, and some upwards, as best suits, for bringing
the shoots to their proper place, and straight direction. Though some primers observe a
sort of alternate order, yet the ends hanging chiefly down will look best. Use no more
shreds and nails than necessary to make good work, as the effect is rude and injurious. As
nails are apt to break out pieces of the wall in drawing, it is a good way to give the nail a
Book IV. INDUCING FRUITFULNESS. 415
tap to drive it a little, which loosening it from its rust, makes it come out easier, and so
saves a wall from large holes, which is a material thing. (Introd. to Gard. )
2155. Herbaceous training is performed by means of poles, rods, branches, and pegs.
Plants that twine and grow high are furnished with high poles, on which to twine them-
selves, as the tamis, convolvulus, &c. Plants with tendrils, as the pea, the bryonia, &c.
are furnished with branches or spray, through which the plant springing up attaches itself
by its tendrils, and is thus better exposed to the sun and air, and not so liable to rot as
when it lies on the ground. Props or poles are used for supporting and leading upright,
tall, slender, growing plants, as the dahlia, tree-lupin, and the like. Creeping and trail-
ing plants, as the melon, gourd, &c. are generally trained in the stellate manner on the
ground by means of pegs ; sometimes also on walls and trellises.
Subsect. 5. Blanching.
2156. Blanching is an operation of culture performed by earthing the stems of plants,
by tying up their leaves, or by covering them with utensils from the light.
2157. Blanching by earthing is performed on the celery, chardoon, asparagus, &c. In
the case of annuals the earth is generally drawn up so as to press on the leaves of the plant
as it advances in growth ; in the case of perennials a covering of loose earth is generally
placed over them before the growing season, through which the stalks shoot up, and
are blanched.
2158. Blanching by tying together the leaves is sometimes performed on lettuce, cabbage,
endive, &c. The plant being nearly in its most leafy state, the head or fasciculus of
leaves are gathered together, and tied up with bass ribands. By this operation two effects
are produced : the inner leaves as they grow, being excluded from the light, are blanched ;
and being compressed in proportion to the growth, which takes place after tying up the
head, the fasciculus becomes both tender and solid.
2159. Blanching by overlaying is merely the laying down of tiles, slates, pieces of boards,
&c. on endive and other salading, when nearly full grown, and of which, being thus ex-
cluded from the sun, the future growth is colorless. Covering by the following mode is
preferable.
2160. Blanching by covering with utensils is a recent invention applied to sea-kale,
rhubarb, asparagus, &c. and consists in placing over them the utensils already described
as appropriated to this purpose. (1427.)
Sect. IV. Operations for inducing a State of Fruitfulness in barren and unblossoming
Trees and Plants.
2161. Various means have been tried to induce fruitfulness with different degrees of
success. Almost every description of fruit-tree, if planted in a thin stratum of rich loam
on a dry and impervious sub-soil, will come into bearing in regular course, according to
its nature ; but it too frequently happens that the stratum of soil is too deep, or the roots
penetrate into the sub-soil, or by some means, not always obvious, acquire the power of
throwing much superfluous sap into the tree, which spends itself in leaves and branches,
instead of blossoms. Similar circumstances produce similar effects in ornamental trees
and shrubs, whether in the open air or in artificial climates. Attempts are known to have
been made for upwards of a century and a half, to cause such trees to produce blossoms,
attended with different degrees of success ; but the practice was carried on empirically,
without any knowledge of the reason or principle which operated in producing the desired
end, till its true rationale was given by Du Hamel, in his Physique des Arbres, 1758.
2162. Laying bare the roots of trees is mentioned by Evelyn as conducive to fertility.
— Transplanting the tree frequently, by Van Osten. — Boring a hole, and driving in an
oaken plug is mentioned by the same author as the "old way." Every one must
have observed that trees partially blown out of the ground, or with the earth washed
or otherwise removed from their roots in banks or river-sides, or with their trunks or
roots broken, bent, or mutilated in any way, are always more fruitful than others ; and
this, we conceive, has suggested the various modes of artificial mutilation. Mutilation,
both in plants and animals, is attended by a sort of maturity; and maturity in all living
things is the period of reproduction.
2163. Cutting the roots of trees is an old practice, generally performed in winter or
spring, but recently by Beattie, gardener at Scone, in midsummer. " In the begin-
ning of July 1811, I had a border on the south wall, of 400 feet long, trenched to the
depth of from two and a half to three feet ; in doing this, I had the opportunity
of cutting the roots of all the trees, as the work went on, which I did so completely,
that they in a manner hung by the nails and shreds, with a ball of earth of about two
feet from the stem of the tree. As cutting the roots of fruit-trees has a tendency to
make them fruitful, that may possibly proceed from the small quantity of fibrous roots
produced by the operation." Beattie says, he acted on the principle of depriving the tree
of the means of containing such a great quantity of sap, thereby preventing it from
416 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
growing so much to wood, and of course inclining it to become fruitful. (Ceded. Mem.
vol. i. 272.) Nicol suggests the same expedient in his Forcing and Fruit Gardener,
4th edit. p. 240.
21 Q4. Cutting notches in the stem or branches has been tried on many occasions on
the same principle as cutting the roots.
2165. Partial decortication is the removal of the bark already scaling off, covered with
mosses and lichens, or carbonised by the action of the atmosphere. It is only
applicable to old trees, or trees of a certain age, and the effect is to increase the vigor
of the tree, and thus promote the production of young wood and blossom-buds. It
was recommended by Arnaud d'Andilly, in 1650, and has been practised for several
years, by Forsyth, Lyon, and various others, on standard-trees, and by King, a com-
mercial gardener, at Teddington, on the vine.
2166. Strippi?ig off pieces of the bark from the stem and branches is said by Marshall
to check the luxuriance, and promote the fruitfulness of pear-trees. (Introd. to Gard. &c.
4th edit. p. 156.)
2167. Ringing the stem and branches, circumcision, or excision, &c. was known to
the Romans, and is mentioned by Virgil, Columella, &c. Among the moderns, it
seems to have been revived by Du Hamel in the beginning of the 18th century, more
especially in 1733, when he perfectly succeeded in rendering trees fruitful, and has given
an account of his experiments in the Memoires de V Academie des Sciences, A. D. 1788.
The subject has since been taken up by Suriray Delarue, and by Lancry ; the former of
whom has given an excellent history and rationale of the practice in the Journal
Physico-CEconomique for 1803. It is also ably treated in the Coxirs Complet d' Agri-
culture, &c. art. Bourrelet. The effect of ringing has been perfectly well known and
acted on in Holland and Germany since Du Hamel's time, as any one may be assured of
by the perusal of the works of Christ, Diederich, and Diel ; and it is remarkable, that
so late as 1815, A. Hempel, a clergyman of Saxony, should have published an account
of his practice in ringing, as new. The use of ringing would be, in all probability,
introduced into England soon after Du Hamel's experiments were published ; but
though it has been known and occasionally practised by some gardeners for upwards of
half a century, it seems not to have been generally known, either in 1817, when, judging
from a paper of Dr. Nohden, the subject was considered new in the Horticultural
Society ; or, in the end of last century-, when Dr. Darwin, in his Notes to Phytologia,
vol. i. p. 393, describes the practice, and accounts for its effects. It is now frequently
practised, both for the purpose of inducing blossoms on trees, or rendering them pro-
ductive; and for accelerating the maturity and increasing the size of fruits. The
former has been termed production-ringing, and the latter maturation-ringing. {Hart.
Trans, iv. 557.) Production-ringing should be performed in the spring, and will pro-
duce its effects in the following year : maturation-ringing when the plants are in blossom,
and it will show its effects the same season.
2168. Maturation-ringing. Ringing has been found not only to induce blossom-
buds, but where these prove fertile, to increase the size and accelerate the ripening of
fruits. In a paper read before the Horticultural Society in 1808, Williams, of
Pitmaston, describes a mode of making annular excisions in the bark of vines.
These were made rather less than a quarter of an inch in width, that the exposed wood
might be covered again with bark by the end of autumrr. " Two vines of the
white Frontiniac, in similar states of growth, being trained near to each other on
a south wall, were selected for trial ; one of these was experimented on (if I may use the
term), the other was left in its natural state, to form a standard of comparison. When
the circle of bark had been removed about a fortnight, the berries on the experimented
tree began evidently to swell faster than those on the other, and by the beginning of Sep-
tember showed indications of approaching ripeness, while the fruit of the unexperimented
tree continued green and small. In the beginning of October, the fruit on the tree that
had the bark removed from it was quite ripe, the other only just began to show a dis-
position to ripen, for the bunches were shortly afterwards destroyed by the autumnal
frosts. In every case in which circles of bark were removed, I invariably found that the
fruit not only ripened earlier, but the berries were considerably larger than usual, and
more highly flavored. Tne effects thus produced, I can account for only by adopting
Knight's theory of the downward circulation of the sap through the bark. It is not of
much consequence in what part of the tree the incision is made ; but in case the trunk is
very large, I should then recommend, that the circles be made in the smaller branches."
2169. The operation of maturation-ringing should be deferred till the flowers are fully
expanded, or rather till they are passing into fruit, or even till the fruit is set. The sap,
being interrupted in its descent by the annular incision, is held in the bough, and thus
the fruit gains a more ready and uninterrupted supply of nourishment, the consequence
of which is not only an increase of size, but earlier maturity. This operation, besides,
may be serviceable in ripening the seeds of plants, which otherwise would not be per-
Book IV. INDUCING FRUITFULNESS. 417
fected ; for as the fruit is sooner ripened, so the seeds will likewise be sooner
matured. When the influence of ringing is limited to three or four months, as in
the case of maturation-ringing, it is obvious that the ring need not be so broad as when
it is to be extended to a longer period ; from which it follows that maturation- ringing, as
it keeps the bark separated for a shorter period, will do less injury to the health of the
branch than the other mode. ( Horl. Trans, iv. 557. )
2170. Ringing is said to force young trees to show blossoms. Hempel states as a
consequence resulting from ringing, that you may force young trees to shoiv fruit, before
they otherwise would do. That ringing may have some effect in this way, we think
highly probable ; but by no means so much as is ascribed to it by Hempel. Trees must
arrive at their age of puberty, like animals, before they can propagate their species.
Abundance of food and heat will, no doubt, induce a degree of precocity in the subjects
of both kingdoms ; and as ringing gives in effect abundance of food to the particular part
above the excision, it must have some effect, but it has not been proved to have much.
Ringing will produce blossoms in all plants, herbaceous or shrubby, propagated by ex-
tension, that is, originated otherwise than from seed, at any age; but its effects on young
trees raised from seed, or in causing blossoms on any description of tree to set, are much
less certain ; though in all cases where they do set, the size of the fruit will be greatly
enlarged for the first year or two.
2171. In performing the operation of ringing, a ring of outer and inner bark, not
larger than the tree can fill up in stone-fruit in one, and in kernel-fruit in two, or at
most three years, is cut clean out with a knife, or the ringing shears. (Jig. 123.) If larger,
the tree becomes too much excited to fruitfulness, and the part of it separated from the
root by the ring dies, while the stem and parts adjoining the root become too luxuriant.
When the rings are made so wide as that the barks cannot unite for two or three years,
the result, says the author of the article, Bourrelet, in N. C. d" Agriculture, &c. will be
to " accelerate the production of blossoms, and the setting of fruit, and to augment their
size during the first year ; and then, during the following years, to make them languish,
and at last die." "There is a pear-tree," Sabine observes, "against one of the walls
in the kitchen-garden, belonging to his Majesty, at Kew, which underwent the operation
of ringing about fifteen years ago. The part operated on was near the root ; and, as it
was a principal arm, about one half of the whole tree became influenced by the operation.
This half has uniformly borne fruit, the other half has been nearly barren. The portion
of stem which was laid bare is about six inches wide, and it has not been again covered
by bark. That part just above the ring is considerably larger than the part below it.
The ends of the branches appear in much decay, and there are but very few young shoots
thrown out from the sides ; whilst, on the other part of the tree, the shoots, as usual,
proceed from the extremities, as well as from the sides of the main branches. I appre-
hend, from the present appearance of the whole, that the portion of the tree which, by
the separation of the bark, has been deprived in a great measure of supply from the root,
cannot survive many years."
2172. Renewal of the soil about fruit-trees has been found by Hay, of Newliston,
near Edinburgh, in the case of peaches ; and Maher, of Arundel, in the case of figs,
and by various others, to renew the fruitfulness of trees. There may be two reasons
given for this, both of which may be concerned in the effect : the first is the exhaustion
of the soil generally ; and the second is its exhaustion of the particular sort of food pre-
ferred by the kind of tree. Though we are not so certain that every species of tree
requires, to a certain extent, a particular sort of food, as we are that herbaceous vegetables,
as wheat, oats, &c. do ; yet analogy renders the fact highly probable. At any rate, it is
clear that a renewal of soil must always be conducted with reference to the state of the
plants ; a poor, limy, sandy soil may be substituted for one where the luxuriancy of the
plants shows that it is too rich ; and a rich loamy one for one of an opposite description,
where the plants are unthriving, &c.
2173. Bending down the branches has been found conducive to fruitfulness; and is
accounted for on the same principle as ringing. It has been well exemplified by
Mayer (Hort. Trans, i.), in fixing clay balls to the extremities of the shoots of young
apple-trees after midsummer, which, depressing them, stagnated the sap, and induced the
production of abundance of flower-buds.
2174. To induce the production of blossoms in herbaceous plants, any or all of the above
modes may be adopted with most species, but on a large scale the first object is to place
the plants in a soil neither too poor nor too rich. A dry soil, not deep, and resting on a
dry firm bottom, is most favorable to fruitfulness, especially when joined to abundance
of air and light. In perennials, the effect can only be produced the second year, as in
trees ; but in annuals it will be immediate : in the former class, however, where the de-
fect is want of nourishment, the effect may take place even the first year. Knight in-
duced the production of blossoms on an early variety of potatoe, by depriving the plant
of its tubers, as soon as they made their appearance ; by which means, the nourishment
Ee
418 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
which would have been devoted to their enlargement, was employed by the plant in the
production of blossoms, as the remaining mode which it had of propagating its species.
The reverse of the practice is found proportionally to increase the bulk of the tubers, and
has become an important point of practice in potatoe culture. The Dutch, as Darwin
informs us, were the first to adopt this mode in the culture of bulbous-rooted flowers.
In general, it may be stated, that the art of producing blossoms in perennial herbaceous
plants consists in permitting them to have abundance of leaves, fully exposed to the light
and air the preceding year, and in not cutting them over when in a state of growth, as is
too frequently done, but in letting them first begin to decay. By this means, healthy
vigorous buds and roots are prepared for exertion the following year.
2175. General estimate of these practices. All these operations may be resorted to oc-
casionally as expedients, but the only permanent and general mode of inducing fruitful-
ness is by supplying judicious soil, exposure, and pruning.
Sect. V. Operations for retarding or accelerating Vegetation.
2176. To overcome difficulties is the last stage in the progress of art. After civilised
man has had every thing which he can desire in season, his next wish is to heighten the
enjoyment by consummation at extraordinary seasons. The merit here consists in con-
quering nature ; and in gardening this is done by cold-houses and hot-houses ; and by ex-
cluding or increasing the effects of the sun in the open air. The origin of these practices
is obviously derived from the fact, that heat is the grand stimulus to vegetation, and its
comparative absence, the occasion of torpor and inactivity.
Subsect. 1. Operations for retarding Vegetation.
2177. Retarding by the form of surface, is effected by forming beds of earth in an east
and west direction, sloping to the north at any angle at which the earth will stand ; here
salading may be sown in summer, and spinage, turnips, and such crops as shoot rapidly
into flower-stems during hot weather.
2178. Retarding by shade. The simplest mode of retarding vegetation is, by keeping
plants constantly in comparative shade in the spring season. This is either to be done by
having them planted in the north side of a wall or house, or sloping bank, hill or other
elevation ; or by moving them there in pots ; or by placing a shade or shed over, or on
the south side of the vegetables to be retarded. Where the object of retarding vegetation
is to have the productions in perfection later in the season, the first method is generally
resorted to ; but where vegetation is only retarded in order that it may burst forth with
greater vigor when the shades are removed, then either of the others is preferable.
Trees on an east and west espalier-rail, shaded from the sun from February to the middle
of May, will be later of coming into blossom, and therefore less likely to have their blos-
soms injured by frost.
2179. Retarding by the cold-house, orice-cold chamber, {figs. 169. 173.) is more particu-
larly applicable to plants in pots, especially fruit-trees, and might be made a practice of
importance. Vegetation may in this way be retarded from March to September, and the
plant removed at that season, by proper gradations, to a hot-house, will ripen its fruit at
mid- winter. It is even alleged by some gardeners, who have had experience in Russia,
that the vegetation of peach-trees may be so retarded an entire year ; and that afterwards,
when the plant is removed into spring or summer heat, in the January of the second year,
its vegetation is most rapid, and a crop of fruit may be ripened in March or April, with
very little exertion on the part of the gardener. The earliest potatoes are obtained from
tubers which have been kept two seasons ; that is, those are to be planted which have
been produced the season before the last ; or, the produce of summer 1821, in December
1822.
2180. Retarding the ripening of fruits by excluding oxygen. M. Berard, of Montpelier,
in an essay on the ripening of fruits, which gained the prize of the French Academy of
Sciences in 1821, found that the loss of carbon is essential to the ripening of fruits ; that
this carbon combines with the oxygen of the air, and forms carbonic acid ; and that when
the fruit is placed in an atmosphere deprived of oxygen, this function becomes suspended,
and the ripening is stopped. Hence it results, that most fruits may be preserved during
a certain period, by gathering them a few days before they are ripe, and placing them in
an atmosphere free from oxygen. The most simple process for effecting this consists in
placing at the bottom of a bottle, a paste formed of lime, sulphate of iron, and water ;
then introduce the fruit so as they may rest detached from the bottom of the bottle, and
from each other, and cork the bottle and cover it with cement. Peaches, plums, and
apricots have been kept in this way for a month ; pears and apples for three months.
Afterwards they will ripen perfectly by exposure to the air. {Journal R. Inst. vol. xi.
396.)
Book IV. ACCELERATING VEGETATION. 419
Subsect;. 2. Operations for accelerating Vegetation.
2181. Accelerating by the form of surface consists in forming beds or banks in an east
and west direction, and sloping to the south, forming an angle with the horizon, the
maximum of which, in garden-soils, cannot exceed 45 degrees. On such beds early
sown crops, as radishes, peas, turnips, &c. will come much earlier, and winter standing
crops, as lettuce, broccoli, &c. suffer less from severe weather than those on a level sur-
face. The north side of such beds or ridges may be used for retarding vegetation, as leeks,
borecoles, &c. (2177.)
21 82. Acceleration by shelter, and exposure to the sun, is the simplest, and probably only
primitive mode of accelerating the vegetation of plants ; and hence one of the objects for
which walls and hedges are introduced in gardens. A May-duke cherry, trained against
a south wall, and another tree, of the same species, in the open compartment of a sheltered
garden, were found, by the late J. Kyle, of Moredun, near Edinburgh, on an average of
years, to differ a fortnight in the ripening of their fruit. In cold, damp, cloudy seasons,
they were nearly on a par ; but in dry, warm seasons, those on the wall were sometimes
fit to be gathered three weeks before the others. It may be here remarked, that though,
in cloudy seasons, those on the wall did not ripen before the others ; yet their flavor was,
in such seasons, better than that of the others, probably from the comparative dryness of
their situation. Corn and potatoes on the south and north sides of a hill, all other circum-
stances being equal, ripen at about the same relative distances of time.
2183. Accelerating by soils is effected by manures of all sorts, but especially by what
are called hot and stimulating manures and composts, as pigeons' dung for cucumbers,
blood for vines ; and, in general, as to soils, lime-rubbish, sand, and gravel, seem to have
the power of accelerating vegetation to a much greater degree than rich clayey or loamy
soils, or bog or peat earth.
2184. Accelerating by previous jireparation of the plant is a method of considerable im-
portance, whether taken alone, or in connection with other modes of acceleration. It has
long been observed by cultivators, that early ripened crops of onions and potatoes sprout,
or give signs of vegetation, more early next season than late-ripened crops. The
same of bulbs of flowers which have been forced, which re-grow much earlier next
season, than those which have been grown in the open air. It was reserved to Knight,
however, to turn this to account in the forcing of fruit-trees, as related in a paper, ac-
companied as usual by what renders all the papers of that eminent horticulturist so truly
valuable, — a rationale of the practice.
2185. The period which any species or variety of fruit will require to attain maturity, under any given de-
grees of temperature, and exposure to the influence of lightin the forcing-house, will be regulated to amuch
greater extent than is generally imagined, by the previous management and consequent state of the tree,
when that is first subjected to the operation of artificial heat. Every gardener knows, that when the pre-
vious season has been cold, and cloudy, and wet, the wood of his fruit-trees remains immature, and weak
abortive blossoms only are produced. The advantages of having the wood well ripened are perfectly well
understood ; but those which may be obtained, whenever a very early crop of fruit is required, by ripening
the wood very earlv in the preceding summer, and putting the tree into a state of repose, as soon as pos-
sible after its wood'has become perfectly mature, do not, as far as my observation has extended, appear to
be at all known to gardeners ; though every one who has had in any degree the management of vines in a
hot-house, must have observed the different effects of the same degrees of temperature upon the same
plant, in October and February. In the autumn, the plants have just sunk into their winter sleep : in
February they are refreshed, and ready to awake again ; and whenever it is intended prematurely to ex-
cite their powers of life into action, the expediency of putting those powers into a state of rest, early in the
preceding autumn, appears obvious. {Hort. Trans, vol. ii. 368.) Knight placed some vines in pots,
in a forcing-house, in the end of January, which ripened their fruit in the middle of July ; soon after
which the pots were put under the shade of a north wall in the open air. Being pruned and removed in
September to a south wall, they soon vegetated with much vigor, till the frost destroyed their shoots.
Others, which were not removed from the north wall till the following spring, when they were pruned and
placed against a south wall, " ripened their fruit well in the following season in a climate not nearly warm
enough to have ripened it at all, if the plants had previously grown in the open air." Peach-trees, some-
what similarly treated, unfolded their blossoms nine days earlier, " and their fruit ripened three we^ks
earlier" than in other trees of the same varieties. (Hort. Trans, vol. ii. 372.) Pots of grapes which had
produced a crop previously to midsummer, were placed under a north wall till autumn : on the 12th of
January, they were put into a stove, and ripened their fruit by the middle of April. (Hort. Trans.
iv. 440.)
2186. By thus inducing a state of rest in plants in pots, say vines or peaches, in
August, and placing them immediately in the ice-cold room till the beginning of January,
which is allowing four months of a winter to them, they would, in all probability, produce
very early crops of grapes with less forcing than would be required for such as ripen their
wood in October. Such pots might be placed in pine and other stoves, where a certain
degree of heat is kept up at any rate, and might be contrived to produce a succession of
fruit, in the manner practised by W. Masland, of Stockport, by a vineyard in pots, which
pass in regular succession through his pine-stoves, and furnish ripe grapes the whole
year. A state of rest is readily induced by withholding water from plants under cover ;
and in the open air by covering trees, and a portion of the surface or border around or
before them, with canvass or oil-cloth, to throw off the autumnal and part of the winter
rains.
E e 2
420 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
2187. Accelerating by housing, such as removing plants in pots and boxes, to sheds or
rooms in the night, and exposing them in fine weather to the sun, was practised by the
gardener of Tiberius, to procure early cucumbers; and by those of Louis XIV. to force
peas. (JSenard. ) Parkinson and Gerarde describe the practice as applied to raisiag cu-
cumbers and melons in this country.
2188. Accelerating by artificial heat in walls is a very frequent and useful practice. In
general it is accompanied by protecting-covers of canvass or netting (1495.) : but some
gardeners, as Trotter of Alva, a very high and exposed situation on the Ochill hills, never
cover their hot- walls ; but in ripening the wood in autumn, and in saving the blossom and
setting the fruit in spring, keep up such fires as will repel the frost, and evaporate the wet
that might fall on the wall. " No danger," Trotter observes, " is to be apprehended from
the severity of the spring months, even when exposed to all sorts of weather ; every
kind of covering being superseded by the genial heat of the wall." This he has long
experienced, even in England, but especially in Scotland, to be " the best preservative
of the blossom of young fruits." (Caled. Mem. vol. ii. 113.)
2189. Accelerating by fiued borders has been occasionally attempted, but can never
succeed by fire heat ; by tubes of steam, perhaps, something might be done, but the heat
can always be more economically apphed by means of pits or frames, placed on raised
beds of mould, with arches, or some similar contrivance underneath. (See a description
of a flued border in Keil's Treatise on the Peach Tree, 8vo. 1780.)
2190. Accelerating by covering with glass cases, of different sizes and descriptions, pro-
bably succeeded to housi)ig. The Romans are supposed to have hastened the ripening of
grapes and peaches, by placing them under talc cases (55. ) ; and a French author, Ber-
nard, informs us, that the origin of forcing the vine arose from one Gordon observing
that a shoot which had entered his room-window through a crevice, ripened its fruit some
time before those branches of the same tree which remained in the open air. The practice
of forcing peaches in Holland, is said to have originated from a gardener near Haarlem
putting hot-bed lights against his walls to ripen peaches in a bad season. By a mere
covering of glass, without any description of bottom heat, or any auxiliary mode of ac-
celeration, almost all fruits and flowers which grow in the open air in this country, may
be forwarded from one fortnight to one month, according to the season. Fruits may
by the facile means thus afforded of covering and protection, be retained in a ripe and
plump state from one to three months ; so that in general it may be observed, that
cold frames, as they are called, and mere glass cases, will double the ordinary time of
enjoying hardy fruits, and certainly they greatly increase the flavor of such as ripen
late, and especially of the vine and peach.
2191. Accelerating by glass cases and artificial heat combined is effected by hot-beds,
pits, and hot-houses.
2192. Accelerating by the common hot-bed is an ancient, general, but still somewhat pre-
carious and unmanageable mode. The heat being produced by a fermenting mass of ve-
getable matter, over which is placed the earth containing the plants, it becomes difficult
to regulate any excess of heat, and the plants are sometimes, in the empirical phrase,
burnt. When, however, the heat declines, it is readily renewed by linings or a sur-
rounding layer of dung. To remedy the defects of the common hot-bed, and prevent
the possibility of burning the plants, by interposing a stratum of air between the dung
and the mass of earth which contains them, is the object of the vaulted pit and M'Phail's
frame (figs. 230. 233.) ; to which there is no objection, but the greater original cost.
These structures actually save dung, and are more agreeable to the eye of those who
value order and neatness than dung-beds
2193. Accelerating by means ofu-alled pits is very similar to that of forcing by hot-beds ;
with the advantages of having more room between the surface of the beds and the glass for
the tops of shrubs, and of the glass having a better slope ; but with the disadvantages of a
chance of burning in the first instance, and no power of increasing the bottom heat when
it once declines. Bark is generally used to lessen the first evil, as it does not ferment so
powerfully as dung, and the second is remedied by a surrounding flue. Such pits are
much used in all the branches of garden-culture. Henderson, of Brechin, proposes to
lay on the surface of beds of tan, or on hot-beds, pits, pineries, &c. fine drifted river or
sea sand, three inches deep. " This covering," he says, " possesses many advantages.
It will extirpate the slater or wood-louse (oniscus asellus), as the nature of the sand pre-
vents the insect from concealing itself from the rays of the sun. In dung hot-beds, it
keeps down the steam. To fruit, it affords a bed as warm and as dry as tiles or slates.
This covering also retains the moisture in the earth longer than any other, and is itself
sooner dry. It gives the houses a clean, neat appearance, and though it cannot be ex-
pected to remove the infection, where already introduced, will be found a powerful pre-
ventive of that great evil, mildew."
2194. Accelerating by means of hot-houses is the master-piece of this branch of culture,
and is but of modern invention, being unknown till the end of the 1 7th century. Im-
Book IV. ACCELERATING VEGETATION. 421
provement in the form as well as management of these buildings has, as in every other
case, been progressive ; and there are now a great choice both of the forms adopted, the
materials used in the construction of these forms, and the mode of producing artificial
heat.
2195. There are two leading modes of accelerating plants in hot-houses ; the first is by
placing them there permanently, as in the case of the peach, vine, &c. planted in the
ground ; and the second is by having the plants in pots, and introducing or withdrawing
them at pleasure. As far as respects trees, the largest crops, and with far less care, are
produced by the first method ; but in respect to herbaceous plants and shrubs, whether
culinary, as the strawberry and kidneybean, or ornamental, as the rose and the pink,
the latter is by far the most convenient method, and it is also the best adapted for afford-
ing very early crops. (2185.) Where large pots are used, the peach, cherry, fig, &c.
will produce tolerable crops. Knight has observed, that " vines and other fruit-trees,
when abundantly supplied with water and manure in a liquid state, require but a very
small quantity of mould ;" and he adds, " A pot containing two cubic feet of very rich
mould, with proper subsequent attention, is fully adequate to nourish a vine, which, after
being pruned in autumn, occupies twenty square feet of the roof of a hot-house ; and I
have constantly found that vines in such pots, being abundantly supplied with food and
water, have produced more vigorous wood, when forced very early, than others of the
same varieties, whose roots were permitted to extend beyond the limits of the house."
(Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 373.)
2196. When trees are planted for a permanency within, or close to the outside of a hot-
house, the soil requires to be prepared of depth and quality according to the nature of
the tree ; and a principal consideration is to form, if such does not naturally exist, a sub-
soil, which shall be impenetrable to the roots. The depth of soil on such a substratum
need not in general be great, provided it be rich. Formerly a depth of three or four
feet was recommended ; but Hay ward proposes to have his fruit-tree borders only fifteen
or eighteen inches deep ; which is conformable to an observation of Hitt, that the finest
crop of peaches he had ever seen, grew on trees which were nourished from a border not
more than one foot deep, with a compact rock below. Nicol allows from twenty-four to
thirty inches of soil. Knight is of opinion, that " a large extent and depth of soil seem
to be no farther requisite to trees than to afford them a regular supply of water, and a
sufficient quantity of organisable matter ;" and, he thinks, " the rapid growth of plants
of every kind, when their roots are confined in a pot to a small quantity of mould, till
that becomes exhausted, proves sufficiently the truth of this position." (Hort. Trans.
vol. ii. p. 127.)
2197. The operations of forcing chiefly respect the admission of air, the supply of heat,
of light, and of water. The grand effect is produced by heat, and the great art is
just to supply as much as will harmonise with the light afforded by the sun and the
nature of the species of plant to be forced. All the operations of nature are gradual ;
and a good gardener will always follow these as the safest examples. He will never
be anxious to apply artificial heat before buds have naturally swoln ; he will then
increase the temperature gradually for some weeks ; he will in particular guard against
any sudden decrease of warmth, it being most necessary towards success, to con-
tinue the course of vegetation uninterruptedly, through foliation, inflorescence, and
fructification.
2198. Heat and light. An error in hot-house culture in general, of very considerable
importance, and which has prevailed till lately, consists in not adjusting the heat of art
to the light of the sun. In cloudy weather, and during night, the artificial atmosphere
is kept hot by fires and exclusion of the external air, while in clear days and during
sunshine, fires are left off or allowed to decline, the external air is admitted, and the at-
mosphere within is reduced to the temperature of that without. As heat in nature is the
result of the shining of the sun, it follows that when there is most light there is most
heat ; but the practice in forcing is very generally the reverse. " A gardener, in forcing,"
Knight observes, " generally treats his plants as he would wish to be treated himself;
and consequently, though the aggregate temperature of his house be nearly what it ought
to be, its temperature, during the night, relatively to that of the day, is almost always too
high." In one of Knight's forcing-houses, in which grapes are grown, he always wishes
to see its temperature, in the middle of every bright day in summer, as high as 90° ; " and
after the leaves of the plants have become dry, I do not object to ten or fifteen degrees
higher. In the following night, the temperature sometimes falls as low as 50° ; and so
far am I from thinking such change of temperature injurious, I am well satisfied that it
is generally beneficial. Plants, it is true, thrive well, and many species of fruit acquire
their greatest state of perfection in some situations within the tropics, where the tempera-
ture in the shade does not vary in the day and night more than seven or eight degrees ;
but in these climates, the plant is exposed during the day to the full blaze of a tropical
sun, and early in the night it is regularly drenched with heavy wetting dews ; and con-
Ee 3
422 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
sequently it is very differently circumstanced in the day and in the night, though the tem-
perature of the air in the shade at both periods may be very nearly the same. I suspect,"
he continues, " that a large portion of the blossoms of the cherry and other fruit-trees in
the forcing-house often proves abortive, because they are forced by too high and uniform
a temperature, to expand before the sap of the tree is properly prepared to nourish them.
I have, therefore, been led, during the last three years, to try the effects of keeping up a
much higher temperature in the day than in the night. As early in the spring as I
wished the blossoms of my peach-tree's to unfold, my house was made warm during the
middle of the dav ; but towards night it was suffered to cool, and the trees were then
sprinkled, by means of a large syringe, with clear water, as nearly at the temperature at
which that usually rises from the ground, as I could obtain it ; and little or no artificial
heat was given during the night, unless there appeared a prospect of frost. Under this
mode of treatment, the blossoms advanced with very great vigor, and as rapidly as I
wished them, and presented, when expanded, a larger size than I had ever before seen of
the same varieties. Another ill effect of high temperature during the night is, that it
exhausts the excitability of the tree much more rapidly than it promotes the growth, or ac-
celerates the maturity "of the fruit ; which is in consequence ill supplied with nutriment,
at the period of its ripening, when most nutriment is probably wanted. The muscat of
Alexandria and other late grapes are, owing to this cause, often seen to wither upon the
branch in a very imperfect state of maturity ; and the want of richness and flavor in
other forced fruit is, I am very confident, often attributable to the same cause. There
are few peach-houses, or indeed forcing-houses of any kind in this country, in which the
temperature does not exceed, during the night, in the months of April and May, very
greatly that of the warmest valley in Jamaica in the hottest period of the year : and there
are probably as few forcing-houses in which the trees are not more strongly stimulated
by the close and damp air of the night, than by the temperature of the dry air of the noon
of the following day. The practice which occasions this cannot be right ; it is in direct
opposition to nature." (Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 130.)
2199. Air. Knight considers that gardeners often and widely err, "by too freely
admitting the external air during the day, particularly in bright weather. Plants gene-
rally grow best, and fruits swell most rapidly, in a warm and moist atmosphere ; and
change of air is, to a very limited extent, necessary or beneficial. The mature leaves of
plants, and according to Saussure, the green fruits (grapes at least), when exposed to the
influence of light, take up carbon from the surrounding air, whilst the same substance is
given out by every other part of the plant ; so that the purity of air, when confined in
close vessels,' has often been found little changed at the end of two or three Jays by the
growth of plants in it. But even if plants required as pure air, as hot-blooded animals,
the buoyancy of the heated air, in every forcing-house, would occasion it to escape and
change as rapidly, and indeed much more rapidly, than would be necessary. It may be
objected, that plants do not thrive, and that the skins of grapes are thick, and other fruits
without flavor in crowded forcing-houses ; but in these it is probably light, rather than a
more rapid change of air that is wanting. When fruits approach to maturity such an in-
crease of ventilation, as will give the requisite degree of dryness to air within the house,
is highly beneficial ; provided it be not increased to such an extent as to reduce the tem-
perature of the house much below the degree in which the fruit has previously grown,
and thus retard its progress to maturity. The good effect of opening a peach-house, by
taking off the lights of its roof, during the period of the last swelling of the fruit, appears
to have led many gardeners to over-rate greatly the beneficial influence of a free current
of air upon ripening fruits ; for I have never found ventilation to give the proper flavor
or color to a peach, unless that fruit was at the same time exposed to the sun without the
intervention of glass ; and the most excellent peaches 1 have ever been able to raise, were
obtained under circumstances where change of air was as much as possible prevented con-
sistently with the admission of light (without glass) to a single tree."
2200. Water. The supplies of water given to plants should be regulated by the sup-
plies of heat, the nature of the plant, its state in regard to growth, and the object for Which
it is cultivated. Abundance of heat should generally be succeeded by copious waterings,
unless the nature of the plant, as its succulency, or its dormant state in regard to growth,
render that improper. Plants cultivated for their fruits should be less watered during
the ripening season than such as are grown for their effect ; a dry atmosphere being most
conducive to flavor. The succulent shoots of trees, Knight observes, always appear to
grow most rapidly, in a damp heat, during the night ; but it is rather elongation than
growth, which then takes place. The spaces between the bases of the leaves become
Fonger, but no new organs are added ; and the tree, under such circumstances, may with
much more reason be said to be drawn, than to grow ; for the same quantity only of ma-
terial is extended to a greater length, as in the elongation of a wire.
Book IV. OPERATIONS OF EXOTIC CULTURE. 423
Sect. VI. Operations to imitate ivartn Climates.
2201 . The imitation of tuarm climates by hot-houses must not be confounded with the art
of forcing the vegetables of temperate climates into the premature production of their
flowers or fruit. The former was the first object for which hot-houses were erected, and
conservatories, green-houses, and plant-stoves existed in this country before any descrip-
tion of forcing-house ; even pineries are of subsequent introduction to botanic and orna-
mental hot-houses. The various climates and constitutions of plants require atmospheres
of different degrees of temperature and moisture : but experience has proved, that
the plants of every warm country in the world may be grown in one or other of the three
following descriptions of hot-houses : — 1. The green-house, of which the varieties are the
Sinarium, or house for Chinese plants ; the Conservatory, in which the plants are inserted
in the soil without pots ; the Cold-frame for bulbs, and Heathery for Cape plants, &c.
2. The dry-stove, for succulent plants, or such as require a dry atmosphere ; and 3. The
moist or hark-stove, for pines, palms, and the tropical plants which require the highest
degree of heat, and an atmosphere moist in proportion.
2202. Treatment common to the three species of artificial climates, fin general, hot-house
exotics are kept in pots ; but in some cases, fruit-bearing plants, as the orange, and plants
with large roots, as the Strelitzia, and luxuriant creepers, as the different Passifloras, are
planted in the ground. The soils are, of course, very various, and can only be treated of
with advantage under each species, tribe, or family. There are none of them, however,
that will not thrive either in bog-earth, sand, or loam, or a mixture of these. For pines,
oranges, and large-blossomed plants, rotten leaves or old cow-dung are added with advan-
tage, and to some of these, as to the orange and pine-apple, liquid manures are frequently
applied. Gardeners in general are averse to the application of any thing rich to the soil
of exotic plants which are not cultivated for their fruit, a prejudice evidently contrary to
analogy, and originating, in all probability in the circumstance, that it is in general de-
sirable to keep exotic plants small, both for want of room in ordinary-sized houses, and by
that means to induce a flowering state. Now, however, when the facilities of hot-house
building by wrought and cast iron admit of covering several acres of ground with a glass
roof at fifty, a hundred feet, or at any distance from the surface ; and when the mode of
heating by steam readily admits of keeping such a space at any required temperature, all
exotic plants, where expense is not an object, may be planted in the ground duly pre-
pared, cultivated and manured like a shrubbery, and allowed to attain their natural size.
Such a house or scene may be watered after Loddiges' method already described (1689.),
and its temperature regulated, if desired, by the ingenious machine of Kewley. (fg. 217.)
With the exception of temperature, the operations in imitation of artificial climates are
the same as those for forcing ; we shall, therefore, confine ourselves to indicating the
temperature of its three leading departments.
2203. The green-house is freely exposed to the influence of our atmosphere when the
open air is not colder than 48° of Fahrenheit, and when winds and rains do not prevent the
opening of the roofs or other means of ventilation. " As long as the weather continues
fair without frost," says Abercrombie, " open the green-house windows in the daytime an
hour after sunrise, and close at the same time before sunset. Never admit air by the
door or sashes in foggy or damp weather, or when bleak cutting winds prevail. The admis-
sion of air in the middle of a clear frosty day will not hurt the plants, if counteracted
by fire heat. Admit air freely when the external temperature is at 42° by Fahrenheit,
or above ; admit it guardedly when between 35 and 42° ; but not at all when under 35°
before the furnace is employed." Green-house plants are generally placed in the open air
during the five mildest months in the year, either by taking off the roofs of the houses
when these are moveable, or by removing the pots, and placing them in the open garden.
2204. Dry-stoves are opened night or day in the summer seasons, but only during sun-
shine in winter and spring, beginning as in the forcing-houses, by opening the top sashes or
ventilators first, by which the external air descends and cools down the temperature,
partly by mixing with the internal air, and partly by forcing it out. Afterwards, when
the temperature of the atmosphere is above 50°, the lower or front sashes or ventilators
may be opened, by which means a regular circulation or breeze is promoted in every part
of the house, if a detached house ; and in most parts of it, if forming part of a range of
connected houses.
2205. Moist or bark stove. The range of temperature which bark-stove plants can endure,
" is from 63° to 81° of Fahrenheit, the instrument being in the middle of the house, at a
considerable distance from the furnace, and out of reach of the sun's rays." According to
Abercrombie the temperature by artificial heat of the bark-stove " is 58J min. 70° max.
When meridian summer is felt, the temperature must keep pace with the increase of heat
in the atmosphere ; and therefore will ascend through all the intermediate degrees, to 75°,
80°, 85°, 90°, 95°, and even 100°. Tne maximum heat in the house, in July and August,
may in general be kept down to 90°, by free admissions of air, and by evaporation from
Ee 4
424 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
the watei given to the plants ; although the force of the season will sometimes prevail to
95° and 100°." M'Phail, however, found that pines will bear without injury 130°, and he
considers that no plant whatever will be injured by 1 20°. " It is not uncommon to give air
to a hot-house only through the day, and to shut it up close at night, perhaps even increas-
ing the temperature in the evening. Judicious horticulturists reverse the practice.
Knowing, for example, that, in the West Indies, chilly and cold nights usually succeed to
the hottest days, they rather imitate nature, by shutting up the house during the day, and
throwing it open at night. This practice, however, can only be followed in our climate in
the summer and autumn seasons." (2feill, in Ed. Ency. art Hort.) This opinion is in
unison with Knight's, who considers exeess of heat during the night, as in all cases
highly injurious to the fruit-trees of temperate climates, and not at all beneficial to those
of tropical climates ; " for the temperature of these is in many instances low during the
ni°ht. In Jamaica, and other mountainous islands of the West Indies, the air upon the
mountains becomes, soon after sunset, chilled and condensed, and in consequence of its
superior gravity descends and displaces the warm air of the valleys ; yet the sugar-canes
are so far from being injured by this sudden decrease of temperature, that the sugars of
Jamaica take a higher price in the market than those of the less elevated islands, of which
the temperature of the day and night is subject to much less variation." [Hort. Trans.
vol. ii. p. 131.)
Sect. VII. Operations of Protection from Atmospherical Injuries.
2206. The injuries u'hich plants may receive from the atmosphere, are as various as its
changes. Many vegetables which flourish in Britain in the open air during the summer
season require protection during some or all of the other seasons of the year. Some also,
from the state of their health, or other circumstances, require to be protected from the direct
ravs of the sun, from excessive rains, winds, frosts, and even from heat and evaporation.
From these and other evils the gardener protects by opaque coverings or shelters of different
kinds, and by transparent covers or glass cases, and by other operations and processes.
2207. Protecting by fronds and frond-like branches is performed by sticking in the
footstalks of the fronds of any of the ferns, but especially of the pteris aquilina,
branches of fir, whin, or broom, or of any other evergreens, between the branches of wall-
trees and the wall, so as the frond or leafy branches may project, and either retard
the blossom by excluding the sun, as is often done in Denmark and Sweden, or protect it
from the frost and winds, as is generally the object in Britain. This is a very simple and
economical protection for myrtles, camellias, and other tender botanical plants, trained to
walls, or even growing in the open ground as stools, and also for fruit-trees. Archd.
Gorrie [Caled. Mem. vol. i. 276.) formed a frame for the more commodiously containing
the branches of spruce and silver firs, and other evergreens ; and applied frames so
clothed to his fruit-tree walls, on the principle of retarding the blossom. The success
was equal, and even beyond his expectations. He covered them on the 20th of February,
and removed the frames on the 1st of June. During this period, the frames were opened
every fine day, but always shut at night. Adjoining were some trees of the same kinds,
which were covered night and day, during the above period, with a woollen net. The
shoots of these trees were infected with the curl or wrinkled leaf — a disease peculiar to
peach-trees in exposed situations ; while those protected by the frames of branches were
perfectly healthy ; and what is remarkable, though retarded nearly four weeks in the
period of their blossoming, the fruit ripened one week sooner.
2208. The advantage of using frames in covering by fronds and branches is, that the screens or protecting
frames can be removed in the daytime ; whereas, attaching the fronds to the trees, they must, in general,
remain till they have effected their object. It is easy to conceive that trees so treated must often suffer
from want of light, and accordingly Nicol, on the whole, rather disapproves of it. " It is," he says, " a
common practice, to screen the blossoms of wall-trees by sticking twigs of larch, or of evergreens, as
firs, or laurels, between the branches and the wall, in such a manner as to overhang the blossoms where
thickest ; and some, instead of these, use the leaves of strong fern. These last are certainly fitter for
the purpose than the former mentioned, as being lighter, and less liable to hurt the blossoms, when dashed
by the wind against them. But all these are objectionable, on account of their shading the bloom too
much, and too constantly, from the sun and light, by which it is rendered weak, and the fruit produced
often drop away, before arriving to any. considerable size ; so that all this trouble taken goes for nothing,
as there would probably have been as good a crop, had the trees been left to take their chance."
2209. Protecting by straw ropes is effected by throwing the ropes in different directions
over the trees, and sometimes depositing their ends in pails of water. It is a Dutch
practice, and appears to have been first made known in this country by Dr. Anderson, in
his Recreations, &c. in 1804. James Laird appears to have tried it successfully on wall-
trees, and on potatoes and other herbaceous vegetables. His method is as follows : —
" As soon as the buds of the trees become turgid, I place poles against the wall, in front
of the trees, at from four to six feet asunder; thrusting their lower ends into the earth,
about a foot from the wall, and fastening them at the top with a strong nail, either to the
wall or coping. I then procure a quantity of straw or hay ropes, and begin at the top of
one of the outer poles, making fast the end, and pass the rope from pole to pole, taking
a round turn upon each, until I reach the end ; when after securing the end well, I begin
Book IV. OPERATIONS OF PROTECTION 425
about eighteen inches below, and return in the same manner to the other end, and so on,
till I have reached to within eighteen inches or two feet of the ground. I have also
found straw ropes to be very useful in protecting other early crops from the effects of
frost, as peas, potatoes, or kidneybeans, by fixing them along the rows with pins driven
into the ground. Old herring nets, and branches of evergreens, are not so efficacious
as straw ropes, which, besides being much cheaper, may be obtained in every situation."
2210. Protecting by nets is effected by throwing either straw, hay, bass, hempen, or
woollen nets over standard- trees, the extreme shoots of which will support the net ; or by
throwing it over hooped beds, or hooped single plants of herbaceous vegetables, or fixing
it over the fruit-trees trained against a wall (Jig. 218.), or by placing it over tender
flowers and botanic plants, as auricula and hydrangea, &c. by means of net frames or
portable cases.
2211. The ordinary way of applying nets, Nicol observes, " is to hang them over the trees, close to
the branches ; the flower-buds and spurs often sticking out beyond the net. Instead of being hung on in
so unmeaning a manner, they should be placed out, at the distance of fifteen or eighteen inches from the
tree ; being kept off by hooked sticks, with their buts placed against the wall, and at the distance of
about a yard from each other. In order to make these stand firmly, the net should be first stretched
tightly on, and be fastened on all sides. By further stretching it, to the extent of fifteen or eighteen
inches, over the hooked ends of the sticks, it will be rendered so firm that no wind will displace it ; and the
sticks will also be made quite fast at the same time. If the nets were doubled, or trebled, and put on in
this way, they would be the more effectual a screen, as the meshes or openings would, in that case, be
rendered very small." Woollen nets are deemed the best, and are now in general use in Scotland. Bass
nets are used in Sweden, and straw nets at the Duke of Buccleugh's garden at Dalkeith. " In screening
with nets of any kind," Nicol observes, "they are always to be let remain on night and day, till all danger
of frost be over; the trouble of putting them properly on being considerable, and there being no ne-
cessity for repeating such trouble, as they will in nowise injure the health of the trees, being incapable of
shading them very much."
2212. Protecting by canvass or bunting screens is effected either by placing moveable
canvass cases over or around detached trees ; portable hand-cases over herbaceous plants;
tents or open sheds over the florists' productions ; or frames or sheets against trees
trained on walls. In all cases they should be placed clear of the tree or plant, either by
extended, forked, or hooked sticks, or hooping, or any other obvious resource. " For
hot-walls," Nicol observes, " they should be placed about the distance of a foot at top,
and of eighteen inches at bottom. In using canvass or bunting screens, in either of the
above-mentioned forms, the trees are always to be exposed to the free air and light, in
good weather, through the day ; screening only at night, and on bad days ; applying
them from the time the buds begin to open, till the fruit is fairly set, or till any fear of
further danger from the effects of frost be past."
2213. Protecting by mats is the commonest of all modes for bushes, beds, and single
herbaceous plants. Sometimes also screens of mats sewed together, or bound in frames,
are applied to fruit-trees, either singly or in frames, or on hooks and pegs. Nicol
considers that they are " in no way so good, effectual, or ultimately so cheap screens as
those of canvass."
2214. Protecting by straw and litter is effected in herbaceous plants by laying it
round their roots, as in the artichoke, asparagus, &c. ; or covering the tops of seedlings,
which was formerly done, in cultivating the cucumber and melon, and is still practised
by market-gardeners in raising radishes and other tender salading. Straw is also
formed into coverings of various sorts for frames ; screens for projecting from walls ;
and cones for bushes, herbaceous plants, and beehives.
2215. Protecting by oiled paper frames is effected on exactly the same plan and prin-
ciple as that by bunting or canvass screens. " Frames covered with oiled paper have
been successfully employed at Grangemuir garden in Fifeshire. The frames are of
wood, inch and half square, with cross bars mortised into the sides. To give support to
the paper, strong packthread is passed over the interstices of the frames, forming meshes
about nine inches square. Common printing (or unsized) paper is then pasted on ; and
when this is quite dry, a coating of boiled linseed-oil is laid on both sides of the paper
with a painter's brush. These frames are placed in front of the trees, and made move-
able, by contrivances which must vary according to circumstances. If the slope from the
wall be considerable, a few triangular side frames may be made to fit the spaces. At
Grangemuir, the frames are not put up till the blossoms be pretty well expanded ; till
which time they are not very apt to suffer from spring frosts or hail showers. In
this way, it may be remarked, there is much less danger of rendering the blossom
delicate by the covering, than if it were applied at an earlier period. The paper frames,
if carefully preserved when not in use, will endure for a good many years, with very
slight repairs."
2216. Protectiua copings and horizontal shelters, mentioned by Miller and Laurence,
are used chiefly with a view of preventing the perpendicular cold. They are projected
generally from the top, but in lofty walls, also from the middle, and remain on night
and day during the cold season. When there is only a temporary coping, it is recom-
mended by Miller and others to be hinged, and to have strings hanging down from
426 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
every board on each side of the wall, so as the board may be projected or thrown back
to rest on the top of the wall at pleasure.
2217. Protecting by transparent covers is effected with small plants by placing over
them a hand or bell glass ; with larger ones, by other portable bell or curvilinear shaped
portable cases, and with considerable shrubs or fruit-trees by moveable cases or glass
tents. {Jig. 226.) For culinary seedlings, herbaceous plants in pots, and young trees
of delicate sorts, timber frames with glass covers are used ; or the plants are placed in
pits dug in the ground, over which sashes are laid. In whichever way transparent
protections are used, they must be partially or wholly removed, or otherwise opened, in
fine weather, to admit a change of atmosphere, and a free current to dry up and destroy
the appearance of what are called damps ; and also to harden and prepare such plants for
the removal of the covers.
2218. Transparent screens are made by placing sashes not in use on edge, and thus
forming as it were glass walls or partitions, which, applied to green-house plants, set
out in the open air, have the effect of producing shelter without shade, and at the same
time of admitting the fall of rain on the plants. Many plants receive sufficient pro-
tection by being placed near to the south side of a wall, hot-house, or other building,
or under a tree or bush during the winter months, without any covering or guard whatever.
Sect. VIII. Operations relative to Vermin, Diseases, and other Casualties of Plants and
Gardens.
2219. The casualties of gardens, from human enemies, vermin, and diseases, are nu-
merous, and have given rise to a variety of devices and operations.
Subsect. 1. Of the Kinds of Vermin most injurious to Gardens.
2220. The human enemies of gardens are such as break in secretly to steal clandestinely,
to injure, or destroy ; or, under the guise of regular operators, pilfer and otherwise act as
enemies to the garden and its proprietor. The operations for deterring and detecting
thieves are, watching by men, by dogs, by peacocks and turkeys allowed to sit on high
trees, and by ducks. The dog is most effectual ; but peacocks and ducks are known to
scream or cry on the approach of strangers in the night-time ; as neither of these birds
scratch the earth, they are in some descriptions of gardens, especially nurseries, more
useful in picking up insects than they are injurious. Man-traps, spring-guns, and
alarums, are also set to detect and deter, and the notices of these dreadful instruments, as
well as the fear of the law, have considerable influence.
2221. The brute vermin which injure gardens and garden-productions may be classed
as quadrupeds, birds, insects, and worms.
2222. Of tlie quadruped enemies, the larger are excluded by fences, and the smaller
species which are most injurious are, the hare, mouse, mole, and rat. Where the hare
or other similar animals are not excluded by a sufficient fence, they must be caught by
traps or shot. Or where the hare is chiefly injurious by barking trees, smearing the
stem with cow-dung, ordure, tar, or coal-liquor will deter them. Mice may be kept
under by the different domestic traps, or the gardeners' or fourth figure trap, or by an
earthen vessel with a narrow mouth and bellied out within, sunk in the earth, and a few
leaves or straws placed over it, as is common about Paris. But two or three cats kept
in a garden, are the most effectual destroyers of mice. The mode of setting the common
moletrap is familiar to every countryman ; the true mode however of getting rid of
moles, and one most readily put into execution is, to dig up their nests in spring.
The heaps of earth over these nests are easily known from common mole-heaps by their
size. Field rats are destroyed by dogs ; and house rats, where they are troublesome,
by poison and other well known means.
2223. The feathered enemies of gardens are numerous but not very destructive, excepting
in very severe winters, when they eat the buds, and during the coming up of small seeds.
To preserve ripening or germinating seeds where birds are numerous, they must either
be covered with a net or watched by man. Scares of different sorts, as mock men or cats,
mock hawks or eagles, miniature windmills, rattles, lines with feathers, the smell of tar
and bruised gunpowder, &c. are of some use ; but the chief dependence must be on watch-
ing, nets, and the frequent use of the gun. P. Musgrave, a practical gardener, who has
treated the subject of vermin in a scientific manner, has the following observation on this
subject. " It is a too common practice amongst gardeners to destroy without discrimination,
the birds which frequent their gardens. This, in my opinion, is bad policy. Although
I am aware some of the kinds of birds are great enemies to some crops, it certainly must
be a trifling crop indeed, that will not bear the expense of a person to watch it, or a
net to protect it, until it is out of danger: thus the gardener preserves the birds to per-
form a double office, — eating up the vermin from the trees, and the seeds of weeds and
eggs of insects from the ground. I have often stood and observed the male bird, while
the female was sitting upon her eggs or her young, fly to the spot with his bill full of
caterpillars to feed his mate or young ; and when the young ones become so strong as to
Book IV.
OF VERMIN.
427
accompany their parents in quest of food, it is really astonishing the number of eater-
pillars they destroy. I can say, from my own observation, that if it was not the case
that the birds destroy a vast number of caterpillars, our trees in general would exhibit
nothing but bare stumps, for the insects would become as numerous as the locusts of
Spain and America. It is from that circumstance that we find so few flies in com-
parison of the great number of caterpillars. I one day followed a nest of young ox-
eyes, which had just flown, in order to see how the old ones acted. I saw them fly from
branch to branch, and pick from the curled leaves the caterpillars, with which they flew
to their young to feed them. From these considerations, it is my opinion, that should
the o-ardener, instead of pursuing a system of indiscriminate warfare against the
feathered tribe, avail himself of the services of these useful allies, he might, with their
exertions and his own united, soon rid himself of those insects that have hitherto set his
efforts at defiance." (Cal. Mem. hi. 333.)
2224. The insects which infest plants are almost as numerous as the plants themselves :
almost every species having a particular insect which it seems destined by nature to sup-
port. Insects are distinguished from quadrupeds, birds, and reptiles, by their more
numerous feet, being without bones, and by their head being furnished with a pair of
antennae or horns. From the vermes, or worm-like animals, insects are sufficiently dis-
tinguished by their having feet.
2225. Taking a general view of insects we find most of them are oviparous ; of course
the first state in which insects appear is that of an ovum or egg. This relates to the
generality of insects, for there are some examples of viviparous insects, as in the genera
aphis, musca, &c. The eggs of insects (fig. 393.) 393
are of two sorts : the first membranaceous, like the
eggs of the tortoise, and the other reptiles ; the other
covered with a shell like those of the birds. Their
figure varies exceedingly ; some are round, some
elliptical, some lenticular, some cylindrical, some
pyramidal, some flat, some square, but the round
and oval are the most common. As an example of
the various shapes of the eggs of insects, and of
their natural as well as magnified size, we refer to
those of the common slug (a), phalaena nupta (6),
brown-tailed moth (c), currant-moth (rf), common
gooseberry-moth (e), turnip-butterfly (f), spider
(g), house-cricket (h), and common chafer (i).
2226. The eggs of insects seldom increase in size, from the time they have been de-
posited by the parent, till they are hatched ; those of the tenthredo, however, and of some
others, are observed to increase in bulk. At first there is nothing to be perceived in the
eggs of insects but a watery fluid ; after some little time, the head, like an obscure point,
is observable in the centre. The little insect remains in the egg till its limbs have ac-
quired strength to break the egg and make its escape ; the different species of insects
remain enclosed in the egg for very different periods ; some continue enclosed only a
few days, others remain for several months. The eggs of many insects remain without
being hatched during the whole winter, and the young insects do not come forth from
them, till the season at which the leaves of the vegetables on which they feed begin to expand.
2227. The insect in its second or caterpillar state {fig. 394.) has been usually known by
the name of eruca or larva, being a sort of masked form or disguise of the insect in its com-
plete state. The larvae of insects differ very much from each other, according to the several
tribes to which they belong ; those of the butterfly (Pajnlio) and moth (Phalcena) tribes are
generally known by the name of caterpillars ; those of the beetle (Scarabceus), except
428
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
such as inhabit the water, are of a thick, clumsy form, called grubs. The larvae of the
locust, or grasshopper ( Gryllus), do not differ very much in appearance from the com-
plete insect ; except being without wings. The larvae of flies (Musca), bees (Apis), &c.
are generally known by the name of maggots, and are of a thick short form. Those of
water-beetles (Dytiscus) are of highly singular forms, and differ, perhaps, more from that
of the complete insect than any other, except those of the butterfly tribe. Some insects
undergo no change of shape, but are hatched from the egg complete in all their parts,
and they undergo no farther alteration than that of casting their skin from time to time,
till they acquire the complete resemblance of the parent animal. In the larva state most
insects are peculiarly voracious, as in many of the common caterpillars. In their per-
fect state some insects, as butterflies, are satisfied with the lightest nutriment, while others
devour animal and vegetable substances with a considerable degree of avidity. As an
example of the caterpillar state of some of the commoner insects, we may refer to that of
the privet-moth [Sphinx ligustri) (a) ; the cabbage-butterfly (Papilio brassica) (b) ; the tur-
nip-butterfly [P. napi) (c) ; gooseberry-moth (Plialceiia wavaria) (d) ; the currant-moth
(Ph. grossularia) (e) ; the dragon-fly (Libellula virgo) (f) ; the common chafer (Scarabarus
melolontha) (g) ; the phryganea rhombica (h) ; the frog-hopper [Cicada spumaria) (i) ; and
the musca pumilionis (k).
2228. When the larva is about to change into the chrysalis or pupa state ( Jig. 395) it ceases to
feed, and having placed itself in some quiet situation, lies still for several hours, and then,
by a sort of effort, it divests itself of its external skin, and immediately appears in the dif-
ferent form of a chrysalis or pupa ; in this state, likewise, the insects of different genera
differ almost as much as the larvae. In most of the beetle tribe it is furnished with short
legs, capable of some degree of motion, though very rarely exerted. In the butterfly tribe
it is destitute of legs ; but in the locust 395
tribe it differs very little from the perfect
insect, except in not having the wings
complete. In most of the fly tribe it is
perfectly oval, without any apparent mo-
tion or distinction of parts. The pupa of
the bee is not so shapeless as that of flies,
exhibiting the faint appearance of limbs.
Those of the dragon-fly (Libellula) differ
most widely from the appearance of the
complete insect ; from the pupa emerges
the image or insect in its ultimate form,
from which it never changes, nor receives
any farther increase of growth. As ex-
amples of the chrysalis of various insects,
we give those of the beetle (Scarabceus me-
lolontha) (Jig. 395. a), papilio napi (b),
P. Io, (c), phalasna grossularia (d), Ph.
wavaria (e), tipula cornicina (f ), phryganea rhombica (g), musca pumilionis, natural size
and magnified (h, h).
2229. The sexes of insects are commonly two, male and female. Neuters are to be met
with among those insects which live in swarms,
such as ants, bees, &c. As examples of the
appearance of different insects in regard to
sex, we refer to the male, female, and neuter
ant (Jig. 396. a, b, c), and to the male or drone,
female or queen, and neuter or working bee
(d, e,f).
2230. In duration, the majority of insects
are observed to be annual, finishing the whole
term of their lives in the space of a year or less,
and many do not live half that time ; nay, there
are some which do not survive many hours ;
but this latter period is to be understood only
of the animals when in their complete or ulti-
mate form, for the larvae of such as are of this
short duration have in reality lived a very long
time under water, of which they are natives ;
and it is observed, that water insects in general
are of longer duration than land insects. Some
few insects, however, in their complete state, are supposed to live a considerable time, as
bees for instance ; and it is well known that some of the butterfly tribe, though the major
part perish before winter, will yet survive that season in a state of torpidity, and again
396
Book IV.
OF VERMIN.
429
appear and fly abroad in the succeeding spring ; spiders are also thought to live a consi-
derable time.
2231. The arrangement of insects, according to the Linnaean system, is divided into seven
orders. The natural orders and families into which they have been divided by subsequent
naturalists are very numerous ; and therefore, we shall notice only the artificial orders of
Linnaeus, viz. 1. Coleoptera; 2. Hemiptera ; 3. Lepidoptera ; 4. Neuroptera; 5. Hyme-
noptera ; 6. Diptera ; and 7. Aptera. The leading characters of these orders, and the
names of the genera belonging to them which are most noxious to plants in a state of
culture, will be of some use in enabling the gardener to use a correct nomenclature, as
well as to enlighten him generally on the intricate and little understood subject of insects.
2232. The coleoptera have a hollow horny case, under which the wings are folded when
not in use. The principal genera are — 1. Scarabaeus (beetles) ; 2. Lucanus (stag-beetle) ;
3. Dermestes; 4. Coccinella (lady-bird); 5. Curculio (weevil); 6. Lampyris (glow-worm);
7. Meloe (Spanish fly) ; 8. Staphylinus ; 9. Forficula (earwig). Like other winged insects,
all the beetles live for some time in the form of caterpillars, or grubs. The caterpillars
of the garden-beetle, cockchafer, &c. lead a solitary life under ground, and consume the
roots of plants ; those of others feed upon putrid carcasses, every kind of flesh, dried skins,
rotten wood, dung, and the small insects called pucerons, or 307
vine-fretters . But after their transformation into flies, many of
the same animals, which formerly fed upon dung and putrid
carcasses, are nourished by the purest nectareous juices extracted
from fruits and flowers. The creatures themselves, with regard
to what may be termed individual animation, have suffered no
alteration. But the fabric of their bodies, their instruments of
motion, and the organs by which they take their food, are ma-
terially changed. This change of structure, though the animals retain their identity,
produces the greatest diversity in their manners, their economy, and the powers of
their bodies. The beetles (jig. 397.) produced in the palm 398
called the mountain cabbage-tree (Areca) has a grub or caterpillar
(^g. 398.) the size of a man's thumb, extremely fat ; "fried
with butter or salt, or spitted on a wooden skewer, they are
esteemed excellent. In taste they partake of all the spices of
India, as mace, cinnamon, cloves, nutmegs, &c. Several species
are produced in all the palm-trees when beginning to rot, some
larger than others, all of a pale yellow color with black heads." (Stedmans Surinam.)
399
2233. Of beetles the scarabaaus melolontha {fig. 399. a) is the
most common. The eggs are deposited in the ground by the
parent insect, whose fore legs are very short, and well calcu-
lated for burrowing. From each of these eggs proceeds, after
a short time, a whitish worm with six legs, a red head, and
strong claws, which is destined to live in the earth under that
form for four years, and there undergoes various changes of
its skin, until it assumes its chrysalid form. These creatures,
sometimes in immense numbers, work between the turf and
the soil in the richest meadows, devouring the roots of the grass
to such a degree that the turf rises, and will roll up with
almost as much ease as if it had been cut with a turfing-knife :
and underneath, the soil appears turned into a soft mould for
above an inch in depth, like the bed of a garden. In this the
grubs lie, in a curved position, on their backs, the head and
tail uppermost, and the rest of the body buried in the mould.
Such are the devastations committed by the grubs of the cock-
chafer, that a whole field of fine flourishing grass, in the sum-
mer time, became in a few weeks withered, dry, and as brittle
as hay, by these grubs devouring the roots, and gnawing away all those fibres that fastened it to the
ground, and through which alone it could receive nourishment. The larvae having continued four years
in the ground, are now about to undergo their next change : to effect this, they dig deep into the earth
sometimes five or six feet, and there spin a smooth case, in which they change into a pupa or chrysalis'
They remain under this form all the winter, until the month of February, when they become perfect
beetles ; but with their bodies quite soft and white. In May the parts are hardened, and then they come
forth out of the earth. This accounts for our often finding the perfect insects in the ground. The most
efficacious mode of preventing their increase is to employ proper persons to take the flies in May and June
before they have laid their eggs; which, though it appears an endless task, may be done with very con!
siderable effect, by shaking and beating the trees and hedges in the middle of the day. Children will be
able to do this, and, as has been proved by experiment, will, for a trifling reward (suppose a penny a hun-
dred), bring some thousands per day gathered in a single village. Domestic fowls of all kinds are particu-
larly fond of these beetles, so that the expense of collecting them would be fully compensated by the
quantity of food they would afford in this way. When land is ploughed up in the spring, if the weather
be warm, hundreds of the chafer grubs are exposed, in which case, rooks, gulls, and jays will be sure to
detect and devour them. These birds, therefore, should not be driven away, as the occasional damage
they commit is amply repaid by their unceasing exertions to destroy various insects. The almost sole
employment of rooks, for three months in the spring, is to search for this sort of food, and the havock that
a numerous flock makes amongst them must be very great.
2234. The lady-bird {Coccinella) feeds chiefly on aphides, and therefore is not considered as injurious to
gardens.
2235. The weevil{Curculio) is a very numerous and splendid genus ; the larva? of some infest granaries, others
may be found inside of artichoke and thistle-flowers. All the species feed on the seeds or leaves of vegetables.
One of the most common is the nut-weevil (C. nucu?n) {fig. 399. b), of which the larvae (c) and pupa {d)
430
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
are both nearly of the size of the perfect insect To this genus also belongs the insect generally known
by the name of diamond beetle.
2236. Dytiscus and hydrophilus are aquatic genera, inhabitants of ponds and stagnant waters, they swim
with great dexterity ; their hind legs are particularly fitted for their residence in the water, being thin
and flat, and having the inner edges furnished with stiff hair-like appendages which act as fins or oars;
the males are distinguished from the females, by having a horny flap or shield on the fore legs, near the
setting on of the feet. The larvse (as is common with aquatic insects) remain a long time in the imperfect
state, some two to four years ; they secrete themselves in holes in banks, and devour other insects, worms,
and the voung fry of fish, which they destroy by sucking out their juices.
22-37. The earwig {Forficula) frequents moist ground, is very injurious to flowers and fruit, and may
easily be taken by suspending any hollow article on a plant or twig, as it retires in the daytime to such re-
treats, and feeds mostly during the night.
2238. The hemiptera are all furnished with wing-covers of a softer texture than the
coleoptera ; these covers do not meet in a direct line as in that order, but the base of the
left wing covers the inner margin of the right ; in some, the wings nearly cross at the
tips ; the mouth is either situated on the breast, or inclining towards it. The principal
genera are — 1. Blatta (cock-roach) ; 2. Gryllus (locust, grasshopper) ; 3. Fulgora
(lantern-fly); 4. Cimex (bug, &c.)
2239. Of the cock-roach {Blatta) many species are 400
exceedingly injurious, devouring most kinds of provi-
sions, paper, leather, and vegetable substances ; they are
generally nocturnal insects, and are found in great
abundance in bakehouses, and other warm places.
They are all killed without any external injury, by
immersion in boiling water.
2240. The black cock-roach, improperly called the
black beetle {B. orientate) {fig- 400-)» was originally a
native of South America, but is now very generally
spread throughout Europe. It cannot be considered a
British insect, though it frequents kitchens, ovens, and
warm places, and devours meal, bread, and other pro-
visions, shoes, &c. It conceals itself during the day,
and comes abroad in the night ; it runs quickly, and is
very tenacious of life. They are killed by red wafers.
The egg (a) is of a considerable size, and the pupa {b)
larger than the perfect insect (c).
2241. The gryllus genus comprehends a number of spe-
cies,some of which are called grasshoppers,others locusts,
and others crickets. The caterpillars of the grylli have a
great resemblance to the perfect insects, and, in general,
live underground. Many of these insects feed upon the
leaves of plants ; others, which live in houses, prefer
bread and every kind of farinaceous substance.
The house-cricket {G. domesticus) {fig. 401. a) is one
of those busv little insects that reside altogether in our
dwellings, and intrude themselves on our notice, whether we wish it or not. They are partial to houses
newly built, for the softness of the mortar enables them to form their retreats, without much difficulty,
between the joints of the masonry, and immediately 401
to open communications with the different rooms.
They are particularly attached to kitchens and
bakehouses, as affording them a constant warmth.
In some of the warmer countries, this genus of
insects is, of all the pests that mankind are subject
to, the most injurious, destroying vegetables of
every kind and even from their numbers alone,
constituting one of the heaviest afflictions that can
happen to a country. The mischiefs done by the
blatta?, or cock-roaches, is trifling, compared with
those of this destroying tribe, for the dreadful ra-
vages committed by the locusts are such as to reduce
the most fertile fields to the appearance of barren
deserts ; they devour the fruits, leaves, and even
the buds and bark of trees, and have even been
known to devour he reeds ased in thatching the
human habitations, so unfortunate as to be visited
by these devouring hordes. Jackson depicts their
ravages in the empire of Morocco, and gives a figure
of the insect {fig. 402.) of half the natural size. In
Abyssinia, China, and other countries, the caterpillar
or larva of certain species of roaches and locusts is,
like that of some beetles (2232.), eaten by the natives.
Thefrog-hopper,orcuckow-spifinsect{Cicada)t'eeds,
on various kinds of plants : the grub or larva is without wings ; in the pupa the wings are very short ; out in
both states they are exceedingly active. Themales-are distinguishable by their loud chirping note, the females
are quite mute". In the fly state, they are found on the leaves and stems of plants, and in the immature state
about the roots of grass and trees. The white froth-
like spittle, which is seen on the leaves and stalks of
many kinds of plants in the summer season, is pro-
duced by the black-headed frog-hopper {Cicada spu-
maria) (fig. 401. b), and if this froth be wiped off and
examined, it will be found to contain the larva or
young of the cicada : and this matter, which is dis-
charged from its own body, no doubt serves to protect
it from the attacks of other insects.
2242. The plant-louse, vine-fretter, or puceron,
{Aphis) is a very common insect, the numerous species
being denominated from the trees and plants which
they infest. The males are winged, and the females
without wings ; they are viviparous, producing their
young alive in the spring: and also oviparous, lay.
Book IV. OF VERMIN. 431
ing eggs in the autumn. As these insects derive their nourishment from the juices of the plants which
they infest, nature has wisely ordained that the females should lay eggs in the autumn, though
they bring forth their young alive all the spring and summer months. This is to prevent them from
being starved for the want of food in winter. The young burst forth from their eggs in spring as soon as
there are leaves to subsist upon. Their noxious effects are well known to the gardener. They sometimes
migrate, and suddenly fall in showers on spots that were until then free from their ravages. Water
dashed with force from a syringe will prove as destructive to them as any thing when on trees ; and
smaller plants may be washed with lime-water, with tobacco-water, with elder-leaves infused in water, or
with common soap-suds, any of which will destroy the insects. The larvae of the lady-bird eat thousands
of them, some species of ichneumon and common ants also destroy them ; and some conjecture that it
would probably prove serviceable to scatter ants, which may always be procured in abundance, upon in-
fested trees. The aphides sometimes settle upon the tops of beans, covering them so thickly as to make
them appear quite black : in such cases the crops may often be preserved by cutting off the tops, a practice
which is likewise adopted independently of this pest requiring it, for the purpose of increasing the
yield of beans. {Dr. Skrimshire's Essays Introd. to Nat. Hist, vol. i. p. 149.) The rose-tree is, after a
mild spring, greatly injured by a species of aphis {A. roste). The best mode of remedying this evil is to
lop oft'the infected shoots before the insects are greatly multiplied, repeating the same operation before
the eggs are deposited. By the first pruning a very numerous parent increase will be prevented, and by
the second, the following year's supply may, in a great measure, be cut off If it were not for the
numerous enemies to which the aphis is exposed, their wonderful fecundity is such that the leaves,
branches, and stems of every plant would be totally covered with them. Myriads of insects of different
classes, of different genera, and of different species, seem to be produced for no other purpose than to
devour the aphis. On every leaf inhabited by them we find caterpillars of different kinds. These
feed not upon the leaves, but upon the pucerons, whom they devour with an almost incredible rapacity.
Some of these larvee are transformed into insects with two wings, others into flies with four wings, and
others into beetles. While in the larva state one of these glutinous insects will suck out the vitals of
twenty pucerons in a quarter of an hour. Reaumur supplied a single caterpillar with more than a
hundred pucerons, every one of which it devoured in less than three hours.
2243. The chermes {fig. 401. c, d, e) is a genus very generally confounded with aphis ; it also inhabits
the leaves and stems of plants, and by its punctures, produces excrescences and protuberances of various
sizes and shapes, which are generally found to enclose either the egg or immature insect, in the larva
state ; it is six-footed, hairy or woolly, and without wings ; and in the pupa are two protuberances from
the thorax, which are the rudiments of the future wings. The winged insects (c) leap or spring with great
agility, and infest a number of different trees and plants : the females (d), by means of a tube at the ter-
mination of their bodies, insert their eggs under the surface of the leaves ; and the worms, when hatched,
give rise to those tubercles, or galls, with which the leaves of the ash, the fir, and other trees, are some-
times almost entirely covered. The old females, before depositing their eggs, expand to a comparatively
large size {e).
2244. The thrips {fig. 401./) genus consists of very small insects, found chiefly on the flowers of plants,
and, excepting when very numerous, are not very detrimental. The natural size is very minute, and there-
fore to search for this insect the gardener should use a magnifying glass.
2245. Of the cochineal or coccus genus {fig. 401. g) there are several species very injurious in gardens, the
peach, vine, pine, and orange bugs. They are very well known to gardeners, and are almost exclusively
found in hot-houses. The males are active, but the females are very inert, being generally fixed to differ-
ent parts of plants. The eggs, of their natural size, are mere dots, magnified {g) they appear of an oval
shape ; the larva is proportionally small, but magnified (//) is oblong and roundish ; the males {i) only have
wings, and require to be magnified to show their form {k) ; the female attains a considerable size (Z), and,
when hatching, becomes enveloped in a case of wool (ra). Brushing off these creatures is the only effectual
remedy, and, if set about at once and persevered in, will save the trouble of many prescribed washes and
powders, which are mere palliatives.
2246. The lepidoptera contains the butterfly, moth, and hawk-moth ; they have all four
wings covered with scales or a sort of farina ; they have a mouth, with palpi, a spiral
tongue ; the body covered with hair. The scales resemble feathers ; they lie over one
another in an imbricated manner, the shaft towards the body of the insect, and the ex-
pansion towards the end of the wing, reflecting the most brilliant colors.
2247. Of the butterfly genus {Papilio, L.) many thousand species are known in Europe, and in England
alone more than eleven hundred have been collected by a celebrated entomologist.
9248. The larvee, or young, of the different kinds of butterflies and moths, when in that state in which
they come from the egg, are called caterpillars. These, which are very minute at first, feed generally on
the leaves of vegetables, and increase in size. They cast their skins occasionally, and sometimes change
in color and markings, but never in their general appearance or in their habits. Eating seems to be their
sole employment ; and when they meet with food that suits their palate, they are extremely voracious,
committing great havoc in gardens. But the same cause which restrains the depredations of the aphides
and other insects has also set bounds to the destruction occasioned by the caterpillar, who has myriads of in-
ternal as well as external enemies. Many flies deposit their eggs in the bodies of caterpillars. From these
eggs proceed small maggots, which gradually devour the vitals of the animal in which they reside. When
about to be transformed into chrysalids, they pierce the skin of the caterpillar, spin their pods, and remain
on the empty skin till they assume the form of flies, and escape into the air to perform the same cruel
office to another unfortunate larva. Every person must recollect to have seen the colewort or cabbage
caterpillar stuck upon old walls, or the windows of country-cottages, totally covered with these chrysalids,
which have the form of small maggots, and are of a fine yellow color. One of the most formidable ene-
mies of the caterpillar is a black worm, with six crustaceous legs : it is longer and thicker than an ordinary-
sized caterpillar. In the fore part of the head it has two curved pincers, with which it quickly pierces the
belly of a caterpillar, and never quits the prey till it is entirely devoured. The largest caterpillar is not
sufficient to nourish this larva for a single day ; for it daily kills and eats several of them. These
gluttons, when gorged with food, become inactive, and almost motionless ; when in this satiated con-
dition, young larvae of the same species attack and devour them. Of all trees, the oak perhaps nourishes
the greatest number of different caterpillars, as well as of different insects. Among others, the oak is
inhabited by a large and beautiful beetle. This beetle frequents the oak, probably because that tree is
inhabited by the greatest number of caterpillars. It marches from branch to branch, and, when dis-
posed for food, attacks and devours the first caterpillar that comes in its way.
2249. Chrysalis state. When full grown, the caterpillar seeks some retreat, to prepare for an important
change, viz. from the soft caterpillar, possessing motion and feeding so voraciously, to the hard chrysalis,
fixed immoveably, and sustained without food. The retreat that is chosen and the preparation that is made
for this important change vary essentially in different species : some retire to the sheltered situations of
houses, walls, and other buildings ; some bury themselves in the ground : some wrap themselves up in leaves ;
others attach themselves to the stalks of plants ; while others again eat into the stems of vegetables, or the
very heart of trees, and there undergo their metamorphosis. Although each kind of caterpillar seeks a
different retreat, yet all of the same species seek the same, and adopt the same means of preservation.
432
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
Such as are to lie dormant all winter, seek the warmth of our houses, or dig their way into the ground,
below the influence of the expected frosts. Such as are to leave their prisons in a few weeks, and before
the end of summer, roll themselves up in the leaves of those plants on which they fed. No caterpillar
that is to remain in the state of a chrysalis till the following summer, attaches itself to an annual plant ;
and none that is to enter on its winged state in winter (which some few do) is ever found but upon ever-
greens. In the preparation which is made for their metamorphosis, caterpillars differ as much as in their
selection of a proper place. Some attach themselves by a thread from their tails, and are suspended per.
pendicularly ; while others, among which is the white cabbage butterfly, by another thread across the
body, are suspended horizontally. The silk-worm and several others spin a complete covering or case
for their bodies, some of finer materials and less agglutinated together than others. Some caterpillars form
a ball or nest of the mould in which they are buried, glued together by their saliva, and smoothed within ;
and others fasten two leaves together, or, curling its edges, unite two parts of the same leaf by threads
and bands, and thus form a covering and safe retreat for themselves.
2250. Perfect insect. After the animal has lain dormant its due time in the chrysalis state, the skin or
shell bursts, and the perfect insect, in its winged state, creeps out, gradually expands its wings, and, when
they are dried, becomes a gay inhabitant of the air. It now no longer seeks to satisfy its hunger on the
fross food that it devoured when a caterpillar, but sips the nectar from the blossoms of the flowers,
laving fulfilled the intentions of nature, they deposit their eggs with care, and, having thus provided for
a future generation, the insect terminates its short but brilliant career. In the deposition of their eggs,
the parent butterflies and moths display wonderful instinct in selecting precisely such places as are best
adapted to their future young ; such plants, for instance, as will furnish food for the new-born cater-
pillars, and such parts of plants as are not likely to be removed by decay, or such as will be exactly in
the required stage of maturity at the time when the caterpillars are to be born. Thus, a little insect (Tinea
pomona) lays its eggs in the blossom, that its caterpillar may feed on the fruit of the apple ; and several
others act in the same provident way.
403
2251. The most remarkable British butter-
flies are — the purple emperor (Papilio iris),
which appears in July, and is considered
the most beautiful : the peacock butterfly
(P. Io), whose wings are of a brownish-red
color with black spots, is sufficiently
common in the south of England, but
extremely rare, in the north : the tor-
toiseshell butterfly (P. urticce) (Jig. 403.),
which appears in its winged state about
the month of April, is one of the most
common, and at the same time the most
beautiful of the British lepidoptera ; the
upper wings are red, and marked with
alternate bands of black and pale orange ;
the eggs (a), caterpillar (6), and chrysalis
(c) are each elegant in their kind. The
mazarine blue butterfly (P. cymori) is also an admired species.
2252. The hawk-moth, sphynge, or sphinx, is chiefly seen in the evening. The name sphynx is applied to
the genus on account of the posture assumed by the larva? of several of the larger species, which are often
seen in an attitude much resembling that of the Egyptian sphynx, with the fore parts elevated, and the
rest of the body applied flat to the surface. One of the most elegant insects of this genus is the privet
hawk-moth (Sphinx ligustri) (fig. 401.), measuring 404
nearly four inches and a half from wing's end to
wing's end. The caterpillar( jtfg.394. a), which is very
large, is smooth, and of a fine green, with seven ob-
lique purple and white stripes along each side : at the
extremity of the body, or top of the last joint, is a
horn or process pointing backwards. This beau-
tiful caterpillar is often found in the months of July
and August, feeding on the privet, the lilac, the
poplar, and some other trees, and generally changes
to a chrysalis (fig. 404. a) in August or September,
retiring for that purpose to a considerable depth
beneath the surface of the ground ; and after cast-
ing its skin, continuing during the whole winter in
a dormant state, the sphinx emerging from it in
the succeeding June. The egg of the sphinx (b) is
very different from that of the papilio. Another
perhaps still more beautiful insect is the sphinx
ocellata, or eyed hawk-moth, which is principally
found on the willow-tree, in its perfect state, in the
month of June. The largest and most remarkable
of the British hawk-moths, is the sphinx atrcpqs,
or death's head hawk-moth. The upper wings are
of a fine dark- grey color, with a lew slight va-
riegations of dull orange and white : the under
wings are of a bright orange color, marked by a pair of transverse black bands : the body is also orange-
colored, with the sides marked by black bars : on the top of the thorax is a very large patch of a most
singular appearance, exactly resembling the usual figure of a skull, or death's head, and is of a pale grey,
varied with dull ochre color and black. When in the least disturbed or irritated, this insect emits a stri-
dulus sound, sometimes like the squeaking of a bat or mouse; and from this circumstance, as well as from
the mark above mentioned, is held in much dread by the vulgar in several parts of Europe, its appear-
ance being regarded as a kind of ill omen, or harbinger of approaching fate. The caterpillar from which
this curious sphinx proceeds, which is principally found on the potatoe and the jessamine, is in the highest
degree beautiful, measuring sometimes five inches in length : its color is a bright yellow, and its sides are
marked by stripes of a mixed violet and sky-blue color. It usually changes into a chrysalis in the month
of September, and emerges the complete insect in June or July following : some individuals, however,
change in July or August, and produce the moth in November.
Book IV.
OF VERMIN.
433
2253. The moths (Phalcerue) are a numerous genus like the sphinges. They fly abroad only in the evening
and during the night, and obtain their food from the nectar of flowers. The larva is active and quick m
motion, and preys voraciously on the leaves of plants. The most remarkable British moths are the clothes-
moth (P. sarcitella) {fig. 405. a) ; the eggs of which are deposited on woollen clothes, furs, &c. on which the
larva? feed and change to chrysalids, appearing in the imago state in August. The most troublesome in
gardens are the cabbage-moth (P. oleracea) (6), the gooseberry-moth (P. wavaria) (c), the currant-moth
(P. grossularia) {d), and the codling-moth, common on fruit-trees, hedges, and oak-trees (P. pomonclld) (c).
405
2254. Tfte neuroptera, or nerve-winged insects, have four naked membranaceous wings,
but no stings ; and they differ from the last order, as their wings are without their minute
scales or down. Most of the insects in this family are aquatic, residing in the water
during their immature state, and resorting thereto in their perfect state.
2255. The dragon-fly {LibelMa) is well known as frequenting rivers, lakes, pools, and stagnating waters, in
which the females deposit their eggs. The egg, when deposited by the parent in the water, sinks to the
bottom, and remains there till the young insect has acquired sufficient maturity and strength to burst
from its confinement. The larva, at first small, increases to nearly half the size of the perfect fly, by
changing its skin at different intervals, bke the caterpillars of moths and butterflies. The slender-bodieil
dragon-fly (L. virgo) {fig. 406. a) is the most common.
406
2256. The day-fly {Ephemera) differs in many respects from all other insects. The larva? live in water
(where earth and clay seem to be their only nourishment) for three years, the time they consume in pre-
paring for their change, which is performed in a few moments. The larva, when ready to quit that state,
rises to the surface of the water, and, getting instantaneously rid of its skin, becomes" a chrysalis. This
chrysalis is furnished with wings, which it makes use of to fly to the nearest tree or wall ; and there set-
tling, it in the same moment quits a second skin, and becomes a perfect ephemera. In this state all the
species live but a very short time, some of them scarcely half an hour, having no other business to per-
form than that of continuing the race. They are called the insects of a day ; but very few of them ever
see the light of the sun, being produced after sunset, during the short nights of summer, and dying long
before the dawn. All their enjojinents, therefore, excepting coition, are confined to their larva state.
The E. vulgata {fig. 406. b) is the largest British species.
2257. The spring-fly {Phryganea) in the caterpillar state, lives in the water, and is covered with a silken
tube. The caterpillars or larva? have a very singular aspect ; for, by means of a gluten, they attach to the
tubes in which they are enclosed small pieces of wood, sand, gravel, leaves of plants, and not unfrequently
live on testaceous animals, all of which they drag along with them. They are very commonly found on
the leaves of the water-cress ; and, as they are often entirely covered with them, they have the appear-
ance of animal plants. They are in great request among fishermen, by whom they are distinguished by
the name of stone or cod-bait. The fly, or perfect insect, frequents running water, in which the females
deposit their eggs. P. rhombica {fig. 406. c) is common.
2258. The hymenoptera, or four-winged insects with stings, includes the gall-insect,
wasp, bee, ant, &c. At the extremity of the abdomen, the females of several of the ge-
Ff
434
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
nera have an aculeus or sting, that lies concealed within the abdomen, which is used as
a weapon, and instils into the wound an acrid poison : those which want the sting are
furnished with an oviduct that is often serrated, and with which the eggs are deposited,
either in the bodies of the caterpillars of odier insects, or in wood. From these eggs the
larva? are produced, which in some have no feet, in others more than sixteen. They
change to pupce incompletes, which are enclosed in cases. Some of the insects of this
order live in societies, others are solitary.
2259. The gall-fly (Cynips) pierces the leaves, &c. of plants with its sting, and deposits its eggs in the
wound ; the extravasated juices rise round it, and form a gall (Jig. 407. a) which becomes hard ; and in this
the larva (b) lives and feeds, and changes to a pupa (c, c), and afterwards to the imago, or perfect insect (d).
The C. quercus fold (Jig. 407. d), and C. glechomatis, or ground-ivy gall-fly, are very common.
2260. The saw-fly (Tentkredo), in the larva state 407
(fig. 407. e), bears a strong resemblance to some of
the caterpillars of the lepidopterous insects; but
is distinguishable by the number of the feet,
which are never fewer than sixteen, exclusive
of the thoracic pairs ; the larva? feed on the leaves
of plants, and the pupa is enclosed in a strong
gummy case (/), retiring in the autumn, and the
perfect fly (g) emerges early in the ensuing spring
The serrated sting is used' by the female in the
manner of a saw, to make incisions in the twigs, or
stems of plants, where it deposits its eggs. T. rosa?
{fig. 407. e, f, g) is a common species. The T. gros-
sularia? (h) is also frequent in gardens : both are
very troublesome species of this genus.
2261. The ichneumon is a very numerous genus,
there being upwards of 800 British species. The
eggs, in most kinds, are deposited in the bodies of
caterpillars or pupa?, which are there hatched :
the larva? have no feet ; they are soft and cylin-
drical, and feed on the substance of the caterpillar ;
this last continues to feed and even to undergo its
change into a chrysalis, but never turns to a.per-
fect insect: when the larva? of the ichneumon
are full grown they issue forth, spin themselves
a silky web, and change into a pupa incompleta, and in a few days the fly appear
{fig. 407. i) is common in woods.
2262. _
The I. manifestator
The bee (Apis), wasp (Vespa), and ant (Formica) are well known. All the species of ant are of
three sorts, male, female, 'and neuter. The neuters alone labor ; they form the ant-hill, bring in the
provisions, feed the young, bring them to the air during the day, carry them back at night, defend them
against attacks, &c. The females are said to be retained merelv for laving eggs, and as soon as that is
accomplished they are unmercifully discarded. The males and females" perish with the first cold; the
neuters lie torpid in their nest, and thus nature compensates them by duration, what it denies them in
intensity of enjoyment.
2263. The diptera, or two-winged insects, have two wings, and behind or below them
two globular bodies, supported on slender pedicles, called halteres or poisers. At the
mouth they have a proboscis, sometimes contained in a vagina, and sometimes furnished
at its sides with two palpi, but no maxilla. Their eyes are reticulated and large. The
females, in general, lay eggs, but some are viviparous ; the larvae of the insects of this
order are as various in their appearance as the places in which they are bred. In general
they do not cast their skins, but change into a pupa state. Flies, strictly so called, gad-
flies, and gnats belong to this order.
2264. The gad-fly (GEstrus) is a genus exceedingly 408
troublesome to horses, cattle, and sheep, in the skins
of which they deposit their eggs (fig. 408. a), which
soon change into larva?, that feed under the skin of
living animals 'b), and often line the stomachs of
horses under the name of bots (Clarke, in Linn.
Trans, vol. iii.) ; the larva? are soft, smooth, annu-
late, without feet, and in most species furnished
with hook-like appendages : the chrysalis (c) differs
little in form from the larva?. The O. bovis (d) in-
fests oxen; 0.ha?morroidalis(c), horses; andO.ovis,
sheep.
2265. The crane-fly (Tipula) resembles the gnat.it
feeds on various substances; the larva? are without
feet, soft and cylindrical; pupa cylindrical, homed;
some species reside amongst the roots of aquatic vege-
tables, others amongst grass ; but by far the greater
number are aquatic. The perfect flies are found in
abundance in the autumnal months. The T. oleracea,
or long-legs, feeds on the roots of the cabbage ; and
the T. crocata (fig. 409. a) and other species inhabit
meadows, and are common from spring to autumn
The wheat-fly, T. tritici (b), twelve of which have
been observed at one time, laying their eggs in a
single ear of wheat, would soon become of serious
injury to mankind, were not their race kept within
due bounds by several natural enemies, particularly the ichneumon tipula?. The well-known gaffer long-
legs, so frequently seen in houses in the autumnal evenings, flying about the flame of the candles and often
perishing in the blaze, is the T. rivosa (c), one of the larger species of the genus. The eggs of the wheat-
fly (d) are very small ; when magnified they appear roundish (e) ; the larva? alio (/), and the perfect insect
(o), to be studied, should be magnified (g, h).
Book IV.
OF VERMIN.
409
43.5
2266. The fly genus (Musca) presents many curious species. The common flesh-fly (M. vomii&na) {fig. 410.a)
deposits its eggs on the meat in our shambles and larders. These eggs (b) speeddy become larva? (r ), aresoon
fuU grown (d), change to the chrysalis state (e), and in 410
a month the fly appears (a). The rapid multiplication
of the fly is thus calculated by Leuwenhoeck. " Let us
suppose, that in the beginning of June there shall be
two flies, a male and a female, and the female shall lay
144 eggs, which eggs, in the beginning of July, shall be
changed into flies, one half males and the other half
females, each of which females shall lay the like num.
ber of eggs ; the number of flies will amount to 10,000 :
and, supposing the generation of them to proceed in
like manner another month, their number will then be
more than 700,000, all produced from one couple of flies
in the space of three months." The Hessian fly (M.pu-
pilionis) (f) is very destructive to wheat and rye, and has
occasionally been a source of great alarm to our agri-
culturists. The cheese-fly (M.putrii) (g), well known to
housewives under the name of hopper, deposits its eggs
in the crevices or holes of the cheese, whence those nu-
merous maggots (h), that so much amuse us by their
agility and surprising leaps. One of these insects, not a
quarter of an inch in length, has been known to leap
out of a box six inches deep. The chrysalis (i) is
straight and crusty.
2267. The gnat (Culex) is frequent in the neighbor-
hood of waters and marshy places. In southern re-
gions there is a larger species, which is known by the
name of musquito. Its bite is painful, raising a
considerable degree of inflammation, and its continual piping note is exceedingly irksome where it abounds,
especially during the night. When it settles to inflict the wound and draw the blood, it raises its hind
pair of feet. In Lapland, the injuries the inhabitants sustain from it are amply repaid by the vast num-
bers of water-fowl and wild-fowl which it attracts, as it forms the favorite food of their young. The
fecundity of the common gnat (C.pipiens) (fig. 410. k) is as remarkable as that of the flesh-fly.
2268. The tabanus genus greatly resembles musca, and produces some species troublesome to men and
other animals on whose blood they feed. The spider fly (Hippobosca) inhabits woods. The species knowji
as the forest-fly (H. equina) (fig. 410. /) is particularly tormenting to the horse.
2269. The aptera, or insects without wings in both sexes, is composed of genera of such
varied forms, that no other general characters can be affixed. Linnaeus comprehended in
this order spiders, lice, lobsters, crabs, shrimps, &c. which Leach and most other modern
naturalists class separately.
2270. The louse (Pedicidus) arid flea (Pulex) are well known : the only genera of this order which aie trou-
blesome in gardens are the mite-spider (Acarus), the common spider (Aranca), and the woodlouse (Oniscus.)
2271. The red spider is the Acarus tellurius, L. (fig. 411. a), and 4 j j
the same name is also applied by gardeners to the scarlet acarus
(A. holosericeus, L.) (b), the only two British species of the genus
which infest plants, and to which perhaps they do more injury
than all other insects put together. Watering over the leaves is
the well known preventive and remedy : the water should be
applied to both sides of the leaf in a finely divided state, and with
great force, so as to dash the insects to the ground. For this
purpose Read's syringe is the most efficient implement at present
in use. The sheep-tic (A. reduvius) (c), the dog-tic (A. rkinus)
(d), the cheese-mite (A. siro), and the itch-mite (mite de la gale,
Tr.) (A. exulcerans, L) Which inhabits the ulcers of the itch, are
the principal species mentioned by Linnaeus ; but some naturalists
consider that every animal, and most plants, have their peculiar
species of acarus. The harvest bug is by some considered an
acarus, and by others a phalangium.
2272. The common spider (Aranea) is a numerous genus, and
very prolific : as they live entirely on insects they cannot be con-
sidered as otherwise injurious in gardens than by their unsightly appearance.
2273. The wood-louse (Oniscus) is of retired habits, shunning the light and the heat of the sun. It
lives on leaves, fruit, and also on animal substances, and casts its crust or skin like the spider. In
gardens it is easily caught by bundles of reeds or beans, or other hollow stalks, like the earwig. The
O. aquaticus (fig. e) is common in springs and clear ponds, or cisterns of water. The dog-tic and water onis-
cus both require to be magnified to be studied properly (/, g).
Ff 2
436
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
2274. Ofivorms (class Vermes, L.), there are only a few genera which are materially in-
jurious in gardens, the earth-worm (Lumbricus), the slug (Limax), and the snail (Helix).
2215. The slug (Li?nax) is without a shell, and distinguished by its lateral pore. There are 16 British
species : the L. ater [fig. 412. b), alba, and hyalinus are the most common in gardens ; and the L. agrestis
(a) is common both in gardens and fields, and is the species recommended to be swallowed by consumptive
persons. The snail {Helix) is a numerous genus, and, like the slug, very destructive to plants and fruit :
both snails and slugs are hermaphrodite, having both sexes united in each individual ; they lay their eggs
with great care in the earth, and the young ones are hatched, the slugs without shells, and the snails
with shells completely fonned. They are most troublesome in spring and autumn, and during mild
weather in winter. In dry warm weather, and during frosts, they retire into the earth and remain there
in a torpid state. The most common species is the H. hortensis (Jig. 412. c), or garden-snail, of which it is
412
remarked, that having once attacked a leaf or fruit, it will not begin on another till the first is wholly
eaten. Snails, slugs, and worms, may be annoyed by caustic substances scattered over them, or by water-
ing with bitter infusions, acids or alkalis, as vinegar, or what is equally effectual and cheaper, lime-water ;
but the only effectual way of getting rid of snails in gardens is by hand-picking. They may be collected
under decaying leaves or haulm, laid down on purpose to attract them. In this way a garden may soon,
and at little trouble and expense, be effectually cleared of the worm class of enemies.
Suesect. 2. Operations for subduing Vermin.
2276. The operations for deterring the human, quadruped, and feathered enemies of
gardens are few, and have been already noticed. (2220. 2222, 2223.)
2277. Tlie operations for destroying insect vermin, or counteracting their injurious
effects, are of three kinds, preventives, palliatives, and efficient processes.
2278. The preventive operations are those of the best culture in the most extensive sense of the term,
including what relates to choice of seed or plant, soil, situation, and climate. If these are carefully at-
tended to, it will seldom happen that any species of insect will exist in gardens to an injurious degree.
But some parts of culture, such as climate, are often beyond our control ; as, for example, when a very dry
spring and east winds prevail, in which case many insects increase, or rather their larva? are hatched and
reared under such favorable circumstances that few of them die, and all of them become strong in pro-
portion as the plants on which they live, in consequence of the dry weather (favorable to the insects),
become weak. In such a case as this, or its reverse, that of a series of cold moist weather, the gardener
cannot apply good culture to plants in the open air, and therefore cannot prevent the increase of insects.
In artificial plant-habitations of every kind, however, properly constructed, his power in regard to culture
te complete, and therefore he may always prevent, not the existence, but the injurious increase of insects.
2279. The palliative operations are various. Artificial bad weather will annoy every description of organised
being, and especially animals. Excessive waterings, stormy applications of water with a syringe, violent
wind produced by shaking the plant or tree in the air instead of moving the air round the tree, as in natural
wind ; these and similar operations will materially injure and annoy insects, both in their common func-
tions and in the work of generation, hatching, and rearing. Insects may be farther annoyed by throwing on
them acrid waters or powders, as tobacco- water, lime-water, powdered quick-lime, soot, ashes, barley-awns,
&c. &c. The smell of tar is particularly offensive to various moths and butterflies ; and it is said, if a little of
it is placed under plants, or if they are watered with tar-water, these insects will not lay their eggs on them.
It is also said that if shreds of flannel are hung on trees or plants, moths and butterflies will lay their
eggs on the shreds, in preference to the leaves of the plant. The effect of the fumes of tobacco, sulphur,
urine, See. are well known. Saline substances mixed with water are injurious to most insects with tender
skins, as the worm and slug ; and hot water, where it can be applied without injuring vegetation, is
equally, if not more powerfully, injurious. Water heated to 120 or" 130 degrees will not injure plants
whose leaves are fully expanded and in some degree hardened ; and water at 200 degrees or upwards
may be poured over leafless plants. There are various other ways in which insects may be annoyed, and
often in part destroyed, which will be pointed out in treating of the plants which particular species
inhabit. The effects of insects may also be palliated on one species of plant, by presenting to them
another which they prefer : thus wasps are said to prefer carrots, the berries of the yew, and the honey
of the hoya, to grapes ; honey or sugared water to ripe fruit, and so on. One insect or animal may also
be set to eat another, as ducks for slugs and worms, turkeys for the same purpose, and caterpillars, and
ants for aphides, and so on.
2230. The operations for the utter removal or destruction of insects are few, and chiefly that of hand-
picking, or otherwise removing or killing by manual operations with a brush, sponge, or net Destruction
by hand-picking should, if possible, commence with the parent insect in its fly or perfect state before it
has deposited its ova. Thus the gathering of moths, butterflies, and large wasps may save the gathering
afterwards of thousands of caterpillars and the drowning of hundreds of wasps, as preventing weeds from
seeding in a garden will soon eradicate them altogether. It is no small proof of the advantages of a
knowledge of natural history to gardeners, and also of the progress of knowledge among this ingenious
and useful class of artisans, that a practical gardener has actually practised for several years the catching
of moths, to prevent them from laying their eggs on his trees. P. Musgrove, gardener, at May-field near
Book IV. OF DISEASES. 437
Edinburgh, has almost completely cleared his trees of caterpillars by the following mode: " I examine," ho
says, " the trees I wish to clear, in the beginning of June, that being the time the moths begin to leave the
chrysalis state. When I find one of those of a dark color, I am aware the insect will make its appearance
in the course of a few days. That chrysalis I examine daily until the insect comes out ; and although I do
not see the insect emerging from the shell, yet I am sure to find it in the neighborhood of the covering
which it has left, exhausted with fatigue in consequence of the exertion in extricating itself from
confinement. At first 1 put a few of the chrysalids into paper bags, which gave me an opportunity
of examining them minutely. I also watched some of the chrysalids of the bore -worm, which causes
gooseberries to fall off in great quantities by boring into the berry, and I found that fly to be of the same
class with those which infest the apple, pear, and cherry trees. I was also able to prove decidedly, that
the females come into existence full of the rudiment of eggs, which I found by dissecting several of them,
and examining the ovarium. I also found, by carefully noticing every insect which I caught, that the
greater number were females."
Having made himself completely acquainted with the enemy with which he had to contend, he con-
tinued his labors : " going over a number of wall-trees which I fixed upon for the experiment, with a
branch of a willow-tree in my hand, with which I switched the leaves and branches, for it is amongst the
leaves and branches of the trees the insect secretes itself; but in order that it may be done with more ex-
pedition and success, I would recommend a birch-besom to be used in preference. There should be two
persons, one to go over the leaves and branches of the trees, in order to make the insect leave its retreat,
and one with a net attached to a pole to catch the fly, or to destroy it if it should alight on the ground, as it
will be apt to do, if the day is clear and sunny, for these insects cannot bear the bright rays of the sun, which
is the cause of their remaining amongst the leaves during the day ; but should the day be dull, the net
will be highly necessary to catch the insect, as it will then likely fly to some distance before it alights.
This operation must be continued until all the insects are destroyed ; but it is not needful that it should
be performed every day, but every other day, as the insects are some days from the chrysalid state before
they are ready to deposit their ova, which is done during night.
The method followed with sta?idards is as follows : — The time for going over them is generally two or
three weeks later than the wall-trees. It is a singular fact, that the insect keeps pace with the leafing of
the tree. With the standards nothing will be required but the net, as the branches can be gently shaken,
which is sufficient to cause the fly to leave its nestling-place ; but as it might be the means of bringing too
many down at one time, if the tree was shaken all at once, care must be taken to shake the branches one
by one. Where the trees are lofty, a pole with a hook attached to the end may be used.
The net used is made of strong black gauze, that color being best for the purpose. It is a yard and a
half in circumference, a foot deep, and attached to a whalebone rim. The handle is made of common
wood, about a yard and a half long. With regard to the manner in which it should be used, all I have
to say is, that I kept the net in my right hand ; and the moment an insect was driven from its place, I
swung the net in the direction opposite to that in which it flew. If I missed in the first attempt, the
second generally succeeded.
The success of this plan of destroying moths has succeeded equal to my expectations; indeed it carries
conviction on the face of it. It is not only simple, and can be performed at very little expense ; but it is
sure, and can be acted upon in the most extensive orchards. When we consider the great number of
eggs one destroys by killing a single female in the beginning of the season, the utility of the plan I think
will at once appear. Supposing, then, that any person, by going over twenty or thirty trees each day,
which can be done easily in a few hours, kills 200 insects ; there will be no fewer than 10,000 eggs destroyed
or prevented. If the operation be carried on for a month only, every alternate day over this number of
trees, the amount of eggs destroyed will be 150,000. This is actually what I have done myself: there
is surely, then, very little reflection necessary, to convince any unprejudiced person, that by following
the same plan, he might soon be able to bid defiance to such a formidable foe. When we also take
into consideration how much the success of the crop depends upon an uninjured foliage, and a free and
strong expansion of blossom, the propriety of adopting this method must be obvious : hitherto all the
plans of liming, oiling, peeling, &c. have failed." (Caled. Mem. iii. 333.)
2281. Catching the winged insect, or hand-picking the eggs, or larva?, are the only certain modes of pre-
venting the ravages of the gooseberry caterpillar. As soon as the eggs which are white, and no thicker
than hairs, appear on the under side of the leaf, they should be rubbed off, or the entire leaf gathered.
It is true, watering the leaves well, and then dusting them with powdered quick-lime, will destroy all
those eggs which are wet at the time the lime falls on them; but will it fall on the undersides of the leaves?
Watering with lime-water is better ; but even that operation is less certain, more troublesome, and not much
more expeditious than hand-picking taken in time. In extreme cases, both modes may be combined.
2282. The aphides may be destroyed by the fumes of tobacco from the fumigating bellows, or by
excessive watering.
2283. T/ie red spider and most insects may be destroyed by the fumes of sulphur, produced by flues, the
tops of which have been washed with it ; or from hot plates, or by burning sulphurated paper and rags,
or distilling it with a retort. Ammoniacal gas, produced either from urine, recent stable-dung, or dis-
tillation from bones, or other substances, is also, where the air is charged with it for sometime together,
an effectual mode of destroying all animals. Watering, and a moist and warm atmosphere, will destroy
the red spider and keep under all insects. Heat and moisture combined, indeed, are what the gardener
has chiefly to depend on, especially in every description of plant-habitation. This will appear more fully
in the practical parts of this work, where the particular application of these general remarks is made to
the culture and treatment of particular plants.
2284. Snails and slugs, as already observed, axe most effectually destroyed by lures of decayed leaves or
haulm and hand-picking. (2275.)
The earth-worm is most effectually kept under by watering with lime-water. Salt, vinegar, alum, or
other acrid waters, will have the same effect, but are injurious to vegetation, and besides less economical.
The lime-water, as Forsyth directs, is to be prepared by pouring water on quick-lime, and letting it stand
till it settles clear, the ground infested with worms should have their casts scraped off, and then the water
should be applied from the rose of a watering-pot. The evening, and early in the morning, or on ap-
proaching rain, are the best seasons.
2285. The young gardener should carefully and assiduously study the nature, names, and classification
of insects ; and make himself acquainted with all the species he can pick up, either in gardens, houses, or
fields. Besides being of material use to him in his profession, he will find it a never failing source of
interest and enjoyment, at least equally so with the study of botany. For this purpose let him read the
articles on insects in such Encyclopaedias as come within his reach, and borrow, or otherwise procure, a
reading of the Essays and Works of Dr. Skrimshire, of Wood, Kirby and Spence, Donovan, Samouelle, and
other authors that he will find quoted and referred to in this and other books which mention the subject.
Subsect. 3. Operations relative to Diseases and other Casualties.
2286. The subject of the accidents and diseases to which plants are liable has been
treated at length in the "study of the vegetable kingdom" (Part II. Book I. Chap. IX.) ;
and it there appeared, that very little could be done by art in curing diseases ; but that
much might be done to prevent them by regimen and culture, and something to the
healing of wounds by amputation and exclusion of air.
Ff 3
438 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
2287. The operations/or the cure of accidents are chiefly cutting off injured parts, sup-
porting, and coating over. Amputation must be performed with suitable instruments,
and so as to leave a smooth section calculated to throw off the water. In cutting out
large wounds which are deep, the chisel will require to be used ; and in cutting off dis-
eased or injured parts from small and delicate plants, a very sharp knife. Supporting
the stem or trunk of bruised and wind-shaken trees, or such as are otherwise injured or
rendered less secure in their general structure, is an obvious operation, and requires to be
done promptly and effectually. It is also requisite in the case of cutting out such deep
wounds as may endanger the stems or branches of trees or plants exposed to the free air.
Coating over wounds to exclude air is a useful practice ; and though it may be dispensed
with in the case of small wounds on healthy plants, ought never to be neglected in the
case of large wounds on any description of plants, or small ones made on such as are
sickly. The usual application is now clay and loam made so thin as to be laid on with
a brush, and two or three coats may be given. On large wounds paint, or putty and
paint may be used ; and in the case of deep hollow wounds, the part may be filled up
with putty, or putty and small stones, for the sake of saving the former, and then made
smooth and well painted.
2288. The operations for curing diseases are few, besides those for the cure of accidents.
Washes are applied by the sponge, brush, syringe, or watering pot, for filth, mildew, and
blight ; and for the two latter diseases sulphur, or powdered lime is sometimes added by
dredges or the hand while the plant is wet. Slitting the bark is the operation for hide-
bound trees ; and peeling off* the outer, rough, and already separating bark by scraping-
irons and bark-sealers, is resorted to in the case of old trees, as cutting out is in the case
of canker. In scaling off care must be taken not to injure the inner bark ; and in cutting
out for canker sharp instruments must be used, and a coating applied. (See 873. to 901.)
Sect. IX. Operations of Gathering, Preserving, and Keeping.
2289. Gathering, preserving, and keeping vegetable productions, form an important part
of the horticultural division of gardening. Some productions, after being reared and
perfected, are to be gathered for immediate consumption ; but a part require to be pre-
served in a state fit for culinary purposes ; or for sowing or dispersing ; or sending to a
distant market, family or friend.
2290. Gathering vegetables or their different parts is, in part, performed with a knife, as
in cutting off some fruits, as the cucumber, or heads of leaves, as the cabbage ; and in
part by fracture or torsion with the hand, as in pinching off strawberries between the
finger and thumb, gathering peas, with one hand applied to retain the stem firm, and the
other to tear asunder the peduncle, &c. In all cases of using the knife, the general
principle of cutting is to be attended to, leaving always a sound section on the living
plant. Gathering with the hand ought to be done as little as possible, as there are now
garden-pincers for all such purposes, which do the work quicker, with far less injury to
the plant, and more regard to cleanliness. Sometimes the entire plant is gathered, as in
celery and onions ; and at other times only the root or tuber, as in potatoes and carrots.
In taking up these, care must be taken not to injure^their epidermis, as on the preserv-
ation of this depends their retention of juices, beauty, and keeping.
2291. T/ie gathering of hardy fruits should take place "in the middle part of a dry
day ; not in the morning before the dew is evaporated, nor in the evening when it begins
to be deposited. Plums readily part from the twigs when ripe : they should not be much
handled, as the bloom is apt to be rubbed off. Apricots may be accounted ready when
the side next the sun feels a little soft upon gentle pressure with the finger. They ad-
here firmly to the tree, and would over-ripen . on it and become mealy. Peaches
and nectarines, if moved upwards, and allowed to descend with a single jerk, will separate,
if ready ; and they may be received into the peach-gatherer (Jig. 148.) or any tin funnel
lined with velvet, so as to avoid touching with the fingers or bruising. The old rule for
judging of the ripeness of figs, was to observe if a drop of water was hanging at the end
of the fruit ; a more certain one is, to notice when the small end becomes of the same
colour as the large end. The most transparent grapes are the most ripe. All the
berries on a bunch never ripen equally ; and it is therefore proper to cut away unripe
or decayed berries before presenting the bunches at table. Autumn and winter pears
are gathered, when dry, as they successively ripen. The early varieties of apples
begin to be useful for the kitchen in the end of June ; particularly the codlins and
the jenneting ; and in July they are fit for the dessert. From this time till October or
November, many kinds ripen in succession. The safest rule is to observe when the
fruit begins to fall naturally. Another easy mode of ascertaining, is to raise the fruit
level with the footstalk; if ripe, it will part readily from the tree : this mode of trial is
also applicable to pears. A third criterion is to cut up an apple of the average ripeness
of the crop, and examine if its seeds have become brown or blackish ; if they remain
uncolored, the fruit is not ready for pulling. Immature fruit never keeps so well
Book IV. GATHERING AND PRESERVING. 439
as that which nearly approaches maturity ; it is more apt to shrivel and lose flavor.
Winter apples are left on the trees till there be danger of frost : they are then gathered
on a dry day." (Ed. Encyc. art. Hort.) In no case should fruit be gathered with the
hand when any of the different descriptions of fruit-gatherers (figs. 141. to 153.) can be
used. With one or other of these, and the use of proper ladders (figs. 206. to 209.), every
kind of fruit, from the gooseberry to the walnut, may be gathered without bruising,
soiling, or fingering the fruit, and without injuring the tree.
2292. The gathering of seeds should take place in very dry weather, when the seed-
pods, by beginning to open, give indications of perfect ripeness. Being rubbed out with
the hand, beat with a stick, or passed through a portable threshing-machine, they are then
to be separated by sieves and fanners from their husks, &c. and spread out in a shaded
airy loft till they are so dry as to be fit for putting up in linen or paper bags, or putting
in drawers in the seed-room till wanted.
2293. Preserving heads or leaves of vegetables is effected in cellars or sheds, of any
temperature, not lower, nor much above the freezing point. Thus cabbages, endive,
ehiccory, lettuce, &c. taken out of the ground with their main roots in perfectly dry
weather, at the end of the season, and laid in, or partially immersed in sand or dry
earth, in a close shed, cellar, or ice-cold room, will keep through the winter, and be
fit for use till spring, and often till the return of the season of their produce in the
garden. The German gardeners are expert at this practice ; and more especially in
Russia, where the necessities being greater have called forth greater skill and attention.
2294. Floivers and leaves for decoration may be preserved by drying between leaves of
paper, or in ovens ; or imbedded in their natural position in fine dry sand, placed in that
state in an oven. In this pot of sand they will keep for years ; but they must not be
taken out till wanted. When at a little distance it will be difficult to distinguish them from
such as are fresh gathered. A rose is cut when the petals and leaves are perfectly dry,
a little sand is put in the bottom of the flower-pot, the rose is stuck in the sand, and sand
is then slowly sprinkled in till the rose be covered and the pot filled. At Paris and
Milan the more popular flowers are frequently preserved in this way.
2295. Roots are preserved in different ways, according to the object in view. ^ Tuberous
roots, as those of the dahlia, paconia, tuberose, &c. intended to be planted in the suc-
ceeding spring, are preserved through the winter in dry earth, in a temperature rather
under than above what is natural to them. So may the bulbous and tuberous roots of com-
merce, as hyacinths, tulips, onions, potatoes, &c. ; but for convenience, these are kept either
loose in cool dry shelves or lofts, or the finer sorts in papers, till the season of planting.
2296. Potatoes, turnips, and all similar roots which it is desired to preserve in a dor-
mant or unvegetating state beyond the season of planting, have only to be sunk in pits
to such a depth as that' vegetation will not take place. A pit filled with these roots
to wiftiin five feet of the surface, and the remainder compactly closed with earth, and
kept quite dry, will keep one or more years in a sound state, and without vegetating.
(Farmers' Mag.) For convenience of using, there should be a number of small pits, or
rather of large pots of roots, so buried at a little distance from each other, as that no
more may be°taken up at a time than what can be consumed in a few days. The mould
or compost ground will, in general, be found a convenient scene for this operation ; and,
for a small family, pots contrived with covers, or with their saucers, used as covers, may be
deeply immersed in a large shaded ridge of earth, to be taken up, one at a time, as
wanted. Grain, apples, and potatoes are kept the whole year in deep pits, in sandy soil,
formed in the village-greens of some parts of Gallicia and Moravia, and in banks and
rocks in Spain. Oldacre informs us, in his account of his mushroom-house (Hort. Tr.
vol. ii.), that he preserved broccoli in it through the winter ; and Henderson, of Brechin,
makes use of the ice-house for preserving " roots of all kinds till the return of the natural
crop." " By the month of April," he says, "the ice in our ice-house is found to have
subsided four or five feet ; and in this empty room I deposit the vegetables to be pre-
served. After stuffing the vacuities with straw, and covering the surface of the ice with
the same material, I place on it case-boxes, dry ware casks, baskets, &c. ; and fill them
with turnips, carrots, beet-roots, celery, and, in particular, potatoes. By the cold of the
place, vegetation is so much suspended, that all these articles may be thus kept fresh and
uninjured, till they give place to another crop in its natural season."
2297. Green fruits are generally preserved by pickling or salting, and the operation
is performed by some part of the domestic establishment ; but in some countries it is
made the province of the gardener, who, in Poland, preserves cucumbers and khol-
rabbi by salting, and then immersing them in casks at the bottom of a deep well, where
the water, preserving nearly the same temperature throughout the year, impedes their
decay. It must be confessed, however, that vegetables so preserved are only fit to
be eaten with animal food, as preserved cabbage (i. e. sour-crout,) or other salted
legumes. i .
2298. Such ripe fruit as may be preserved is generally laid up in lofts and bins, or
Ff 4
440 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
shelves, when in large quantities, and of baking qualities ; but the better sorts of apples
and pears are now preserved in sets of drawers (Jig. 279.), sometimes spread out in
them, at other times wrapt up in papers ; or placed in pots, cylindrical earthen vessels,
among sand, moss, paper, chaff, hay, sawdust, &c. or sealed up in air-tight jars or casks,
and placed in the fruit-cellar. (1704.) The finest pears, as the cressannes and chaumon-
telles, should have their footstalks previously tipped with sealing-wax, as practised in
France and the isles of Jersey and Guernsey.
2299. Hitt's method of keeping pears maybe here mentioned. Having prepared a
number of earthenware jars, and a quantity of dry moss (different species of hypnum
and sphagnum), he placed a layer of moss and of pears alternately till the jar was
filled ; a plug was then inserted, and sealed round with melted rosin. These jars were
sunk in dry sand to the depth of a foot ; preferring a deep cellar for keeping them to
any fruit-room.
2300. Miller, after sweating and wiping pears, in which operations he says great care
must be taken not to bruise the fruit, packs them in close baskets, having some wheat-
straw in the bottom and around the sides to prevent bruising, and a lining of thick soft
paper to hinder the musty flavor of the straw from infecting the fruit. Only one
kind of fruit is put in each basket, as the process of maturation is more or less rapid
in differing kinds. A covering of paper and straw is fixed on the top, and the basket
is then deposited in a dry room, secure against the access of frost, " and the less air
is let into the room, the better the fruit will keep." A label should be attached to each
basket, denoting the kind of fruit ; for the basket is not to be opened till the fruit be
wanted for use.
2301. James Stewart preserves his choice apples and pears in glazed earthenware jars,
provided with tops or covers. In the bottom of the jars, and between each layer of fruit,
he puts some pure pit-sand, which has been thoroughly dried on a flue. The jars are
kept in a dry airy situation, as cool as possible, but secure from frost. A label on the
jar indicates the kind of fruit ; and when this is wanted or ought to be used, it is taken
from the jars, and placed for some time on the shelves of the fruit-room. ^ The less ripe
fruit is sometimes restored to the jars, but with newly dried sand. In this way he pre-
serves colmars and other fine French pears till April ; the terling till June ; and many
kinds of apples till July, the skin remaining smooth and plump. Others who also em-
ploy earthenware jars, wrap each fruit in paper, and, in place of sand, use bran.
(Ed. Encyc. art. Hort.)
2302. Ingram, at Torry, in Scotland, finds that for winter pears two apartments are
requisite, a colder and a warmer ; but the former, though cold, must be free from damp.
From it the fruit is brought into the warmer room, as wanted ; and by means of increased
temperature, maturation is promoted, and the fruit rendered delicious and mellow.
Chaumontelles, for example, are placed in close drawers, so near to a stove, that the tem-
perature may constantly be between 60° and 70° Fahr. For most kinds of fruit, how-
ever, a temperature equal to 55° is found sufficient. The degree of heat is accurately
determined by keeping small thermometers in several of the fruit-drawers, at different
distances from the stove. The drawers are about six inches deep, three feet long, and
two broad ; they are made of hard wood, fir being apt to spoil the flavor of the fruit.
They are frequently examined in order to give air, and to observe the state of the fruit, it
being wiped when necessary. Ingram remarks, that, in Scotland particularly, late
pears should have as much of the tree as possible, even although some frost should
supervene ; such as ripen freely, on the other hand, are plucked rather before they reach
maturity.
2303. Winter apples are laid in heaps, and covered with mats or straw, or short
or grass well dried. Here they lie for a fortnight or more, to sweat, as it is called, or
to discharge some of their juice ; after which the skin contracts in a certain degree.
They are next wiped dry with a woollen cloth, and placed in the fruit-room. Sometimes,
when intended for winter dessert fruit, they are made to undergo a farther sweating ;
and are again wiped and picked : they are then laid singly on the shelves, and covered
with paper. Here they are occasionally turned, and such as show any symptoms of decay
are immediately removed.
2304. The siceadng of fruit is entirely disapproved by some, who affirm, that it thereby
acquires a bad flavor, or, at any rate, that the natural flavor of the fruit is deteriorated,
and that it gets dry and mealy. They consider it better to carry the fruit directly from
the tree, carefully avoiding all sort of bruising, and to lay it thinly on the shelves of the
fruit-room ; afterwards wiping each fruit, if necessary. The room, they say, should be
dry, and the only use that should be made of a stove, is to take off the damp. Such
is the prevailing practice at the present time. From what we have observed in the
practice of such as are successful in preserving bread corn, and other seeds, as acorns,
nuts, &c. we are inclined to think that sweating, by getting rid of a quantity of moisture,
must, to a certain extent, be a beneficial practice. Marshall, and most French gar-
Book IV. GATHERING AND PRESERVING. 441
deners, and English gardeners of the last century, are in favor of the practice, and those
of the present day are against it.
2305. Knight's experience in jrreserving fruits, with the rationale of his practice, is given
in the following valuable extract: —
Fruits which have grown upon standard-trees, in climates sufficiently warm and favorable to bring them
to maturity, are generally more firm in their texture, and more saccharine, and therefore more capable
of being long preserved sound, than such as have been produced by wall-trees ; and a dry and warm
atmosphere also operates very favorably to the preservation of fruits, under certain circumstances, but
under other circumstances, very injuriously : for the action of those elective attractions which occasion
the decay and decomposition of fruits, is suspended by the operation of different causes, in different
fruits, and even in the same fruit, in different states of maturity. When a grape is growing upon the vine,
and till it has attained perfect maturity, it is obviously a living body, and its preservation dependent upon
the powers of life ; but when the same fruit has some time passed its state of perfect maturity, and has
begun to shrivel, the powers of life are probably no longer, or at most very feeble, in action; and the
fruit appears to be then preserved by the combined operation of its cellular texture, the antiseptic powers
of the saccharine matter it contains, and by the exclusion of air by its external skin ; for if that be de-
stroyed, it immediately perishes. If longer retained in a dry and warm temperature, the grape becomes
gradually converted into a raisin ; and its component parts are then only held in combination by the
ordinary laws of chemistry.
A nonpareille apple or a catillac, a d'auch, or bergamotte de bugi pear, exhibits all the characters of a
living vegetable body long after it has been taken from the tree, and appears to possess all the powers of
other similar vegetable bodies, except that of growing, or vitally uniting to itself other matter ; and the
experiments which I shall proceed to state, prove that the pear is operated upon by external causes nearly
in the same manner after it has been detached from the tree, as when it remains vitally united to it.
Most of the fine French pears, particularly the d'auch, are much subject, when cultivated in a cold and
unfavorable climate, to crack before they become full grown upon the trees, and, consequently, to decay
before their proper season or state of maturity ; and those which present these defects in my garden are
therefore always taken immediately from the trees to a vinery, in which a small fire is constantly kept in
winter, and they are there placed at a small distance over its flue. Thus circumstanced, a part of my
crop of auch pears ripen, and will perish, if not used, in November, when the remainder continue sound
and firm till March or April, or later ; and the same warm temperature which preserves the grape in a
slightly shrivelled state, till January, rapidly accelerates the maturity, and consequent decay of the pear.
By gathering a part of my swan's egg pears early in the season (selecting such as are most advanced
towards maturity), and subjecting them, in the manner above mentioned, to artificial heat, and by retard-
ing the maturity of the later part of the produce of the same trees, I have often had that fruit upon my
table nearly in an equal state of perfection from the end of October to the beginning of February ; but the
most perfect, in every respect, have been those which have been exposed in the vinery to light and arti-
ficial heat, as soon as gathered.
2306. The most successful method of preserving pears and apples, which I have hitherto tried, has been
placing them in glazed earthen vessels, each containing about a gallon (called, provincially, steens), and
surrounding each fruit with paper ; but it is probable that the chaff of oats, if free from moisture or any
offensive smell, might be used with advantage instead of paper, and with much less expense or trouble.
These vessels, being perfect cylinders, about a foot each in height, stand very conveniently upon each
other, and thus present the means of preserving a large quantity of fruit in a very small room ;
and if the spaces between the top of one vessel, and the base of another, be filled with a cement
composed of two parts of the curd of skimmed milk, and one of lime, by which the air will be
excluded, the later kinds of apples and pears will be preserved with little change in their appearance,
and without any danger of decay from October till February and March. A dry and cold situation, in
which there is little change of temperature, is the best for the vessels ; but I have found the merits of the
pears to be greatly increased by their being taken from the vessels about ten days before they were wanted
for use, and being kept in a warm room ; for warmth at this, as at other periods, accelerates the maturity
of the pear. The same agent accelerates its decay also ; and a warmer climate cannot contribute to the
superior success of the French gardeners ; which probably arises only from the circumstance of their fruit
being the produce of standard or espalier trees.
2307. Preserving ripe fruit by retaining it on the tree, or on detached shoots. Some
fruits may be preserved through the winter by allowing them to hang on the tree in a
moderate climate, somewhat above the freezing point. Vines are sometimes so preserved ;
and Diel mentions that frequently on the nonpareil pippin, planted in pots, and kept under
glass, without any fire-heat, he has had the fruit hanging on the tree till the ripening of the
succeeding crop. Arkwright (Hort. Trans, vol. iii. 97.), by late forcing, retains plump
grapes on his vines till the beginning of May, and even later, till the maturity of his
early crops. In this way he gathers grapes every day in the year. By covering some
sorts of cherry, plum, gooseberry, and currant trees, either on walls or as bushes, with
mats, the fruit of the red and white currant, and of the thicker-skinned gooseberries,
may be preserved to Christmas and later. Grapes, in the open air, may be preserved in
the same manner ; and peaches and nectarines may, in this way, be kept a fortnight hang-
ing on the trees after they are ripe.
2308. Preserving ripe fruit in air-tight vessels, in a low temperature, is perhaps the most
effectual and certain mode, at least with the more hardy fruits. Apples and pears, placed
in jars or pipkins in which butter had been kept, have been closely sealed up, and placed
in a cellar, in a temperature never below 32°, and not exceeding 42°, for a year, and
found in perfect order for eating. (Braddick, in Hort. Trans, vol. iii. ; Encyc. Brit.
Supp. art. Food.)
2309. Preserving fruit, by gathering it before it is ripe, and then retarding its ripening.
Retarding the wasting or decay of fruit or vegetables gathered for use, is effected by
burying them in boxes in the soil, immersing them in deep wells, or, as already stated,
placing them in an ice-house, or an ice-cold room. Ripe peaches may thus be kept a week,
and other fruits longer ; pears, cauliflowers, salads, &c. preserved in a fresh state for
some days, and potatoes and other tubers and bulbs for a long period, both fresh and
without growing.
442
SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
2310. Seeds. When seeds are to be preserved longer than the usual period, or when
they are to be sent to a great distance, various devices have been adopted to preserve their
vitality. Sugar, salt, tallow, cotton, sawdust, sand, clay, paper, &c. have been adopted
with different degrees of success.
231 1. Livingston, who, from a long residence in China, is well informed on the horticul-
ture of the Chinese, states that, " from April to October, rain is so frequent in China, and
the air is generally so moist, that it is nearly impossible to preserve seeds. If excluded
from the air they are quickly covered with mildew, and when exposed, no less certainly
destroyed by insects." He proposes to dry Chinese seeds by means of sulphuric acid, in
Leslie's manner, which he found dried " small seeds in two days, and the largest seeds
in less than a week. Seeds thus dried," he observes, " may be afterwards preserved in
a vegetating state for any necessary length of time by keeping them in an airy situation
in common brown paper, and occasionally exposing them to the air in a fine day, espe-
cially after damp weather. This method will succeed with all the larger mucilaginous
seeds. Very small seeds, berries, and oily seeds may probably require to be kept
in sugar, or among currants or raisins." (Hort. Trans, vol. iii. 184., and the article
ColcC'm Supp. Encyc. Brit.) It is probable many seeds might be preserved and sent to
a distance with safety, if, after being thoroughly matured and dried, they were enveloped
or baked into a large ball of loam. Such a mode, at all events, being suggested by na-
ture, deserves a trial.
2312. Nuts sent from the East Indies, compactly packed in a barrel of clay, and the head of the cask firmly
put on, have made a partial developement of their parts during the voyage, and still grown after their arrival
Liiuueus, writing to John Ellis says, " Fresh seeds may be conveyed in the following manner :— Fill
a glass vessel with seeds, so deposited in dry sand as not to touch each other, that they may freely
perspire through the sand, laving a bladder or piece of paper, over the mouth of the vessel. This glass
must be placed in one of larger dimensions, the intermediate space, of about two inches all round, being
quite filled with three parts nitre, one of common sea-salt, and two of sal-ammoniac, all powdered and
mixed, but not dried. This mixture will produce a constant cold, so as to prevent any injury to the
seeds from external heat, as has been proved by experience." {Corresp. U. Linn. 110.) Ellis very cor-
rectly answers Linnaeus, that salts of no kind will generate cold air during dissolution, and that
afterwards the mixture, whether dry or fluid, will soon acquire the same temperature with the sur-
rounding air. He imagines the true use of salts to be to prevent putrefactive fermentation in the
seeds After trying a great variety of experiments on seeds and nuts sent to America, and even t nina,
he found that sweating acorns, then letting them become perfectly ; dry, and enveloping them in
melted tallow, or a mixture of melted tallow and wax, was the best mode. The tallow must not be hotter
than blood heat when the seeds or nuts are bedded in it ; each must be kept separate ; and the greatest
care had that they are thoroughly dried before being enveloped. Wax alone and gum he also found suc-
cessful ; but, on the whole, he found tallow best. Acorns kept a year in it, grew vigorously when taken
out and planted. {Corresp. of Linn. p. 119. et seq.) _ .
2313. J. Howeson, when in Bengal, wrought a variety of seeds into a thick mucilage of gum Arabic, in
the same way that caraway seeds are wrought into dough in making gingerbread. These he afterwards
divided into small cakes, ani placed them in the sun, until perfectly dry ; but as a number of the seeds
stiU appeared on their surface, he dipped the cakes in a thin solution of gum, until the whole were com-
pletely covered. On looking into a trunk, twelve years after his return to this country, he found a cake
containing babul, or gum Arabic tree seeds, which, having separated, by dissolving the cake in water, he
sowed on a hot-bed, when the proportion of three out of four seeds became healthy plants. He adds,
" while I was in India, none of the methods then in use were effectual for bringing out garden-seeds from
England in a sound state, even although enclosed in varnished cases, and sealed bottles. It appeared to
me, that the air which occupied the spaces between the seeds contained a sufficient quantity of water in
solution to produce, during the ship's passage through the warm latitudes, a musty fermentation, which
inevitably destroys the living principle in seeds. It was from this view of the subject, that I was led
totally to exclude air, by giving to each its own envelope." (Caled. Mem. m. 2o8.)
2314. Roots, cuttings, grafts, and perennial plants in general are preserved, till wanted,
in earth or moss, moderately moist, and shaded from the sun. The same principle is
followed in packing them to be sent to a distance. The roots or root-ends of the plants
or cuttings are enveloped in balls of clay or loam, wrapped round with moist moss, and
air is admitted to the tops. In this way orange-trees are sent from Genoa to any part
of Europe and North America in perfect preservation ; and cuttings of plants sent any
distance which can be accomplished in eight months, or even longer with some kinds.
Scions of the apple, pear, &c. if enveloped in clay, and wrapt up in moss or straw, and
then placed in a portable ice-house so as to prevent a greater heat than 32° from pene-
trating to them, would, there can be little doubt, keep a year, and might thus be sent
from England to Australasia or China. Knight found that the buds of fruit-trees might
be preserved in a vegetating state, and sent to a considerable distance, by reducing the
leaf-stalks to a short length, and enclosing the shoot in a double fold of cabbage-leaf,
bound close together at each end, and then enclosing the package in a letter. " It was
found advantageous to place the under surface of the cabbage-leaf inwards, by which the
enclosed branch was supplied with humidity, that being the perspirating surface of the
leaf, the other surface being nearly or wholly impervious to moisture." {Hort. Trans.
vol. iv. p. 403.)
2315. Packing and conveying plants in pots. Plants in pots are packed among moss
in boxes, with their tops covered with a net, and sent to any distance where the climate
will not injure them, and where water is supplied. Where the climate is severe, they
are covered with a glazed tegument, and thus glass cases or temporary hot-houses are
employed in ships to carry tender plants from this country to the colder colonies, and to
Book IV. FINAL PRODUCTS DESIRED OF GARDENS. 443
bring plants from the warmer colonies home. Stove-plants are also transported from
France, Holland, and Hamburgh, into Germany and Russia, in waggons with glass
covers.
2316. In packing plants for importation, much more care is requisite than has in general been bestowed
on the subject. " It is thought enough," Lindley observes (Hort. Trans, v. 192.), " to tear a plant from its
native soil, to plant it in fresh earth, to fasten it m a wooden case, and put it on board a vessel." Nothing
can be more erroneous : preparatory for packing, the plants should have their roots well established in
pots or boxes, which may, in woody kinds, require from one to three months. Boxes with proper per-
forations in the bottom are better than pots, because less liable to break, and of less weight. "When the
period for embarking them arrives, they should be placed in wooden cases, the tops of which must be
capable of being opened, and should slope both ways, like the roof of a double green-house. These cases
must be furnished with a tarpawling, fixed along their tops, and sufficiently large, when unrolled, to cover
them completely, so as to protect the plants from being damaged by the salt-water dashing over them in
rough weather. It cannot be expected that heayy cases should meet with very gentle treatment on ship-
board ; and it is certain they will be handled in the roughest manner by watermen, carters, and custom-
house officers, after they have arrived in port. The materials, therefore, of which they are made, ought
to be of a very strong description, and the joints of the lower part either secured by iron bands, or well
dovetailed together. The person in charge of the cases on board should have directions never to ex-
clude them from air and light in fine weather, unless to protect them from the cold, as the vessel makes
the land, and after she is in port, or during high winds, or especially when the seamen are washing the
decks ; but in foul weather to close the lids down, and to unrol the tarpawling over the latter, so as to
exclude the sea-spray effectually. If, notwithstanding these precautions, saline particles should become
encrusted upon the leaves and stems of the plant, it is necessary that the former should be removed as
soon and as carefully as possible, with fresh water and a sponge, otherwise the salt will soon kill
them. The quantity of water the plants receive must be determined by what can be spared ; so that no
other direction for its application can be given, than to keep the mould just moist. The requisite supply
of water must also depend much upon the way in which the cases are drained. The best manner in
which this can be effected, is by causing holes about half an inch in diameter to be bored through the
bottom of the cases and pots. Much mischief being occasionally done to collections by monkeys and
parroquets on board the vessels, it is highly necessary that means should be taken to guard against their
attacks.
2317. Collections are not unfrequently injured after they arrive in this country, by the pots being shaken so
violently as to be deprived of a large portion of their mould. Nothing can well be more destructive of
vegetable life than this, which should be prevented by the pots being made square, so as to fit accurately
into the bottom of the outer case. There then could be no difficulty in keeping them steady ; and if they
were fastened down by cross pieces of wood, they would be secured still more completely. In addition,
the surface of the mould ought to be covered deeply with coarse moss, or other similar substance (not
grass), which flight be secured by packthread passed frequently across the box from its sides, or by slender
laths, which would be less likely to become rotten than packthread. By this means, evaporation of the
watery particles which are necessary to the existence of the plants, proceeds much less rapidly than when
the mould is exposed ; and the latter has an additional security against being shaken out of the pots.
When it happens that pots are not to be procured, the want of them must be supplied by the collection
being planted in earth in the cases themselves, their bottom being previously strewed to the depth of an
inch or two with fragments of earthenware or bits of wood. In such cases, it is particularly necessary
that the mould should be securely fastened down.
2318. Parasitical orchidece, or, as they are commonly called, air plants, may be transported safely to any
distance, by being packed loosely in moss, and put into boxes so constructed that the plants may be ex-
posed to a free admission of air, but protected from the sea-water.
2319. Bulbs travel most securely if they are packed in paper or canvass bags, they having been previously
dried, till all the moisture in their outer coats is evaporated. Dry sand is a good medium for placing
them in, if opportunities should not have occurred of giving them the necessary exposure to the sun.
But minute bulbs, such as those of ixias, gladioluses, oxalises, and others of a similar kind, only require
to be folded in separate little parcels without any previous preparation. Terrestrial orchidea? should be
transplanted when in flower, and not when their roots are in a state of rest.
2320. Any woody or bony seeds, or capsules, that may have been procured should be buried among the
mould in which plants are potted ; or any of those seeds, the juices of which become rancid soon after
gathering, such as those of the guttiferea?, magnoliacea?, sterculiacea?, &c. Camellia-seeds which are not
readily transported, if sown in mould in China, will have become seedling plants before they reach this
country. Acorns and walnuts may be conveyed from hot countries much better in this way than in any
other. Palms, too, are better sent in this way than in bags or paper. The plants in all cases, if possible,
should have numbers punched upon small pieces of thin sheet-lead, and fastened round the subjects to
which they belong with fine iron or copper wire. When such lead is not to be procured, little wooden
tallies should be used instead. (Hort. Trans, v. 194.)
2321. Packing and transporting roots of plants, or entire plants in a dormant state, is a
very simple operation. When the distance does not exceed a week's journey, they are
packed in straw, and covered with mats : if a longer period is required, the roots are en-
veloped in earth or moss ; but very moist moss is not desirable, as it occasions mouldiness,
and rots off the bark of the roots when it begins to dry. Regard in all cases must be had
to the kind of plant, season of the year, distance, time, and mode of carriage.
Chap. IV.
Operations relative to the final Products desired of Gardens, and Garden-scenery.
2322. The object of gardening is certain vegetable productions, and certain beauties and
effects in respect to design and taste. We now propose to notice the general principles
by which the gardener ought to be guided, in directing the operations for the attainment
of these ends ; the mode of conducting the business of a garden in an orderly manner ;
and the leading points of attention, requisite to ensure the beauty and order of garden-
scenery.
Sect. I. Of the Vegetable Products desired of Gardens.
2323. The vegetable productions of gardens are fruits, seeds, roots, stems, and stalks,
leaves, flowers, barks, woods, and entire plants.
444
SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
2324. Fruits. All plants require to attain the age of puberty, before they will pro-
duce fruits or seeds. In annuals, as in the melon, this happens in a few weeks or
months ; in trees, as the pear, it requires several years. The first object is to induce the
production of blossom-buds ; the next, to induce the blossoms to set or fecundate ; and
the third, to swell and ripen the fruit. New fruits are procured from seeds properly pro-
duced and selected ; continued in trees by grafting or budding ; in perennials, by slips or
runners ; in annuals, by seeds. The quality of fruits is improved by abundant supplies
of nourishment, by increased air, light, and heat, by pruning, thinning, and other
means ; their bulk by moisture ; and their flavor by withholding moisture and increasing
light, heat, and air. Fruit is preserved by placing it in a low dry temperature, burying
it in the earth, or drying it in the sun.
2325. Seeds are the essential part of fruits, or constitute the entire fruit, and are pro-
duced on the same general principle. Those produced for culinary purposes in garden-
ing are chiefly from annuals, and used green, as the pea, bean, Indian cress, &c. ; but
seeds of almost all garden-vegetables are occasionally produced for the sake of propagat-
ing the species. Here attention is requisite to make choice of a proper stock, and to
place it so as not to be in danger of impregnation from other allied species, which might
hybridise the progeny ; to thin out superfluous blossoms ; to remove leafy or barren exuber-
ances, or bulbs, tubers, or other productions which might lessen the nourishment devoted
to the production of the seed. Seeds of common forest-trees are not generally subjected
to so careful management as those of herbaceous vegetables or rarer trees ; but, wherever
the best progeny are desired, the same practices are applicable. Light, air, and a free
exposure, with dry, warm weather, are essential to the proper ripening of seeds. They
are preserved in dry, cool temperatures, like fruits ; and, if perfectly excluded from air
and moisture, will never vegetate ; but the vital principle of most seeds is but of short
duration. . .
2326. Roots, to be produced in perfection, require a deep, well pulverised, pliable,
porous soil, and moderate moisture. The plants should, in all cases, be prevented from
bearino- seeds, should have their roots thinned where practicable, and their leaves care-
fully preserved, and fully exposed to the sun, air, and weather. Roots are preserved by
burying in the earth ; by being placed in low, dry temperatures, like fruits ; or by being kept
dry, or^dried by art ; or having their buds scooped out, when not intended for vegetation.
2327. Leafstalks are increased in size in the same way as roots, by a rich, deep, well
pulverised soil, by preventing the plant from producing blossoms, or even flower-stalks,
and by thinning out weak or crowded leaves. Leaf-stalks are blanched to lessen their
acrimony, as in the celery, asparagus, and chardoon, or used in a green state, as in the
rhubarb'and angelica. They are preserved to a certain extent in cool, dry, but well ven-
tilated situations ; some sorts, as celery, similarly to roots. The stems of some plants, as
the asparagus, are used like leaf-stalks.
2328. Leaves. Abundant nourishment supplied by the usual means; abundant
moisture, and room for expansion of growth ; free exposure to light and air ; thinning, and
preventing the appearance of flower-stalks, will in general ensure large succulent leaves,
which are&sometimes used separately and green, as in the spinage and white beet ; in tufted
or compact heads, as in the cabbage and lettuce, or blanched, as in the endive. Leaves
of the headed or tufted sorts may be preserved similarly to leaf-stalks ; others, as those of
most salads, require to be used immediately ; while most herbs are dried, before being
used, either on small kilns or ovens, or in the sun, at the time the plant begins to blossom.
2329. Floicers. These are produced for culinary purposes, medicine, and ornament.
The principal of those grown for culinary purposes are the cauliflower and broccoli, and
here the first object is to produce a large and vigorous plant, by abundant nourishment
and moisture in a temperate, moist, but not over-warm climate. Free room for the roots
and leaves to extend on every side must be given, and the situation should be open and
exposed to the full light of the atmosphere ; though, if in very hot weather the direct in-
fluence of the sun's rays be impeded by a screen at a moderate distance, there will be less
risk of over-rapid growth. When the plant is fully grown, the flower appears, and, in
the case of the sorts mentioned, is gathered whilst the fasciculus of blossom is in embryo.
Such flowers may be preserved, on the same principle as stalks and headed leaves, for a
moderate period. Other flowers, used for culinary purposes, as those of the nasturtium,
caper, &c. for pickling, require less attention, the object being flavor rather than magnitude.
2330. Flowers for medical purposes should have no culture whatever; for, m proportion
as they are increased in bulk they are diminished in virtue. For ornament, flowers are
enlarged, increased in number, rendered double, and variegated in a thousand ways, by
excess of nourishment, peculiar nourishment, and raising from selected and curiously im-
pregnated seed : these are called florists' flowers. Other flowers are grown for ornament,
with a moderate degree of culture, which enlarges their parts generally : such are border-
flowers. Others are grown, as much as possible, without producing any change m their
parts, as in botanical collections, whether hardy or exotic.
Book IV. SUPERINTENDENCE OF GARDENS. 445
2331. Barks produced by British gardening are applied only to one purpose, that of
tanning. Little or no culture is ever given expressly to increase or improve the bark ;
but abundant nourishment and all the requisites of vegetable growth will increase that
part of the plant in common with others. Moss, or any other cortical parasites, should be
removed. Bark is best separated from the wood, when the sap is ascending with the
greatest vigor, late in spring.
2332. Woods. The production of timber, and coppice-wood or small timber, is an
important and extensive branch of gardening. Timber is propagated in various ways,
but the principal sorts generally from seed, either sown where it is finally to arrive at
maturity, or in nursery-gardens, and transplanted into prepared or unprepared ground.
The growth of all timber may be greatly increased by culture, and especially by deeply
turning over, and pulverising the soil previously to planting or sowing, and stirring it,
and removing weeds afterwards. The timber is also produced in the most useful, or in
any desired form, as in trunks or branches, straight or crooked, or in spray or small shoots,
by pruning. But as it is chiefly desired in the form of a straight stem or trunk, pruning
is particularly useful in this respect, especially when joined to judicious thinning, to al-
low of the beneficial effects of air, and the motion produced by wind. Though pruning
and pulverising the soil are undoubtedly of great use in hastening the growth of trees
when young, and consolidating their timber as they grow old, yet planting trees in a more
rich, warm, and moist soil than is natural to them, is to be avoided. The timber of the
Scotch pine and the oak, grown in deep fertile valleys, or in alluvial depositions, is found
to be less hard, tough, and durable, than when grown in colder situations and thinner
soils. This doctrine applies more especially to the resinous tribe of timber-trees, which,
as every one knows, thrive best in cold regions, produced by elevation in warm countries,
as in the Alps of Italy, or by high latitudes, as in Russia and Sweden. Where timber
is grown for fuel, the more rapidly it is made to grow, whether by culture or the choice
of species (as the willow, robinia, &c), the greater will be the produce and profit within
a given period. The preservation of timber from fungi, insects, dry rot, and natural de-
cay is best effected by immersion in water or in earth, or complete desiccation in the open
air. (Supp. Encyc. Brit. art. Dry Rot.)
2333. The entire plant is produced in gardening, for ornament, in herbs, shrubs, and
trees, but especially in exotics ; sometimes for culinary purposes, as in the fungi and
fuci ; for purposes of general economy, as in hedge-plants ; for shelter and shade, in
hardy trees ; and for picturesque effect in trees and shrubs, in parks and pleasure-
grounds. In general, the object of culture for this purpose ought to be to give each in-
dividual plant sufficient nourishment and space fully to expand itself, and, as it were,
show and express its nature or character : but though this will often apply in hot-houses
and artificial gardens, it is in general but partially accomplished, even in picturesque scenery,
in the open air, where the object is connection and grouping of different objects, rather
than the display of single ones ; and it is inconsistent with the formation of hedges, rows,
strips, and masses.
Sect. II. Of the Superintendence and Management of Gardens.
2334. Whenever the culture and management of a garden requires more than the labor
of one man, one of those employed must necessarily be appointed to arrange the labors of
the rest, and, in fact, to establish a general system of management. It is only under such
a system that the performance of operations can be procured in the proper season, and the
objects in view successfully attained, and at a moderate expenditure.
2335. On being appointed to a situation as head gardener, the first thing to be done,
in that capacity, is to survey the extent of the field of operations, and to ascertain any
peculiar products or objects desired by the master, so as to determine the number of per-
manent hands that will be required. Then the number of implements of every kind must
be fixed on and procured, and an estimate formed of the occasional hands, men or women,
that may be necessary as extraordinaiy assistants at particular seasons. If only two or
three permanent men are required, then one of them should be appointed foreman, to act
as master during absence or sickness, and to have constantly the special charge of the hot-
houses, or forcing and exotic departments. If, however, the situation is of such extent
as to require a dozen permanent hands or upwards, then it will generally be found best
to appoint a foreman to each department ; as one to the artificial climates of the kitchen-
garden, another to the open garden, one to the flower-garden and shrubbery, pleasure-
ground, &c. (when there are plant-stoves and collections of florists' flowers, these de-
partments should be divided), and one to the woods and plantations, unless there is a
regular forester directly under the control of the master. To each of these foremen a
limited number of permanent men should be assigned, and when occasion requires,
assistance should be allowed them, either by common laborers or women, or by a
temporary transfer of hands from any of the other departments from which they can be
spared.
446 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
2336. Economical arrangements. The next thing is to fix on the hours of labor and
of rest, the amount of wages, and regulations as to board, lodging, tc. The hours of
labor ought to be at least one hour per day less than those for common laborers (who
require no mind), in order to allow time for studying the science of the art to be
practised. The amount of fines should also be fixed on at the same time : as for absence
at the hours of going to labor ; for defects in the performance of duty of various sorts,
as putting by a tool without cleaning it, being found without a knife or apron, or not
knowing the name of a plant, &c. A set of general maxims and rules of conduct
should be drawn up by the master (for which the succeeding section will afford some
hints), and printed, and the amount of fine specified at the end of each rule. The fines
may either be applied to some general purpose, or returned by equal distribution quarterly.
2337. The system of keeping accounts may next be determined on, and this, in gar-
dening, is very simple. The books necessary are, the time-book, the cash-book, and the
forest or jrfantation book.
2338. The time-book is a large folio volume, ruled so as to read across both pages,
with columns titled, as in the specimen in the next page. In this the master inserts the
name of every hand ; and the foreman of each department inserts the time in days, or
proportions of a day, which each person under his care has been at work, and the par-
ticular work he or she has been engaged in. At the end of each week the master sums
up the time from the preceding Saturday or Monday, to the Friday or Saturday inclu-
sive ; the sum due or to be advanced to each man is put in one column, and when the
man receives it he writes the word received in the column before it, and signs his name
as a receipt in the succeeding column. The time-book, therefore, will show what every
man has been engaged in during every hour in the year for which he has been paid,
and it will also contain receipts for every sum, however trifling, which has been paid by
the gardener for garden-labor. In short, it would be difficult to contrive a book more
satisfactory for both master and servant than the time-book, as it prevents, as far as can
well be done, the latter from deceiving either himself or his employer, and remains an
authentic indisputable record of work done, and of vouchers for money paid during the
whole period of the head gardener's services. In laying out grounds in a distant part
of the country, where upwards of two hundred men were employed under one foreman,
we have had their time, employment, and payments recorded, and receipts taken, in this
way, and found it an effectual bar to every thing doubtful or disagreeable.
2339. The next book is the cash-book, (see next page,) which may be a common quarto or octavo book,
with horizontal lines running across both pages ; Dr. and Cr. columns for cash on the left-hand page ; and
the right-hand page left blank for signatures. The cash-book may be finally balanced once a-year, or
oftener, and, if requisite, the sums received from the woods and plantations can be taken out and added
together, to show the amount of profit by that department. In small gardens, this is the only book that
gardeners in general require to keep ; but our business here is to show what belongs to first-rate gardens.
2340. The forest-book, (see next page,) where that department is not an entirely separate concern, may
be simply what, in Italian book-keeping, is called a waste-book. The size may be quarto, with a column
for cash to each page, and the intention of the book is to serve as a record for all bargains for the sale of
timber, fuel, bark, or the felling of timber, grubbing, planting, &c. When the money is received for any
such sale, it is entered in the cash-book ; as paid for work done, it is entered in the time-book. In very
extensive concerns it may be necessary to open accounts for particular woods or plantations, as well as for
individuals who become purchasers of timber, bark, fuel, charcoal, &c. ; in such cases it is hardly
necessary to observe, that recourse is to be had to the common ledger of merchants.
2341. Substitutes for books. When a man acting as gardener, forester, or foreman over
a number of laborers, can neither read, nor write, he may keep an account of their time,
money, and a journal of work done, in various ways, and among others as follows : —
For men's time he may take seven small flower-pots for the seven days of the week and set them in order
on a shelf. In each pot put as many bits of sticks as there are men employed, and a different kind of
wood for each man ; and then cut each stick with four edges or sides. To prevent mistakes as to the in-
dividual men the different woods represent, apply the names of the woods to the men, and this from
first hiring them, (" John Davies, I shall call you Lime-tree, and here is your stick," &c.) and always after-
wards when speaking to them. To note their time on the sticks, let a corner notch denote one entire day ;
a cut on one face, one quarter; on two faces, or half round the stick, two quarters ; or three sides, four
quarters; and on four sides, or a single notch and one side, five quarters, and so on. When pay night
comes, take one kind of wood out of each of the pots, reckon the notches and cuts, and adding them
together, call the man — " Lime-tree, your time is five days," &c.
To keep a cash-account, have three bags for gold, silver, and copper, and different-colored stones or
shells, &c. in each, to represent sovereigns, shillings, &c. Then have three pots for payments, answering
to the Cr. L s. d. columns in a cash-account ; the bags answering to the Dr. columns. Then, for every
real transaction make a counter-transaction between the bags and pots, &c. The rest is obvious.
To keep a ledger, for each man as represented by a sort of wood, or each object as represented by a bit of
itself, &c. keep bags and pots, and effect counter-transactions, &c.
To keep a journal of operations, for each man devote seven pots for a week, or twenty-eight for a month,
&c. Then suppose you wish to note what Lime-tree is doing on Monday, put in his pot a bit of some-
thing taken from the place where he is at work, or the things he is at work with ; thus, if he is at work with
tan or gravel, a little of each in a paper ; pruning, a twig ; mowing, a little grass ; watering, a bit of
iris or other water-plant ; or on a journey, a leaf of wayfaring-tree or a little road-grit ; digging, a leaf or
twig from some noted tree in that compartment, &c. &c. These visible memoranda will, to a man whose
memory is unencumbered by written signs, readily recall operations, and enable him after months to
recount, in the order in which it was executed, the work done by himself or the men under his care. As
farm-bailiffs are often very illiterate, it might also be tried with them, and would at all events serve to
occupy and amuse some descriptions of masters and mistresses.
Book IV.
SUPERINTENDENCE OF GARDENS.
447
a
a
—
13
3
gg
<
—
s
T3
C
d
o
ft
3
S3
S
H
+3
cc
. * o
a - , a>
3^ ;?ai.^'
« a a-1 2
S.S c «
<5 H
>>a°
£3.a
a Jg 3 a s><
a txo-=T3 |
?-£ £<? =3-
a . -g o S a a
cjc o« _ a
2S.aSS-o-S
a!?
£ 4* aj
o ■< Z
■sfl
O
Ji ifi.fi JP
•— £ M - "
SJco •■
»— ■ o
gags
-; a "3
ca a c j:
ill ill
o£ilB
£ 2 2 <" 5
oB
?»
II
se a
III
■30 ,
I$SS6
a o o
a. ^
e ° o
.£«
£ o * a>
SjjLl
p
°& 2 g
SiQ ^
.5"E.£§
•SS-o.SfO
z a
[p
""as
-j -
o «
i
"3
i
s
H
«
ij
to
o
o
to
<0
o>
^
o
•*
■o
~
Q
1
Pi
0
•rejox
•P3AV
•uojv[
•ung
5 rH
3 "
^ rn
-*1 rH
O O
- £
- <
R5
•a
^
i4
o
d
0
cS
h B. Bulhead an
to stock up WTiit
copse, and to stac
and to be paid fo
ired of poles 2s., fo
dred of faggots 3s
very cubic yard c
tly put into stack
dvances to be mad
on. The work to b
by the 1st of Feb
nalty of 51. 5s.
B. BULHEAD
A. SWAN.
Pi
n
eed wit
Swan
night's
e roots,
ery hun
ery hun
d for e
ots nea
Cd. A
my opti
mpleted
der a p<
igned)
fc«:aSU£2c3 5-8 3£ I
■<
o
CO
to
<N
5i I
00
a
a I
>->
en"
O
o
"0 c o '
«i tl >o
kj to "5
rd 500
d birch
se, to be
ind then
of 25s.
for her
spray in
e, to be
months ;
ind then
1
en
0
old Eben. Wooc
poles of poplar
from Rook's Nest
taken away by hin
paid for at the r
per hundred, amoi
old Widow Layab
oven, a lot of rot
Maiden's Dingle c
removed in thre
credit nine month
ti in
t^
CO
■*
CM
V
CO
a
>-s
1 tg ■' H
& ° \
v »
farm
»er.
ewell
73
h
3
!in Muck
Peter, fis
bert Hed
ckster.
to
85
eived by me
eived by me
ght by me,
Ugap Mains
eived^JVIado
o v l"^ S
g & K pi
u
13 o o o oo
4 o> ^. © oo
O « ^( ,« ^^
n
•^o o o
Wo f o
0-o «o o
. O . rt . O . m *J
> date ...
loads
old net,
If loads
t for thr
1 paid it
i|j:S.^:|i
3
o
43
a
Mad
ook,
for
er f
and
U's a
o
©
©
U
Lord
time-b
Muck
g ....
on Pe
drece
r three
;ots ..
. Sawe
arch t
IS
0
Q
1
ived of
as per
to J.
se-dun
to Siir
bill an
ived fo
rn fag
ived A
ds of
Lord
lf(A.
6
O — —. K^ »- 0; C CJ rt >> 7?,
PiS-fe t, (i Ci r5 ,
CO 1 o» O CM »o
CO
r-Crt 1 CN C<
(M
Ji ="
CO
§ 3
1-1
K
> >-5
448
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part II.
2342. The time, cash, and forest books, and, in common cases, the two first, will answer
every purpose as to money matters in private gardens : where gardening is practised as a
trade, as in nurseries, &c. of course the routine books common to trades become necessary.
2343. The additional books which a gardener may require as official records in his office
are a journal of sowing and reaping, trenching-book, produce-book, and weather-book ; or
some of these books may be very well supplied by tables of common folio or quarto size.
The sowing and reaping-book may be an octavo blank book, with a column for the date
on each page. On the left hand page, the time and place of sowing or planting is
recorded, and when the crop is fit to gather, that circumstance is noticed in the opposite
page, and in an opposite line, thus —
1821.
Sowing or Planting.
1821.
Gathering the Crop.
April 4.
Planted Mazagan beans in Q. No. 1. A.
Sowed spinage between the rows of beans in ditto.
July 23.
May 29.
Gathered the first dish of beans.
Gathered part of the spinage.
413
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
March
April
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
V"
„ ,\\
AW
~~P77Ti
Frame
X
S3
^
'"■V
\\
"HcSffT
\
Hop.
v
t\yj
\\\
3
\\\
w
\
Tur/icns
-
W
35
\\\
PQtators \Cucu
1Z
m
s
■orh
.
\N
&
w
\Yor[y
^
^
'-"VX
\W
T\
\ N
A\\
\\v
2344. Or a cropping table may be used
for this purpose (Jig. 4 1 3. ) in which there
may be two vertical columns for each of
the principal crops sown in gardens, and
horizontal lines for each month. Then
suppose frame peas, sown in Novem-
ber, begin a line on the left hand co-
lumn, headed peas, opposite November,
and write the variety frame in the right
hand column ; and when the peas are
fit to gather, trace the line diagonally
down to the horizontal line representing
the month (May, in the figure) in which
they ripen. This is a very simple mode,
as it presents the sowing and reaping
of the whole of the principal kitchen-
garden crops at one view. A few large sheets, ruled in this manner, might be bound
together ; one page would serve for a year, and when a few years were recorded, the
whole would present a rich assemblage of facts to suggest ideas as to cropping.
2345. The trenching-book. Another very requisite book in extensive gardens is the
trenching-book, which is simply a thin octavo volume, in which a page is devoted to each
compartment of the kitchen-garden or nursery, or to any ground frequently trenched; and
in this column the date of the trenching and the depth is recorded. The object is to
ensure fresh soil at the surface, by never trenching twice in succession to the same depth.
1817 to
1820.
Compartment, No. 2. A.
1817to
1820.
Compartment, No. 2. B.
1817
April.
1818
September.
1819
January.
1820
October.
Trenched two spits after asparagus for turnips.
1817
February.
1S18
1819
1820
August.
Trenched two spits, and dunged for strawberries.
Strawberries.
Strawberries.
Trenched three spits, and well dunged.
2346. Or a trenching-table may be easily arranged thus : —
Com. No. 1.
Com. No. 2.
Com. No. 3.
Com.No.4.
Slip, No. 5.
A
b|c
D
A
bIc
D
1
A
4
B
1
c
1
D
2
A
4
bIcjd
A1
l
B
3
C
1
D
1
1817.
4
3
2
1
1
3
1
1
2 4
1818.
3
2
3
2
4
_
4
2
-
2
4
3
1
2
3 3
4
2
3
1
1819.
2
1
4
3
2
-
2
3
-
3
3
4
2
-
- 2
3
1
4
2
1820.
1
4
1
*!-
"
1
4
1
4
2
-
3
"
•h3
-14
2347. Plan of the kitchen-garden. For the two last books or tables, as well as for a
variety of other purposes, it is necessary that a plan of the kitchen-garden should be made.
Book IV.
SUPERINTENDENCE OF GARDENS.
449
and the compartments numbered, and their subdivisions lettered ; and this plan, as well
as another exhibiting every scene under the gardener's care, should be framed and hung
up in the office for constant reference.
2348. The produce-book may be either a quarto or octavo volume, ruled with blue
lines across both pages, with a column for the date on the left-hand page, and the other
blank for signatures. In this book is to be entered daily, on the left-hand page, the disposal
of produce gathered or taken from the garden or garden-stores, as the fruit-room, ice-
cold room, &c. On the right-hand page the name of the party in the family of the
master receiving it is to be signed by the receiver as a receipt. Such books are not
uncommon in first-rate gardens ; and, like the game-book and cellar-book, are of very
considerable use.
1821.
June
20
Garden Produce.
Sent peas, onions, parsley, cabbage, spinage, and some
herbs, to the kitchen, by J. Gott
Two bunches Sweetwater grapes, two cucumbers, a
pottle of strawberries, and a pine, by J. Twigg
A large nosegay for Ladv Almeria, by J. Gott
Sent a fine fruit of the" blood pine to the Horticultural
Society in London ; and also a seedling mango plant,
and some seeds of the new red lettuce. Booked them,
er mail at Reading, and directed them to J. Sabine,
Jsq. Horticultural Society, Regent Street, London.
pei
Signatures.
ReceiTed by me, Leah Fry, cook.
Received by rfie, Joseph Tomcat, butler.
Received by me, Juliet Flirtwell, for my Lady A.
2349. A weather-book is very useful, and may be either of the folio or quarto size, with
columns for the
1821. Thermo-
meter.
June If. N. E.
Baro-
meter.
Rain
and
Hail.
Wind.
General
character
of the
day's
weather.
Trees in
Leaf, or defo-
liated. Fungi
appear, &c.
Plants in
Flower or
Fruit.
Birds and
Insects ap-
pear or dis-
appear.
Observ-
ations as to
Fish and
other Ani-
mals.
Miscellane-
ous. Bodily
Pains, pre-
vailing Dis-
eases, &c.
21
22
'23
.Ml
52
51
'I
69
65
70
60
58
59
58
28.90 ; 0.
28.8 0.02
I
28.8 I 0.00
S. s.w.
s. w.
s.
s.w.
Fair.
Showers.
Cloudy.
Windy.
Marchantia
polymorpha
in perfec-
tion.
Lilium can-
didum in full
blow.
Sphinx
elpenor
appears.
Spawn of
the Carp
hatched in
breeding
pond.
Dull and
sleepy.
na in flower.
Ditto
Bream.
Rheumatic
pains.
24
58
There is a very good model of this description, called the Naturalist's Kalendar, by the
Honorable Daines Barrington, in quarto, which may be procured and filled up. Indeed
every apprentice ought to be made to keep such a kalendar, for the sake of inducing habits
of observation. For further instruction, see the Naturalist's Kalendar, of White, and
Naturalist's Pocket-book, of Graves. It has been judiciously remarked (Farm. Mag.
1820.), that in all kalendars of nature, particular attention should be paid to the in-
florescence of aquatics, as these are much more regular in their times of foliation and
flowering than land plants. The comparative denseness of the medium in which they
live, prevents their being affected by winds or rains, and probably also by electrical and
other atmospherical changes.
2350. For keeping a register of the temperature of hot-houses and the open air, a book
with columns may be adopted, or a table- (Jig. 414.) may be fixed on, in which the ver-
414
August 1, 2, 3, .4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,11,12,.15,14, 15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,26,26,27,28,29,30 Days.
| j j | f — J — ! Green-house.
n i i i "i \JT\ Mil ~rn i~n i !
~i p i_mh >pp
QjZLrrrrrn i u,_l unit
J ' South wall.
.!_]_!__! I | Open i
tical lines representing days of the month, and the horizontal ones degrees, the variations
of each house, and the open air, may be shown by wavy lines made by daily increments
depressed or raised, according to the rise or fall of the thermometer in each separate
G jr
150
SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
house or place. Twelve tables, or twelve pages of an oblong folio book ruled in this way,
would keep a register of all the hot-houses, frames, and the open air of a garden for a year.
A very beautiful graphic mode (Jig- 415.) of recording the variations of temperature of
the open air, or of any one hot-
house during a year, is given 415
by Howard, in his Climate of
London, a simplification of
which may be adopted by the
curious gardener. Here the
indicating line waves upon a
circular zone, composed of ra-
diating lines, representing time,
and concentric circles repre-
senting degre-es of heat. One
line represents the average tem-
perature of the year : all the
degrees exceeding the average
temperature are projected be-
yond this line towards the ex-
tremity of the zone ; and all
the degrees under the average
are projected from the average
line towards the inner circum-
ference of the zone. A series
of tables of this sort might
prove useful to the gardener, by
enabling him at all times, by
a simple glance, to compare the
present weather with that of se-
veral past years. Howard's nomenclature of clouds, already given (1235.), deserves
also the study of the gardener desirous of scientifically registering the weather. [Encyc.
Brit. Sup. vol. iii. art. Cloud.)
2351. Records of the growth of plants are sometimes kept to show the comparative
warmth and congeniality of seasons to vegetation. When that is to be done, a table
(jig. 416.) may be composed of horizontal lines, 416
the distance between which shall represent space
in feet or inches, and vertical lines, the dis-
tance between which shall represent time by
months or days. Then supposing a plant
(briony) beginning to push in the middle of
March, make a mark on the lowest line in the
middle of the column for that month, and trace
the line as the plant grows, ascending diago-
nally through the other months, according to
the progress of the shoot in feet. If a kidney-
bean germinates in the beginning of April, and
attains the height of ten feet by the first of Sep-
tember, then the indicatory line will pass through five vertical columns or months, and
through ten feet, or spaces, between the horizontal lines (as in the figure). All these books,
tables, and records must be kept in the office as a part of its library ; by which means,
when the head gardener is changed, the new-comer will the sooner become acquainted
with the situation and climate, his duties, and a variety of other useful circumstances.
2352. Meinorandum books. Besides the above books and tables, it is almost unnecessary
to add, that various small blank books for inventories of tools, memorandums of agree-
ments, out of door entries-, lists of names, &c. will be required both by the head gardener
and by his different foremen. Models of all these books may be had at Harding's
Agricidtural Library, St. James's Street, London.
2353. The reading library of the gardener s office should at least contain the following
works. One of the best Encyclopedias, and whichever one is adopted, add the Suppl. to
the Encyc. Brit., the best work of its kind hitherto published. The Agricultural Survey of
the County, and statistical account of the parish. If convenient, the surveys of all the
counties in the empire should be procured. The best modern Systcema Natures of the
time ; Turton's Linnaeus, is very imperfect, but the only one to be had at present. The
best Introduction to Botany, say that of Sir J. E. Smith, for technical or systematic bo-
tany ; and that of Keith for physiology. The best catalogues of plants, say those of
Sweet and Page. The best Flora Britannica for the time, say Galpine's, or the Translation
of Flora Britannica, by Sir J. E. Smith. Sowerby's British Botany ; his Mirieralogt/ ; —
Feb.
March
Apri
. May
. June
. July
Aug.
9
I
" " 1 A J
yx
f\/\
6
/ /
*
^j
1
Ir
2
1
7-\
s*
^T
—
L .
Briony. Kidneybean.
Book IV. BEAUTY AND ORDER OF GARDEN-SCENERY. 451
and Zoology, when published. Kirby and Spence's Introduction to Entomology ; and
Samouelle's Entomologist* s Useful Companion. The best Dictionary of Botany and Cul-
ture, say that of Miller, enlarged by Martyn. Marshall, Pontey, and Sung, on planting.
Wheatley, Girardin, Price, and Repton, on laying out grounds. The Transactions of the
London and Edinburgh Horticultural Societies. The best Gardener s Kalendar for the
time, say that of Abercrombie for England, and Abercrombie or Nicol, for Scotland and
Ireland. All new works on practical gardening, if possible, as they appear. Eng-
lish, Latin, French, and Geographical Dictionaries, and as rnany other works as the
master may be pleased to deposit in the gardener's office, or lend from the library of the
mansion.
2354. These books ought to be considered as for the use of journeymen and apprentices, as
well as the master ; but the latter ought to be responsible for their being kept clean and
perfect. Where the head gardener is of a humane and kind turn of mind, he may as-
semble the men and also the women, and read aloud, and expound to, or answer ques-
tions put by them ; or he may cause them to read aloud to and question one another, in
such a way as to blend entertainment with instruction. In short, he ought to consider it
as a part of his duty to improve their minds, as well as to render them habile in his art,
and by all means to ameliorate their condition and manners as much as is in his power.
Neill, one of the best modern writers on gardening, and obviously a humane and bene-
volent man, states of the late Walter Nicol, that " he observed a praiseworthy practice,
too much neglected by head gardeners, — that of instructing his young men or assist-
ants, not only in botany, but in writing, arithmetic, geometry, and mensuration. He
used to remark, that he not only used to improve his scholars, but taught himself and
made his knowledge so familiar, that he could apply it in the daily business of life."
The same practice, as already observed (235.), is still carried on in Germany.
Sect. III. Of the Beauty and Order of Garden-scenery.
2355. To unite the agreeable with the useful is an object common to all the departments
of gardening. The kitchen-garden, the orchard, the nursery, and the forest, are all in-
tended as scenes of recreation and visual enjoyment, as well as of useful culture ; and
enjoyment is the avowed object of the flower-garden, shrubbery, and pleasure-ground.
Utility, however, will stand the test of examination longer and more frequently than any
scene merely beautiful, and hence the horticultural and planting departments of gar-
dening are, in fact, more the scenes of enjoyment of a family constantly residing at their
country-seat, than the ornamental or picturesque departments. It has been a very common
assertion since the modern style of gardening became prevalent, and absorbed the attention
of gardeners and their employers, that beauty and neatness may be dispensed with in a
kitchen-garden ; but this is to assign too exclusive limits to the terms beauty and neatness ;
and, in truth, may be considered as originating in the vulgar error of confounding
beauty with ornament, which latter quality is unquestionably not essential to scenes of
utility. Every department of gardening has objects or final results peculiar to itself ;
and the main beauty of each of these departments will consist in the perfection with
which these results are attained ; a secondary beauty will consist in the display of skill
in the means taken to attain them ; and a third in the conformity of these means to the
generally received ideas of order, propriety, and decorum, which exist in cultivated and
well regulated minds. It is the business of this section to offer some general observ-
ations, with a view to the attainment of the beauties of order, propriety, and decorum.
The entire work is devoted to the former beauties.
2356. Order, it has been well observed, is " Heaven's first law." It is, indeed, the
end of all law . Without it, nothing worth having is to be attained in life, even by the
most fertile in resources ; and with it much may be accomplished with very slender
means. A mind incapable of an orderly and regular disposition of its ideas or inten-
tions, will display a man confused and disorderly in his actions ; he will begin them
without a specific object in view : continue them at random, or from habit, without
knowing well why, till some accident or discordant result puts an end to his present
progress, unmans him for life, or awakens reflection. But a well ordered mind reflects,
arranges, and systematises ideas before attempting to realise them, weighs well the end in
view, considers the fitness of the means for attaining that end, and the best mode of em-
ploying these means. To every man who has the regulation and disposal of a number
of servants, this mode of orderly arrangement is essentially necessary in order to reap the
full effects of their labors ; and to no men is it of more importance than to master-
gardeners, whose cares are so various, and the success of whose operations, always con-
nected with, and dependent on, living beings and weather, depends so much on their
being performed in the fitting moment.
2357. Propriety relates to what is fitting and suitable for particular circumstances ; it
is the natural result of an orderly mind, and may be said to include that part of order
which directs the choice and adaptation of means to ends, and of ideas and objects to
G £ 2
452
SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.
cases and situations. It belongs to order for a master to allow workmen proper periods
for rest and refreshment ; propriety dictates the time and duration of these periods ;
prudence suggests the wisdom of departing as little as possible from established
practices. m . ,
2358. Decorum is the refinement of propriety. It is in order to procure stable-dung
for hot-beds, and to cart it into the framing-ground ; it is proper to do this at all times
when it is wanted, but it is decorous to have the work performed early in the morning,
that the putrescent vapors and dropping litter may not prove offensive to the master of
the garden, should he, or any of his family or friends, visit that scene.
2359. Neatness, as opposed to slovenliness, is well understood ; it consists in having
every thing where it ought to be; and in attending to die decorum of finishing operations,
and to minute things in general. These abstract hints may be considered as more parti-
cularly directed to master-operators ; the following practical directions apply both to
masters and their journeymen or laborers.
2360. Perform every operation in the proper season. The natural, and therefore the
best indications for the operations of sowing and reaping, transplanting, &c. are given by
the plants Uiemselves, or by the progress of the season as indicated by other plants. But
there are artificial kalendars or remembrancers, the use of which is to remind the master
of the leading crops and operations of culture throughout the year. But, even if such
books were made as perfect as their nature admits of, still they are only calculated to
aid the memory, not to supply the place of a watchful and vigilant eye, and habits of
attention, observation, reflection, and decision. Unless a gardener has these, either na-
turally, or partly natural and partly cultivated, in a considerable degree, he will be but
little better than a common laborer as to general management and culture of garden-
scenery. . . • J • U
2361. Perform every operation in the best manner. This is to be acquired in part by
practice and partly also by reflection. For example, in digging over a piece of ground,
it is a common practice with slovens to throw the weeds and stones on the dug ground,
or on the adjoining alley or walk, with the intention of gathering them off afterwards. A
better way is to have a wheelbarrow, or if that cannot be had, a large basket, in which
to put the weeds and extraneous matters, as they are picked out of the ground. Some per-
sons, in planting or weeding, whether in the open air or in hot-houses, throw down all
weeds, stones, and extraneous matters on the paths or alleys, with a view to pick them
up, or sweep or rake together afterwards ; it is better to carry a basket or other utensil,
either common or subdivided (1400.), in which to hold in one part the plants to be planted,
in another the extraneous matters, &c.
2362. Complete every part of an operation as you proceed. This is an essential point
in garden-operations, and though it cannot always be attended to, partly from the nature
of the operation, partly from weather, &c. yet the judicious gardener will keep it in view
as much as possible. Suppose a compartment, or breadth of rows of potatoes, containing
one tenth of an acre, required to have the ground stirred by the Dutch hoe, the weeds raked
oft; and then the potatoes earthed-up with the forked hoe ; the ordinary practice would
be first to hoe over the whole of the ground, then to rake it wholly over, and, lastly, to
commence the operation of earthing-up. If the weather were certain of holding good
two davs, this, on the principle of the division of labor, would certainly be somewhat
the most economical mode. But supposing the weather dry, the part left hoed and not
raked will, for a time (and one hour ought to be an object in a fine garden), appear unfi-
nished ; and if rain should happen to fall in the night, the operation will be defeated in
most soils. Better, therefore, to hoe, rake, and earth-up a small part at a time: so
that leave off where you will, what is done will be complete.
2363. Finish one job before you begin another. This advice is trite, but it is of great
importance ; and there are few cases where it cannot be attended to.
2364. In leaving off working at any job, leave your xvork and tools in an orderly manner.
Are you hoeing between rows, do not throw down your hoe blade upwards, or across
the rows, and run off the nearest way to the walk the moment the breakfast or dinner
hour strikes. Lay your implement down parallel to the rows, with its face or blade to
the ground ; then march regularly between one row to the alley, and along the alley to
the path. Never drop your tools and leave eff work before the hour has well done
striking ; and above all, never run on an occasion of this kind ; it argues a gross bru-
talised selfishness, highly offensive to well regulated minds.
2365 In lectin* off xvork for the day, make a temporary finish, und carry your tools
to the tool-house. In general, do not leave off in the middle of a row ; straighten your
trenches in digging, because, independently of appearances, should a heavy ram ot a
week's duration intervene, the ground will have to be re-dug, and that will be more
commodiously done with a straight than with a crooked, and consequently unequal
2366. In passing to and from your work, or, on any occasion, through any part of what
Book IV. BEAUTY AND ORDER OF GARDEN-SCENERY. 453
is considered under the charge of the gardener, keep a vigilant look out for weeds, de-
cayed leaves, or any other deformity, and remove them, or some of them, in passing
along. Attend to this particularly on walks, edgings, and in passing through hot-
houses, &c. In like manner take off insects, or leaves infected by them. Much in large
as well as in small gardens may be effected by this sort of timely or preventive attention,
which induces suitable habits for a young gardener, and occupies very little time.
2367. In gathering a crop or any part of a crop, remove at the same time the roots, leaves,
stems, or whatever else belonging to the pla?it of which you have cropped the desired part is of
no further use, or may appear slovenly, decaying, or offensive. In cutting cabbage, lettuce,
borecoles, &c. pull up the stem (with exceptions) and roots, and take them at once
with the outside leaves, to the compost-heap. Do the same with the haulm of potatoes,
leaves of turnips, carrots, celery, &c. Do not suffer the haulm of peas and beans to re-
main a moment after the last gathering of the crop.
2368. Let no crop of fruit, or herbaceous vegetables, or any part thereof, go to waste on
the spot. Instantly remove it when decay or any symptom of disease appears, to the
compost-yard, or to be consumed by pigs or cattle.
2369. Cut down the flower-stalks of all flowering plants, with the proper exceptions, the
moment they are fully done flowering, unless seed is an object. Cut off decayed roses,
and all decaying double flowers, with their foot-stalks, the moment they begin to decay ;
and the same of the single plants, where seed is not wanted. From May to October, the
flower-garden and shrubbery ought to be looked over by apprentices or women, every
day, as soon as the morning dews are evaporated, for this purpose, and for gathering
decayed leaves, tying up tall-growing stems before they decline or become strag-
gling, &c.
2370. Keep every part of what is under your care perfect in its kind. Attend in spring
and autumn to zvalls and buildings, and get them repaired, pointed, glazed and painted,
where wanted. Attend at all times to machines, implements, and tools, keeping them
clean, sharp, and in perfect repair. With an imperfect tool, no man can make perfect
work. See particularly that they are placed in their proper situations in the tool-house.
House every implement, utensil, or machine not in use, both in winter and summer.
Allow no blanks in edgings, rows, single specimens, drills, beds, and even where prac-
ticable in broad-cast sown pieces. Keep edgings and hedges cut to the utmost nicety.
Keep the shapes of your wall-trees filled with wrood according to their kind, and let
their training be in the first style of perfection. Keep all walks in perfect form, whether
raised or flat, free from weeds, dry, and well rolled. Keep all the lawns under your
care, by all the means in your power, of a close texture, and dark-green velvet appear-
ance. Keep ivater clear and free from weeds, and, if possible, let not ponds, lakes, or arti-
ficial rivers, rise to the brim in winter, nor sink very far under it in summer.
2371. Finally, attend to personal habits and to cleanliness. " Never perform any oper-
ation without gloves on your hands that you can do with gloves on ; even weeding is
far more effectually and expeditiously performed by gloves, the fore-fingers and thumbs
of which terminate in wedge-like thimbles of steel, kept sharp. Most other operations
may be performed with common gloves. Thus, no gardener need have hands like bears'
paws. Always use an iron tread fastened to your shoe when you dig ; and generally a
broad-brimmed, light, silk or straw hat, to serve at once as a parasol and umbrella. You
will thus save the use of your feet, lessen the wear of your shoes, and avoid the rheu-
matism in the neck. Let your dress be clean, neat, simple, and harmonious, in form
and color : in your movements maintain an erect posture, easy and free gait and mo-
tion ; let your manner be respectful and decorous to your superiors ; and conduct fair
and agreeable to your equals. Elevate, meliorate, and otherwise improve, any raw,
crude, harsh, or inharmonious features in your physiognomy, by looking often at tlie
faces of agreeable people, by occupying your mind with agreeable and useful ideas, and
by continually instructing yourself by reading. This also will give you features if you
have none. Remember that you are paid and maintained by and for the use and plea-
sure of your employer, who may no more wish to see a dirty, ragged, uncouth-looking,
grinning, or conceited biped in his garden, than a starved, haggard, untutored horse in
his stable." (Traugott Schivamstapper.)
2372. He who undertakes the j)rqfes-sion of a gardener, says the Rev. W. Marshall,
takes upon himself a work of some importance, and which requires no small degree of
knowledge, ingenuity, and exertion, to perform well. There are few businesses which
may not be learned in much less time than that of a gardener can possibly be. It often
happens, however, that a man who has been very little in a garden, and that only as a
laborer, who can do little more than dig, or put out cabbage plants, will call himself a
gardener ; but he only is worthy of the name who having had much practice in the various
parts of horticulture, possesses a genius and adroitness, fitting him for making experi-
ments, and for getting through difficulties that the existing circumstances of untoward
seasons, &c. may bring him into. He should possess a spirit of enquiry into the nature
Gg 3
454 PRACTICE Oy GARDENING. Part III.
of plants and vegetation, and how far art (in his way) may be made successfully useful,
or at least probably so. The mode of growth, the pruning, the soil, the heat, and the
moisture that suits particular plants, are not to be understood without a native taste, and
close application of the mind. Whoever will give himself the pains to trace a good
gardener through the several stages of his employ, in all the seasons of the year, will find
it to be one continued circle of reflection, labor, and toil. Gardening depends more upon
the labor of the brain than of the body : there is no such thing as always proceeding with
certainty and ensuring success. Plants will die, and that sometimes suddenly, under the
very best management. There are few things to be done in a garden which do not re-
quire a dexterity in operation, and a nicety in hitting the proper season for doing it.
A gardener should be a sort of prophet in foreseeing what will happen under certain cir-
cumstances, and wisely cautious to provide, by the most probable means, against what
may happen. A man cannot be a good gardener, except he be thoughtful, steady, and
industrious ; possessing a superior degree of sobriety and moral excellence, as well as
genius and knowledge adapted to his business. He should be modest in his manners and
opinions. It too often happens, with those who have much practical skill, that they slight
what is written upon subjects of their profession ; which is a fastidious temper that the
man of real merit will hardly entertain.
2373. The character of a gardener is here set high ; but it is the goal of respectability
at which he ought to aim who presumes to call himself a professed one. A gardener
has reason, indeed, to love his employment, as he meets with health and tranquillity in the
exercise of it ; but considering what he is, and what he does, in his proper capacity, he
may justly claim a superior degree of estimation and reward. A true gentleman is of
a liberal spirit, and I would plead for his gardener as a proper person to be generous
towards, if his manners be good. (Introd. to Gard. p. 447.)
PART III.
GARDENING AS PRACTISED IN BRITAIN.
2374. The art of gardening i?i the earlier ages of society would be practised without those
local subdivisions, or technical distinctions, which its progressive improvement has since
rendered necessary ; and being then carried on in one enclosure, called a Garden, the
term Gardening was then sufficiently explicit for every purpose. But at present the
local subdivisions and technical distinctions of this art are various ; we have the kitchen,
fruit, flower, forcing, and exotic gardens, the pleasure-ground, shrubbery, park, and
timber-plantation, all within the province of Gardening ; and the terms culinary gardening,
fruit-gardening, flower-gardening, planting, &c. as technical distinctions for them. The
vague manner in which so many terms have been used by gardeners and authors, has led
to some confusion of ideas on the subject, which it is much to be wished could be avoided
in future. Taking the word gardening as a generic term, we have arranged its ramifi-
cations or divisions, in what we conceive to be permanent or specific distinctions. The
principle of classification which we have adopted, is that of the use or object in view ; and
applying it, we think all the varieties of gardening may be included under the four fol-
lowing species : —
2375. Horticulture, the object of which is to cultivate products used in domestic economy.
It includes culinary and fruit gardening, or orcharding ; and forcing or exotic gardening,
as far as respects useful products.
2376. Floriculture, or ornamental gardening, the object of which is to cultivate plants
ornamental in domestic economy. It includes flower, botanic, and shrubbery gardening ;
and forcing and exotic gardening, as far as respects plants of ornament.
2377. Arboriculture, or planting, the object of which is to cultivate trees and shrubs, useful
in general economy. It is practised in forests, woods, groves, copses, stripes, and rows.
2378. Landscape-gardening, the object of which is to produce landscapes ; or, so to
arrange and harmonise the external scenes of a country- residence, as to render them orna-
mental, both as domestic scenery, and as apart of the general scenery of the country. This
branch is by some called picturesque, rural, ornamental, or territorial improvement ; rural
ornament, ornamental gardening, pictorial improvement, new ground work, ornamental
planting, &c. It includes the ancient, formal, geometric, or French gardening, and the
modern, natural, picturesque, or English gardening.
Book I. FORMATION OF A KITCHEN-GARDEN. 455
2379. There are other terms applied to gardens and gardening; as nursery, market,
physic, &c. gardens, and nursery-gardening, market-gardening, &c. ; but these concern
gardening as a trade, rather than as an art, and their discussion is referred to the succeeding
part of this work, in which gardening is considered statistically.
BOOK I.
HORTICULTURE.
2380. In treating of horticulture, some, as Nicol and Abercrombie, have neglected its
local unity, and adopting its technical subdivisions, treated of the culinary fruit and
forcing departments, as if they were separate gardens. But as these departments are all
generally carried on within the same ring-fence, and as it is impossible to form and ar-
range a kitchen-garden, without at the same time forming and arranging the walls and
borders destined to receive the most valuable part of the fruit garden, and equally so to lay
out the area enclosed, without determining the situation and extent of the forcing-depart-
ment, we deem it preferable to treat of Horticulture as actually carried on, and in the fol-
lowing order : viz. — The formation of the kitchen-garden. The distribution of the fruit-
trees. The forming and planting of a subsidiary orchard. The general culture of the
kitchen-garden. The general culture of the orchard. The construction of buildings used
in the forcing-department. The general culture of the forcing-department. Catalogue of
plants and trees used in horticulture. A monthly table of horticultural productions.
Chap. I.
The Formation of a Kitchen-garden.
2381. The arrangement and laying out of a kite hen-garde n, embraces a variety of con-
siderations, some relative to local circumstances, as situation, exposure, soil, &c. ; others
depending on the skill of the artist, as form, laying out the area, water, &c. : both require
the utmost deliberation ; for next to a badly designed, ill placed house, a misplaced,
ill arranged, and unproductive kitchen-garden is the greatest evil of a country-residence.
Sect. I. Situation.
2382. The situation of the kitchen-garden, considered artificially or relatively io the other
parts of a residence, should be as near the mansion and the stable-offices, as is consistent
with beauty, convenience, and other arrangements. Nicol observes, " In a great place,
the kitchen-garden should be so situated as to be convenient, and, at the same time, be con-
cealed from the house. It is often connected with the shrubbery or pleasure-garden, and
also placed near to the house. There can be no impropriety in this, provided it be kept
in good order, and that the walls be screened by shrubbery from the immediate view of
the public rooms ; indeed it has been found, that there is both comfort and economy in
having the various gardens of a place connected, and placed at no great distance from
the house. In stepping from the shrubbery to the flower-garden, thence to the orchard,
and lastly to the culinary garden, there is a gradation both natural and pleasant. With
such an arrangement, in cases where the aspect of the ground is answerable, and the
surface, perhaps, is considerably varied, few faults will be found."
2383. Sometimes we find the kitchen-garden placed immediately in front of the house,
which Nicol " considers the most awkward situation of any, especially if placed near, and
so that it cannot be properly screened by some sort of plantation. Generally speaking,
it should be placed in the rear or flank of the house, by which means the lawn may not
be broken and rendered unshapely where it is required to be most complete. The neces-
sary traffic with this garden, if placed in front, is always offensive. Descending to the
consideration of more humble gardens, circumstances are often so arbitrary with respect
to their situations, as that they cannot be placed either so as to please, or give satisfaction
by their products. There are cases where the kitchen-garden is necessarily thrust into a
corner, and perhaps is shaded by buildings, or by tall trees, from the sun and air ; where
they are placed on steep hangs in a northern aspect, the sub-soil is a till or a cankering
gravel, and the site cold and bleak. Such situations as these are to be avoided, and
should be considered among the worst possible. Next are open, unsheltered plains. But
even there, if the soil be tolerably good, and the sub-soil be not particularly bad, shelter
may be reared, so as that in a few years the garden may produce a return for the expense
laid out in its improvements." (Kalendar, p. 8.)
2384. To place the fruit and kitchen gardens at perhaps half a mile's distance or more from
Gg4
456 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
tlie house was formerly the prevailing taste. In many cases, Neill observes, " this has been
found inconvenient, and it can seldom happen that the garden- walls may not be effectually
concealed by means of shrubs and low growing trees, so as not to be seen, at least from
the windows of the public rooms, and the garden yet be situated much nearer to the
house. It is scarcely necessary," he adds, " to observe that an access for carts and wheel-
barrows, without touching the principal approach, is indispensable." (Ed. Encyc. art.
Hart.)
2385. With respect to the natural situation of a garden, Nicol and Forsyth agree in pre-
ferring a gentle declivity towards the south, a little inclining to the east, to receive the
benefit of the morning sun. " If it be situated in a bottom, the wind will have the less
effect upon it ; but then damps and fogs will be very prejudicial to the fruit and other
crops ; and if situated too high, although it will in a great measure be free from damps
and fogs, it will be exposed to the fury of the winds, to the great hurt of the trees, by
breaking their branches, and blowing down their blossoms and fruit. " (Tr. on Fruit
Trees, p. 286.)
2386. Tlie situation should not be so elevated as to be exposed to boisterous and cutting
winds; nor should a very low situation be chosen, if circumstances afford any choice.
It should be situate conveniently for access from the house. (Abercro/nbie's Practical
Gardener, p. 1, 2.)
2387. Avoid low situations and bottoms of valleys, say Switzer, Darwin, Bradley,
and Lawrence, " because there is often a sourness in the earth that cannot be eradicated,
and in this uncertain climate of ours, such heavy fogs and mists that hang so long on the
fruit and leaves in low situations, that not only vegetation is retarded, but also tlie fruit."
(Pract. Fruit Gard. 2d edit. p. 19.) "The greater warmth of low situations," Dr.
Darwin observes, " and their being generally better sheltered from the cold north-east
winds, and the boisterous south-west winds, are agreeable circumstances ; as the north-
east winds in this climate are the freezing winds ; and the south-west winds being more
violent, are liable much to injure standard fruit-trees in summer by dashing their branches
against each other, and thence bruising or beating off the fruit ; but in low situations the
fogs in vernal evenings, by moistening the young shoots of trees, and their early flowers,
render them much more liable to the injuries of the frosty nights, which succeed them,
which they escape in higher situations." (Phytologia, sect. xv. 3. 6.) Professor Brad-
ley " gives a decisive fact in regard to this subject. A friend of his had two gardens,
one not many feet below the other, but so different, that the low garden often appeared
flooded with the evening mists, when none appeared in the upper one ; and in a letter to
Bradley he complains that his lower garden is much injured by the vernal frost, and not
his upper one. A similar fact is mentioned by Lawrence, who observes, that he has
often seen the leaves and tender shoots of tall ash-trees in blasting mists to be frozen, and
as it were singed, in all the lower parts and middle of the tree ; while tlie upper part,
which was above the mist, has been uninjured." (Darwin's Phytologia, sect. xv. 3. 6.)
2388. Main entrance to the garden. Whatever be the situation of a kitchen-garden,
whether in reference to tlie mansion or the variations of the surface, it is an important
object to have the main entrance on the south side, and next to that, on the east or west.
The object of this is to produce a favorable first impression on the spectator, by his viewing
the highest and best wall (that on the north side) in front ; and which is of still greater
consequence, all the hot-houses, pits, and frames in that direction. Nothing can be more
unsightly than the view of the high north wall of a garden, with its back sheds and
chimney-pots from behind ; or even getting the first coup d'ocil of the hot-houses from a
point nearly in a parallel line with their front. The effect of many excellent gardens
is lost or marred for want of attention to this point, or from peculiarity of situation.
Even the new garden of the London Horticultural Society, when finished according to
their engraved plan, will be obnoxious to it : the Chelsea garden is liable to the objec-
tion, and those of Oxford and Liverpool particularly so.
2389. Bird's-eye view of the garden. When the grounds of a residence are much varied,
the general view of the kitchen-garden will unavoidably be looked down on or up to from
some of the walks or drives, or from open glades in the lawn or park. Some arrange-
ment will therefore be requisite to place the garden, or so to dispose of plantations that
only favorable views can be obtained of its area. To get a bird's-eye view of it from the
north, or from a point in a line with the north wall, will have as bad an effect as the view
of its north elevation, in which all its " baser parts" are rendered conspicuous.
Sect. II. Exposure and Aspect.
2390. Exposure is the next consideration, and in cold and variable climates is of so
much consequence for the maturation of fruits, that the site of the garden must be guided
by it, more than by locality to the mansion.
2391. The exposure should be towards the south, according to Nicol, and tlie aspect at
some point between south-east and south-west, the ground sloping to these points in
Book I.
EXTENT.
457
an easy manner. If quite flat, it seldom can be laid sufficiently dry ; and if very steep,
it is worked under many disadvantages. It may have a fall, however, of a foot in twenty,
without being very inconvenient, but a fall of a foot in thirty is most desirable, by which
the ground is sufficiently elevated, yet not too much so. {Kalendar, p. 6.)
2392. An exposure declining towards the south, is that approved of by Switzer, " but not
more than six inches in ten feet. Two or three inches he considers better." (Pract.
Fruit Gard. 2d edit. p. 17.)
2393. An open aspect to the east, Abercrombie observes, " is itself a point of capital
importance in laying out a garden, or orchard, on account of the early sun. When the
sun can reach the garden at its rising, and continue a regular influence, increasing as the
day advances, it has a gradual and most beneficial effect in dissolving the hoar frost, which
the past night may have scattered over young buds, leaves, and blossoms or setting fruit.
On the contrary, when the sun is excluded from the garden till about ten in the morning,
and then suddenly darts upon it, with all the force derived from considerable elevation,
the exposure is bad, particularly for fruit-bearing plants, in the spring months ; the
powerful rays ®f heat at once melt the icy particles, and immediately acting on the
moisture thus created, scald the tender blossom, which drops as if nipped by a malignant
blight ; hence it happens, that many a healthy tree, with a promising show of blossoms,
fails' to produce fruit ; the blossoms and thawed frost sometimes falling together in the
course of a morning. The covering of the hoar frost, or congealed dew, is otherwise of
itself a remarkable preservative of the vegetable creation from frosty winds." (Pract.
Gard. p. 1.)
2394. An exposure in ivhich is a free admittance for
the sun and air, is required by Forsyth, who rejects a
place surrounded by woods as very improper, because
a foul stagnant air is very unfavorable to vegetation ;
and it is also observed that blights are much more fre-
quent in such situations than in those that are more
open and exposed. Such an exposure will generally
be to the south (fg. 417. d, e), but much depends on
the surrounding scenery. For this reason the northern
boundary of a garden, where the hot-beds are gene-
rally placed, will admit most sun and air, in proportion to the open space, when of
417
N
W
K
in fg. 417. d,
418. a), which
garden gradu-
in height as it
e), rather than an
angular form
418
especially if the
-< ■ -» • .'0
a rounded (as
plantation [jig
surrounds the
ally decline
approaches the hot-bed ground
(b), on the north, and the sur-
rounding walk (c), on the other
sides.
2395. If there be any slojre
in the area of a garden, Mar-
shall considers " it shoidd be
southward, a point to the east
or west not much signifying ;
but not to the north, if it can
be avoided, because crops come
in late, and plants do not
stand the winter so well in
such a situation. A garden
with a northern aspect has,
however, its advantages, being
cooler for some summer pro-
ductions, as strawberries, spring-
sown cauliflowers, &c. ; there-
fore, to have a little ground
under cultivation, so situated, is
desirable, especially for late suc-
cession-crops." (I)itrod. to Gard.
5th edit. p. 8.)
Sect. III. Extent.
2396. The extent of the kitchen-garden must be regulated by that of the place, of the
family, and of their style of living. In general, it may be observed, that few country-
seats have less than an acre, or more than twelve acres in regular cultivation as kitchen-
garden, exclusive of the orchard and flower-garden. From one and a half to five acres
458 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
may be considered as the common quantities enclosed by walls, and the latter size, under
proper management, with abundance of manure, is capable of supplying a respectable
establishment. Where a farm is cultivated by the proprietor, it is found a desirable prac-
tice to have part of the more common kitchen-crops, as cabbages, turnips, peas, potatoes,
carrots, &c. grown in the fields ; the flavor of vegetables so grown being greatly superior
to that of those raised in a garden by force of manure. Where a farm is not kept in
hand, by annually changing the surface of the garden by trenching (2343. ), this effect of
enriched grounds is considerably lessened.
2397. To assist in determining the extent of a garden, Marshall observes, that an
acre with wall-trees, hot-beds, pots, &c. will furnish employment for one man, who,
at some busy times, will need assistance. The size of the garden should, however,
be proportioned to the house, and to the number of inhabitants it does, or may contain.
This is naturally dictated ; but yet it is better to have too much ground allotted than too
little, and there is nothing monstrous in a large garden annexed to a small house. Some
families use few, others many vegetables ; and it makes a great difference whether the
owner is curious to have a long season of the same production, or is Content to have a
supply only at the more common times. But to give some rules for the quantity of
"•round to be laid out, a family of four persons (exclusive of servants) should have a rood
of good-working, open ground, and so in proportion. But, if possible, let the garden be
rather extensive, according to the family ; for then a useful sprinkling of fruit-trees can
be planted in it, which may be expected to do well under the common culture of the
around about them ; a good portion of it also may be allotted for that agreeable fruit the
strawberry in all its varieties ; and the very disagreeable circumstance of being at any
time short of vegetables will be avoided. It should be considered also that artichokes,
asparagus, and a long succession of peas and beans, require a good deal of ground. Hot-
beds will also take up much room, if any thing considerable be done in the way of raising
cucumbers, melons, &c. (Introd. to Gard. p. 25.)
2398. For a small family, two acres of ground ivill do ; but if for a great family, it should
be six or eight acres. (Justice's Brit. Gard. Direc. p. 1. :
2399. The size of a garden may be from one acre to six or eight within the wall, according
to the demand for vegetables in the family. (Forsyth. )
Sect. IV. Shelter and Shade.
2400. To combine adequate shelter, with a free exposure to the rising and setting sun,
is essentially necessary, and may be reckoned one of the most difficult points in the form-
ation of a garden.
2401. The kitchen-garden should be sheltered by plantations ; but should by no means be
shaded, or be crowded by them. If walled round, it should be open and free on all sides,
or at least to the south-east and west, that the walls may be clothed with fruit-trees on
both sides. (Nicol, Kal. p. 6.)
2402. The garden should be sheltered from the east, north, and west winds, by hills,
rising grounds, high buildings, or plantations of trees, at such a distance on the east and
west sides, as not to prevent the sun from shining upon it. (M'Phail, Gard. Rem.
2d edit. p. 12.)
2403. A garden ought to be sheltered as much as can be from the north and east winds.
These points of the compass, Marshall observes, should be guarded against by high and
good fences, by a wall of at least ten feet high ; lower walls do not answer so well for fruit-
trees, though one of eight may do. A garden should be so situated as to be as much
warmer as possible than the general temper of the air is without, or ought to be made
warmer by the ring and subdivision fences. This advantage is essential to the expectation
we have from a garden locally considered. As to trees planted without the wall, to break
the wind, it is not to be expected to reap much good this way, except from something
more than a single row ; i. e. a plantation. Yet the fall of leaves by autumnal winds is
troublesome ; and a high wall is therefore advisable. Spruce firs have been used in close
shorn hedges ; which, as evergreens, are proper enough to plant for a screen in a single
row, though not very near to the wall ; but the best evergreens for this purpose are the
evergreen oak and the cork-tree. The witch-elm, planted close, grows quick, and has a
pretty summer appearance behind a wall ; but is of little use then, as a screen, except to
the west ; when still it may shade too much (if planted near) as it mounts high. In a
dry hungry soil, the beech also is very proper, and both bear cutting. The great maple,
commonly called the sycamore, is handsome, of quick growth, and being fit to stand the
rudest blasts, will protect a garden well in a very exposed situation ; the wind to be
chiefly guarded against as to strength, in most places, being the westerly. (Introd. to
Gard. p. 27.)
2404. To slielter an elevated garden on a stee]) declivity (fig. 419.), it may require to be
surrounded on all sides by high woods (n), and even to have groups of evergreens, as
pines and hollies (<?), and hedges of trellis or lattice-work (p,p), within the garden. The
Book I.
SHELTER AND SHADE.
459
hot-houses (d) and hot-heds ( f) may be placed, and more delicate culinary crops (Ii) cul-
tivated, in an artificial basin or hollow, which will have the advantage of being sheltered
both naturally and artificially, an4 on a steep exposed to the south, will have a powerful
influence in accumulating heat in winter from the sun's rays. The south borders of such
gardens (/, m), and the walls heated by furnaces (y), will frequently be found to produce
earlier crops than gardens placed on level surfaces and in low sheltered situations.
419
2405. Shelter may in part be derived from the natural shape and situation of the ground.
Gentle declivities, Neill observes, at the bases of the south or south-west sides of hills, or
the sloping banks of winding rivers, with a similar exposure, are therefore very desirable.
If plantations exist in the neighbourhood of the house, or of the site intended for the
house, the planner of a garden naturally looks to them for his principal shelter ; taking
care, however, to keep at a reasonable distance from them, so as to guard against the evil
of being shaded. If the plantations be young, and contain beech, elm, oak, and other tall-
growing trees, allowance is of course made for the future progress of the trees in height.
It is a rule that there should be no tall trees on the south side of a garden, to a very con-
siderable distance ; for, during winter and early spring, they fling their lengthened
shadows into the garden, at a time when every sunbeam is valuable. On the east also,
they must be sufficiently removed to admit the early morning rays. The advantage of
this is conspicuous in the spring months, when hoar-frost often rests on the tender buds
and flowers : if this be gradually dissolved, no harm ensues ; but if the blossom be all at
once exposed to the powerful rays of the advancing sun, when he overtops the trees, the
sudden transition from cold to heat often proves destructive. On the west, and particu-
larly on the north, trees may approach nearer, perhaps within less than a hundred feet,
and be more crowded, as from these directions the most violent and the coldest winds
assail us. If forest-trees do not previously exist on the territory, screen-plantations must
be reared as fast as possible. The sycamore [Acer pseudo-platanus) is of the most rapid
growth, making about six feet in a season ; next to it may be ranked the larch, which
gains about four feet ; and then follow the spruce and balm of Gilead firs, which grow
between three and four feet in the year. (Edin. Encyc. art. Hort.)
2406. A garden should be well sheltered from the north and east, to prevent the blight-
ing winds from affecting the trees ; and also from the westerly winds, which are very hurt-
460 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III
ful to the gardens in the spring or summer months. If a garden be not natural ly
sheltered with gently rising hills, which are the best shelter of any, plantations of forest-
trees, made at proper distances, so as not to shade it, will be found the best substitute.
(Forsyth, Tr. on Fndt Trees, p. 286.)
2407. A garden should be toell " guarded with wood" on the north-east, south-west, and
north-west ; the south and south-east being the only aspects that should be open. This,
Switzer says, is of " great import." There is great danger as to the easterly exposition,
inasmuch as all blighting winds come from that quarter ; so also the south-west is sub-
ject to the violent concussions of those winds that come off from the Atlantic or western
ocean. But, it may be observed, the sun acting in an oblique manner, and the winds
fluctuating horizontally, the garden may be planted all round with wood, between ten
and fifteen yards' distance, provided you keep your trees on the south side to about fifteen
feet high, for security from winds, without any danger of depriving it of the benefit of
the sun. (Pract. Fruit Gard. 2d edit. p. 18.)
2408. Shade as well as shelter are attended to by Abercrombie, who observes, " that
competent fences are serviceable in sheltering tender seedlings, and in forming warm
borders for early crops and winter standing plants ; while in another direction some part
of the line of fence will afford a shady border in summer, which is required by the pecu-
liar constitutions of many small annual plants. Where a kitchen-garden encloses two,
three, or four acres, it will admit cross walls at proper distances, by which the advantages
just mentioned may be multiplied." (Prac. Gard. 2d edit. p. 3.)
Sect. V. Soil.
2409. The soil of a garden is obviously of the greatest consequence in its culture. It
is, however, a subordinate consideration to situation and exposure, for the soil may be
changed or improved by art ; but no human efforts can remove the site, or change the
exposure of a plot of ground. This subject was much more attended to about a cen-
tury ago, in the days of London and Wise, Switzer and Hitt, than it seems to be at
present. Gardeners, in general, depending too much on manures, and other adventitious
aids, for securing large, though sometimes ill-flavored, culinary crops. Jethro Tull has
some coarse, but to a certain extent just remarks on this subject. As an auxiliary argument
in support of his delusive doctrine of rejecting manure in culture, he affects to " wonder
that gentlemen who are so delicate in other matters should make no scruple to eat vegetables
and fruits grown among the vilest filth and ordure." (Treatise on the Horse-hoeing Hus-
bandry, 3d edit. p. 30.)
2410. The best soil for a garden, M'Phail observes, " is a sandy loam, not less than
two feet deep, and good earth not of a binding nature in summer, nor retentive of rain
in winter; but of such a texture, that it can be worked without difficulty, in any season
of the year. It should be remembered, that there are few sorts of fruit-trees, or esculent
vegetables, which require less depth of earth to grow in than two feet to bring them to
perfection ; and if the earth of the kitchen-garden be three or more feet deep, so much
the better; for when the plants are in a state of maturity, if the roots, even of peas,
spinage, kidneybeans, lettuce, &c. be minutely traced, they will be found to pene-
trate into the earth, in search of food, to the deptli of two feet, provided the soil be of a
nature that allows them. If it can be done, a garden should be made on land whose
bottom is not of a springy wet nature. If this rule can be observed, draining will be
unnecessary ; for when land is well prepared for the growth of fruit-trees and esculent
vegetables, by trenching, manuring, and digging, it is by these means brought into such
a porous temperament, that the rains pass through it without being detained longer than
necessary. If the land of a garden be of too strong a nature, it should be well mixed
with sand, or scrapings of roads, where stones have been ground to pieces by carriages."
(Gard. Rem. p. 12.)
2411. A hazel-colored loam, or a blackish vegetable earth, according to Abercrombie,
" may be regarded as good ; or if it be a fat loam mixed with silvery sand, or a moder-
ately light mellow loam. A bed of very light sand or gravel is to be rejected, unless
the alternative would give you a soil still more difficult to improve. The worst of all
soils for a kitchen-garden is a strong clay. Nevertheless, as both clay and chalk have
an attraction for fluid and volatile solutions of oil, a limited proportion of those earths
contributes to form a rich and generous soil. Chalk may abound in a higher proportion
than clay, and sand in a higher proportion than either clay or chalk, without causing
barrenness. The soils best adapted for moderating the excesses, and compensating the
deficiences of heat and moisture in different seasons, are compositions of sand, pulverised
chalk, and finely divided clay, with a proportion of animal or vegetable matter. If the
soil be not naturally good to the depth of thirty inches, and thence to three feet, proper
earths and composts should be incorporated with it, to make it so, where the tenure does
not render the expense unadvisable. It should be done where it is intended to found a
Book I. SOIL. 461
complete kitchen-garden ; not, indeed, because many esculent plants require more than
eighteen inches' depth of good earth, in order to flourish in perfection ; nor that even
fruit-trees generally will not thrive for a considerable course of time in a suitable soil,
full two feet in depth, although three feet on their account is better ; but, in order that
the gardener may have it in his power to give rest to alternate portions of the soil, with-
out keeping the surface out of crop, by trenching in successive years to different depths,
so as to bring any given layer, measuring a spit in thickness, by turns to the bottom, the
middle, and the surface, in proportion as the natural soil is unfavorable, it should
receive improvement, till it be gradually brought to the desired state. Where some-
thing intractable must be taken away, as in the case of a very stony bed, let the ground
be trenched, and thp larger stones screened or raked out : ameliorate the residue
by such earths, manures, and composts as its defects may require. To give heart to
excessively light, sandy, and unstable ground, incorporate with it substantial loam and
well rotted dung. To correct a cold stubborn clay, add drift sand, shell marl, sea-
weed, warm light earth, and well-rotted dung. To qualify soot for application in a
garden, mix a thirty-sixth part with a heap of compost. If the soil has been rendered
cold and wet by the passage and lodgment of water, it is requisite to have the ground
effectually drained." {Pract. Gard.ji.2.)
2412. The soil that suits general cultivation best is a loam, rather the red than the black,
Marshall observes ; " but there are good soils of various colors, and this must be as it
happens ; the worst soil is a cold heavy clay, and the next a light sand ; a moderate
clay, however, is better than a very light soil, though not so pleasant to work. If the
soil is not good, L e. too poor, too strong, or too light, it is to be carefully improved
without delay. Let it first, at least, be thoroughly broken, and cleaned of all rubbish, to
a regular level depth at bottom as well as top, so as to give about eighteen inches of
working mould, if the good soil will admit of it; none that is bad should be thrown up
for use, but rather moved away. This rule of bottom-levelling is particularly neces-
sary when there is clay below, as it will secretly hold up wet, which should not stand in
any part of the garden. When a piece of ground is cleared of roots, weeds, stones, &c.
it would be of advantage to have the whole thrown into two-feet wide trenches, and lie
thus as long as conveniently may be. The ground cannot be too well prepared ; for
when this business is not performed to the bottom at first, it is often neglected, and may
not be conveniently done afterwards ; so it happens, that barely a spade's depth (or less)
is too often thought sufficient to go on with. There is this great advantage of a deep
staple, that in the cultivation of it the bottom may be brought to the top every other year,
by double-trenching ; and being thus renewed, less dung will do, and sweeter vegetables
be grown. Tap-rooted things, as carrots and parsneps, require a good depth of soil."
(Iutrod. to Gard. p. 28.)
2 113. The soil of a new garden should be two or three feet deep, according to Forsyth,
" but if deeper the better, of a mellow pliable nature, and of a moderate dry quality ;
and if the ground should have an uneven surface, by no means attempt to level it, for by
that unevenness, and any little difference there may be in the quality, you will have a
greater variety of soil adapted to different crops. The best soil for a garden is a rich
mellow loam ; and the worst, a stiff heavy clay. A light sand is also a very unfit soil
for a garden. Sea-coal ashes, or the cleanings of streets and ditches, will be found very
proper to mix with a strong soil ; and if the ground should be cold, a large quantity of
coal-ashes, sea-sand, or rotten vegetables should be laid upon it, in order to meliorate
and loosen the soil, and render it easy to work. Lime-rubbish, or light sandy earth
from fields and commons, will also be found of great service to stiff clayey ground. If
the soil be light and warm, rotten neat's dung is the best dressing that you can give it.
If horse-dung be ever used, it must be completely rotted, otherwise it will burn up the
crop the first hot weather." (TV. on Fr. Trees, p. 290.)
2414. Different soils are required* in the same garden. This is Nicol's opinion, who has
had more experience in the formation of gardens than any of the authors from whom we
are quoting ; his remarks " on soils, and how to improve them," merit every attention,
and will be duly valued by those who have seen any of the excellent kitchen-gardens he
has formed in Fifeshire, Perthshire, and other northern counties. It is a happy circum-
stance, he says, " that in many instances we meet with different soils in the same acre."
In the same garden they should never be wanting ; and where nature (or natural causes)
has been deficient, recourse must be had to art ; inasmuch as the variety of fruits and
vegetables to be cultivated require different soils to produce them in perfection. It
would be absurd, however, to imagine, that for every particular vegetable there is to be a
particular soil prepared.
2415. The varieties of soil in any garden may , with propriety, be confined to the following : — Strong
clayey loam, light sandy loam (which are the two grand objects), a composition of one fourth strong with
three fourths light loam, half strong and half light, and one fourth light and three fourths strong. These,
by a proper treatment, and with the proper application of manures, may be rendered productive of any
of the known and commonly cultivated vegetables in the highest degree of perfection.
462 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
2416. In order to improve a soil, we must be guided much by its nature, so as, if possible, to render it ser-
viceable for general purposes. And hence our duty is to endeavour to hit on that happy medium which suits
the generality of esculents, in the formation or improvement of the soil in the kitchen-garden. Such a
soil should be sufficiently tenacious to adhere to the roots of plants, though not so much so as to be bind-
ing, which would certainly retard their progress and extension in quest of food. Hence a loam of a
middle texture, rather inclining to sand, may be considered as the most suitable soil lor the purpose here
in view, and that on a double account, viz. the greater part of the valuable kinds of kitchen-vegetables
delight in such soil, and it is worked at less expense than a stiff one ; neither in severe droughts is it apt
to crack or be parched, nor in hard frosts is it so apt to throw out tender plants or seeds.
2417 If soils be too strong, the tender roots of plants push weakly in them, sicken, canker, and perish ; and
if a soil be too light, and if it be poor withal, plants deposited in it will push their roots far, and in vain, in
quest of that stability and nutriment which is necessary and essential to their support. So that if the butt
of our aim be perfection in the production of wholesome and well matured vegetables, we must put aside
careless indifference in the formation of a proper soil, nor trust entirely to the force of dungs, were they
even to be had in the greatest plenty ; for dungs, by too free an application, have an effect on the quality
of esculents not altogether salutary. Wherefore, that our efforts maybe attended with success, let us
bestow a moderate and prudent expense in the first outset, on composing or so improving the soil to be
appropriated to this purpose, as that, in our best judgment, it may fully answer the intention.
2418 Where the bottom is wet and the sub-soil of a cankering nature, it may be improved by judicious drain-
ing • where the soil is stubborn, by the addition of small gravel, sea-sand, wherein is a considerable quantity
of small pebbles and shells, coal-ashes, lime, gravel, pounded brick-bats, brick-kiln ashes, &c.,and, above all,
bv being carefully laid up in ridges in the winter months, and, indeed, at all times when not in crop, in
such a manner as to give the greatest extent of surface for the weather to act upon ; where the soil is a
poor sand, or gravel, by the addition of clay, or strong clayey loam, scourings of ditches which run
through a clayey sub-soil, pond-mud in a like situation, or scrapings of roads which he in a clayey
district, &c. ,
241Q. Soils that abound with metallic substances, and which generally make them appear of an iron color,
are termed fox bent or till. These substances are often found to be intimately mixed, or rather consoli-
dated with the soil, in considerable masses, which are adhesive and very ponderous. Such soils are the
most unfavorable to vegetation of any, and are quite ineligible for the purpose here in view, without
being much improved. For this purpose, lime will be found the most serviceable of all things, if judici-
ously applied, and the soil be frequently turned over by digging or trenching, so as that the soil and the
lime may be intimately mixed together, and that the atmosphere may have full effect upon them ; for
without this, the lime will not operate so effectually, nor will the filly particles of the soil be divided or
meliorated so well. It may seem unnecessary to observe, that, according to the quantity of irony matter
contained in the soil, lime will be required to reduce it. In order to ascertain this quantity, a magnet
will be found useful, and one of the masses being calcined, and then reduced to a powder, the magnet
will separate the irony particles from the soil, showing the proportion of iron and of earth. Thus we may
fertilise the soil, taking for the extremes in ordinary cases, and supposing the lime of a middling quality,
150 and 400 Winchester bushels an acre ; applying the lime in a quick or powdered state, and properly
working the soil, being careful, in the first place, to drain it of superabundant moisture.
2420 Ridging up of soil, as above hinted at, has the happiest effect, especially for stiff soils, and should
never be omitted when the ground is not under crop. In dead sandy loams also, and in cankering gravels,
it is of incalculable advantage, and greatly meliorates them. For it is a fact proved by experience, that
exposing soil to the sun's rays in part, by throwing it into a heap, whereby it is also partly shaded, and
trenching it once a month, or in two months, will sooner restore it to fertility than any other process,
exclusively of adding fresh matter. And thus, if any ingredient noxious to vegetation abound in the
soil, it may be expelled, or be exhaled bv the action of the atmosphere, more particularly if the soil
undergo a summer and also a winter fallow. In the latter case, however, care should be taken to have
the surface encrusted by frost, as often as possible, by turning it, and giving it a new surface each succeed-
ing thaw. (Gard. Kalend. p. 19.)
2421. The soil intended for a garden may be known by its productions. " In selecting
ground for a garden," Neill observes, " the plants growing naturally on the surface
should be noted, as from these a pretty correct opinion may be formed of the qualities of
the soil. The sub-soil should also be examined. If this be radically bad, such as an iron
till mixed with gravel, no draining, trenching, or manuring will ever prove an effectual
remedy ; if, on the contrary, the sub-soil be tolerably good, the surface may be greatly
meliorated by these means. In every garden two varieties of soil are wanted, a strong
and a light one, or, in other words, a clayey loam and a sandy loam ; different plants
requiring these respective kinds. For the general soil, a loam of middling quality,
but partaking rather of the sandy than the clayey, is accounted the best." (Ed. Encyc.
art. Hort.)
2422. General practice. It appears to be generally agreed on by practical men, that
there ought to be between two and a half and four feet of good soil over the whole sur-
face of the kitchen-garden. This depth will rarely be found to exist naturally ; or, if it
does in some places, it will be deficient in others. The proper heights for the borders and
compartments being fixed on, and the whole thoroughly drained, the next thing is to trench
the soil to the proper depth from the level or levels of the intended surface, whether these
run under or over the present surface, removing all unfavorable sub-soil, either to such
hollows within the ring-fence of the garden as require to be filled up to a greater depth
than that fixed on for the good soil ; or, what is preferable, placing it without the
garden. This done, the next thing is to introduce as much good soil as will raise the
surface to the thickness required. The strongness or lightness of this additional soil
must depend on the nature of that already there, and on the object in view. In com-
plete gardens, it may be desirable to have three qualities of soil, viz. a strong loam or
light loam, and a loa m of medium quality; the latter occupying the borders and about
half of the compartments. The soils introduced therefore must be such as, with what is na-
turally there, will effect these objects. If, for example, the local soil is every where light
or sandy, then one part, say that destined for strong loam, should receive as much of
clayey loam as will bring it to the temperament desired ; that for medium loam a lesser
portion, with as much light earth as will bring it to the required depth : and if the
Rook I.
WATER.
46S
natural soil is deemed too light, to that also must be
cohesive, &c. It may be observed, however, that the
general object in selecting, forming, or improving the
soil for a kitchen-garden, is to obtain, as Nieol
expresses it, " a loam of a middle texture rather
inclining to sand," such soil being easy to work, little
affected by either droughts, rains, or frosts ; and the
greater part of the valuable kinds of kitchen- vegetables
delighting in it. All the authors we have quoted
above may be said to agree in desiring such a soil for
the whole of the kitchen-garden. In peculiar situ-
ations, as where villas are built on rocky steeps, and
other romantic situations, it may become a matter of
great difficulty and expense to bring soil from a
distance ; and it may also be found equally difficult
to find a bed for it, by the removal of rock, &c. In
such cases, all that can be done is to select the most
favorable spots {fig- 420. a, a) ; cultivate them to the
utmost, connect them by walks and shrubbery ; and
place the economical buildings attached to the garden
(b), and hot-houses, &c. (e), in the most commodious
situations, and where they will not interfere with
general effects. There are many very productive
gardens of this description in the north of Scotland,
and in the territory of Genoa.
added a portion of what is more
Sect. VI. Water.
2423. A copious supply of water is essential to a good kitchen-garden, and, from
whatever source it is furnished, should be distributed either in reservoirs or open cisterns,
or in pipes, properly protected, over the garden, and in hot-houses. If the supply is
from a pond or river, a system of lead or cast-iron pipes may be adopted, and the
delivery effected by cocks at proper distances ; but if from wells or springs, the delivery
should be into open stone or cast-iron cisterns ; or, in default of these, into tubs or
butts sunk in the earth. In Tuscany, where the inhabitants excel in the manufacture of
pottery, immense jars of earthenware are frequently adopted ; in the Royal Garden at
Paris, sunk barrels ; and cisterns of masonry, lined with cement, are general in the best
gardens on the continent. In these gardens, a system of watering is adopted, which,
though rendered more necessary there by the climate, than it can possibly be in this
country, yet in various respects deserves imitation.
2424. Many kitchen-crops are lost, or produced of very inferior quality for want of watering. Lettuces
and cabbages are often hard and stringy ; turnips and radishes do not swell, onions decay, cauliflowers
die off, and, in general, in dry seasons, all the cruciferece become stinted, or covered with insects, even in
rich deep soils. Copious waterings in the evenings, during the dry seasons, would produce that fulness
and succulency which we find in the vegetables produced in the Low Countries, and in the Marsh Gar-
dens at Paris ; and in this country at the beginning and latter end of the season. The vegetables brought
to the London market from the Neat's Houses, and other adjoining gardens, where the important article
of watering is much more attended to than in private country-gardens, may be adduced as affording
proofs of the advantage of the practice.
2425. The watering the foliage of fruit and other trees to destroy or prevent the increase of insects,
and of strawberries and fruit-shrubs to swell the fruit, is also of importance ; and though the climate of
Scotland is less obnoxious to great droughts, than that of the southern counties, yet we find that excellent
horticultural architect, John Hay, adopting a system of watering in various gardens lately formed by him
in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh.
2426. The contrivance for watering or ivashing the foliage of the wall-frees in Dalmeny garden, laid out
by this artist, deserves particular notice. Water is supplied to the garden from a reservoir, situated on
an eminence, a considerable height above the garden-walls. Around the whole garden, four inches below
the surface of the ground, a groove, between two and three inches deep, has been formed in the walls,
to receive a three-quarter inch pipe for conducting the water. About fifty feet distant from each other
are apertures through the wall, two feet and a half high, and ten inches wide, in which a cock is placed,
so that on turning the handle to either side of the wall, the water issues from that side. The nozzles of
the cocks have screws on each side, to which is attached at pleasure a leathern pipe, with a brass cock
and director ; roses, pierced with holes of different sizes, being fitted to the latter. By this contrivance,
all the trees, both inside and outside the wall, can be most effectually watered and washed in a very short
space of time, and with very little trouble. One man may go over the whole in two hours. At the same
time the borders, and even a considerable part of the compartments, can be watered with the greatest ease
when required. The conveniency and utility of this contrivance must at once be perceived by every
practical horticulturist. The same plan of introducing water is adopted in a garden which J. Hay
planned and. executed for Lord V. Duncan, at Lundie-House, near Dundee ; and after the experience of
several years, it has been greatly approved of. The water at Lundie is conveyed to the garden from a
considerable height, and is thrown from the point of the director with great force, and to a good distance.
{Edin. Encyc. art. Hort.)
2427. Water in a garden is absolutely necessary, according to Justice ; well-water is
far from being proper, but that which is impregnated by the sun's rays is highly condu-
464
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
cive to vegetation. He recommends forming a large pond or basin in the centre of the
garden, which shall at the same time contain fish. (Brit. Gard. Direct, p. 2.)
2428. Gardens should be near a river or brook, that they may be well supplied ivith water.
From these, Forsyth observes, " if the garden does not lie too high, the water may be
conducted to it by drains ; or, which is much better, by pipes, taking care to lay them
low enough to receive the water in the driest season, which is the time when it will be
most wanted. If there be no running water near the garden, and if the latter lies on a
declivity near a public road, I would advise to make a hollow drain, or a cut, from the
most convenient part of the road, to receive the water that washes the road in rainy
weather, and convey it to a large cistern, or tank, in the upper part of the garden ; this,
if the road be mended with limestone or chalk, will prove an excellent manure. The water
from the cistern, or from the river, may be conducted to the different compartments by
means of pipes, which, having cocks at proper places, the water may be turned upon the
different compartments of the garden at pleasure. Or the water may be conveyed in proper
channels, and turned en the compartments in the same manner as in watering meadows.
These pipes, channels, &c. will be a considerable expense at first ; but they will soon
repay it, by saving a great deal of time, which would otherwise be spent in pumping
and carrying water. The most convenient time for turning the water on is, in general,
during the night ; and in dry weather it would then be of the most essential service.
If the situation be such that you are obliged to pump the water from deep wells,
there should be a large reservoir, in which it should be exposed to the sun and air
for some days before it is used ; it may then be turned on as above. If the ground
be wet and spewy, it will be proper to make a basin of the most convenient place to re-
ceive the water that comes from the drains, and to collect the rain that falls on the walks."
(TV. onFr. Trees.)
2429. Water is the life and soul of a garden. Switzer observes, " it is one of the most
essential conveniences of a country-seat, and especially useful to kitchen-crops ; for,
indeed, what can be made of any ground without it ? Anima mea sicut terra sine aqua,
is a good metaphor to express it, as it really is the soul and life of all vegetation ; and
whoever does not make that one of his principal considerations, deserves blame or pity."
Describing his design for the garden of Spy Park as to water, the same author observes,
" The square basins are not only designed for little stews for fish, but at each corner
there are clay and elm pipes, with plugs to them that go under the alley, and commu-
nicate themselves with the adjacent divisions or compartments, which will, in an instant,
float the same, because the little basins are designed to lie six inches higher than those
divisions or compartments ; and then the whole is so contrived by other larger elm pipes,
that the said little basins are filled by the canal and other conveniences." ,
2430. A source of water is considered essential to a garden by most writers. London
and Wise, Evelyn, Hitt, and Lawrence are warm in recommending it. M'Phail ob-
serves, that a garden to bring the produce of the soil to the greatest perfection, " should
be well supplied with water, to water the plants in dry seasons." (Gard. Rem. 2d edit,
p. 13.) If water can be introduced, observes Marshall, "and kept clean with verdant
banks around it, it would be very useful where a garden is large ; but let it be as near
the centre as possible, being the most convenient situation. It should be fed from a
spring, and (if it could) be made to drip in the reservoir, because its trickling noise is
agreeable music in a garden to most ears." (Introd. to Gard. p. 42.) " If there be no
natural stream that can be conducted through a garden," observes Nicol, " water should
be conveyed from the nearest river, lake, or pond ; soft water being most desirable for
the use of the garden." (Kalcndar, p. 7.)
Sect. VII. Form.
2431. In regard to form, almost all the authors above quoted agree in recommending
a square (fig. 421. o) or oblong, as the 421
most convenient for a garden ; but
Abercrombie proposes a long octagon,
in common language, an oblong with
the angles cut off (b) ; by which, he
says, a greater portion of the wall in
the slips behind will be on an equality
with the garden as to aspect.
2432. A geometrical square is recom-
mended by Hitt, " set out in such a
manner, that each wall may have as
much benefit of the sun as possible," that is, with reference to the compass, set out as a
rhomboid (c).
2433. A square or oblong form, M'Phail considers as the most convenient. A square
with a semicircular projection on the north side (fig. 417. d), or a parallelogram with a
Book I.
WALLS.
465
northern projection in the form of a semicircle {fig. 417. e\ were favorite forms with
the late W. Nicol. These opinions, it is to be considered, refer more properly to the
space enclosed by walls than to the whole garden, which ought to be considered as com-
prehending the entire space included in the ring-fence ; which fence, choice or accidental
circumstances mav produce in any shape from the circle \fig. 424. ) to the most irregular
figure, {figs. 420. 422.)'
2434. The oval, polygonal, and trapezium forms have been adopted for the walls of a
o-arden in order to procure a more equal distribution of sun and shade ; but the incon-
veniences attending the culture and management of the compartments of such gardens
are considerable i nor does it appear an equal distribution of sun is so suitable, as that
of having some walls as advantageously exposed as possible for the more delicate fruits ;
and other* less so f°r hardier sorts, for retarding fruits, and for growing plants to which
shade & congenial in the borders. No figure whatever can add to the quantity of sun's
rars received by the whole form, but merely vaiy their distribution.
2435. Even irre-
gular figures are ad-
missible, such figures
(fig. 422.) being
surrounded by wood
(i), and interspersed
with fruit-trees, will
form very agreeable
shapes in walking
through them ; and
while the compart-
ments are thrown in-
to right-lined figures
to facilitate culture,
the angles can be
occupied with fruit-
trees or shrubs, per-
manent crops, as
strawberries, asparagus, &c. with the hot-houses (e), or other buildings (b), or with
ponds (/), and other adjuncts. Some of the walks may be wavy (a), as a direction
indicated by the outline of wood, and one main walk (d, d) may be formed, broad and
straight, to display the whole.
Sect. VIII. Walls.
2436. Walls are built round a garden chiefly for the production of fruits. A kitchen-
garden, Nicol observes, considered merely as such, may be as completely fenced and
sheltered by hedges as by walls, as indeed they were in former times, and examples of that
mode of fencing are still to be met with. But in order to obtain the finer fruits, it be-
comes necessary to build walls, or to erect pales and railings,
2437. Placing, proportioning, and construct-
ing the walls of a kitchen-garden, is a matter in
which the artist may display a degree of taste
as well as fitness and propriety. "If these,"
Nicol continues, " be properly set down, so as to
answer the cast of the ground (fig. 423. ), and be
raised to proper heights, according to its extent,
the rest is easy, and follows as a matter of course.
In this particular branch of gardening, utility
and simplicity ought to go hand in hand, other-
wise true taste will be wanting. It is not in
curves, circles, and ogees, we shall find satis-
faction. The walls, if the ground admit of it,
should all run in direct lines, corresponding to the slopes on which they are placed (a, b,
c, d) ; they may be built level, or they may be inclined, so as to suit the general cast of
the ground ; but the nearer to a level the better they will please. The mind is dissatis-
fied and distracted in beholding any building apparently unstable. We can look upon
a mast placed oblique, or on a tree growing aslant, with firmness and satisfaction, because
we know the one is supported by ropes, and the other by roots ; but on a wall running
much off the level, we look with a degree of distrust or of fear. If the north wall can be
placed quite level, and also the south wall on a lower level, and so as that the east and
west walls shall fall, from north to south, a foot in thirty or in twenty-five ; and if the
ground be lengthened from east to west, in the proportion of three to two, the extent be-
ing two or three acres, on such a spot may be formed a garden that will not fail to please.
Hh
466 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
Next, on a spot of the above, or of similar dimensions, sloping to the south, and not level
from east to west, but sloping a few feet, perhaps one in fifty, to the east, in this case the
opposite walls should run directly parallel to each other, both with respect to latitude and
to inclination, otherwise the eye will be displeased by the distorted appearance of the cop-
ing when at the full height. Next, all as here described, and the ground sloping to the
south and to the west. And next, a dead level spot, in which case particularly the walls
should be of different heights. But ground falling to the north, or much distorted, should
be avoided, as being very unfit for erecting walls or other buildings upon, on which a com-
plete modern garden cannot be formed without considerable difficulty, and a great addi-
tional expense." {Kalend. p. 142.)
2438. Walls ivith a south aspect, as Switzer observes, " have been all a\ong reckoned
the best for fruits, though later observation and experience have not confirmed it ; for
when the days are something long, and the heat of the sun in its greatest strength, it is
late before the sun shines upon them, and it leaves such a position as early in the after-
noon. Besides, when it is mid-day, the sun is so much elevated above the horizon, that
it shines but faintly and very slopingly upon them, which makes the heat to be much the
less, inasmuch as a smaller quantity of rays fall upon such a wall, it being visible, that
both before and after noon the sun shines hotter than when it is in its highest meridian.
From whence, 'tis natural to infer, that a little inclination, either to the east or west, are
the best aspects ; but which of the two will maintain its precedence may be now enquired
into. And in this enquiry, I shall venture to affirm, that the east, or rather south-east,
are to be preferred to the west or south-west, though they are as much exposed to the sun
as east walls are. Though it should be argued that the sun shines stronger in the after-
noon than the morning, because it continues to act on air already warmed with the influ-
ence of the morning sun, yet, inasmuch as the rays of the sun are more healthy and cheer-
ful then than after, and dispel the cold dews and vapors as before, it is more than equi-
valent to the extraordinary heat of the afternoon sun, as experience shows, which is generally
languid and unhealthy. From whence I infer as before, that the south-east maintains its
post against either the south or south-west. 'Tis from reasonings of this kind I would
venture to establish it as my humble opinion, (and I think I have the suffrage of most
eminent planters and gardeners to second me,) that a south wall, inclining about twenty
degrees to the east, is preferable to any of the others, inasmuch as the sun shines as early
on it as on a full east wall, and never departs from it till about two o'clock in the after-
noon ; besides, it is something removed from those destructive winds that come from the
west and north." (Pr. Fr. Gard. p. 312.)
2439. Equality of aspect. Hitt proposes to have no south wall, but by the position of
the four sides of his garden {Jig. 421. c ) endeavors to obtain a comparatively equal dis-
tribution of solar heat. The plan he recommends contains two acres, the ground descend-
ing from the south-west side. " In respect to the aspect of the walls," he says, "the
sun's rays continue no longer upon the north-west wall than three in the afternoon, which,
I think, is the most proper aspect for grapes, peaches, nectarines, and all other kinds of
fruit that require the most regular heat to bring them to perfection, and soonest to matu-
rity, for though the sun leaves this wall so soon in the afternoon, yet in the morning this
aspect will be of advantage to the trees and fruits ; for, as apricots, peaches, and nectarines
blossom early in the spring, at which time our climate is frequently attended with frosty
nights, destructive of both blossoms and fruit, the sun's rays darting in lines at right
angles upon the wall at nine o'clock, dissolve the congealed moisture much sooner than if
they darted upon it at right angles at noon, which they must consequently do if the wall
stands due south. 'Tis true, a south wall will receive more sun by three hours, that is,
from about three in the afternoon till near six, (in the vernal equinox,) but that is no great
advantage, for before that time of the day the air will be sufficiently warmed. Besides, if
the wall is built full south, it will not be so proper for fruit-trees as a south-east aspect;
for in the middle of the day the sun will cause the trees to exhale their juices faster than
their roots can absorb them, which will render the fruit smaller and the pulp harder, and
worse flavored, than those which receive the heat more regular. The south-east wall re-
ceives the sun about nine o'clock, which is a proper situation for some of the best kinds
of winter pears, and which they well deserve, for they afford fine juices and rich flavors,
when other fruits of the same quality are wanting. Some kinds of grapes, peaches, and
nectarines will ripen well against it ; and this has one equal advantage with the south-west
wall, viz. of the sun's rays striking obliquely upon it at noon. The north-west aspects of
these walls receive but little sun, for he shines not upon them till three in the afternoon,
but they will serve for fruits which ripen in summer, as cherries, plums, and some kinds
of pears." (Tr. on Fruit Trees, p. 33.)
2440. A full south aspect is recommended by Marshall, for a wall designed for the best
fruits ; or, it may be somewhat inclining to the east, by which it will catch the sun's rays
at its rise, the cold night dews will be earlier and more gently dissipated, and the scorch-
ing rays of the afternoon summer's sun are sooner off. By thus having the walls of a
Book I. WALLS. 467
garden not directly to the four points, the north wall is greatly advantaged by having
more sun.
2441. The best aspect for a fruit-wall in Scotland, Nicol observes, " is about one point
to the eastward of south, such walls enjoying the benefit of the morning sun, and being
turned a little from the violent west and south-west winds. South-east is, for the same
reasons, accounted by many a better aspect than south-west." Dr. Walker, on the
other hand, with reference to the same country, states, that the six hottest hours of
the day are from eleven to five o'clock, and that it is not a wall of a south-east, but
of a south-west aspect, which enjoys this heat. (Essays on Nat. Hist. p. 258.)
2442. The height of walls for training fruit-trees generally approved is from ten to
twelve feet ; but it is more commonly determined by the size and form of the garden,
and the inclination of its surface. The following judicious observations of Nicol are
the best which have appeared on this subject. The irregular surfaces on which gardens
are often obliged to be formed in Scotland, require the greatest attention and nicety
from the designer, and hence the fulness of his remarks.
2443. With respect to the height of fruit -walls, considered merely as such, the matter might easily be
determined. I would say, twelve feet, that height being very convenient for the operations of pruning,
watering, gathering the fruit, &c. and admitting of a sufficient. expansion of the branches of most trees.
But the height of garden-walls should be regulated by the extent, or by the apparent extent, of the ground
enclosed by them. I say by the apparent extent, as well as by the real extent, because much depends on
the form and cast of the ground, in how much the eye shall be pleased. If it be a square, it will seem less
than it really is ; and if a lengthened parallelogram, larger ; and according to its flatness or its elevation,
the eve will be deceived.
2444. A small pot surrounded by high walls has a bad effect and a gloomy appearance. The walls being
of different heights give relief. In a garden of an acre, being a parallelogram of the best proportion, and
gently elevated, the north wall may be raised to the height of fourteen feet; the east and west walls to
twelve ; and the south wall to ten feet above the ground level. If the ground slope considerably, the
breakings in the respective heights of the walls may be less ; they may be only a foot ; and the relief will
be the same, or nearly the same, to the eye, in ranging along their surfaces. In a garden of greater
extent, the walls may be raised to a greater height ; but by no means in proportion, if it extend to several
acres. The extreme height of the north wall of any garden should not exceed eighteen feet ; and containing
suppose four acres, the east and west walls should be fifteen, and the south wall only twelve feet high, in
order that it may give the necessary relief to the eye. In a garden four hundred feet long and three
hundred feet broad, which forms a handsome parallelogram, and contains something above two English
acres, if the ground lie on an easy slope, a very eligible height for the north wall is sixteen feet ; for the
east and west walls fourteen ; and for the south wall twelve. But if the ground be quite level, or nearly
so, the north wall being the same height, the east and west walls should only be thirteen and a half feet,
and the south wall eleven feet in height; or the cast and west walls may only be thirteen, and the south
wall ten feet high, if it be a dead level. (Kal. p. 145.)
2445. Fruit-walls five or six feet high, Hitt observes, will do very well for peaches,
cherries, vines, and figs, but he would not advise the planting of plums, apricots, or
pears, on such walls, they requiring more room, and to stand longer before they
bear.
2446. Fruit-walls ten feet high are preferred by Forsyth, but he says they may extend
to fourteen feet.
2447. Many low walls, or stout ranges of paling, Abercrombie observes, "will pro-
duce a greater total of effect in accelerating fruit, than the same expenditure in high
walls."
2448. The situation of the garden-doors in the walls demands attention. We have
already shown the importance of entering the garden from the south, south-east, or south-
west sides ; and this circumstance must not be lost sight of for main entrances. Doors in
the north wall, or north ring-fence, should be considered as exclusively for the operators
of the garden. Doors, in short, should be so contrived, as never to invite visitors to the
north slip, or so as to get behind the hot-houses. The width of doors depends on the
extent of the garden, and whether the melon-ground and compost-ground are within the
walls, or in the external area. In general the doors in the ring-fence, and the walk round
the outside of the garden, should be such as to admit a one-horse cart for bringing in
manure and soils.
2449. The sloping or bevelled walls, recommended by the author of Fruit Walls
improved by inclining them to the Horizon, are disapproved of by Switzer, because,
" though the author's very curious calculation is, perhaps, no whit inconsistent with
truth, yet experience has taught (and that in a sloping wall at Belvoir Castle, I think, of
the author's own directing), that though the sun may act with more vigor in its solstitial
capacity on a sloping than on a perpendicular wall, yet it is as deficient in its performances
in the morning ; and by the author's own arguments, as well as the observations of
almost every body that has made any observation at all, that dews are expelled at least an
hour in the morning sooner from a perpendicular wall than a sloping one ; so that what
is gained at one time is lost at another." (Pract. Fr. Gard. p. 314, 315.)
2450. Other modifications of kitchen-garden walls. Hitt observes, " I have seen some
walls stuck with tiles projecting, called horizontal shelters, some built with large pillars,
and others with curves ; all these are attended with evils of one kind or other ; for the
horizontal shelters are great receptacles of noxious insects, particularly of the small green
Hh2
■168
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
424
and variegated caterpillars. These insects devour the leaves and eat deeply into the
fruit when grown to a good size ; so that it perishes and drops off* the trees. The shelters
are likewise very prejudicial to both fruit and branches, by depriving them of the descend-
ing dews, from which they imbibe great nourishment. Large pillars or piers have almost
the same ill effects ; besides, they shade the rays of the sun from the trees part of the day,
more or less, in proportion to their size. Though walls built with curves have, in calm
seasons, the benefit of more heat than others ; yet, in windy weather, the winds from
some point or other rebounding from side to side, break and destroy the tender branches
and blossoms of trees, whereby they are much more injured than the heat reflected from
one wall to the other can be of advantage to them. I have found by experience, that
walls built straight and upon arches, as mentioned before, are preferable to all others,
having a coping which projects about two inches to shoot off the rain, in order to preserve
the wall." (TV. on Fruit Trees, p. 40.)
2451. With respect to the con-
struction ofivallsfor kitchen-gardens,
the common upright, straight wall
is now generally preferred to the
sloping, angular, or curved walls,
tried in several places about a cen-
tury ago, and criticised by Justice,
Miller, Switzer, and other authors
of that day. There may occur cases,
however, in which these uncommon
forms, and others which we have no-
ticed (1556 to 157 5.), may be adopted
with propriety. A very good applica-
tion of the angular wall, when formed
of boards, may be made in the case
of a circular garden. (Jig. 424. ) At
each angle (a, b) a light cast-iron
post with grooves is to be inserted
in the ground ; and in these grooves,
the ends of the boards, say in six or
eight feet lengths, are to be inserted,
and left without any fastening. If
they shrink during summer, being loose, they will only drop a little, but never show any
crevice ; and, in order to let the trees be fully exposed to the weather in winter, or to
paint, repair, or renew the boards, all or any part of the latter may easily be
taken out, leaving the cast-iron props in the grounds, and the trees as entirely detached
as if they were standards or border bushes (d). In this way, a large surface of cheap
and neat walling might be obtained in very little space, and on the whole an agreeable
effect produced. A walk, shrubbery and hedge (c) may surround the whole.
2452. Fruit-walls, according to Hitt, should be founded on piers, " placing them at such
distances as to admit one tree of the sort proper for the aspect between, and forming them
of dimensions suitable to the size of the walls, and the nature of the foundations. The
advantages he states to be a saving of material and intended pasturage for the root. If,
however, the wall is to be planted with fruit-trees on both sides, the latter advantage is
imaginary ; and, indeed, the construction might often prove injurious by admitting the
hardy roots of trees, fit for a northern exposure, to intermix with the more delicate ones
of such as are planted on a south aspect. Justice, having disapproved of curved and
angular walls, says, " and as to the other methods of arching walls at their bottoms, that
is still worse ; for when the roots go out at the back sides of the walls at their freedom,
they draw all the rancid juices from the earths at the backs of the walls : in consequence
of which, the fruit infallibly falls off, after it has acquired its magnitude, &c." (Brit.
Gard. Direct, p. 5.) A late writer, J. Robertson (Hort. Trans, iv. p. 95.), recommends
such walls for peach-trees, but obviously on the supposition that no use is made either of
the north side of the wall, or north border,
2453. The foundation of a garden-ivall, according to M'Phail, should be dug out no
deeper than the thickness of good earth on the surface, in order that as little wall may be
lost as possible.
2454. Fruit-walls may be strengthened by piers, according to Forsyth, placed from forty
to sixty feet apart, and projecting half a brick beyond the wall. Such piers are now
made round, or rounded off, as the technical term is, which is more convenient for train-
ing trees.
2455. Projecting stone buttresses are, in some places, set at intervals in the walls,
Neill informs us, in order to strengthen them, and break the force of the winds when
sweeping along. From the external angles of the walls of Dalmeny Park gardens,
Book I. WALLS. 459
where they meet at right angles, a wall (Jig. 425. a), is extended
diagonally about seventeen feet. This extension is found very °
useful in breaking the force of the wind when ranging along
the walls. At the same time it does away, in a considerable
degree, the formal box-shape of the garden when viewed from
the higher grounds in the neighborhood. (Ed. Encyc. art.
Hart.)
2456. With respect to the coping of garden-walls, Nicol ob-
serves, " much has been said, and opinions are at variance.
Some insist that the coping should not project beyond the
face of the wall ; and others, that it should project several
inches, in order to throw the drip oft" the foliage. Others,
again, give it a slope to the north, or to the west side, in
order to throw all the water to the first aspect, or to that
not covered with trees. It may be right to throw the whole
of the water to the side not covered with fruit-trees ; but it is wrong to, throw it all
to the worst aspect, if that aspect be planted, by being disadvantageous to the trees trained
on it, if there be any disadvantage in the rains falling upon them ; which, indeed, is ques-
tionable, except, perhaps, just when the fruit is ripening off. The quantity of rain that
falls on an ordinary wall, is but trifling ; and if even a light breeze of wind prevail at the
time, it is generally dashed against the foliage in dripping, or is scattered and dissipated.
In short, it is quite as well for the trees that there be no projection at all, if the coping be
fixed. A temporary coping of boards, projecting perhaps a foot or eighteen inches, may
be of service to the trees in spring, while in bloom, in repelling the perpendicular frosts,
that are often injurious to them at that time, and to the tender fruit. But such frosts are
less hurtful than baneful frosty winds, which fall not perpendicularly, and which are better
warded off by screens." (Kal. p. 146.)
2457. Fixed copings are disapproved of by Forsyth, especially when they project so far
as they are generally made to do. « I would rather advise to have a moveable wooden
coping, fixed on with iron hooks, fastened to pieces of wood, built into the top of the wall ;
these copings would also be found very convenient to fasten the nettings, &c. to in spring,
for sheltering the fruit-trees. If, however, any should prefer fixed copings, they should
not project above an inch on each side of the wall ; this small projection will be sufficient
to preserve the wall, and will not prevent the dew and rain from falling on the upper part
of the trees, which is of great service to them."
2458. Copings ivhich project nearly afoot are approved of by the Comte Lelieur, and the
Rev. T. G. Cullum. In the best peach-gardens at Montreuil they project four or five
inches ; and at Thomery, where the finest grapes are raised, the copings project ten or eleven
inches over walls which do not exceed eight feet in height. (Pom. Francaise, p. 78.) T. G.
Cullum has built, in Suffolk, a nine-inch wall with rounded piers, and copings of slate
supported by oaken brackets, projecting a foot from the wall. The result answered his
expectations. (Hort. Trans, iv. 269.)
2459. Estimate of opinions as to copings. On the whole, it appears both from the ex-
perience of a number of gardeners, and the most correct theories of dew ( Wells on Deiv,
1819, see 1243.) and cold (Leslie, in Supp. Encyc. art. Cold), that projecting copings are
of use in spring to protect the blossoms from descending cold and dews ; but. as the
copings must be injurious in summer by excluding light, rain, and air, and harboring ver-
min, we should prefer the temporary coping of boards recommended by Miller, Forsyth,
and Nicol.
2460. With respect to tfie materials for kitchen-garden ivalls, brick is almost universally
preferred ; Forsyth says, " Where brick cannot be got, it is better to dispense with walls
altogether, or to adopt wooden ones." " Brick," Nicol states, "is best for the superstruc-
ture, and stone for the foundation and basement. Bricks give more warmth, and answer
better for training trees to than stone. South, east, and west aspects should therefore be
faced with brick, if the wall be not entirely built of it. If the wall be built entirely of
stone, or be backed with stone, or be faced with bricks, and if trees are to be trained
against such backing, the stones should be run in regular courses of from four to seven
or eight inches thick, and each fifteen or twenty inches in length, by which there may be
a frequency in joints, and that the trees may be properly trained against the wall."
2461. Dark-colored whinstone (greenstone or basalt) is the next best material to brick, when properly
squared and hammer-dressed, as it absorbs heat ; and next to that, a kind of bluish-grey stone (sandstone
flag), or, in parts of the country consisting of primitive rocks, clay-slate that rises in natural flags, the thick-
ness, or nearly the thickness, of bricks, and which require but little dressing, or trouble in building. The
nearer the stone approaches to black, the more valuable it is for the purpose ; the preference being given to
the darkest whinstone, merely because it absorbs and retains heat more than light-colored stones, and b\
reason of its close texture or grain, repels moisture better, or retains less of it than other stones. But good
durable freestone (sand-stone), being properly squared, hammer-dressed, and run in courses as above, makes
a very good wall for training the more common kind of fruits to ; such as apples, cherries, pears, and plums,
and may answer verv well for east, west, and north aspects. But t1"3 better aspects, as south, south east, or
Hh3
470
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
south-west, on which are to be trained apricots, figs, nectarines, peaches, and the finer sorts of pears and
plums, should, if at all convenient, be faced with brick, or be built of dark whinstone.
2462. The basement of the wall should universally be built of durable stone, if it can be obtained, in pre-
ference to brick ; whether the superstructure be of brick, or of stone in courses. In many cases it is cheaper
than brick; in any case more solid and durable. Supposing a ground-level line to be determined on, the
foundation or basement should be sunk at least a yard below it. If for a stone superstructure, it should be
thirty inches thick ; for a brick and a half brick thick wall, twenty inches ; and if for a wall faced with brick,
and backed with free-stone, two feet, or twenty-six inches thick, according to the size of the stones ; that is
to say, the basement should generally be six inches thicker than the superstructure, there being a shelf or
scarcement of three inches thick on either side of the wall. If the basement be built with bricks, in order to
save materials, the scarcement need not be made more than two inches ; that is, the half breadth of a brick
on cither side ; so allowing four bricks to the basement, and three to the superstructure. (Kalend. p. 144.)
The foundation and basement of walls, Neill observes, are often made of common building sand-stone,
while the superstructure is brick ; and sometimes the back part of the wall is of sand-stone, and the front
only of brick. Sand-stone, which rises in flags, is the best substitute for bricks. Both kinds of materials
admit of the branches of the trees being nailed in regularly, and without difficulty. Where brick is scarce
and dear, Justice builds the foundation of stone, and lays one course of bricks on that side of the wall which
has the best aspect, carrying up the other with stone.
2463. Trellises against stone ivalls. " Where the walls are of common rubble building,"
Neill observes, " a trellis of spars is sometimes placed against them, and to this trellis the
branches are tied with osier twigs or rope-yarn. This is regarded as a very good plan ;
but the expense is considerable, as, to prevent the lodging of insects, the trellis must be
smooth and painted. The trees thus enjoy the shelter and regular heat of the wall, with-
out being injured by its dampness in rainy weather ; and as the wall is not injured by the
driving and drawing of nails, there are fewer lurking places for the wood-louse and the
snail. The rails of the trellis are made closer or wider according to the nature of the tree
to be trained against it. In a few instances in Scotland, walls have been built of different
kinds of whinstone, chiefly green-stone and basalt." (Edin. Encyc. art. Hon.)
2464. The courses of bricks in kitchen-garden tvalls, some artists require to be laid hori-
zontally, or on a level ; but Hitt, Nicol, and most modern designers, prefer them laid in
lines parallel to the surface of the border, which, besides presenting a more agreeable effect
to the eye, answers better for lateral or horizontal training, in which, when adopted on such
walls, the shoots are laid in parallel to the courses of brick and the surface of the ground.
Were they laid in horizontally, there would necessarily be an unsightly blank at the top
and bottom of each tree. This is a matter deserving attention, both on account of
economy and the effect produced.
2465. Different descriptions of wooden walls have been described (1565.), and one or other
of them may be adopted in small gardens, or in particular situations. Nicol affirms
(Kal. p. 148.) that fruits may be produced on wooden walls, in as high perfection as on
those of brick. He acknowledges them, however, to be less durable. Switzer describes
a wooden fruit-wall, made from the boards or sides of " old shipping, which may be had
at sea-port towns, and is, indeed, some of the best for fruit of any, not excepting brick
walls ; for, being pitched and tarred, on account of its preservation before it goes to sea,
time and the salt-water, and the different climates through which the vessel sails, so
harden and incrustate the planks, that the heat of the sun strikes upon it to a degree not
to be borne withal, as all that make voyages at sea can testify. These kind of wooden
walls are generally made at half the expense of brick, and will last many years ; and you
may nail tolerably well into them."
2466. Mud xoalls. A sort of walls to save bricks are made of mud ; " but I do not,"
says Switzer, " thereby mean such as were in old times made of those coarse materials,
though I have, I confess, often seen good fruit on them, but such as they make at this
time in Dorset and Wiltshire (dry climates), chalk and
mud mixed together, with a proportionable quantity of
old hay or straw mixed with it; of which, when
the foundations are laid of brick, or stone, or chalk,
two or three feet high, which they often do, it is a very
good wall for fruit, not disagreeable, nor of less use and
concern for fruit-trees, than stone, brick, or wooden
walls." (Pract.Fr. Gard. p. 300.)
2467. Open railings, or lattice-work of timber or cast-
iron, are sometimes used as substitutes for walls. The
garden of the Duke of Chandos (Pope's Timon), at
Edgeware, was surrounded by a wrought-iron rail
twelve feet high. We have, in the case of a garden
of a north aspect, employed an open railing (jig. 426.
b) instead of the south wall, and a boarded wall (a) as
the fence on the north side. The advantage of this
plan is, that the south border (c) of the north wall is
sheltered at all times, and the north border and walk of
the south rail (e, i) is exposed to the sun during winter
and spring, when the trees trained against the rail are \|""_
426
=
Book I.
WALLS.
471
427
defoliated ; while in summer, the same border is shaded by the foliation of the trees, and
thereby as well adapted for salading and late crops, as the north border of any opaque
wall. This garden had round ends ; the semicircular compartments (/, g) formed by
which were devoted to fruit-shrubs ; and the other compartments (&), being rectangular,
to the culture of the ordinary annual crops : at one end was a building (h) serving
as a tool-house and watching-lodge.
2468. Hot or fined ivalls have been in use in kitchen-gardens for more than a century ;
but till lately they were confined to walls with southern aspects. At present, however
it is not uncommon, where all the four walls of a quadrangular kitchen-garden are of
brick, to flue the whole of them. The expense of a flued wall is exactly the same as that
of a solid one, what is lost in labor being gained in materials ; and it is found of great
advantage, in cold and late autumns, to apply fires for even two or three weeks, as well to
ripen the wood, as the remaining fruit. In spring also, such walls, either with or
without some of the different sorts of protecting covers (1492.) are found of great use
in forwarding vegetation, especially in all the northern counties of England, and in
Scotland. Flued walls are certainly not much recommended by Abercrombie, M'Phail,
Marshall, or Forsyth, probably from the climate in which these authors gained their ex-
perience not requiring such aids. It is acknowledged also, that " this species of forcing
is practised by many in a very injudicious way, and much mischief done through error to
thousands of fine trees." Nicol, however, the author of this remark, subjoins, that " flued
walls are certainly eminently useful, particularly in the northern parts of these kingdoms,
and are often necessary to the production of peaches and nectarines in bad seasons."
Switzer seems to have been the first to recommend them, giving various plans for hollow-
arched and flued walls in his Practical Fruit Gardener, some of which had been executed
and found to succeed in Lincolnshire, and at Buckingham House. Abercrombie says, " We
mention the hot wall without glass work, as among the projects for forcing, an old tried
one, but not to recommend it. The expense of glass work is saved by a false economy :
the plants are thus excited, on one side, by a strong artificial heat ; and exposed to frost
and damp violent winds, and heavy rains on the other. Many practical men have found
this contrivance calculated to produce an untimely show of blossoms, while the counter-
acting effect of their situation exposes both plant and blossom to perish. If not applied till
the decline of summer, it may do some good in assisting fruit to ripen." (Pr. Gar. p. 596.)
2469. Flued ivalls for the climate of Scotland are
highly approved of by Justice ; and, as they cost
no more in erection than solid walls, it may be ad-
visable in many cases to build them, whether steam
or smoke heat should be applied or not. The fa-
cility with which the former is applied to walls
through recent improvements (1561.) is certainly a
great argument in their favor. Our opinion is,
that in all complete gardens, the whole of the walls
should be flued or cellular (fig. 238.), to admit of
the application of artificial heat at pleasure. One
boiler and furnace may easily be contrived to sup-
ply heat to both the hot-houses and walls.
2470. Cross walls (fig. 427. a, b) are introduced
where the boundary wall is not sufficiently exten-
sive to produce the desired quantity of fruit, and
also to produce shelter to the garden. They are
very generally flued walls in all modern gardens
north of London, and are not unfrequently wholly
or in part covered with glass. The direction of
these walls is almost universally east and west, and
their height is determined by the surrounding walls
to which they are joined. These cross walls, Nicol
observes, are not placed nearer to each other than
one hundred feet ; if they be two hundred feet se-
parate, it is perhaps better.
2471. Hedges are sometimes introduced instead
of cross walls ; but it is obvious they possess only two
of their advantages, that of affording shelter and
shade. Where they are adopted for these purposes,
evergreens, as the holly, box, laurel, spruce, &c.
are to be preferred to deciduous trees ; as from their
surface being, at all seasons of the year, more com-
pact than that of deciduous hedges, they are less
liable to harbor birds and vermin. No hedge has
Hh 4
472 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
a finer effect than one of shining green holly, decorated with its coral berries. (See
Hort. Trans, ii. 354.) .
2472. Color of walls. Garden-walls are generally left of the native color oi the mate-
rial of which they are constructed ; but they have been also colored white or black, and
the latter color is justly preferred as absorbing and refracting more heat than any other,
and thereby accelerating the maturity, and improving the quality of fruits. (H. Dawes, in
Hort. Trans. Hi- S30.) From various trials, it appears that fruit- walls of every descrip-
tion, in the open air, may be blackened with advantage ; but under glass, white is pre-
ferable, as reflecting light, which is there obtained with more difficulty than heat.
Sect. IX. Ring-fence and Slip.
2473. The rin<* or outer fence of a garden is generally placed at some distance from the
fruit or main walls. The object is to admit the use of these on both sides as well as to
obtain a portion of ground in addition to what is enclosed. Tins fence may either be an
evergreen hedge, paling, low wall, or sunk fence, and with or without a wire fence to
exclude hares and rabbits. It may be placed at any distance from the walls, according as
accidental circumstances, or the purposes to which it is intended to devote the intervening
space, may determine. This space is technically called the slip, and, according to M'Phail
and most authors, should not be narrower than thirty feet, nor so wide as to throw the
plantation for shelter too far off to produce its effect.
2474. The breadth of the slip, according to Nicol, should be at least twenty feet, in
order to afford a sufficient border for the trees, and a walk ; but it may be as much more
in breadth as may be necessary to give ground without the space enclosed by walls for the
supply of the family, and it may be enlarged on all sides, or on any particular side, for
that purpose. (Kal. p. 6.) The garden, Forsyth states, should be surrounded with a bor-
der, or slip, from forty to sixty feet wide or more, if the ground can be spared ; and this
again enclosed with an oak paling, from six to eight feet high, with a cheval-defrize at top
to prevent the people's getting over : it will also strengthen the paling. By making slips
on the outside of the garden-wall, you will have plenty of ground for gooseberries, cur-
rants, strawberries, &c. You may allot that part of the slips which lies nearest to the
stables (if well sheltered and exposed to the sun) for melon and cucumber beds ; and you
can plant both sides of the garden-wall, which will give a great addition to the quantity
of wall-fruit. (TV. on Fr. Trees, p. 294.)
Sect. X. Placing the Culinary Hot-houses and Melonry.
2475. The situation of the hot-houses of a kitchen-garden is as various as the size and
form of gardens. In very extensive establishments, as at Kew, and the Royal Gardens,
Kensington', a garden or walled enclosure is entirely devoted for this department, in-
cluding0 also the framing or melonry. In ordinary cases, however, the culinary hot-
houses°are either placed against the north wall of the garden, or against one or more of
the cross walls. Sometimes they are placed in the slip, which is made wider on purpose,
either on the east and west sides of the garden, or to the north, when it is situated on a
considerable declivity. Their effect, however, is almost always best when situated
within the walls of the garden, either attached or on the north or cross walls. In this
w ay they are sources of greater interest to the proprietor, and come more naturally into
the general course of promenade : for it must not be forgotten, that the pleasure or satis-
faction derived from even culinary hot-houses, does not wholly consist in being put in
possession of certain fruits of excellent quality, (for if so, recourse need only be had to
public markets,) but in marking the progress of die trees or plants on which these fruits
are grown, in all their different stages ; and, as Nicol observes, in being able to say
" these are the products of my own garden."
2476. Placi7ig the hot-houses in a range with a directly south aspect, or one inclining to
the east, is recommended by Nicol ; and it may be here observed, that what is a desir-
able aspect for the north and best walls of a garden, will also be the best for the hot-
houses. By placing them in a range, " there will be an evident saving in the division
or end lights, besides the saving of trouble and work to those who attend to them.
Being properly arranged according to their different lengths, breadths, and heights, very
much beauty and variety may be given to the whole appearance." {Kal. p. 272.)
2477. The hot-houses occupy a considerable part of the south wall, Niel observes, "in
many gardens. In the area behind them are sheds for tanners' bark, rich mould, and
other requisites ; while there is a cart-access to the doors of the furnaces, and these with
the rubbish necessarily attending the operations of forcing, are completely hid from view.
In some places all the forcing-houses form a continuous range ; but generally the pine-
stove and succession pit, being of different dimensions, are placed separately." (Edin.
Encyc. art. Hort.)
2478. Culinary hot-houses should not be mixed with houses for plants of ornament. Jn some
old ill-arranged places, the greenhouse and plant-stove, or botanic hot-houses, are united
Book I.
LAYING OUT THE AREA.
473
with those destined for culinary products, and this is very suitable, or is rather a matter
of necessity in places on a moderate scale ; but where variety and effect are taken pro-
perly into consideration, the ornamental or curious productions of gardening will be
kept separate from those whose beauty consists chiefly or entirely in their utility. In
this way two distinct and strongly marked characters are produced, instead of scenery of
a mixed, and as it were neutralised character.
2479. The situation of the melonry is generally in the slip, and where the range of
hot-houses are placed on the north wall, and the ground sloping so as to shorten the
shadow thrown by this wall in winter when the sun is low, the melonry is with great
propriety placed in what may be called a bay of the slip behind the north wall {Jig.
427. c). This may almost always be the case when the compost-ground and melonry
are placed adjoining each other, as the part most liable to be shaded may be devoted to
the former. " The reasons," Forsyth observes, " for allotting part of the outside slip
next the stable for hot-beds for raising melons and cucumbers, are, first, because there
will be no litter to carry in within the walls to dirty the walks ; secondly, the beds will
not be seen from the garden, and lastly, the convenience of carrying the dung, by which
a great deal of time will be saved in carting and wheeling. It will be necessary,
especially in exposed situations, to enclose the melon-ground with either a wall or
paling from six to eight feet high. It was formerly a practice to enclose melon-grounds,
with reed-fences ; but, although they are tolerably warm, and easily removed from one
place to another (being made in separate panels), they are very apt to harbor vermin."
(TV. on Fr. Tr. p. 295.) In Dalmeny gaixlen, Neill informs us, the melon-ground is
situated on the east side of the garden, the garden-wall being extended on the north of
it to the same height as the other walls, and flued like the rest of the walls which have a
south aspect. The pine-stoves and pits are placed in this melon-ground.
2480. The mould and compost ground, as above suggested, should generally be com-
bined with the melonry, and will be most convenient, if placed between the pits and hot-
beds, and the garden-wall on which the range of hot-houses is placed ; and thus, when
the melonry is placed in the bay behind the north wall, the compost-ground occupies a
space that would otherwise be too much shaded for hot-beds or pits.
Sect. XI. Laying out the Area.
248 1 . The area, or space
enclosed by the garden-
walls {jig. 428. a, b), is
usually formed into com-
partments, very common-
ly called quarters {d, d),
and borders, or narrow
slips {a), running pa-
rallel to the walls {b) and
walks (c). The mag-
nitude and number,
both of compartments
and borders, as well as
of the walks, depend
on the size of the gar-
den, and partly also on
the taste of the de-
signer. Rectangular
figures are almost uni-
versally preferred for both. Wall-borders are generally formed of the breadth of the
height of the accompanying wall ; they may be broader, but do not produce a good effect
when narrower. In a garden of an acre within the walls, the walks are never less than
six feet broad, the surrounding or wall border from ten to thirteen feet, and the marginal
borders from seven to eight feet wide. In the latter, an espalier rail is frequently
fixed about five feet from the edging of the wall ; in other cases, the trees are planted
along the middle of the border, and trained as dwarfs ; an alley or path, commonly
two feet wide (o) , separates the borders from the compartments. In the slip may be
formed irregular compartments or borders {q), the gardener's house {g), and the compost
and melon ground (f ). The fence on the south side may be an open railing (;>),
and on the north a wall or close holly-hedge, the whole surrounded by a plantation
nearer or more distant, according to circumstances. The hot-houses being placed
against the north wall (6), behind them are placed the sheds, and on a moderate
scale these may contain a working-room (/i), fruit and seed-room {e), tool-houses {k),
and the furnaces (i). To the open space behind (/), for composts and hot-beds,
there should always be a carriage entrance (n), for bringing in earth, fuel, dung, &c.
474
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
429
In the centre of the garden may be a fountain or
basin of water (»i), and in the gardener's house an
upper bedroom to overlook the whole. In smaller
gardens (Jig. 429.) the same general plan is adopted
as far as their extent admits. Where ornament is to
be combined with use, the standard fruit-trees and
shruhs may be planted in borders accompanying the walks
(c, c) ; but where economy of ground is the object, the
trees and shrubs may be collected together in compart-
ments (a, b), and borders altogether omitted.
2482. In laying out the compartments of a garden,
Forsyth observes, " you must be guided, in a great
measure, by the form and size of the garden ; but do
not lay them out too small, as in that case a great part
of the ground will be taken up with walks and bor-
ders. The best figure is a square, or oblong, when
the garden is of that form ; but if not, they may be
laid out in any other figure that is thought to be most
convenient." Some of the compartments, in some
of our best gardens, Neill observes, are laid out in
beds four feet wide, with narrow alleys. So many
alleys, no doubt, occupy a deal of room ; but advan-
tages of conveniency and neatness, in enabling the
workmen to clean and gather the crop, without trampling the ground, seem to compen-
sate the sacrifice of space. For currant, gooseberry, and raspberry bushes, the compart-
ments are, of course, reserved undivided ; and narrow beds are unnecessary in the case of
large perennial plants, such as artichokes or rhubarb.
2483. Laying out the borders. Abercrombie recommends the borders next the walls to
be made of prepared soil, " from eight to twelve feet wide, and the same description of
soil extended under the walks, in order to allow a liberal width for the roots to spread
without impediment. Next to the borders, leave a space for a walk entirely round the
garden, from four to six feet wide. Some persons also choose to have a border on the
inward side of the walk, for the cultivation of espaliers, and esculents of dwarf growth ;
others divide the central parts at once into main compartments or divisions. The walks or
alleys must be regulated by convenience of access. Where the ground is extensive, the
centre should be traversed by a walk, with parallel borders, from which cross walks may
branch, if necessary." (Pr. Gard. p. 4.) The borders under the walls, Forsyth
observes, should, in the inside, be from ten to twenty feet wide, according to the size of
the garden, to give full liberty to the roots of the trees to spread. There should be a
foot-path, about two feet and a half from the wall, for the greater convenience of nailing
the trees, gathering the fruit, &c. This walk should be from two, to two feet and a half
wide, (to admit a barrow or barrow-engine for watering the trees,) and covered with
sand ; or, which is better, coal-ashes, about two or three inches thick, but without any
gravel or rubbish below. (Tr. on Fruit Trees, p. 294.) The borders for wall-trees,
according to Nicol, should not be less than twelve feet in breadth ; but fifteen
or eighteen feet is not too much. That is to say, the soil should be prepared for these
breadths, if it be not naturally good, and perfectly answerable for the different kinds of
trees to be planted.
2484. preparation of fruit-tree borders. It is not enough, Nicol observes, that the
upper soil of a border only be improved. The sub-soil must also be attended to, and be
laid comfortably dry ; otherwise success in the rearing of fruits will be precarious and
doubtful. Draining is the basis of every improvement in horticulture, being the basis
of improvement in the soil. In this particular case, of preparing fruit-tree borders, it
is indispensable. It is also necessary that the roots of the trees be kept out of the sub-
soil, if it be of a cankering quality, as till, or corroding sand. This matter has appeared
evident to many, and various means have been taken to prevent them from getting down
to a bad substratum, at much trouble and expense. I shall here submit a method, the
least expensive and most effectual of any, which has been successfully practised for
several years.
2485. Forming an impervious bottom to borders. If the sub-soil be wet and cankering,
let the border be cleared out its whole length, to the depth and breadth before-
mentioned. Lay the bottom in a sloping manner from the wall to the walk, giving it a
fall of six or eight inches. Run a drain along by the conjunction of the border and
walk, a few inches lower than the bottom thus formed, which shall be capable of com-
pletely draining off both under and surface water. It may be a rubble-drain, or a box-
drain, according to necessity. Now, lay over the bottom, thus formed and smooth, two
inches of good earth, if clayey so much the better, which pulverise and pass the roller
Book I. LAYING OUT THE AREA. 475
over; then an inch of clean pit or river gravel, which also pass the roller over; another
inch of earth, as above, which also roll ; and, lastly, an inch of gravel, also, as above.
This should be done with the materials rather in a dry state ; but now moisten the whole
moderately with a watering-pot, and roll until the surface acquires a hard sinning con-
sistency. Keep rolling and watering alternately, till the whole becomes firm and
glazed, and till the earth and gravel be intimately mixed and incorporated. Thus may
a bed be formed for the roots of fruit-trees, much superior to one of stone or brick, and
at an expense greatly less ; of a nature more kindly, and which no root will penetrate.
2486. Prepared soil for borders should be thrown in, having been previously laid up in
a ridge, along the outer edge of the border, before the floor thus made get damaged by
wet, or other accidents ; and care must be taken that at no future period it be disturbed
in digging or trenching the border.
2487. A fit composition for apples, apricots, cherries, and figs is, three fourths hale
lightish earth, and one fourth strong loam ; being properly composed, and moderately
enriched with cow-dung, or a mixture of cow and hog dung, or of cow and stable dung ;
avoiding the latter, however, if the two former can be obtained, for the cooler dungs
answer best for fruit-trees. The average depth of the borders for these kinds should be
thirty inches.
2488. A very fit soil for peaches, pears, and plums is, three fourths loam, and one
fourth sandy earth, being well mixed, and moderately enriched, as above. The depth
for peaches and nectarines may be thirty inches, as above ; but for pears and plums, it
should not be less than three feet on the average, that is, two feet nine inches at the walk,
and three feet three inches at the wall, or thereby. (Kcd. p. 153.)
2489. Where the expense of forming proper soils for fruit-tree borders is not incurred, it is
necessary to adapt the kind of trees to the soil. On soils, Neill observes, "naturally very
light, gravelly, and sandy, peach and nectarine trees do little good ; it is better to plant
apricots, figs, or vines, which agree with such soils, and, when trained against a
wall having a good aspect, will, in the southern parts of the island, afford excellent crops
of fruit. On such soils, even espalier and dwarf standard apple-trees are short-lived,
subject to blight, and produce only stunted fruit. Next to renewing the soil, the best
remedy is to engraft and re-engraft frequently, on the best wood of the trees, giving the
preference to grafts of those kinds which experience has shown to be the most productive
and healthy in that particular place. In shallow soils, some have been in the practice of
making troughs or hollows, and filling them with rich earth, for the reception of the trees;
but this is not to be approved of; the roots of the trees will probably be confined to the
trough, and it is possible that water may be retained in it." (Edin. Encyc. art. Hort.)
2490. The number and breadth of walks, Marshall observes, "must, in a great measure,
be determined by the quantity of allotted ground, exceeding in these particulars where
there is room. But few and wide walks are preferable to many contracted ones. If the
garden is small, one good walk all round is sufficient ; and if long and narrow, the cross
walks should not be many: six or eight-feet walks are not too wide for a moderate-sized
garden. " The middle walk, according to Forsyth, " should be about seven feet, which
is wide enough to admit a cart ; and the others about three or four feet broad, with a
border on each side, five or six feet wide, at least, between the walk and the fruit-trees."
"If the garden Jbe very extensive," Neill observes, "the centre is traversed by a
broad walk. If it be of the largest dimensions, and possess a cross wall or cross walls,
the arrangement of the walks falls to be altered accordingly ; a main walk proceeding
directly to the door, in the centre of the cross walls."
2491. A walk should always proceed from the main entrance to the main object of the
garden. The entrance, as already observed (2388.), should either be in the centre
of the south-east or west walls. Where there are hot-houses, it should, if possible, be in
the south wall, and from thence a broad walk with suitable borders should proceed direct
to the centre of the garden, and across it to the centre of the range of hot-houses. Main
walks in square or parallelogram gardens, entering from whatever point, should, in
general, proceed to the centre ; but in long octagons or irregular gardens, diagonal walks,
though they occasion a little more trouble in culture, have a noble effect. It is almost
needless to observe, that no main walk ought ever to terminate abruptly, or look to a
mere blank, a defect, or an unsightly object. These and various other points of the
greatest consequence as to future effect, must be left to the taste of the designer.
2492. Gravel is almost universally considered the best material for walks ; but there are
various substitutes. " Sand," Marshall observes, " may be adopted for walks, and there is a
binding sort of it that does very well ; but lay not any of it too thick, as it is the less
firm for it. Drift-sand is a good substitute for gravel. Coal-ashes, strewed thinly in
the alleys, are better than nothing, as they at least serve to keep the feet dry and clean.
If the garden be a strong soil, these ashes (when worn down) should be thrown out of
the walks, with a little of the earth, and will prove a good manure for the compartments."
(Introd. to Gard. p. 35.) A binding sand, Forsyth says, " makes good walks, and they
476 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part HI.
are easily kept ; for when moss or weeds begin to grow, they may be cleaned with a
horse-shoe, or scuffled over with a Dutch hoe, in dry weather, and raked a day or two
after, by which they will be made always to look neat and clean. I, however, give the
preference to sea-coal ashes, which, in my opinion, make the best walks for a kitchen-
garden, and they are easier kept than any others, being firm and dry, and cleaner to walk
on than sand, especially after frost."
2493. Grass walks may do where gravel is scarce ; but the latter is so clearly preferable,
that, except for a little variety in large gardens, where there are many walks, grass walks
will hardly be made choice of, as they are troublesome to keep in order ; and if much
used are apt to get bare, and out of level, especially when narrow : they are also fre-
quently damp to the feet. Chamomile has been used also to form green or carpet
walks, planting it in sets about nine or ten inches asunder ; which, naturally spreading,
the runners are fixed by walking on them, or rolling.
2494. Edgings to walk* are essential to the beauty and completeness of a kitchen-garden,
though, in some cases, verdant edgings are dispensed with. According to Marshall, the
borders should have their outer edges, in contact with the walks, made up firm and even.
Where the design or intimate communication with the house requires edgings, box is
superior to every thing else. In extensive kitchen-gardens, edgings of vegetables,
particularly of box, are dispensed with as inconvenient, and apt to harbor slugs. At
the same time the margins of the beds and main walks should be kept even and
well defined ; for this purpose, nothing is more neat and lasting, or better fitted to save
trouble, than narrow edgings of brick a single course wide. In the interior compartments,
parsley may be sown for an edging ; so slips of thyme, winter savory, hyssop, and other
aromatic herbs, may be planted ; as long as such herbs flourish, or remain ungathered,
they form a verdant edging, in character with the kitchen-garden. (Introd. to Gard.
p. 5.) Border-edgings, Neill observes, are not in use, excepting for the walks next
the walls, and the cross walks in very large gardens ; for these, dwarf-box is almost
universally employed.
2495. Inlaying out the slip or exterior area of the kitchen-garden, those parts not occu-
pied as the melonry or compost-ground are disposed of in two borders : the one for fruit,
surrounding the wall, and of suitable breadth and composition as to soil ; the other next
the boundary, of such breadth as the width of the slip allows. The walk between these
borders should, in gardens of one or more acres, be made of sufficient width to admit a
one-horse cart, to make the circuit of the garden so as to bring in manures, soils, fuel,
&c. to any of the wall-doors, for the purpose of being wheeled into the inner garden.
The outer border is commonly occupied by low fruit-shrubs, or common kitchen-crops ;
but in small places, and where the garden is of a mixed character, it is arranged as a
shrubbery, and, where Forsyth's advice is taken, the shrubs are mixed with the more
hardy fruit-trees.
2496. A reserve and nursery department should always be formed in the slip, at
least in gardens where any thing like beauty or perfection is aimed at. The use of this
compartment is to preserve or raise plants, some in pots, others in the open ground, to
supply vacancies within the walls. Whatever crop is sown or planted in the garden, a
small portion of it should, at the same time, be sown or planted in the nursing depart-
ment, some in pots, and others in the open ground, by which means, when any blanks
occur in the former, they can be filled up from the latter. One part of this department
should be devoted to propagating fruit-trees and fruit-shrubs for the same purpose, and
also for giving away to poorer neighbors, and for stocking and encouraging cottage and
farm gardens.
2497. The best seasons for forming a garden are the spring and summer ; but, at
all events, at whatever time the operations are begun, they should be arranged so as to
be finished early in autumn to admit of planting the fruit-trees and laying the edges of
the walks at that season, or very early in the spring.
Chap. II.
Of the Distribution of Fruit-trees in a Kitchen-garden.
2498. To select and arrange a proper collection of fruit-trees, and plant them in their
appropriate situations, is the next step in forming a kitchen-garden. This subject
naturally comprehends, 1. Wall-trees ; 2. Espaliers and dwarf-st a ndards for the borders ;
3. Standards for the compartments ; 4. Fruit-shrubs. As a point of practice common to
each of these divisions of fruit-trees, we may mention that of registering their names either
in series (1388.) on a plan of the garden, or by reference to numbers attached to the
trees, cut in tallies placed by them, stamped in lead and hung on them, or nailed to the
Book I.
ARRANGEMENT OF WALL FRUIT-TREES.
477
wall or espalier-rail, &c Forsyth, Abercrombie, and others, agree in recommending
the placing the names of the sorts on tablets, with the time of ripening, and fixino- them
by, or what is better, hanging them on, the lower part of the stem of each tree. With
respect to the varieties of fruits recommended in the sections of this chapter, those who
consider them as too limited, will find ample choice in the horticultural catalogue,
Chap. II.
Sect. I. Of the Selection and Arrangement of Wall Fruit-trees,
2499. Fruit-trees adapted for walls may be considered in regard to the sort of fruit,
sort of plant, distance, and planting.
2500. With respect to the sorts of fruit and their distribution on the different asjyects of the
walls, the first general principle is, that the more delicate species of trees, as the grape, fig,
and peach, are planted against the warmest walls; the next is, that the more delicate va-
rieties of the more hardy fruits, as the cherry and pear, are placed against warm walls ;
and the last, that such varieties of the hardy fruits as it is desired to ripen very early, find
a place there. " The best border and wall," says Abercrombie, " should be allotted to the
vine, the peach, nectarine, fig, and apricot : let the vine take the first place for aspect, as
it is difficult to bring it to ripen out of doors north of London. Where the peach, nec-
tarine, fig, and apricot cannot have a south aspect, the south-east and south-west are the
proper alternatives. Some early sorts of the apricot will ripen on an east or west wall.
The west is the middling exposure, and by no means on a par with the east. The
cherry in general may have an exposure looking to any point of the compass, except full
north, yet choice early kinds deserve a south border, nor do they attain the climax of
perfection without. The morella cherry, the pear in general, the plum in general, the
apple in general, and the mulberry will do on any wall ; but all late fruit is universally
improved in proportion to the goodness of the aspect from the west and east through all
the intermediate points to the south, and some of the high-flavored French pears require
a fine wall to grow here in perfection. The end of a building is a good site for a free-
growing pear-tree ; which, if a garden-wall is not uncommonly high, will require a deal
of lateral room. A long and high wall is also fittest for a fig-tree. The mulberry,
medlar, quince, filbert, currant, gooseberry, and raspberry answer well on espaliers."
2501. The sorts or varieties of fruit that may be procured at the nurseries are so nume-
rous, as to puzzle an inexperienced person in making the selection. After all, much is
generally, and with propriety, left to the nurserymen, who recommends the sorts most in
repute at the time. " I have long made it my business," says Nicol, "to persuade my
employers, in the planting of new gardens and orchards, to limit the varieties of fruit, in
the firm conviction that I was acting for their interest ; for certainly the rage for mul-
viplying them, and of having a numerous collection, has too much prevailed of late. It
w ere better to be contented with a few good kinds that produce well in most seasons,
than to plant many sorts (even of those reckoned the finer) for the sake of variety, of
which a crop is obtained, perhaps once in three, or in seven years. It is no doubt of very
much importance to select and adapt the kinds to the climate, soil, and aspect, and in
some cases, a greater variety may be planted with propriety than in others. This
matter must be determined by existing circumstances, by the fancy of the proprietor, and
by the discretion of the gardener. The following list exhibits a collection, in my opinion,
ample enough in any case, though, perhaps, according to better judgment, certain kinds
may be substituted for some here named, that may be equally valuable. Certain kinds
may also be placed differently with respect to aspect, as may be thought proper, according
to the climate and local situation." Those marked with an asterisk (*) Nicol considers
the most valuable kinds, and such as should be preferred in the planting of small gar-
dens, where the walls are of little extent. ,
Apples.
*Golden Pippin, S., S.E., or S.W.
Oslin Pippin, E. or W.
*Ribston Pippin, Ditto.
*<iolden Russet, Ditto.
Royal Russet, E., W., N. E., or N. W.
*Nonpareil, S., S. E., or S. W.
Hawthomdean, E., W., or N.
Yorkshire Greening, Ditto.
Pears.
*Jargonelle, S., E., W.
Ore^sane, S. E., S., or S.W.
Colraar, Ditto.
*Beurre du Roi, . S., E.,W\
Gansell's Bergamot, E.orW.
*Autumn Bergamot, Ditto..
Swiss Bergamot, - Ditto.
-A chan, ... Ditto.
Yair, ... Ditto.
St. Germain's, - Ditto.
Summer Boncretien, Ditto.
*Chaumontelle, S.
Clierries.
*May-duke,
S.,E.,W.
Arch-duke, S., E.,W.
*Black Heart, - Ditto.
White Heart, - Ditto.
*Harrison's Heart, Ditto.
*Morella, E., YV., N.
Plums.
*Green Gage, S. E., S.,orS.\V.
Yellow Gage, Ditto.
Blue Gage, E.orW.
*Fotheringham, Ditto.
La Royale, S. E. or W.
* White Magnum Bonum, E. or W.
Apricots.
*Moore Park. E., W., or N.
Orange, - Ditto.
* Breda, - Ditto.
*Brussels, - Ditto.
Roman, - Ditto.
Masculine, S., £., W.
Peaches.
*Red Magdalen, S. E., S., or S.W.
White Magdalen, Ditto.
*Noblesse, - - Ditto.
* Royal George, S. E., S., or S.W.
Montauban, - - Ditto.
Admirable, - - Ditto.
*Teton de Venus - Ditto.
Late Purple - - Ditto.
Nectarines.
*Elruge, S.E.,S.,orS.W.
DucdeTello, - Ditto.
*Fairchild's early, Ditto.
* .Murray, - - Ditto.
Scarlet, - - Ditto.
Temple, - - Ditto.
Figs.
*Blue, or Black Ischia, S.E., S., or S.W.
* White, or Brown Ischia, Ditto.
Black Genoa, - - Ditto."
White Genoa, - - Ditto.
Other Sorts.
The Mulberry is sometimes introduced as
a wall-tree, and planted on a western
exposure.
[Kaleml. p. 163,
478 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
2502. The sorts of plants made use of for planting against ivalls are dwarfs and riders,
and these may be of the age of one year from the graft, or they may be several years
trained. Dwarfs are understood to be the permanent trees, and riders merely temporary
plants introduced to fill up the upper part of the wall. With both sorts it is the practice
to make choice of trees that have been two or more years trained ; or if they have been
moved in the nursery every second year, they may be of five or six years' training, in
which case they come into immediate bearing. Some gardeners, however, prefer young
plants. Marshall says, trees to be planted against walls, should not be older than two
years from the graft or bud. " Much disappointment has been the consequence of
planting old trained trees, through their being accustomed, perhaps, to a contrary soil,
or bv damage done the roots in taking the trees up, and thus, instead of saving time, it
has frequently been lost, being obliged, after some years, to be replaced with young
ones. But if trained trees are to be made use of, let them be planted as early, and with
as full roots as possible, and in a right good soil."
2503. Willi respect to the age of the plants, Nicol observes, "maiden, or one year
trained trees, are to be preferred, especially of apples and pears. Even of the stone-
fruits, such will succeed best ; though two or three years' trained are often planted. I
here allude to the dwarfs. Riders of greater age than dwarfs may be planted, in any
case, with propriety ; they being considered temporary, and it being desirable to obtain
fruit of them as soon as possible." A safe mode is, to plant partly maiden, and partly
trained plants, by which means, those which come early into fruit, should they prove
bad sorts, may be replaced by others ; meanwhile, those sorts which are approved of, will
afford an early return for the labor and expense incurred.
2504. The distance at which wall-trees should be planted from each other, depends jointly
on the sort of tree, and the height of the wall. For a wall nine or ten feet high,
Marshall plants apricots, peaches, and nectarines, twenty feet apart. Nicol, for a
wall of twelve feet in height, indicates the following distances : — Apples, eighteen or
twenty feet ; apricots, twenty to twenty-four ; figs, fifteen or eighteen ; cherries, twelve
or fifteen ; nectarines and peaches, twelve or fifteen ; pears, twenty-four to thirty ; and
plums, eighteen or twenty feet. For low walls, of five or six feet : — apples, thirty ; cherries,
pears, thirty to thirty-five ; and plums, twenty to twenty-four feet. The distances at
which wall-trees ought to be planted, according to Abercrombie, depend on the general
growth of the species, connected with these other things : — whether the individual plant
has been dwarfed by the mode of propagation, or is a free grower; whether the species
will bear to be kept in bounds by the knife ; and, lastly, on the height of the wall : thus,
a higher wall is a compensation for a reduced distance, and a lower will make it necessary
to increase the intervals. Supposing the wall to be twelve feet high, the following are
good average distances for planting the kinds named : — Vines, from ten to fifteen feet
asunder, or in vacant spaces between other walls where the distance is less, because the
vine bears pruning well, and can always be reduced to the prescribed limits. Peach-
trees and nectarines, from fifteen to twenty feet. Fig-trees, eighteen to twenty
feet, or more, as the bearers are not to be shortened. Apricot-trees, fifteen feet for the
dwarf early sorts, eighteen to twenty-four for the free-growers, as the plant does not
bear the knife well. Cherry-trees, from fifteen to twenty feet. Pear-trees, twenty-
feet, if on dwarf stocks ; thirty feet, if on free stocks. Plum-trees, from fifteen to
twenty-four feet. Apple-trees, if on dwarf stocks, fifteen feet ; if on free stocks, twenty-
five or thirty. Mulberry-trees, fifteen or twenty feet. Along the line of the walls only
nine feet high, increase the intervals to one fourth as much again ; and of walls six feet
high, to one half.
2505. The distance of the stem of the tree from the wall at the ground's surface, should,
according to most authors, be nine inches ; cherries, apples, and pears may be somewhat
more ; and peaches, nectarines, and vines somewhat less.
2506. The intermediate species between dwarf icall-trees are commonly filled up with
riders, or some other temporary fruit-bearing plant. According to Marshall, " the
intermediate spaces between peaches, nectarines, and apricots may have a vine, a dwarf-
cherry, or currant, or gooseberry tree, of the early sorts, as the smooth green and small
red gooseberry, to come in early, and improved in the beauty, size, and flavor of their
fruit, by the advantage of situation. But wheresoever grapes can be expected to ripen,
there let a young plant or cutting be set, though the space be confined ; for the vine,
freely as it shoots, bears the knife well to keep it within bounds. If the wall be high,
the cherry or plum may be half-standards or riders, which being after a while kept above,
will be more out of the way of the principal trees, though dwarfs may be trained so as
not to interfere. Some have planted half-standards of the same kind of fruit as the
dwarfs, but whichever way is used, let the intermediate trees be pruned away below in
good time, in order to accommodate the principals freely as they mount and extend.
The better way however is, when the wall is tolerably covered, to extirpate the inter-
mediate trees, as, when large, they impoverish the border, and too much rob the principals
Book I. ESPALIERS AND DWARF-STANDARDS. 479
of nutriment : if taken up well, in season, and pruned properly, they may be planted
elsewhere." While the principal wall-trees are making progress, Abercrombie observes,
" riders may be introduced between them ; these should be confined to sorts which are
the quickest in coming into bearing, for else, as soon as the trees become productive, it
will be time to remove them. Against low walls, currants, gooseberries, and raspberries
may be placed instead of riders. Plant a wall-tree nine inches from the wall, to give the
root some room behind ; detach or shorten the roots pointing towards the wall, so that the
parts left on that side may not be cramped." (Pr. Gard. p. 189.) " On walls ten feet
in height or upwards, Nicol plants riders between the dwarf or principal trees, in order
the sooner to furnish the wall ; but for low walls it is not worth the while, as goose-
berries, currants, or raspberries, answer better, and produce fruit more immediately.
Riders of all or most of the kinds in the foregoing lists can be had in the nurseries ; but
they should consist chiefly of apricots, cherries, nectarines, peaches and plums ; as few
kinds of apples or pears would begin to produce crops before it would be necessarv to
root them out in order to give place to the dwarfs."
2507. With respect to the mode of planting, the roots of each plant should be trimmed,
previous to being planted, by pruning off the points of those bruised in the taking up,
and moderately thinning them out, if thought too thick, or too much crowded. This is
seldom necessary for maiden trees, but it is often so with respect to plants that have
stood several years in the nursery, or that have been trained against walls or pales, and have
made strong roots. The roots should be, in some measure, rendered proportionate to
the tops ; and as the shoots and branches are to be headed down, or to be well shortened
and thinned out, it follows that the roots should also be moderately thinned and pruned.
In doing this, however, be careful to retain those most promising and best furnished
with fibres. The surface level being determined on, prepare the pit so as that the plant
may be placed just as deep in the ground as it was before, and not deeper ; spreading
out the roots and fibres, and carefully bedding them in the compost prepared for that
purpose, as hinted at last month. Fill in the common earth, gently tread it round the
stem, keeping it a few inches clear of the foundation, and secure the plant from the
bad effects of high winds, by tacking it to the wall. Proceed thus, tree by tree, till all
be planted. They require no further care till March, when it will be proper to head
them down. (Nicol.) Most writers agree in recommending November as the best time
to plant on absorbent soils, March for heavy or wet land, and February for medium soils.
Sect. II. Of the Selection and Arrangement of Espaliers and Dwarf-standards.
2508. Espaliers or dwarf-standards are planted in the borders of the principal walks
in all complete kitchen-gardens. Besides the value of their fruit, they form a sort of
counterpart to the trees on the walls, and add much to the general effect of the garden,
by increasing the appearance of design ; and much to its beauty in detail by the variety of
the blossoms in spring and the fruit in autumn. Some gardeners, however, disapprove
of them, or do not consider them of much consequence. " If espaliers are planted,"
says Marshall, " let them be only fruit of the best sorts, and in spacious gardens,
where they may have a good length and height allowed them to grow freely ; and let it
be resolved to do the business neatly." M'Phail disapproves of espaliers, as hurtful to
crops of vegetables in the kitchen-garden. Forsyth is silent on the subject. Aber-
crombie says, " Espaliers may be planted in some of the borders, in a row along the
inner edge." Nicol observes, " Espaliers, if well managed, are both ornamental and
useful in the garden, affording a deal of fruit, yet taking up little room." " Of late
years," Neill observes, " some have proposed to banish espalier-trees altogether, alleging
that they injure the kitchen-garden compartments, by depriving them of sun and air. But
in point of fact, they exist in the greater number of kitchen-gardens, and are not likely
soon to be laid aside. If they are sometimes injurious, by depriving the plants of air, they
are at other times very useful, acting as a hedge in protecting the young crops from the
violence of strong winds. Espalier-trees generally produce excellent fruit, the sun and
air having access to both sides of the tree ; they commonly afford abundant crops, and
the fruit is not apt to be shaken by high winds. Further, they tend to hide the crops of
culinary vegetables from the eye, and to render the walk of the kitchen-garden as pleasant
as an avenue in the shrubbery." Espalier-trees, like wall-trees, may be considered in
regard to the kind of espalier-rail, sort of fruit, sort of plant, distance, and planting.
2509. The proper situation for an espalier-rail, according to Nicol, is in the border,
by the principal walks, and at three or four feet distant from the walk. They may be
placed on each side of the cross walks, if the garden be not very small ; but in that
case, they would both confine and overshadow the kitchen-crops too much. The railing
ought to be plain and neat, four or five feet high, and the upright spars to which the trees are
trained, nine inches apart. The posts should be set on blocks of stone, and should be run
in with pitch, or, which is a better way, set in blocks of stone, in an iron hose batted into
the stone. These blocks, in either case, should be sunk under the surface of the ground.
480
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
*camock,*warden, scots bergamot, lon-
gueville.
*May-duke, holman's duke, *black
heart, white heart, *morella, *kentish.
Plums.
*Green gage, Orleans, *fotheringham,
*white magnum bonum, blue perdrigon,
*bullace.
Other Sorts.
The mulberry, quince, medlar, and ser-
vice are sometimes introduced as espalier-
trees, or dwarf-standards, especially where
there is no orchard.
2510. Espaliers, Abercrombie states, " may be inserted three feet from the edge of the
border ; but if the ground under the walks has not been prepared, five feet will be
better. The stem or head of a wall-tree or espalier must be planted with a little in-
clination to the fence or trellis ; and nailed or tied to prevent the wind from shaking it.
Espaliers have the branches trained to an upright superficial trellis, standing detached,
and thus bear on both sides. Occupying little room, they drip and shade less than
standards, but are more troublesome to manage. While young, they may be rendered
in some degree ornamental ; but as the plants get old, the most skilful pruning can
hardly keep the espaliers fruitful, or prevent them from looking formal, unless the order
of bearing will allow the old wood to be freely cut out. Not having the benefit of re-
flected heat from a wall, there is a distinct motive for training them with a short stem,
and with the branches laid horizontally, rather than in a fan-like expansion, and with the
highest branches at four feet, or not exceeding six from the ground ; for thus they receive
a stronger reflection of sun from the earth. At planting, it is easy to set them to the
best aspect."
2511. The proper kinds of fruit for espaliers and dwarf-standards, according to Nicol,
are included in the following list, in which those marked with an asterisk (*) are deemed
the most valuable. For small gardens the apples ought to be grafted on paradise, and
the pears on quince stocks.
Apples.
*Royal codling, kentish ditto, *carlisle
ditto, kgrey leadrngton, royal pearmain,
*ribston pippin, gogar pippin, *oslin
pippin, golden rennet, *royal russet.
Pears.
' * Jargonelle, *summer bergamot, *gxey
achan, *swan egg, *moorfowl egg, yair,
251 2. Dwarf -standards are by some preferred to espalier-trees. Hitt and Switzer approve
of them, and Forsyth and Marshall prefer them. Abercrombie approves of dwarfs in
common with espaliers, but seems, with M'Phail, to prefer them planted by themselves
in the compartments. This we conceive to arise from the peculiar notions that many gar-
deners have, that the kitchen-garden ought to be a mere place of culture, without any
of that neatness, or of those beauties which would render it a scene fit to be included in
the course of walks for recreation. Where different ideas are entertained, and that order,
regularity, and neatness are attempted, which is to be found in an eminent degree in
the kitchen-gardens of Scotland, espaliers and dwarfs will be valued as forming the
chief furniture of the borders. Abercrombie observes, " Dwarf-standards are raised
with low stems, of one, two, or three feet in height, and with round heads propor-
tionately diminished. These are the earliest bearers compared with other standards, and
produce large fruit in great abundance for the size of the tree. In small gardens
the same benefits and conveniences which recommend the half-standards are attached
to these in a superior degree." Marshall observes, that " dwarf-standards occasion
less trouble to keep them in order than espaliers, and are generally more productive ;
planted at eight or nine feet distance, pruned and kept in an easy manner, they make
a fine appearance, and produce better fruit and in greater quantities, than when they
are in espaliers." (Introd. to Gard. p. 37.)
2513. The sort of plants, as far as respects age, are chosen on the same principle as in
choosing wall-trees ; but such as are grafted on dwarfing stocks are generally preferred :
apples on paradise, creeping apple, or doucin stocks ; pears on quince-stocks; and
cherries on the perfumed cherry or small wild cherry stocks.
2514. The distances at which to plant espalier-trees, according to Nicol, are, " for apples,
on crab-stocks, thirty ; cherries, twenty ; pears, on free stocks, thirty to thirty-five ; and
plums, twenty to twenty-four feet. Pears on quince-stocks are planted from twenty
to twenty-five feet asunder. Dwarf standard apple-trees, on paradise-stocks, may be
planted very closely, as they occupy but little room ; they do not require more than ten
or fifteen feet."
Sect. III. Of tall Standard Fruit-trees in a Kitchen-garden.
2515* Though tall standard fruit-trees axe more generally confined to orchards, yet
they were formerly common in the kitchen-garden, and are still occasionally introduced
in the circumferential portion, called the outer border of the slip. They cannot, how-
ever, be recommended, on account of the extent of their drip and shade, which renders
it impossible to grow culinary vegetables to any degree of perfection, either in size or
flavor ; and also to the too orchard-like character which they in time give the garden.
2516. According to Marshall, " The fewer standard-trees in a garden the better, as they
take up much room, and by their shade prevent the proper growth of vegetables that are
any thing near them."
2517. M(Phail considers them as hurtful to crops of vegetables.
Book I. FRUIT-SHRUBS. 481
25 1 8. Abercrombie says, " full standards are only or chiefly adapted for orchards and other
grounds not occupied with esculents as principal crops. In the interior compartments,
some full and half standards may be introduced ; being thinly scattered towards the angles
of the compartments, not to overspread the ground, nor placed nearer together than forty
feet ; indeed, many designers of horticultural plantations would restrict the full standards
to the orchard and pleasure-ground, as plants cultivated underneath them are apt to suffer
from drips." (Pr. Gard. p. 5.)
2519. Forsyth recommends their being mixed with other trees in the shrubberies which
surround gardens.
2520. Nicol concurs in this opinion ; and in general prefers standards in the outer
border of the slip, or in the orchard.
2521. For the sorts of fruit-trees proper for standards, see Chap. III. on Orchards.
Sect. IV. Fruit-shrubs.
2522. By fruit-shrubs are to be understood the gooseberry and currant tribes, rasp-
berry, cranberry, &c. They are almost universally planted in the walk borders, at re-
gular distances of from six to ten feet. Plantations of them are also formed in the
compartments, and in the outer border of the slip. " Some of those useful shrubs,
gooseberries and currants," Marshall observes, "should grow in every aspect of the gar-
den, in order to have a succession of their fruits as long as may be. Raspberries may
be set in plantations, in rows. Though these shrubs are best by themselves, yet here
and there, by the walks, a detached bunch may be kept, or here and there one against a
warm wall. Currants, gooseberries, and raspberries," he adds, " do well, espaliered, as
to a production of early and fine fruit." Abercrombie observes, " Gooseberry and cur-
rant bushes may be planted in single rows, in cross rows, or in plantations by them-
selves : — plant some near the outward edge of the main compartments ; others along
the borders where there are no espaliers ; others again in cross rows, to divide large com-
partments. Raspberries may occupy other borders and compartments. " (Pract. Gard. 5.
1 89. ) Forsyth recommends planting gooseberries " in a compartment by themselves,
or round the edges of the compartments, about three feet from the path. Never plant
them under the shade of other trees, as it will injure the flavor of the fruit." " Currants
and gooseberries," Nicol observes, " are often planted in lines by the sides of the walks
or alleys of the garden ; but in that way, especially if not well managed, they are gene-
rally more cumbersome than useful. It is a better method to plant them in compartments
by themselves, and to make new plantations every sixth or seventh year, as young plants
are found to produce more handsome fruit, and also more plentifully than old ones.
The same thing may be said of raspberries, which produce the finest fruit when young ;
that is, about the third or fourth year after planting, if properly managed. It is proper
to plant some of all the above fruits on a north border, or other shaded situation, in
order to prolong the season of them, if that be an object, besides planting them out in
compartments, as hinted above. Some may also very properly be planted against vacant
places on any of the walls, pales, or espaliers. An Antwerp raspberry in particular, and
some of the kinds of gooseberries, are highly improved in size and flavor, if trained to a
south wall." The cranberry was first introduced as a garden-fruit by Sir Joseph Banks,
and is grown to most advantage in bog-earth, kept moist. The margins of ponds, or
other reservoirs, in the slip, are good situations for this plant : but when the dewberry,
bilberry, and other fruit-bearing bog-earth plants are introduced, we would recommend
a border or other compartment in a shady situation, furnished with bog-earth ; and to
which water could be readily applied, either by the watering-pot, engine, or by means of
under-ground channels.
2523. With respect to the sorts of fruit-shrubs, the following list is given by Nicol,
those to be preferred being marked with an asterisk (*).
Gooseberries, Green.
Early, *gascoigne, *walnut, goliah,
globe.
Gooseberries, Red.
* Ironmonger, * nutmeg, * walnut,
*large rough, *champaigne, *smooth,
*captain, admirable.
2524. The sorts of plants are commonly such as have been grown two or three years
from the cuttings, or in the case of raspberries, suckers of the preceding year. Older
gooseberry and currant trees, where they can be procured, should be preferred, to a cer-
tain extent, as they bear immediately, and when they grow old can readily be renewed.
Raspberries, from their nature, can never have stems of more than a year in age.
2525. In respect to distance, according to Nicol, " from four to six feet square, ac-
cording to the quality of the soil, may be deemed sufficient ; that is, in good land, six
feet ; in middling land, five; and in poor land, four feet.
2526. The mode and season of planting is regulated on general principles. (2071. to
2098.)
I i
Gooseberries, Yellow.
*Golden drop, upright, *champaigne,
*golden knap, *conqueror, *sulphur,
*amber globe, *honeycomb.
Gooseberries, White.
* Royal george, Orleans, * crystal,
matchless.
Currants.
The red, white dutch, black, cham-
paigne or grizzly.
Raspbet ries.
The common red, common white, red
antwerp, white antwerp, red cane, and
twice-bearing, are all good sorts.
432 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
Chaf. III.
Of the Formation and Planting of an Orchard, subsidiary to the Kitchen-garden.
2527. An orchard, or separate plantation of the hardier fruit-trees is a common ap-
pendage to the kitchen-garden, where that department is small, or does not contain
an adequate number of fruit-trees to supply the contemplated demand of the family. Some-
times this scene adjoins the garden, and forms a part of the slip ; at other times it forms
a detached, and, perhaps, distant enclosure, and not unfrequently, in countries where the
soil is propitious to fruit-trees, they are distributed in the lawn, or in a scene, or field
kept in pasture. Sometimes the same object is effected by mixing fruit-trees in the plant-
ations near the garden and house.
2528. As to the situation, exposure, soil, and shelter of orchards, most of the observations
submitted as to these properties in kitchen-gardens will equally apply to them ; but
there is this difference, that as orchards are not generally surrounded by walls, and
not always under the spade, the surface may be much more irregular ; and, in regard to
form, it is a matter of no great consequence. Size will of course be regulated by the
quantity of produce desired, and nothing can be more simple than the arrangement of
the trees which, in regard to position, is almost always that of the quiyicunx, the distances
between the plants being greater or less according to the sorts made choice of.
2529. As to the site of an orchard, Abercrombie observes, " land sloping to the east or
south is better than a level ; a sheltered hollow, not liable to floods, is better than an
upland with the same aspect, and yet a gentle rising, backed by sufficient shelter, or the
base of a hill, is eligible. A good loam, in which the constituents of a good soil predo-
minate over those of a hot one, suits most fruit-trees : the sub-soil should be dry, and the
depth of mould thirty inches or three feet. Before planting, drain if necessary ; trench
to the depth of two feet ; manure according to the defects of the soil ; and give a win-
ter and summer fallow ; or cultivate the site for a year or two as a kitchen-garden, so
that it may be deeply dug, and receive a good annual dressing."
2530. In a situation much exposed, plant shrubs or wilding fruits, as screens, or as
nurses • forest-trees may be planted as an outer screen, but on a distant line, whence
their roots will, not draw the soil to be occupied with 'fruit-trees. Where ornamental
grounds present a good aspect, as well as prepared shelter, fruit-trees are distributed
in them to great advantage.
2531. As to the size of an orchard, Forsyth observes, " it may be from one to twenty
acres, or more, according to the quantity of fruit wanted, or the quantity of ground that
you may have fit for the purpose."
2532. That soil will do for an orchard which produces good crops of corn, grass, or
garden-vegetables ; but a loamy soil is to be preferred ; though any of a good quality,
not too light or dry, nor wet, heavy, or stubborn, but of a moderately soft and pliant
nature, will be found to answer the end. Shingly and gravelly soils disagree very much
with fruit-trees, unless there be loam intermixed. They will succeed much better on a
chalk bottom. On such a soil, I have seen roots twelve feet deep, and trees thrive well.
The soil should be trenched from two to three feet deep.
2533. The sorts of fruits adapted for orchards are the more hardy apples, pears, cherries,
and plums ; the medlar, mulberry, quince, walnut, chestnut, filbert, barberry, and some
others. According to Forsyth, a complete orchard ought to have, besides apple, pear,
plum, and cherry trees, quinces, medlars, mulberries, service-trees, filberts, and barber-
ries; as also walnuts and chestnuts; the two latter of which are well adapted for
sheltering the others from high winds, and should therefore be planted in the bound-
aries of the orchard, a little closer than ordinary, for that purpose. In an orchard for
raising crops for sale, Abercrombie says, that fruit is the most profitable for which there
is the greatest demand. Apples are first in utility ; but pears, cherries, plums, and
most other fruits in the subjoined alphabetical list, are acceptable, for dressing in paste,
for preserving, or for pickling, as well as in the dessert. According to the extent and
nature of the ground, mulberries, medlars, quinces, sendees, walnuts, chestnuts, and all
the sorts which will ripen their produce sufficiently on standards, may be introduced.
2534. The varieties of the common orchard-fruits recommended by Nicol, are as follows,
the sorts marked with an asterisk (*) being preferable : —
Apples. I folk beafing (good), strawberry) *purse
*Ribston pippin, *oslin ditto, *gogar | mouth (very good),
ditto, *kentreh ditto, *royal codling, _ Pears,
*kentish ditto, * Carlisle ditto, *royal
rusoet, wheeler's ditto, *royal pearmain.
*loan's ditto (good), *golden rennet,
*kenysh ditto (good), *grey leading-
ton, scarlet ditto, summer queening,
winter ditto, * yorkshire greening,
*margill (very good), margaret apple
{good), * white hawthorndean, * nor-
* Jargonelle, Crawford or lammas,
*carnock or drummond, *grey achan,
*swaii egg, *moorfo\vl egg, *yair, ^gold-
en knap (good), longueville, * summer
bergamot, *autumn ditto, *scot.s ditto,
musk robin (good), saffron, ^hanging
leaf (very good), the pound pear, cadilac
warden (for baking).
Cherries.
* Mav-duke, *holman's duke, "black
heart, *"morella, *kentish, *large gean.
Plums.
*Orleans, *damask (black, good), dam-
son (black, ditto), white perdrigon, *blue
ditto, blue gage, *white magnum bonum,
red ditto or imperial, white bilUace,
*b!ack ditto, *drap d'or (yellow, good),
*uueen claude (ditto, ditto).
{Kalcnd. p. 179.)
Book I. FORMATION OF AN ORCHARD. 483
2535- The sorts of plants made choice of for orchards are invariably standards^ and half-
standards, and commonly such as are not more than one or two years from the graft. Aber-
crombie and Nicol prefer " maiden plants, or such as are only two years from the bud or
graft, of all the above kinds, to older trees : having boles or stems of three or four feet
in length; the apples being worked on crab, and the pears on free stocks."
2536. The ultimate distance at which apple and pear trees should stand in an orchard is, according to
the same author, from thirty to forty feet, less or more, according to the quality of the soil ; taking as the
medium thirty-six feet. In a poor soil, and a bleak exposure, where the trees may not be expected to grow
very freely, thirty feet is sufficient ; whereas in good soil, and in a sheltered situation, forty may not be too
much. Cherries and plums may be planted at from twenty-four to thirty-six feet, according to soil and
situation, as above ; taking, as a medium, thirty feet for the ultimate distance at which they are to stand
clear of one another. But it would be advisable, in the first instance, to plant four trees for one that is
intended ultimately to remain ; planting the proper kinds at the above distances first, and then temporary-
plants between them each way ; which temporary plants should be of the free-growing sorts that begin to
bear early, such as the nonsuch and hawthorndean apples, the m^y-duke cherry, and the Crawford and
yair pears ; or any others better known to produce fruit soon after planting. These should be considered,
and be treated as temporary plants from the beginning, and must give place to the principal trees as they
advance in growth, by being pruned away by degrees, and at last stubbed up entirely. If orchard-trees be
planted among shrubbery, &c. they may be planted at any distance, exceeding forty feet, that may be
thought proper ; but they should not be planted nearer, otherwise they will too much confine the shrubs.
In this case it will not be necessary to plant temporary trees, as the principals will be nursed by the shrubs.
In bleak situations, If forest and other hardy trees be planted among the fruit-trees, it may not be necessary
to plant so many (if any) temporary jfruit-trees ; or these may chiefly consist of the hardier sorts, such as the
hawthorndean apple, the may-duke and morella cherries, and the Scotch geans, which produce fruit the
soonest. " In a good soil," Abercrombie observes, " the final distances at which the plants should stand
is twenty or twenty-five feet for full standards ; of those kinds which reach but a moderate size as trees,
and thirty or forty feet for the larger-growing sorts. Temporary plants of such kinds as bear fruit soon
may be planted at half the final distances, in order to be pruned down, and at last removed, when the prin-
cipals require it."
2537. The mode of planting best adapted for standard-trees is unquestionably that
of mudding in, and next that of fixing by water (2096. 2097.) ; one or other of
these methods should be adopted, where success and immediate growth is an object,
and should be succeeded by staking, panning, mulching, clothing the stems, and
watering.
2538. Staking and protecting. " If the stem of a tree is rocked by the wind, the root is prevented from
shooting new fibres ; the ground is also opened, so that in winter frost penetrates, and in summer hot
drying winds. Having set up a firm stake to each high standard newly planted, twist a part of a hay band
round the tree to prevent it from galling, and with the remainder tie it securely to the stake." {Aber-
crombie.) Forsyth and Nicol agree in recommending staking to prevent the trees from being wind-waved.
In respect to protection, Nicol observes, " If the orchard be not completely fenced, every care should be
taken to guard the plants from hares, by properly bushing them round with thorns ; which I think is the
most effectual method, and that least injurious to the trees."
2539. Panning a?id mulching. Let a small basin or hollow be made round the stem of each tree, a foot or
eighteen inches in diameter, and two or three inches deep, according to the extent of its roots. Fill this
basin with littery dung, to the thickness of five or six inches, over which sprinkle a little earth just
enough to keep it from being blown about. This both nourishes the young fibres, and keeps the ground
about them moist in hot weather, if wetted freely once a-week. (NicoPs Kal. 220.) To protect the roots
of autumn-planted trees from the frost of the succeeding winter, and from drought in the summer, Aber-
crombie directs to " lay mulch about the stem, to the distance of two feet round, and six inches in thick-
ness ; or substitute dry litter, or a thin layer of turf in summer." Forsyth says, " if it prove dry the spring
after planting, dig up some turf, and lay it round the stem of the young trees with the grassy side down-
wards; this will keep the ground moist, and save a deal of watering; if the trees have taken well this
need not be repeated, as they will be out of danger the first year. The turf should be laid as far as the
roots of the trees extend ; and when it is rotted, it should be dug in, which will be of great service to
them."
2540. Clothing the stems of standard-trees by an envelope of moss, or short grass, or litter wound round
with shreds of matting, is of great use the first year after planting, to keep the bark moist, and thereby aid
the ascent and circulation of the sap in the alburnum. This operation should be performed at or soon
after planting, and the clothing may be left on till by decay it drops off of itself ; it is of singular service in
very late planting ; or when, from unforeseen circumstances, summer planting becomes requisite.
2541. Watering. Newly planted orchards must be attended to in respect to watering, which should be re-
peated the oftener as the season advances, till the trees strike into the soil. " If the planting is performed
early in autumn," Abercrombie observes, " while the weather is yet hot and dry, a little water may be given
to assist the roots to strike ; but they ought not to be soaked with water, nor need watering be repeated.
At planting late in spring, should the ground be dry, give a moderate watering ; which repeat about once
a fortnight during the hot months. Supposing the plantation to have been made in winter, should a very
dry spring follow, a few waterings may be necessary until the plants strike."
2542. The best season for pla7iting an orchard is the autumn, as soon as the trees have
ripened their wood and dropped their leaves. The work properly executed at this sea-
son, the trees will push out fresh fibres the same year, and be ready and able to push out
shoots of considerable vigor in spring. When autumn planting is impracticable, the
next best is in the beginning of February, or as early as the season will permit.
2543. In a design recently composed, for combining an extensive kitchen-garden with a
flower-garden and orchard, [fig. 430.), the last surrounded the two former, and served to
shelter them. The kitchen-garden (d, u, u) occupied a parallelogram in the centre ;
the flower-garden (q, q), with its botanic hot-houses (g, h, i), a semicircular area at the
south end ; the gardener's lodge (6), gardener's house and garden-offices (c), and
nursing departments (p, p), a similar area at the north end ; and the orchard (t, r) sur-
rounded the whole. The south and north ends {b, e) were approached by carriage-roads
{a, a, a), and the sides by walks [t). The hot-houses were partly in north and south
I i 2
484
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part TIL
ranges, glass on all sides, for main crops of grapes and peaches (m, m, k), and partly
placed against walls («,, ?i), for more early forcing. The pine-pits and melonry
(?t, /, k, ?i), and the compost-ground (u, u), were within the walls, and approached by
carts by a subterraneous road from the concealed part of the orchard (s). The hot-
houses, pits, and walls were heated by steam from a central tower {f}, two ponds (r, r)
supplied water to a system of pipes, which distributed it over the open garden, and the
hot-houses were supplied from a cistern under the glass roof of the tower (f): a room
for eating fruit, or repose (rf), occupied a situation which overlooked the whole. The
main entrance for the master and his friends was at the southern extremity (e), and
that for the head gardener and his operatives at the other end of the garden. (6)
430
This garden may be considered as composed for effect, as well as for use ; and it
may be asserted, that the central range of hb6-houses, when the grapes and geaches arc
Book I. CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE SOIL. 485
in full bearing, will, to the spectator within, present a vault of fruit and foliage, such as
has not hitherto been displayed in any British garden.
2544. The subject of cyder and perry orchards we consider as belonging more to
agriculture than horticulture. (See Encyc of Agriculture, part iii.)
Chap. IV.
Of the general Cultivation and Management of a Kitchen- garden.
2545. The cultivation of a garden includes the performance of all those things that are
requisite, in order to a reasonable and prolific production of the various vegetables and
fruits grown therein. By the management of a garden, is to be understood the keeping
it in such order, as that it may not fail in those impressions of pleasure it is calculated to
afford. A kitchen-garden, as well as a garden professedly ornamental, may and ou«-ht
to be agreeable to walk in, as well as profitably cultivated. A gardener may be well
acquainted with the culture of individual vegetables and fruits, and yet very deficient in
the general cultivation and management of his garden. The following sections relate
entirely to general practices conducive to these objects, and they deserve to be carefully
studied by the young gardener who aspires at any degree of eminence in his art.
Sect. I. Culture and Management of the Soil.
L2546. The soil, Marshall observes, " must be first attended to, always to keep the
fruit-borders in heart, and the compartments in a proper state for use, when called upon to
receive either seeds or plants. Ground should never lie long without stirring ; for the
soil of a garden should be in a free, sweet, and rich state, by proper digging, &c. or no
great things can be done, as to early, handsome, or well flavored productions. It
should be free, that the roots of plants may not be impeded in the quest of food ; sweet,
that the food may be wholesome ; and rich, that there may be no defect of nutriment.
2547. Trenching the vacant ground in a garden does good to all soils in the autumn
and winter seasons, and that in proportion to its strength, being indispensably necessary
for clays to separate and ameliorate the parts. The light soils may do by being only
rough dug, which is a method that stronger soils will be also benefitted by. The soil
would be still farther improved, by re-trenching, or rough-digging, once or twice more
in the winter, if the opportunity offers, particularly if strong or stubborn. Let the
ridges lie E. and W. except the ground be a slope, when they may correspond.
2548. The trenching of vacant ground, Abercrombie observes, " should be forwarded
as much as possible in winter, and early in spring. By repeatedly exposing a new sur-
face to the action of the frost, a greater quantity of the soil is ameliorated. In every
case where it is intended that the ground shall lie fallow any time, it is advisable, in
digging trenches, to turn up the earth roughly in ridges ; forming, parallel to each
trench, a single ridge of the same width, in order that the soil may be the more
effectually mellowed, pulverised, and renovated by the weather. These ridges can be
expeditiously levelled, for the reception of seeds and plants ; which is a further improve-
ment of the ground."
2549. To conserve the fertility of kitchen-garden soil, the mode adopted by Nicol and
practised by the best Scotch gardeners, is the most scientific of any. Nicol observes,
that, as kitchen-vegetables do best on what is termed new land, it is a common complaint
among gardeners that their ground, by being, as it were, worn out, will not produce
certain kinds of vegetables ; not that it is poor and hungry, or altogether unfitted to the
production of them, having formerly produced them in great abundance, but that the
surface has become tired of these crops, in the same way as a field sown with the same
sort of grain for two or three years in succession, ceases to produce that grain in perfec-
tion. The method which he practised with success is as follows : —
2550. First, it is necessary to have a depth of soil from twenty-four to thirty-sue inches ; in which
case it is obvious, that whatever the depth of the natural soil is deficient of, twenty-four inches must be
made good by carrying in soil from fields of good quality. Then take three crops off the first surface, and
then trench three sp\t deep, by which the bottom and top are reversed, and the middle remains in the
middle. Take three crops off this surface, and then trench two spit ; by which the top becomes the middle,
and the middle the top. And take also three crops off this surface, and then trench three spit ; whereby
that which was last the middle, and now top, becomes the bottom ; and that which is now the bottom,
and was the surface at first, now becomes surface again, after having rested six years. Proceed in this
manner alternately ; the one time trenching two spit deep, and the other three; by which means the sur-
face will always be changed, and will rest six years, and produce three.
Hence there will always be new soil in the garden for the production of wholesome vegetables ; and
hence also will much less manure be required, than when the soil is shallow, and the same surface con-
stantly in crop. He adds, that he would not advise the soil to be more than three feet deep, as the sur-
face might be buried too deep from the action of the weather, and influence of the sun. Where the soil is
only so deep as to allow of trenching two spit, by trenching every third or fourth year the ground will rest
half its time ; and if judiciously managed, and cropped in proper rotation, wholesome vegetables may b«
Ii 3
486 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
produced on it for many years successively. It is not intended that the whole garden should be trenched
over the same season, " one half, or a third part at a time may be more advisable, and also more con-
Tenient." (Kal. p. 16.)
Sect. II. Manure.
2551. When manure is applied the ground is not to be glutted with dung ; for, as
Marshall observes, " a little at a time, well rotted, is sufficient, so that it comes often
enough, as opportunity and the nature of the cropping may dictate. It is indeed a sort
of rule with gardeners, that ground should be dunged every second year ; but circum-
stances may make more or less of it necessary, and rules should never be indiscriminately
applied. If dung is pretty well reduced much less will do, and let it not be buried too
deep ; but if it is otherwise, lay it low, to be dug upwards another time, when it is more
consumed. It is an excellent way of manuring, where the superficial soil is much ex-
hausted, to dig slightly, and spread over rotten dung, late in autumn, in the winter, or
early in spring, and so let it remain, till the ground is wanted, before it is dug in ; which
should, however, be slightly dug before the manure is put on, or forked in a little after-
wards. This method is particularly to be recommended where crops of onions, leeks,
and such superficial rooting plants are to be."
2552. Dung used in great quantities, and lying in lumps, harbors worms, grubs, and
insects, and makes plants grow too rampant and rank-jlavored. Carrots it cankers, and it
disagrees with many things ; is apt also to make the ground parch, and burn the crops sown
upon it in a hot summer. On these accounts some persons have been induced to dress
their gardens only with rich fresh earth ; which, if they do not overcrop, will do very
well, being accompanied with good tillage ; which alone is of much use, and is essential
to due cultivation. Vegetables are always sweeter the less dung is used, and little need
be used when the natural soil is good and deep ; for the earth may be so dug, that what
is at the top one year may be at the bottom the next : which is a manoeuvre evidently
advantageous, as a good part of the strength of the top soil washes downwards. The
method just recommended, of letting dung lie on the surface for a time, is good also, as
it abates the rankness of it. Lime sweetens.
2553. The periods for applying manures necessarily depends on the soil and the mode
of cropping. If the original soil be poor, it may require aid from dung every year ; but,
in general, the compartments in which annuals and biennials are cultivated will want to
be thus recruited at least once in two years, when the last autumn crops are off the
ground. Beds occupied by perennials cannot sometimes receive any material accession
of new earth or compost for a number of years ; and therefore, when the stools are
worn out, the repairs of the soil should, in proportion, be substantial, and go deep.
Dung is fit to manure beds for receiving many sorts of plants, when it has lain in a heap
from three to six months, and is beginning to be well rotted. But for particular pur-
poses, it should lie from one to two years. Apply it for annuals, two or three inches
thick ; for perennials that are to stand long, six or eight inches thick ; spreading it
equally, till the bed into which it is to be dug is covered : then trench it in a moderate
spade deep, that it may be within easy reach of the roots of the plants. In preparing
ground for perennial stools, a portion of the dung should be deposited six inches deeper.
(Abercrombie.)
2554. Manures are to be applied either as simples or compounds ; but the latter method
Nicol considers the most eligible. He agrees with Jethro Tull in stating, that if they
have not undergone a proper fermentation, their effects are, giving a rank and disagree-
able flavor to fruits and vegetables ; and if an immoderate quantity be applied, of
producing a considerable degree of unwholesomeness, and tainting the juices of all
plants.
A mixture of stable-dung, sea-weed, lime, and vegetable mould, which has lain in a heap for three
or four months, and has been two or three times turned during that period, will make an excellent manure
for most kinds of garden-land. Also, cow-dung, hog-dung, and sheep-dung, mixed with soot or with
wood-ashes. Pigeon-dung and vegetable mould, well mixed, will also make an excellent manure for heavy
land ; or even for lighter soils, provided the pigeon-dung be used sparingly.
Neats-dun^ and hog-dung, slightly fermented, are very fit and rich manures for light hot soils. For
those of a dry, absorbent nature, none answer better, or last longer; by reason that they retain moisture
for a greater length of time, and also ferment more slowly than other dungs.
Pigeon-dung, lime, soot, ashes, &c. should never be applied as simples ; the quantity required being com-
paratively small, and the regular distribution of them difficult, without the admixture of other matter.
But these should generally be applied to compost of good earth, turf, or sward, or of cow, or other dung
of a cool nature ; applying them in quantity according to the cold or the hot nature of the soil to be ma-
nured, allowing the compost a sufficient time to incorporate, and mixing it thoroughly.
Marl is a good manure for almost any soil : and it may be applied as a simple, with as much propriety
as any of the kinds of cattle-dung, or even of vegetable earth. The kind called shell-marl, is much to be
preferred, and should be freely applied to strong lands, but more sparingly to light; the loamy kind being
best adapted to light lands.
Sfablr-diing, if used as a simple, should not be applied in too rank a state, nor should it be much fermented.
It should generally lie in a heap for four or five weeks ; during which time it should be turned over once
or twice. A ton of it in this state is worth three that has been used in the hot-bed, and is a year old. This
manure, and indeed dung of any kind, when applied as a simple, should never be carried from the heap to
the ground, till it is to be digged in ; as, by exposure to the air, part of its virtues evaporate, and it is the
less effectual
Book I. CROPPING. 487
Sea-weed should be applied instantly after landing. If used as a simple, is even greater than the above ■ as
it instantly corrupts, and its juices flow downwards, and are lost. If this manure be used as a compound
the heap in which it is compounded should be more frequently turned on its account; that none of the
juices may be lost, but that the other part of the compost may absorb them.
dung, rabbit-dung, soot, and burnt sward, will make a good manure.
Manures are to be applied in quantity according to their quality. Hence the dung of pigeons should be
applied in much smaller proportions than that of horses, it containing a greater quantity of volatile salts ■
and so the ashes of vegetables containing a portion of fixed alkaline salts, being more powerful, are to be
applied in still smaller quantity. So also, lime being the most powerful of the calcareous kind, 'should be
applied, in ordinary cases, in much smaller quantity than marl.
Vegetable mould may either be used as a simple,' or as a conipound, and may be applied with equal pro-
priety to all soils. None can be hurt by it in any degree, since almost everv plant will grow luxuriantly in
it alone, without the aid of any soil or manure whatever. It seems to be "the ambrosia, and the dunghill
drainings the nectar, of vegetable life. The latter, however, if too freely indulged in, is rather of an in-
toxicating nature. (Kal.)
2555. Where economy, rather than the flavor of culinary crops, is an object, recent dung
is unquestionably to be preferred (1156.), and, in fact, is so by most market-gardeners :
John Wilmot, an extensive market-gardener at Isleworth, bears testimony to this fact. A
given weight of recent stable dung, he says, will not only go farther than the same weight
of rotten dung from old hot-beds ; but will serve as a manuring for the succeeding crop,
which, with old dung, is not the case. (Hort. Traits, iv. 55.)
Sect. III. Cropping.
2556. A change of crops is founded on the generally acknowledged fact, that each sort
of plant draws a somewhat different nourishment ; so that after a full crop of one thing,
one of another kind may often be immediately sown. " Nothing tends more to relieve the
soil," Abercrombie observes, "than a judicious succession of crops ; for plants of dif-
ferent constitutions not only strike to different depths, and in different directions, with
their roots, but the terminal fibres or feeders of the roots appear to take up separate and
peculiar constituents of the soil, and to be indebted for support to some property imparted
by the earth in very different degrees. The duration of the vegetable, its short or pro-
tracted existence, is a great cause of diversity of effect as to the quantity of aliment drawn
from the soil. Another mark of distinctness in constitution is the character of the root,
as it may be fibrous and tender, or fibrous and woody, — or bulbous, or tuberous, — ex-
tended or compact; another, the form and magnitude of the herb, and the proportion of
fibrous or ligneous substance in the stem and branches. A fourth index of a separate
nature is the succulency or hardness of the leaves, and the quantity of pulpy or
farinaceous matter in the parts of fructification, — as the leaves may be the edible
part, before the plant is matured ; or the seed-vessels, as in pulse, may hold the
produce for the table ; or the esculent part may consist of fruit-enclosing seeds. To
apply this practically : — we will suppose a strawberry-plantation requires to be re-
newed ; and the stools seldom continue fully productive more than three or four years ;
— instead of introducing young strawberry-plants into the same bed, entirely eradicate
the old plantation, and let it be succeeded by a crop of beans, or of some other esculent as
different as may be in constitution and habit. In the same manner, let the new plant-
ation of strawberries follow some light crop which left the ground in a good state, or
which allowed it to be trenched and followed for an interval, whether it were an annual
or biennial. It is a rule, from which only extraordinary circumstances can warrant a de-
parture, never to plant a new set of perennial stools on the ground whence a plantation
of the same or a similar species, having worn itself out, has just before been removed.
On the contrary, crops which strike deep, and occupy the ground long, should be suc-
ceeded by plants which pierce but a little way under the surface, are drawing in the least
degree, and soon come off from the short term cf their vegetable life."
, 2557. A studied rotation is advisable, in all cases, according to Nicol ; so as that no crop
of the same class may immediately follow another. To facilitate this measure, the kitchen-
ground should be divided into a number of portions, and a journal or note-book
should be kept, with a reference to their numbers. In this journal, whatever relates to
their cropping, manuring, trenching, or fallowing should he recorded, for reference and
guidance as to future cropping. Nicol, while practising as head gardener at Raith,
Wemyss Castle, and other places, kept a regular journal of this sort ; he published it in
his Kitchen Gardener in 1802, and he tells us, in 1816, that it had been approved and
adopted by many practical gardeners. (See the model, 2345.)
2558. By planting out currants, gooseberries, and raspberries in compartments, instead of
growing them in single lines, particularly if these be properly managed, an opportunity
of changing crops might further be afforded; as these should not stand longer than
seven or eight years together, before the plantations are renewed.
2559. Strawbe7*ry-plantalio)is, under proper management, should be renewed every four
or five years ; and thus likewise might an opportunitv of changing crops be afforded.
I i 4
4€8
PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
Also, by the renewal of artichoke and asparagus plantations, which should be done every
seven or eight years. In managing all the above-named articles on a large scale, new
plantations°should be made every year, to a certain extent, which would throw a certain
proportion of ground regularly into the rotation.
2560. Esculents might be cultivated in classes, and thus a sort of rotation, though not
very complete, might be produced; and the brassica tribe, the leguminous family,
the tuberous or carrot-rooted kinds, the bulbous or onion kinds; and the lighter
crops, as salads and herbs, might succeed each other.
2561. Close crops, as onions, leeks, carrots, &c. are conveniently and neatly cultivated in
beds of from four to five feet widths, with alleys of a foot to eighteen inches between them.
2562. Resting garden-ground. Market-gardeners, Nicol observes, who are generally
good managers, and must of necessity make the most of their ground, in order to main-
tain their families, and be able to pay high rents, have found out the utility of resting
their land, and of following a regular rotation in cropping it, at least in the culture of
the principal articles, and as far as the nature of the thing will admit. The best man-
agers sow out a portion of their ground every season in grass, clover, or barley, which
is'used as green food for their horses and cows. Very generally the barley is sown along
with the clover, merely to nurse and shade it, being cut down and not allowed to ripen.
The clover is sometimes dug up after the first season, if land for market-crops be scarce,
but more generally it is allowed to lie a second year. By good managers, the ground is
never sown down in a hungry state. Land that has been under esculent crops for many
years together, and is, perhaps, glutted with manure, may be cleansed, as it is termed,
by a scouring crop of oats, wheat, or rye, which, if thought necessary, may be repeated.
If trenched to its full depth afterwards,' it will again be fit for the production of culinary
crops in great perfection.
2563. The seasons jiroper for furnishing the ground with every particular vegetable should
be well attended to, that each may be obtained as early as its nature will permit ; and of
the seeds and plants we use, care must be taken to procure the best of the kind, lest after
all the trouble of cultivation, disappointment as to vegetation or quality should ensue.
The principal time for sowing and planting the articles raised in the kitchen-garden falls
in the spring months. It is necessary to lodge some sorts in the ground as early as Ja-
nuary ; but February, March, and April are the months in which the principal supplies
from summer crops are provided for. From April till September, and even October,
many sorts are sown and planted, in smaller portions, for successive crops. Particular
hardy esculents are also sown or transplanted principally in autumn, for a supply as
well in winter as in spring and early in summer. Other kinds are inserted occasionally
as late as November and December, to stand wholly over the winter, in rising growth,
for early crops and for main crops the following summer ; such as peas, beans, cabbages,
and cauliflowers. To obtain early crops of favorite esculents which are more tender,
several kinds are sown and planted in hot-beds in winter and spring.
2564. The quantity sown and planted is to be determined jointly by the demands of the
family and the portion of ground that can be spared : but it should be always a rule, to sow
and plant more than probably enough for the family, as more may happen to be wanted
than expected, and a cross season or other accident may occasion a failure. As exact
rules cannot be laid down, the exercise of a little judgment will be necessary, in order to
proportion crops alike ; for to have too much of one thing, and too little of another, is
disagreeable and discreditable. Respect should be paid to the natural duration of crops,
some going off soon, and others being lasting, and that too according to the season they
are propagated in. The pea requires the greastest breadth of surface ; and next to this the
cabbage tribe. The spaces for asparagus, artichokes, strawberries, sea-kale, &c. are in
some degree fixed from the comparative permanency of these crops. Pot and sweet
herbs require the least space, and ascending from these to breadths necessary for the pea
and cabbage tribe, the proportions are as various as the kinds to be grown ; and these
can only be acquired properly by experience, and observation of what takes place in dif-
ferent gardens.
2565. Seeds and plants should be adapted as much as possible to the soil and situation u'hich
best suits them ; for in the same garden some difference will be found, not only as to sun
and shelter, but the earth; as some will be richer, some poorer, some deeper, some
shallower, and some perhaps heavier, some lighter, in due attention to which, advantage
is to reaped. (Marshall.)
2566. The ordering of seeds from the seedsman is generally a matter of some difficulty
to the young gardener, and Abercrombie is almost the only author who has endeavored
to remove it. The infonnation afforded by his work, entitled The Seed Estimate,
will be found in the Horticultural Catalogue ; where under every culinary vegetable
raised from seed, will be found the quantity, either stated in weight or measure, requisite
for a certain space of ground ; and this space generally that which is deemed sufficient
for a considerable garden.
Book I. THINNING. 489
Sect. IV. Thinning.
2561. The thinning of seedling crops, Marshall observes, " should be done in time, be-
fore the young plants have drawn one another up too much. All plants grow stronger,
and ripen their juices better, when the air circulates freely round them, and the sun is not
prevented from an immediate influence ; an attention to which should be paid from the
first appearance of plants breaking ground. In thinning close crops, as onions, carrots,
turnips, &c. be sure that they are not left too near, for instead of reaping a greater produce,
there would be a less. When they stand too close, they will make tall and large tops,
but are prevented swelling in their roots : better to err on the wide side, for though there
are fewer plants, they will be finer and better flavored."
2568. Thinning the leaves of fruit-trees. " The leaves," Abercrombie observes, " have
too essential an office as organs of growth to the entire plant, to be lightly parted with ;
and where the climate is not deficient in heat, compared with the habitat of the plant, or
the portion of the year in which its season for vegetating falls, their shade is more likely
to be serviceable than detrimental, even in the last stage of fruiting. Thus, cherries, rasp-
berries, strawberries, currants, and other species whose full term of fructification is more
than comprehended in our summer, reach perfect maturity, and acquire the color proper
to each, though ever so much covered with leaves : whereas for those kinds which ripen
with difficulty here, because the direct rays, and most intense reflection of the sun, is
scarcely equal to the heat in the shade during the full summer of their native climate, —
it is proper, when the fruit has nearly attained its full size, and is naturally losing its ab-
solute greenness, to remove some of the leaves which shade it too much. Were the leaves
thinned sooner, it would prejudice the growth of the fruit ; and should they even now be
swept off unsparingly, the growth of the year's shoots might be arrested. The leaves
which cover the fruit, whether peaches, grapes, late pears, or other exotics, must be re-
moved gradually ; that is, at two or three times in the course of five or six days ; other-
wise the unusual full heat of the sun darting upon the fruit, would occasion the rind to
crack."
2569. Nicol says, " Mv practice has been, as the fruit begin to color, to pick off every leaf that may over-
hang them ; thus very much enhancing their beauty and flavor. In late seasons, if the leaves of wall-
trees hang longer than usual, they may be brushed oft; in order to let in the sun and air the better to ripen
the wood. This brushing, however, should be cautiously performed, never brushing much at a time. The
leaves should not be forced off' violently. Some use a common stable-broom for this purpose ; but a better
instrument is a hazel, or strong willow withe, or a small smooth cane. The shoots from which the leaves
are to be displaced, should be gently stroked upwards, and outward ; but never the reverse way, else there
is danger of hurting the buds. Trees exposed to the wind seldom require this care ; but sometimes espa-
liers may, and if so, the same course is to be pursued as above."
2570. Thinning stone-fruits. Thinning the over-abundantly set fruit on apricot, nec-
tarine, peach, and plum trees, is a necessary duty; as many of these, in good seasons,
set more than they can nourish or bring near to perfection. This thinning, however, must
be cautiously performed, and by degrees. If the trees have set their fruit very thick in
particular parts only, such parts should be moderately thinned out now, and the other
parts not yet. But if the fruit be very quickly set all over the tree, let it be generally
thinned off* to half its extent at this time ; deferring the final thinning till the stoning be
over ; that is, till the shells be quite hard, and the kernel be formed. For most trees,
especially those anywise unhealthy, drop many of their fruit in the time of stoning ; so
that the thinning had better be performed at two or three different times ; always observ-
ing to reserve the fullest, brownest, and best-formed fruit. Stone-fruits must be again
looked over in June, and a few more fruit thinned off where too thick ; and the final
thinning must take place in July, when the stoning of stone-fruits is over, and previously
to their beginning to swell off for ripening. (Aricol.)
2571. With respect to the quantity or number of fruit proper to be left on a' tree, " much," according to
Nicol, " must depend on its size and strength, and whether it be full grown, or be yet in training. A full-
grown tree, in a healthy state, may be allowed to produce considerably more than one in a weak condition.
And if a tree yet in training, that is, one not having filled the space allotted to it, be allowed to ripen all
the fruit it may set, its extension will be much retarded in consequence. On the More-park apricot, and
the larger kinds of peaches, in a healthy full-bearing state, a fruit to every foot square of the superficial
content, or surface of the tree, may be taken as a good medium ; that is to say, a tree covering a space fif-
teen feet by twelve, may be allowed to ripen about two hundred fruit. The smaller kinds of apricots and
peaches, and of nectarines in general, may be allowed to produce a third part more, if in a healthy state.
The larger and better sorts of plums may be thinned in proportion, and according to their sizes ; and may
be thinned out to from three to six inches apart, if on the shoots of last year, or so as to hang quite free of
one another, if on spurs. I am aware, that many will think thinning to this extent an extraordinary mea-
sure ; but I would have such be convinced of the propriety of doing so, by comparison. If they have two
trees of a kind, both healthy and well loaded, let the one be thinned as above, and allow the other to pro-
duce as it has been wont ; or thin it even to half the extent. It will be found, that the tree fully thinned
will produce an equal, if not a greater weight of fruit, and these incomparably more beautiful, and higher
in flavor. Observe, the comparison must be made the same season, else it would not be fair ; as the size
and flavor of the fruit might be very different, according to the goodness or badness of the weather in dif-
ferent years."
2572. Apples and pears should be moderately thinned, and good account would be found
in the practice. This should be done when the fruit is about half grown, or when all ap-
490 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
prehension of its dropping is over. Nothing tends more to keep fruit-trees in good health
than regularly to thin their over-abundant crops, and that always before they be^in to
swell off for ripening ; for if this be delayed till they are nearly full grown, the mischief
is, in a great measure, already done, both to the tree and to the fruit left. (Kicoi.)
Sect. V. Pruning and Training.
2575. Pruning and training being frequently practised together, and in aid of each
other, may be advantageously treated of under the same head.
2574. Pruning newly planted trees. Trees planted one year from the graft, or two from
budding, must be pruned as though still in the nursery, in order to furnish them with a
head. At the end of March, or the beginning of April, as the wood-buds begin to shoot,
one of these courses must be taken ; either shorten the shoots of the preceding summer ;
or head down the tree to two, three, or four eyes, taking all those shoots off. The latter
course is most commonly expedient on the peach-tree, or nectarine, or apricot. If the
first shoots happen to be unexceptionably placed for beginning the figure, instead of head-
ing down the stem, cut these into two or three eyes. On wall-trees and espaliers, rub off
the fore and back wood-buds.
2575. Seas ms for pruning newly planted trees. On all trees during the tender stage of
infancy, spring is the fittest time of pruning, even for wood, and for proceeding in the
formation of a head, as successive sets of new branches are yearly obtained by shortenino-
the last. Something may also be done in summer to promote this object. If between
the end of May and the end of June, a pair of shoots have not started as desired, one on
each side from a stem headed down, or from the mother branches shortened ; and in lieu
of such, one solitary shoot has arisen, or two, both on one side, or not equally proper to be
retained, the desired end may yet be attained, and a season saved. Pinch down the soli-
tary shoot two or three eyes : this will force out new shoots in the course of summer. In
the case of two shoots, one of which is evidently unfit for beginning the head, take off
the one rejected without delay, and pinch down the other to two or three eyes. Of two
shoots on the same side equal in regard to strength and direction, to preserve the lower
on wall-trees and dwarfs is a rule to which an exception can scarcely be imagined. The
summer pruning of heads progressively forming, will afterwards fall in with that of esta-
blished trees.
2576. Summer pruning of trees in bearing. The buds and shoots to be preserved claim
the first attention ; for if the precious germs of future fruit or wood are carelessly de-
stroyed, the work of reparation is difficult and tedious : whereas the removal of spray not
of service as branches or bearers, though necessary to prevent confusion, and to strengthen
the plant, is to be conducted in subservience to the vital object of fertility. For the pre-
sent retain all the fruit-buds and fruit-shoots, and as many well placed wood-shoots as
will afford a selection for winter pruning : but rub off ill placed and superfluous wood-
buds, as they can be certainly discriminated, or after waiting till appearances are no longer
doubtful, pinch off the shoots from such wood-buds before they are above three inches
long. In some kinds, to avoid the destruction of wood-buds, or the germs of fruit-spurs,
the disbudding ought to be postponed until the wood-shoots can be distinguished from
spurs, and pinched off without injuring the fruit-buds. The species which alternately
produce spurs on the one-year-old shoots, are, the apple, pear, apricot, cherry, and plum.
The peach and nectarine rarely emit spurs. While you avoid displacing infant spurs on
plants which bear on such, be as careful to discourage the wood-buds and shoots on old
spurs, for shoots from these are cumbersome and unprofitable. If any spray that wants
displacing has got woody, use the knife, lest the bark of the mother branch be torn.
2577. The mode of bearing, and the duration of the bearers, is the first thing to be adverted to for regu-
lating the proportion of new wood to be retained. Thus, in the kinds which bear on spurs, a less quantity
of advancing wood is necessary for future supply, according to the time that a bearing branch continues
fruitful ; but as the fruit-shoots on some of these kinds are two, three, four, and even five years in coming
into bearing, the difficulty of exercising a proper foresight is increased. On the sorts which bear on the
shoots of last year, although a great reserve, and constant annual succession are wanted, it is more easy to
suit the provision to the expected vacancy. In both classes, the leader to a stem yet under training as a
wall-tree is to be carefully preserved : also a surplus number or buds to the right and left must be suffered
to sprout, till it can be known whether shoots will spring at the desired places ; and afterwards a selection
from these for forming the tiee : further, the leading shoot to each side branch should be always left, if
the limits admit. Well placed shoots, between the origin and the extremity of a lateral, are to be retained
in pairs, until a good leader lias sprung, and is sufficiently established to be laid in ; when they are to be
cut away close, unless a vacancy requires their permanent cultivation. As the new laterals fit to be pre-
served extend, lay them close to the wall in a straight easy direction, at a convenient average distance j
nailing them farther onward as the extremities want support.
2578. Three revisions are included in a summer's pruning ; one beginning at the end of
April, another in July, and the third in September : all which have a preparatory re-
spect to the winter pruning. Stone-fruit trees, if much wounded in summer, are apt to
gum ; so that if superfluous shoots have not been removed before they get woody, it is
best to defer the retrenchment of these to the winter pruning. A weak tree is strength-
ened by reducing its spray ; let it, however, be low and compact, rather than naked. To
Book I. PRUNING AND TRAINING. 491
keep a luxuriant tree full of wood tends to make it less rampant : but a crowded intricacy-
is to be avoided ; for the air stagnates in a thicket of spray and foliage, while the sun
cannot penetrate it : hence the new shoots grow long-jointed, and do not ripen thoroughly ;
and the blossom-buds forming on the bearers for the following year will be fewer and
less plump. All the shoots rising after midsummer are to be displaced, unless a va-
cuity cannot be furnished without reserving some of them ; or unless the excessive luxu-
riance of a plant makes it proper to cut it as little as possible, and to let the sap expend
itself in numerous channels. The spring shoots laid in are generally to be preserved at
full length, as far as the limits will permit, until after the fall of the leaf; because to stop
them in summer would cause them to shoot from almost every eye, and fill the wall with
spray ; hence, when a vacancy wants several branches to furnish it, it is a good resource
to shorten a strong contiguous shoot to three or four eyes. This is the exception to the
rule.
2579. Winter pruning of trees in bearing. Now a final selection is to be made from
the last year's shoots retained as candidates during the summer. On established trees
which have fully ripened their shoots, and of which the young wood is not succulent,
and therefore susceptible of injury from frost, there is a wide latitude of time for the
capital or winter pruning, extending from the fall of the leaf to the time of the sun's
rising, or just before. To prune in autumn strengthens a plant, and will bring the
blossom-buds more forward : to cut the wood late in spring, tends to check a plant, and
is one of the remedies for excessive luxuriance. At the opening of spring, the blossom-
buds can be certainly distinguished, which is a great guide to the judgment in many
critical cases ; but on the other hand, if the blossom-buds get much swelled, they are
liable to be bruised or knocked off, in the various operations of untacking, cutting, and
re-nailing the branches. Supposing the common course of winter pruning to be divided
into three periods — autumn, the cold months of winter, and the beginning of spring
— the plants to be excepted from the first two, are, uniformly the fig, when not in
a forcing-house, the vine for the most part, because the autumn is seldom hot and fine
sufficiently long to ripen the year's shoots. Some except the peach and nectarine from
the middle period, but not from the first ; because they say, that if a severe frost happen
immediately to follow the pruning, the points of the unripened shoots, and particularly
the wood-bud next to the cut, are generally so much hurt, that there must be a second
shortening, farther in than was intended to furnish these shoots with leaders.
2580. The number of good shoots to be retained is limited by the character of the tree, the size to which
the fruit grows, and the compass to be given to the head. The branches of a wall-tree may be from five
to ten inches asunder, according to its strength and the size of the fruit. Of fruit-shoots those are the
best which are short-jointed, and show a competent number of blossom-buds, and on which the series of
blossom-buds commences nearest to the origin of the shoots, especially on that class which must have the
bearers annually shortened. Spongy or disproportionately large and gouty shoots are bad alike for
wood and fruit ; but good shoots for wood may be above the middle size, if the buds are well defined ;
and the best shoots for fruit may incline to slenderness, if not wiry and sapless ; disproportionably large
shoots are seldom fruitful. In choosing large supplies for wood, other things being equal, the lowest new
branches on the tree, and the last year's laterals nearest to the origin of a branch, are to be preferred.
Begin at the bottom and middle of the tree; keep these furnished without intricacy; and the ex-
tremities will be easily managed. Such shoots as are preserved, whether to come in immediately as
bearers, or to furnish naked parts in the figure, or future supplies of wood, are to be treated according to
the mode of bearing.
Class bearing en distinct branches. On those species which bear at the ends of the branches, or on
spurs for several years in succession, the leading shoot of a fruit-branch is always to be retained, on a
double account; and the fruit-branches are not to be shortened where they do not exceed the assigned
limits for the tree ; because, if stopped, these would send out strong wood-shcots, where blossom-buds or
fruit-spurs had otherwise been produced.
2581. Exceptions to this rule : on young trees under training, to be furnished with a head, shorten the
branches until the designed figure is complete ; again, though a tree be established, occasionally shorten
a branch, to bring out wood to fill a vacancy. The surplus of the last year's shoots, which would crowd,
or disfigure, or too much weaken the tree, or occupy it without promise, are to be cut out clean to the
parent branch ; also cut away any old branches which appear decayed, or of which the spurs begin to get
barren. Finally, take off close the naked barren stumps left at previous amputations.
2582. Class bearing on last yeai-'s vjood only. On trees which bear on the last year's wood, there is a
necessity for annually shortening alternate divisions of the branches, in order to provide a supply of new
shoots for bearing the next season. We prune the longer branches of a luxuriant plant, and the shorter
of a weak plant in an inverted proportion. Were the strong tree much cut in, it would produce only the
more wood ; while the weak tree, unless relieved by short pruning, would not long continue to bear.
Very strong shoots may be left eighteen inches long, or lose but a fourth of their length ; extremely weak
shoots retrench to half their length, whether that be five, six, eight or ten inches ; prune shoots of medium
growth to the extent which best consults the double object of leaving as many blossom-buds as may be on
the shoot, and of forcing out new wood at a well placed eye. In shortening cut at a leaf or wood-bud
that is likely to yield a leading shoot. Leaf-buds are distinguished by being oblong, narrow, and de-
pressed ; blossom-buds by being rounder and bolder. If a leaf-bud at a suitable distance is found between
twin blossom-buds, so much the better. A leading shoot at the point of a bearing branch draws nourish-
ment for the intervening fruit. The thinning of rejected shoots, and decayed or worn-out bearers, is
nearly as for the other class.
258-3. Mixed class. There is a small anomalous class which bears frequently on spurs of several years'
continuance as well as on annual shoots, but chiefly on the latter. Shoots of this class are to have a mixed
treatment, preserving the fertile spur.s as much as may be. Having finished pruning a wall-tree, lay in the
branches and shoots directly ; tacking them in a neat manner to the wall or trellis. {Abercrombie.)
2584. Winter jmining to be revised. Revise the pruning when a sufficient time has
elapsed to see it with another eye ; or when the expansion of the blossoms decides the
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
competition between probationary fruit-shoots which have been laid in too close. In
those stone-fruit trees which bear on the last year's shoot, such as the peach and most
kinds of the apricot, it is particularly necessary to revise the winter pruning at the
time of blossoming ; because, if on any branch the blossoms are observed to have been
spoiled either by gum, by blight, or spring frost, that branch is quite useless as a bearer,
and unless it has made some shoots which may prove bearers the following year, is to
be entirely cut away : but if the blighted branches have made well placed shoots, shorten
them to these. (Abercrombie.) ,
2585. Methods of training. The two principal methods of training wall-trees which
are followed in this country, Neill observes, are called the fan and the horizontal modes.
In the former, the branches are arranged like the spokes of a fan, or like the hand opened
and the fingers spread. In the other way, a principal stem is carried upright, and
branches are led from it horizontally on either side. The Dutch style consists in taking
a young tree with two branches, and leading these horizontally to the right and left, to
the extent, perhaps, of twelve feet each way, and in then training the shoots from these
perfectly upright to the top of the wall. This is now seldom practised here, excepting,
perhaps, with fig-trees, or white currants. In some places, a few of the wall-trees are
trained in a stellate form, the stem being led upright for about six feet, and then some
branches trained downwards, others laterally, and others upwards. When walls exceed
seven feet in height, the best gardeners seem to concur in giving the preference to the
fan training, variously modified : in this way they find that a tree can much sooner be
brought to fill its allotted space, and the loss of a branch can much more easily be sup-
plied at any time. For lower walls, the horizontal method is preferred ; and the same
plan is adopted almost universally on espalier-rails. Hitt strongly recommends this
mode for most sorts of wall-trees ; and for pears he adopts what is called the screw
stem, or training the stem in a serpentine manner, the branches going off horizontally as
in the ordinary straight stem. {Edin. Encyc. art. Hort.) Nicol agrees with most ex-
perienced gardeners, in preferring fan training to all other methods ; and it may be ob-
served, that this form comes nearer to that mode recommended by Knight, as affording
" evidence of a more regular distribution of the sap," than any other mode. It agrees
with the excellent general principles of pruning laid down by Quintiney, who first re-
duced this branch of gardening to scientific principles — and to the practice of the cele-
brated growers of peaches at Montreuil, near Paris.
2566. Knight remarks, that when trees are, by any means, deprived of the motion which their branches
naturally receive from the winds, the forms in which they are trained operate more powerfully on their
permanent health and vigor than is generally imagined. " In this sentiment," says Nicol, " I perfectly
agree ; and I may be allowed to add, that I have been engaged in the training of fruit-trees these twenty-
five years, and have trained them in a great variety of forms. Some in the Dutch style, running out two
branches first, perfectly horizontal, right and left, to the extent of three or four years each way, and
from these training shoots perfectly upright, at nine inches apart, to the top of the wall ; some with
screwed stems and horizontal branches ; some with upright stems and horizontal branches ; some with
stems six feet high, with pendent, upright, and horizontal branches, so as to appear Uke a star ; and others
in the fan manner ; which last, I confess, I prefer to all other methods of training wall-trees. I have
altered many from the above forms to this both on walls and espaliers."
2587. Modes of training to check over 432
vigorous growth are various ; but all of
them depend on depressing the shoots
either throughout their whole length or
operating on the young shoots only. When
opportunity admits, or want of space on
one side of a wall requires, it is found
conducive to moderation of growth and
the production of fruit to train the
branches of trees over the wall and down
the other side. {jig. 431.) This is found
to increase the prolificacy of vigorous
growing kinds, as the pear ; and it also
succeeds well with the apple, cherry, and vine.
2588. Modes of training to encourage the growth of shoots proceed on the opposite prin-
ciple, and while over-luxuriant shoots are depressed, weak ones, which it is deemed proper
to encourage, are elevated and brought nearer to the perpendicular.
2589. Pruning and training, as applied to edgings and hedges, is performed by clipping
or cutting en masse, with the hedge-bill. (1328.) Hedges must be cut in autumn
when the wood is ripe : sometimes it is done in summer, which is admissible, as far.as
respects the health of the plants, and consequent durability of the hedge when the lower
ends of the shoots are nearly ripe. If this is not the case, the operation is in-
jurious. The judicious gardener will weigh the circumstances of the case, and decide
accordingly.
Book I. WATERING. 493
Sect. VI. Weeding, Stirring the Soil, Protecting, Supporting, and Shading.
2590. Eradication of tueeds. The means of removal, are hoeing and weeding ; and
of destruction, exposing them, when hoed or pulled up, to the sun and air ; or, what is
in all cases better, taking them at once to the dunghill or compost-yard, to be destroyed
by fermentation. These operations require to be performed almost every month in the
year ; but more especially in the beginning of summer, when the earth is teeming with
vegetable life. Weeding in time, Marshall observes, is a material thing in culture, and
the hand is generally more certain than the hoe.
2591. Stirring the ground among crops is nearly as essential as weeding, and is in some
degree performed by the operation of hoeing. But the most effectual mode of stirring,
and that now adopted by the best gardeners, is by the two-pronged fork or two-
pronged hoe. (Jigs. 86. 97.) Every crop, whether planted in rows, or sown broad-
cast, ought to be subjected to this operation once or oftener in the course of its progress
to maturity. Small crops, where the distances between the plants are not wide, ought
to be stirred by a fork of two prongs, or even one prong. A narrow hoe is the
usual instrument, but this always tends to harden the ground below, and form a sort of
sole, which in many soils is impervious to air or rain. Besides, the operator is generally-
obliged to tread on and harden the ground stirred. " Breaking the surface," Marshall
remarks, " keeps the soil in health ; for when it lies in a hard or bound state, enriching
showers run off, and the salubrious air and solar heat cannot enter. Ground," he adds,
" should be frequently stirred and raked between crops, and about the borders, to give
all a fresh appearance. There is a pleasantness to the eye in new-broken earth, which
gives an air of culture, and is always agreeable." This last observation is particularly
meant to apply in autumn, that the garden may not become dreary too soon, and so bring
on winter before its time.
2592. Earthing up ought to go hand in hand with stirring in many cases ; but rarely
in the case of those plants which form their bulbs above the surface, as turnips and
onions. This operation supports the stems of some crops, as the bean, cabbage, &c.
and encourages the fertility or improves the quality of others, as the potatoe, leek, celery,
&c. In winter also it protects them from the frost, and may then be applied to the
turnip as no longer in a state of growth.
2593. Protecting, supporting, and shading. These operations are too little attended to,
or attempted in a slovenly manner, by many gardeners. The grand subjects of pro-
tection are fruit-trees; and we have already (2206, &c.) given an enumeration of the
various modes to which recourse is had. The simplest, and perhaps the best protection
for general purposes, is that of throwing a net, either an old fishing-net or one formed
on purpose of woollen yarn, over the whole tree, if a standard, or placing it against it,
if trained to a wall, before it begins to blossom, and letting it remain there till the fruit
is set. Marshall recommends this mode, justly observing, that after much expense and
trouble to preserve blossoms from inclement weather, the business is often done to no
purpose, or a bad one. Nicol's opinion is not materially different. Single plants, as
the raspberry, are to be supported by sticks or rods, and rows of climbers, by rods, spray,
or branches, as peas, kidneybeans, &c.
2594. Shading is but little attended to, excepting in the case of transplantation ; but
it is of great importance in the fruiting season to certain plants which naturally grow
in shady situations, as the strawberry and raspberry ; and properly applied and accom-
panied with watering, tends to swell these fruits and others, as the gooseberry, and heads
and roots of certain vegetables in hot weather, as the cauliflower, turnip, onion, radish ;
and the whole vegetable, as in the case of lettuce and other salads. The advantages of
shading small fruits have been pointed out by Haynes ( On the Culture of the Strawberry,
Raspberry, and Gooseberry, 8vo. 1812.), and are very strikingly displayed in the gardening
of the south of France and Italy.
Sect. VII. Watenng.
2595. Watering, Marshall observes, " is a thing of some importance in cultivation,
though not so much as many make it. It is a moot point, whether more harm than good,
is not on the whole done by it. In a large garden it is a Herculean labor to water
every thing, and so the temptation generally prevails, either wholly to neglect it, or to
do it irregularly or defectively. To water nothing is too much on the dry side ; but
watering too much spoils the flavor, and renders esculents less wholesome." It may be
observed, that the practice of the market-gardeners near London and Paris, and many
private gardeners who practise in the southern counties, is somewhat at variance with the
opinion of this experienced and very judicious author. The reason may probably be,
that the region of his experience, Northamptonshire, is high and moist. He adds,
however, that " strawberries and cauliflowers should generally be watered in a dry sea-
son ; strawberries more particularly When in bloom, in order to set rhe fruit ; and the
494 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
cauliflowers when they show fruit, in order to swell the head : in a light soil this ought
unremittingly to be done. In very dry weather seedlings, asparagus, early turnips,
carrots, radishes, and small salads, will need an evening watering." He adds, " Water
to the bottom and extent of the roots, as much as may be. The wetting only the surface
of the ground is of little use, and of some certain harm, as it binds and cracks the earth,
and so excludes the benefit of showers, dews, air, and sun, from entering the soil, and
benefiting the roots as they otherwise would do. By wetting the surface of the ground,
however, in a summer's evening, as it makes a cool atmosphere, a dew is formed, which
pervades the leaves, and helps to fill their exhausted vessels." He recommends " water-
ing the roots of wall-trees in dry weather effectually ; watering wall-trees with an
engine in the evening refreshes them much, and helps to rid the trees and wall of insects
and filth. Late in the summer, when the nights begin to get cold, it is time to leave ofF
all watering, except things in pots and frames, which should have it then only in the
morning. As watering is apt to make ground hidebound and unsightly, let the
surface be occasionally stirred and raked, which will make future waterings enter the
ground better : when the ground is hard on the top, the water iuiis away from its proper
place, and half the labor is lost. Many things are impatient of being kept wet about the
stalks, and therefore watering such plants should be generally at a little distance."
2596. Watering over the leaves of wall-trees and espaliers is essentially necessary, because
these trees by their position are deprived in a great degree of the natural showers which
would fall on them, if their branches were freely diverged in the open garden.
Abercrombie, Forsyth, and Nicol strongly recommend watering the leaves of wall fruh-trees in dry
weather every other day in the evening. Forsyth recommends watering infected trees with clear lime-
water over the leaves, which he says soon destroys the red spider. Nicol uses water only ; leaves oft* when
the fruit approaches to maturity ; and after it is gathered, recommences.
2597. Substitutes for watering can only be found in contrivances to lessen evaporation
from the soil. Mulching is much used for this purpose in all the departments of the
gardens of Italy and Spain. Even the Paris nurserymen cover the spaces between their
lines of young trees with litter or leaves, as do the orange propagators at Nervi and the
market-gardeners at Rome and Naples. In this country similar practices are sometimes
tried. Maher, at Arundel Castle, during one very hot and dry summer, " sowed his seeds
in drills, and covered the intervals between the drills witii tiles, letting the edges of the
tiles approach within an inch of the drills, and pressing them close into the earth. The
tiles effectually preserved the roots from the scorching rays of the sun, and by preventing
the evaporation of the moisture under them, afforded support as well as protection."
(Hort. Trans, vol. iv. p. 51.)
Sect. VIII. Vermin, Insects, Diseases, and Accidents.
2598. Such vermin as moles, mice, and birds are to be caught by some of the traps or
snares before described. (1473. to 1486.) After all the various devices that have been
suggested and practised for keeping under the grub, caterpillar, and snail, the most
certain is gadiering them by hand at their first appearance every season. The grub,
wire- worm, and maggot must be sought for by removing the earth from the roots of
the plants where it is in action. The caterpillar gathered from the leaves beginning
early in the season. The snail picked from the leaves or stalks of plants ; or, in the case
of new-sown crops, by strewing the ground with cabbage-leaves, or decaying leaves or
haulm of any sort, (the process of decay inducing a degree of sweetness in the vegetable,)
the snails will attach themselves to their under surface in the night, and may be picked
off in the morning. Where the earth-worm is too abundant, they may be gathered in
digscin": ; or their casts removed, and the ground watered with clear lime-water. Ear-
wigs, wood-lice, and similar insects, may be caught in hollow stalks of vegetables, or in
the beetle-trap. Wasps are best destroyed by suffocating them in their nests ; when this
cannot be done, recourse must be had to bottles of honied water, or other common modes.
Watering is an effectual mode of destroying die red spider. Fumigation is generally
resorted to in the case of the aphis and thrips ; but in the open garden, watering and
rubbing, or brushing them off, will effect their destruction.
2599. Diseases in the vegetable kingdom are rather to be prevented than cured. A good
soil on a dry sub-soil is the grand foundation of health, both in trees and herbaceous plants ;
and, on the supposition of proper culture, the judicious use of the knife to thin out
superfluous, diseased, or injured branches, shoots, or leaves, and of the scraper, to re-
move mosses and rough bark already cracked and separating, are all that can be done to
be depended on. Various unctions, oils, washes, compositions, and plasters, have been
tried and recommended for curing the canker, mildew, blight, blotches, barrenness, gum,
&c. ; but few or none of them can be depended on. For the mildew, strewing with pow-
dered sulphur is considered a specific ; for the canker, &c, the most effectual mode of
procedure is to correct the faults of die sub-soil and soil, renewing the latter entirely, if
necessary ; to cut ou* as far as practicable the diseased or wounded part ; and in the case
Book I. GATHERING AND PRESERVING VEGETABLES, &c. 495
of barrenness, to cut in or shorten even the healthy wood. Wherever amputation takes
place, the wound will heal, if the air is excluded by prepared clay or any adhesive mix-
ture, provided always, that the principle of life exists in tolerable vigor in the tree.
Every thing, indeed, in plants as in animals, depends on the vis medicatrix natures.
Sect. IX. Gathering and Preserving Vegetables and Fruits, and sending them to a
Distance.
2600. Gathering should commence as early and continue as late as possible with all
kitchen-crops. At the same time, no vegetable ought to be gathered till it has attained the
requisite degree of maturity, nor offered for use when it has begun to decay. What this
degree is, often depends on the particular tastes of families, or their domestics : thus
cabbages are most esteemed in Edinburgh when fully headed and blanched ; while, in
London, they are preferred open and green, &c. Equal differences in taste as to peas,
celery, lettuce, and indeed most other kitchen-crops, might be noticed. The operations
of gathering kitchen-crops are either cutting off the part desired, breaking or pulling it
off, as in the case of peas, beans, &c. or pulling or rooting up, as in the case of onions,
turnips, potatoes, &c. Each of these operations ought to be performed with due regard
to the plant, where that is to remain, as in the case of the pea ; and to the adjoining
plants of the same sort, as in the case of pulling turnips, onions, &c. As soon as any
plant has furnished its crops or produce, the root and other remains ought to be immedi-
ately removed to the dung or compost heap. (See 1977.)
2601. Gathering fruits. This operation in the case of the small fruits, as the goose-
berry, strawberry, &c. is generally performed by the under-gardeners ; but wall and
espalier fruit ought to be gathered by the head gardener. Where the utmost delicacy is
desired, the berry-gatherer (Jig. 149.) ought to be adopted for the small fruits, and also for
plums, apples, and other fruits on espaliers. For the finer fruits, as the peach, nectarine,
&c. the peach -gatherer (Jig. 148.) lined with velvet, ought always to be adopted.
2602. Preserving esculents. The ice-house, as we have repeatedly observed, is found
particularly useful for preserving esculent roots, and likewise celery during winter.
" Where parsneps and beet-roots are left in the ground over winter," Neill observes, " they
must be lifted at the approach of spring, as they become tough and woody whenever there
is a tendency to form a flower-stalk. These roots may, therefore, at this season, be placed
in the ice-house, and preserved there for a considerable time in excellent order. In the
summer season, during hot weather, various kinds of vegetables, as peas, kidneybeans,
cucumbers, &c. can be kept fresh in it for several days ; fruits gathered in the morning,
which is the most proper time, may be here kept cool, and with all their freshness and
flavor, until required for the dessert in the afternoon." (Supp. to Encyc. Brit. art. Hort.)
2603. Packing fruit and vegetables to be sent to a distance frequently forms a part of the
gardener's duty. Fruits of the most delicate sorts, it is well known, are sent from Spain
and Italy to. England, packed in jars with sawdust from woods not resinous or otherwise
ill tasted. One large bunch of grapes is suspended from a twig or pin laid across the
mouth of the jar, so as it may not touch either the bottom or sides ; sawdust or bran is
then strewed in, and when full, the jar is well shaken to cause it to settle : more is then
added, till it is quite full, when the supporting twig is taken away, and the earthen
cover of the jar closely fitted and sealed, generally with fine stucco. In this way grapes
may be sent from the most remote parts of Scotland or Ireland to the metropolis. When
the distance is less, they may be sent enveloped in fine paper, and packed in moss. For
extraordinary large bunches of grapes, the mode adopted by the Jewish spies (Numbers
xiii.), and afterwards by Speedily, may be followed ; that of carrying it suspended on a
pole or staff resting on men's sholders. The simplest mode for short distances is to wrap
each bunch in fine soft paper, and lay them on a bed of moss in a broad flat basket with
a proper cover.
2604. The more common fruits, cherries, and plums may be packed in thin layers, with paper and moss
between each. Peaches, apricots, and the finer plums, may each be wrapped separately in vine or other
leaves, or fine paper, and packed in abundance of cotton, flax, fine moss, or dried short grass.^ Moss, it
will be recollected, is apt to communicate its flavor to fine fruits, and so is short grass, if not thoroughly
dried and sweetened. Cotton best preserves the bloom on peaches and plums.
2605. Common culinary vegetables are seldom sent to a great distance. The great art is to preserve them
fresh, for which purpose they ought to be laid loose in a close box, in the manner of botanic specimens;
or closely packed in hampers, so as to exclude the air. The brassica and lettuce tribes, if pulled up by the
roots, and as it were replanted in a box of sand with a wicker-work cover, may be sent a journey of two
or three weeks without injury, as practised in Russia. Celery, turnips, && may be packed in sand ;
potatoes and other roots, loose. Legumes and other summer crops generally in moss.
Sect. X. Miscellaneous Operations of Culture and Management.
2606. The miscellaneous operations and duties of the gardener are numerous, and in
the foregoing general view of kitchen -garden culture many particulars are necessarily
omitted. Among these may be mentioned propagation of various kinds for the renewal
of crops, mulching perennials, blanching leaves and stalks, rolling walks, preparing
496 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
composts, regrafting trees to introduce better sorts, or a variety of sorts on one tree, per-
forming operations on their roots or stems to render them more fruitful, &c. These and
other practices described in Part II. Book IV. of this work must be applied according
to the judgment of the practitioner.
2607. A garden may be managed so as to produce good crojys, and yet not so as to be
agreeable to the eye. In general it may be observed, that the English gardeners excel in
the former, and the Scotch in the latter part of practice. The Dutch and Flemish seem,
in some degree to combine both, and this ought to be attempted, and persevered in till
perfection is attained, by every British gardener.
2608. The first requisite to good management is a proper establishment of laborers, and resources, as to
manure, seeds, repairs, &c. adequate to the extent and character of the garden. The next thing neces-
sary is the entire independence of the gardener, as far as respects his province. The constant irksome
interference of masters and mistresses, stewards, or others, is justly complained of by every gardener who
understands his business. Where the proprietor is as it were head gardener, in that case he ought to
make use of mere workmen, or of such gardeners as are not over-ambitious in their profession. In
general it may be observed, that gardens so managed are ill managed, and often not well cultivated.
2609. The next requisite is a taste for order and neatness. This taste is generally acquired in youth
from the instruction or imitation of parents or masters ; but it may be greatly increased in grown-up
persons, when they perceive its advantages, and in head gardeners, when a demand for it is created by
their employers. ..'..-
2610. Industry and steadiness are perhaps in no kind of life more necesssary than in that of a gardener.
Whole crops may be easily ruined by a day's neglect ; and not only whole crops, as in the case of ne-
glecting cucumber-frames, for example, but the whole produce of a year, or of several years, as in the case
of neglecting a peach-house for one hot day.
2611. Unremitting attention and application. Unless a man is endowed with, and has well cultivated
the faculty of attention, he can never excel in any thing. Without an ever-active attention, a gardener,
will not see what is out of order, or unsightly in his garden, and of course will not think of correcting it.
Many people are so deficient in this respect," that their knowledge is entirely confined to the few objects
with which their mode of procuring a living obliges them to be conversant. Something more than this
is wanting in a gardener who would be master of his business ; and it must be confessed, to the honor of
many gardeners, that they excel in point of general observation and knowledge.
2612. The management of a garden, Marshall observes, consists in attention and application ; the first
should be of that wary and provident kind, as not only to do well in the present, but for the future ; and the
application should be of so diligent a nature, as " Never to defer that till to-morrow which may be done
to-day." Procrastination is of serious consequence in gardening; and neglect of times and seasons is
fruitful of disappointment and complaint. It will often happen, indeed, that a gardener cannot do what
he would; but if he does not do what he can, he will be most justly blamed, and perhaps censured by
none more than himself. {Introd. to Gar. p. 59.)
Chap. V.
Of the general Management of Orchards.
2613. A private orchard is, sometimes, treated entirely as a kitchen-garden, in
which case the foregoing chapter contains the general outline of management. Vege-
tables and small fruits, however, are seldom well flavored when grown under the shade
and drip of trees, and, therefore, orchards are commonly either but slightly cropped, or
laid down in pasture, after the trees are a few years established.
Sect. I. General Culture.
2614. Stirring the soil. " Many orchards would bear much better," Marshall observes,
" if the ground were, before winter, dug over every second or third year, and dressed,
by digging in some rotten dung, or sprinkling over the whole soot and pigeons' dung,
or that of any other poultry ; this will wash in by rains and snows, and do much good.
Or, if an orchard were ploughed, or rough dug, every year, immediately after the fall of
the leaf, without manuring, it would be very beneficial."
2615. The taking of light, green crops near and among fruit-trees, according to Aber-
crombie, tends to keep the ground more effectually stirred and recruited, than if
periodical diggings or hoeings were prescribed merely for the sake of the trees, because
labor, for which the recompense is not direct, is constantly liable to be neglected.
Nevertheless circumspection must be exercised, neither to dig too near, nor too deep
among garden-trees, lest the roots should be loosened or injured. Digging the ground,
Forsyth observes, provided it be not done so deep as to hurt the roots, by admitting the
sun and rain to meliorate the ground, will keep the trees in a healthy flourishing state.
When the surface of the ground is wet, and has a little descent, it may be formed into a
kind of ridges, by making a furrow, from one to two feet deep, between every two rows,
sloping the ground regularly on each side, from a reasonable distance to the bottom of the
furrow. These hollows will carry off the water, and render the surface dry and healthy.
If pasture, the turf may be first pared off, and afterwards relaid when the furrow is
made. (Forsyth on Fr. Trees, p. 305.)
Nicol directs the whole ground of an orchard to be dug in the autumn, and laid up in a rough state for
the winter giving it as much surface as possible, in order that the weather may fully act upon and meliorate
the soil • thus fallowing it as far as the case will admit. Observe to dig carefully near to the trees, and so
as not to hurt their roots and fibres. If the soil be shallow, and if these lie near the surface, it would be
advisable to dig with a fork instead of the spade. {Kal. p. 262.)
Book I. PRUNING ORCHARD-TREES.
497
2616. Manuring. The natural defects of the soil, the habits of fruit-trees, and the
preference of a species for a particular soil or manure, are to be considered. The hotter
dungs are not liked by fruit-trees ; and those of the horse and the sheep, if not wanted
where they would be beneficial alone, should be mixed with twice as much of the cooler
dungs, and three times as much fresh earth or road-drift ; or with twice the bulk of
earthy matter, if the cooler dungs are not to be obtained. The residuum of neats' duno-
properly reduced by keeping, is a good simple manure for most fruit-trees, and excellent
in a compost ; but where the soil is naturally cold, a little ashes of coals, wood, straw, or
burnt turf, or a minute proportion of soot, ought to be incorporated with it. Ho°--dun£
is accounted to have a peculiar virtue in invigorating weak trees. Rotted turf, or any
vegetable refuse, is a general manure, excellent for all soils not already too rich. One
of the best correctives of too rich a soil is drift sand. For an exhausted soil, where a
fruit-tree that has been an old profitable occupant is wished to be continued, a dressing
of animal matter is a powerful restorative ; such as hog's or bullock's blood, offal from
the slaughter-house, refuse of skins and leather, decomposed carrion : also urine diluted
with water. The drainings of dung laid on as mulch are highly serviceable. In a soil
which does not effervesce with acids, a little lime, dug in a spit deep, is beneficial to
fruit-trees. (Abercrombie.)
Forsyth says, " Orchards ought to be dunged once in two or three years." Marshall allows of some rotten
dung being dug in, or of sprinkling the whole over with soot and pigeon's dung; he adds " It is not ad-
visable to give trees much dung ; a little lime, only surface-dug, is good."
2617. Cropping. Marshall, Abercrombie, and Forsyth allow of moderate cropping
among standard fruit-trees ; but the following observations of Nicol are the most definite
on the subject : —
It is proper to crop the ground among new-planted orchard-trees for a few years, in order to defray the
expense of hoeing and cultivating it ; which should be done until the temporary plants are removed and
the whole be sown down in grass. But it is by no means advisable to carry the system of cropping' with
vegetables to such an excess as is frequently done. If the bare expense of cultivating the ground and
the rent, be paid by such cropping, it should be considered enough. As the trees begin to produce fruit
begin also to relinquish cropping. When by their productions they defray all expenses, crop no longer'
I consider these as being wholesome rules, both for the trees and their owners.
Rule. " Crop to within two feet of the trees the first year ; a yard the second ; four feet the third*- and
so on until finally relinquished ; which of course would be against the eighth year, provided the 'trees
were planted at thirty or forty feet apart with early bearing sorts between. By this time, if the kinds
have been well chosen, the temporary trees will be in full bearing, and will forthwith defray every neces-
sary expense while they remain, or until the principal trees come into a bearing state, and it become
necessary to remove them ; after which, the ground should be sown down in grass. But until then the
ground should be properly cultivated, though not cropped close to the trees ; and a moderate quantity of
manure should be digged in every second or third season." (Kal. 262.)
Sect. II. Pruning Orchard-trees.
2618. In pruning a neivly planted orchard or standard tree, the first object is the form-
ation of a head. According to Abercrombie, this ought in most kinds to be " circular,
compact, and proportioned to the strength of the stem, with the branches well distributed,
and sufficiently open in the centre to admit the free circulation of air."
In the first spring " after a young standard has been planted, examine the primary branches, to see
whether they will be sufficient, with the secondary laterals to be forced out by shortening, to form a good
head. The primary branches should be so placed as to balance each other, and be equally distributed
round the tree. Thus, three in a triangle ; four at right angles ; five, six, and even seven, shooting at
pretty equal distances, might be retained : but it is seldom that more than four well placed offer, which
is a good number. These first branches, if there be no secondary laterals, or none well placed, should be
shortened down to two or four eyes each ; or reduce a strong shoot to one third of its length, and a
weak shoot to two thirds. The second spring, again revise the branches and secondary shoots, and re-
serve only so many as are vigorous and well distributed. Afterwards leave the head to form of itself,
cutting out superfluous and ill placed shoots, and shortening for the production of new laterals only to fill
a vacancy. Luxuriant limbs, which are likely to be disproportionally large, should be rejected as weakly
shoots. In the third or fourth year after planting a maiden tree, the foundation of a good head having
been obtained by judicious shortening, and the plant sufficiently strengthened, it will become proper to
let the tree proceed to bearing with no greater check from the knife than is unavoidable. To this end,
the lower branches should not be shortened at all, and the upright leaders verv little. But where two
shoots cross, let the worst be cut out. Moderate-sized and slender shoots are more fruitful than strong
luxuriant wood."
2619. The object of pruning young standard-trees, Nicol observes, " is to form a proper
head. Generally speaking, the shoots may be pruned in proportion to their lengths,
cutting clean away such as cross one another, and fanning the tree out towards the ex-
tremities on all sides ; thereby keeping it equally poised, and fit to resist the effects of
high winds. When it is wished to throw a young tree into a bearing state, which
should not be thought of, however, sooner than the third or fourth year after planting,
the leading branches should be very little shortened, and the lower or side branches not
at all ; nor should the knife be used, unless to cut out such shoots as cross one another,
as above hinted."
2620. Pruning bearing trees. " After an orchard-tree is come into bearing,"
Abercrombie observes, " continue at the time of winter pruning, either every year, or
every two, three, or four years, as an occasion is perceived, to cut out unproductive
K k
498 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
wood, crowded spray, and decayed parts. Also reduce long and outrunning ramblers,
and low stragglers, cutting them to some good lateral that grows within limits. Where
fruit-spurs are too numerous, then cut the strongest and most unsightly. Also keep the
tree pretty open in the middle. If it be necessary to take off large branches from aged
trees, use a chisel or saw, and afterwards smooth the wound with a paring-knife. In
case old wood is to be cut down to young shoots springing below, to make the separation
in summer will be of more advantage to those young shoots, though it is not a common
practice, on account of the liability of many stone-fruit bearers to exude gum, when a
laro-e branch is lopped in the growing season. Observe to keep the stem clear from all
lateral shoots, and eradicate all suckers from the root."
2621. In pruning aged trees, that have run into a confusion of shoots and branches,
and whose spurs have become clustered and crowded, the saw and the knife may be ex-
ercised with freedom ; observing to cut clean away all useless spray, rotten stumps, and
the like excrescences. Thin out the spurs to a moderate consistency, so as to let the air
circulate freely among the leaves and fruit in the summer season, and to admit the rays
of the sun, so as to give the fruit color and flavor.
Marshall strongly recommends " thinning the branches of orchard-trees for the same objects," adding,
" that it is in general much neglected." He recommends "a little pruning of standards every year;*
and a general one (rather free) every three or four years, to cut out what is decayed, and some of the
older wood, where a successional supply of young may be obtained to succeed, as the best way to keep
the trees in vigor, and have the best of fruit ; for that which grows on old wood gets small and austere."
The same author judiciously remarks, that trees with heavy fruit, as the apple and pear, should have, if
possible, their branches rather upright ; but that light-fruited trees, such as the cherry, will admit of
drooping branches.
2622. The season for pruning orchards is generally winter or early in spring — not
later than February, according to Abercrombie and Nicol. Quintiney says, " A weak
tree ought to be pruned directly at the fall of the leaf." And Abercrombie, " To prune
in autumn strengthens a plant, and will bring the blossom-buds more forward ; to cut
the wood late in spring tends to check a plant, and is one of the remedies for excessive
luxuriance."
2623. Treatment of deformed or diseased trees. Where a tree is stinted, or the head ill shaped, from
being originally badly pruned, or barren from having overborne itself, or from constitutional weakness,
the most expeditious remedy is to head down the plant within three, four, or five eyes (or inches, if an
old tree) of the top of the stem, in order to furnish it with a new head. The recovery of a languishing
tree if not too old, will be further promoted by taking it up at the same time, and pruning the roots ; for
as on the one hand, the depriving too luxuriant a tree of part even of its sound healthy roots will moderate
its' vigor • so, on the other, to relieve a stinted or sickly tree of cankered or decayed roots, to prune the
extremities of sound roots, and especially to shorten the dangling tap-roots of a plant, affected by a bad
sub-soil, is in connection with heading down or very short pruning, and the renovation of the soil, and
draining, if necessary, of the sub-soil, the most availing remedy that can be tried. (Abercrombie.)
2624. A tree often becomes stinted from an accumulation of moss, which affects the
functions of the bark, and renders the tree unfruitful. This evil is to be removed by
scraping the stem and branches of old trees with the scraper ; and on young trees a hard
brush will effect the purpose. Abercrombie and Nicol agree in recommending the
finishing of this operation by washing with soap-suds, or a medicated wash of some of
the different sorts for destroying the eggs of insects. In our opinion lime-water, or even
water alone, is better than any of these applications.
2625. Wherever the bark is decayed or cracked, Abercrombie and Forsyth direct its removal.
Lyon, of Edinburgh,, has lately carried this practice to so great a length as even to
recommend the removal of a part of the bark on young trees. Practical men, in general,
however, confine the operation to the cracked bark which nature seems to attempt throw-
ing off; and the effect, in rendering the trees more fruitful and luxuriant, is acknow-
ledged by Neill in his Account of Scottish Gardening and Orchards, and by different
writers in the London and Edinburgh Horticultural Transactions.
2626. The other diseases to which orchard-trees are subject, are chiefly the canker, gum,
mildew, and blight, which, as we have already observed, are rather to be prevented by
such culture as will induce a healthy state, than to be remedied by topical applications.
Too much lime, Sir H. Davy thinks, may bring on the canker, and if so, the replacing
a part of such soil with alluvial or vegetable earth, would be of service. The gum, it is
said, may be constitutional, arising from offensive matter in the soil ; or local, arising
from external injury. In the former case, improve the soil ; in the latter, apply the
knife. The mildew, it is observed by Knight and by Abercrombie, " may be easily
subdued at its first appearance, by scattering flour of sulphur upon the infected parts."
As this disease is now generally considered the growth of parasitical fungi, the above
remedy is likely to succeed. For the blight and caterpillars, Forsyth recommends burn-
ing of rotten wood, weeds, potatoe haulm, wet straw, &c. on the windward side of the
trees when they are in blossom. He also recommends washing the stems and branches
of all orchard-trees with a mixture of " fresh cow-dung with urine and soap-suds, as a
white-washer would wash the ceiling or walls of a room." The promised advantages
are, destruction of insects, and " fine bark;" he adds, " when you see it necessary take
all the outer bark off."
Book I. GATHERING AND STORING ORCHARD-FRUITS. 499
Sect. III. Of gathering and storing Orchard-fruits.
2627. The gathering of orchard-fruits, and especially apples, from standards, should
be performed in such a manner as not to damage the branches, or break oft' the spurs.
Too frequently the fruit is allowed to drop, or they are beat and bruised by shaking the
tree, and using long poles, &c. Nicol directs that " they should never be allowed to
drop of themselves, nor should they be shaken down, but should be pulled by the
hand or apple-gatherer. (1347.) This may be thought too troublesome a method; but
every body knows that bruised fruit will not keep, nor will it bring a full price. The
expense of gathering, therefore, may be more than defrayed, if carefully done, by saving
the fruit from blemish." (Juil. 257.)
Forsyth says, " As apples shaken or beaten down with a pole never keep in winter, they ought all to be
hand-picked by a person standing on steps made on purpose. The step-ladder should be light, in two
pieces, to disengage the back at pleasure, by drawing the bolt ; and they should have a broad step at top
for a man to stand on, and to place a basket by his feet. In the larger baskets or hampers, in which the
fruit is to be placed to be wheeled away, lay some short grass mowings, perfectly dry (which ought to be
provided in summer, and kept dry), to prevent the fruit from being bruised."
2628. In respect to the time of gathering, Nicol recommends " that pears and apples
should not be pulled till their seeds be of a dark brown, or blackish color." The
criterion of ripeness, adopted by Forsyth, is their beginning to fall from the tree. He
says, " Observe attentively when the apples and pears are ripe ; and do not pick them
always at the same regular time of the year, as is the practice with many. A dry season
will forward the ripening of fruit, and a wet one retard it ; so that there will sometimes
be a month or five weeks difference in the proper time of gathering. The method that I
have practised is, to observe when the fruit begins to fall (I do not mean what we call
windfalls, or the falling of such as are infested with the caterpillar, &c, but sound
fruit) ; I then put my hand under it ; and if it comes off without any force being used, I
take it for granted that the fruit is perfectly ripe ; unless the tree be sickly, which is
easily known by the leaves or fruit being shrivelled. If the foregoing observations are
attended to, the fruit will keep well, and be plump ; and not shrivelled, as is the case
with all fruit that is gathered before it is ripe."
Marshall says, " Gather pears of the summer sorts, rather before they are ripe, as when thoroughly so
they eat mealy, if kept above a dav or two ; even when gathered as they ought to be, in a week or less
they will begin to go at the core. They should not, however, be gathered while they require much force
to pull them off. Autumn pears must also not be full ripe at the time of gathering, though they will keep
longer than those of the summer. Winter pears, on the contrary, should hang as long on the trees as
they may, so as to escape frost, which would make them flat in flavor, and not keep well. Generally they
may hang to the middle of October on full standards, a week longer on dwarfs, and to the end of the
month on walls : but yet not after they are ripe. The art of gathering is to give them a lift, so as torpress
away the stalk, and if ripe they readily part from the tree. Those that will not come off easy, should hang
a little longer • for when they come hardly off, they will not be so fit to store, and the violence done at the
footstalk may injure the bud there formed for the next year's fruit. Let pears be quite dry when pulled,
and in handling avoid pinching the fruit, or in any way bruising it, as those which are hurt not only decay
themselves, but presently spread infection to those near them : when suspected to be bruised, let them
be carefully kept from others, and used first : as gathered lay them gently in shallow baskets."
— " The jargonelle pear," Forsyth observes, " keeps best on the tree, as if gathered, it rots almost
immediately."
2629. With regard to keeping of orchard-fruits, the old practice, and that recommended
by Marshall and Forsyth, commences with sweating. Nicol, and most modern
gardeners, omit this process, and spread the fruit thinly on shelves, or the floor of the
fruit-room. As to the keeping of apples, Marshall observes, " those which continue
long for use should be suffered to hang late, even to November, if the frost will permit,
for they must be well ripened, or they will shrink. Lay them in heaps till they have
sweated a few days, when they must be wiped dry. Let them then lie singly, or at least
thinly, for about a fortnight, and be again wiped, and immediately packed in boxes and
hampers, lined with double or treble sheets of paper. Place them gently in, and cover
them close, so as to keep air out as much as possible. Preserve them from frost through
the winter. Never use hay for the purpose. Some of the choicest table sorts of apples
may be treated as directed for the best pears."
2630. Sweating and storing winter pears. Winter pears, according to Marshall,
" should be laid in a dry airy room, at first thinly for a few days, and then put them in
heaps to sweat ; in order to which, a blanket thrown over them will help. The ferment-
ation must be watched, and when it seems to have passed the height of sweating, wipe
the fruit quite dry gently with fine flannel, or clean soft linen, and store them carefully.
The storing is thus : those to be used first, lay by singly on shelves, or on the floor, in a
dry southern room, on clean dry moss, or sweet dry straw, so as not to touch one another.
Some, or all the rest, having first lain a fortnight singly, and then nicely culled, are to
be spread on shelves, or on a dry floor. But the most superior way is, to pack in large
earthen, or China or stone jars, with very dry long moss at the bottom, sides, and also
between them, if it might be. Press a good coat of moss on the top, and then stop the
mouth close with cork°, or otherwise, which should be rosined round with about a
Kk 2
500 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
twentieth part of bees' wax in it. As the object is effectually to keep out air (the cause
of putrefaction), the jars, if earthen, may be set on dry sand, which put also between,
round, and over them, to a foot thick on the top. In all close storing, observe, there
should be no doubt of the soundness of the fruit. Guard, in time, from frost those that
lie open. Jars of fruit must be soon used after unsealing."
2631. Siveating and storing apples and pears as practised by Forsyth. u When the
fruit is carried to the fruit-room, lay some of the dry short grass on the floor, in the area
of the room ; then take the fruit gently out of the baskets, and lay it in heaps on the top
of the grass, keeping each sort in a separate heap ; the heaps may be from two to three
feet high, or according to the quantity of fruit that you have. When the heaps are com-
pleted, cover the tops at least two inches thick with short grass, in order to sweat them.
Let them lie a fortnight, then open the heaps and turn them over, wiping each apple or
pear with a dry woollen cloth, which should be frequently dried during the process,
observing now to lay in the middle the fruit which before was at the top. Let the heaps
now remain eight or ten days, covered as before ; by that time, they will have thrown out
the watery crudities which they may have imbibed during a wet season ; then uncover the
heaps, and wipe the fruit carefully one by one, as before, picking out every one that is
injured, or has the least spot, as unfit for keeping. During the time that the fruit is
sweating, the windows should be left open, except in wet and foggy weather, to admit the
air to carry off the moisture which perspires from the fruit. The perspiration will some-
times be so great, that, on putting your hand into the heap, it will come out as wet as if
it had been dipped into a pail of water : when in this state it will be necessary to turn and
wipe the fruit."
2632. In laying up fruit, the common practice has been, to lay it on clean wheat-straw ; but I find, by
experience, that, when any of the fruit begins to decay, if it be not immediately picked out, the straw,
by imbibing the moisture from the decayed fruit, will become tainted, and communicate a disagreeable
taste to the sound fruit. " The fruit on shelves," he adds, " should be turned two or three times during
the winter ; as delicate and tender fruit, by lying long without turning, is apt to rot on the underside,
even if perfectly sound when laid up. Be particularly careful, however, to pick out all the damaged fruit.
When the fruit is laid in, put the earliest sorts on the lower shelves, or in the lower drawers, according to
their time of coming in, beginning with the nonsuch, golden rennet, and jenneting apples, and bergamot
and beurre' pears ; thus, by proper management, you may have a constant succession of fruit from one
season to the other. Those who keep their fruit in storehouses, for the supply of the London and other
markets, as well as those who have not proper fruit-rooms, may keep their apples and pears in baskets or
hampers ; putting some soft paper in the bottoms and round the edges of the baskets, &c, to keep the fruit
from being bruised ; then put in a layer of fruit, and over that another layer of paper ; and so on, a layer of
fruit and of paper alternately, till the basket or hamper be full : cover the top with paper three or four
times double, to exclude the air and frost as much as possible. Every different sort of fruit should be
packed separately ; and it will be proper to fix a label to each basket or hamper, with the name of the
fruit that it contains, and the time of its being fit for use."
2633. But the best way of keeping fruit, is to pack it in glazed earthen jars. " The pears or apples must
be separately wrapped up in soft paper ; then put a little well-dried bran in the bottom of the jar,
and over the bran a layer of fruit ; then a little more bran to fill up the interstices between the fruit, and
to cover it; and soon, a laver of fruit and bran alternately, till the jar be full ; then shake it gently,
which will make the fruit arid bran sink a little ; fill up the vacancy at top with more bran, and lay some
paper over it, covering the top with a piece of bladder to exclude the air ; then put on the top or cover
of the jar, observing that it fits as closely as possible. These jars should be kept in a room where you can
have a fire in wet or damp weather."
2634. NicoVs opinion as to the sweating of fruits is thus given : " I consider it an error
to sweat apples, as it is termed, previous to storing them, either in the common way, with
straw or hay, or as recommended by Forsyth, by the use of short grass. The fruit ever
after retains a bad flavor. It should never be laid in heaps at all ; but if quite dry
when gathered, should be immediately carried to the fruit-room, and be laid, if not
singly, at least thin on the shelves ; the room being properly fitted up with shallow
shelves on purpose, being well aired, and having a stove in it, that damp may be dried
off when necessary." He adds, " If the finer fruits are placed on any thing else than a
clean shelf, it should be on fine paper. Brown paper gives them a flavor of pitch. The
finer large kinds of pears should not be allowed even to touch one another, but should
be laid quite single and distinct. Apples, and all pears, should be laid thin ; never
tier above tier. Free air should be admitted to the fruit-room always in good weather, for
several hours every day ; and in damp weather a fire should be kept in. Be careful
at all times to exclude the frost from the fruit, and occasionally to turn it when very
mellow."
2635. Gathering and storing nuts. Walnuts are generally beat off the tree with poles ;
but it does not appear that any harm would result to the fruit from leaving them to drop,
or be shaken off by winds, or in part shaking them off. Sweating may be applicable to
them, in order to the more ready separation of the outer or soft skin from the hard shell.
This effected, they are to be spread thin till quite dry, when they may be preserved in bins,
or boxes, or heaps.
2636. Walnuts for keeping, Forsyth observes, " should be suffered to drop of themselves, and afterwards
laid in an open airy place till they are thoroughly dried ; then pack them in jars, boxes or casks, with
fine clean sand, that has been well dried in the sun, in an oven, or before the fire, in layers of sand and
walnuts alternately ; set them in a dry place, but not where it is too hot. In this manner, I have kept
Book I. PACKING FRUITS FOR CARRIAGE. 501
them good till the latter end of April. Before you send them to table, wipe the sand clean off; and. if
you find that they have become shrivelled, steep them in milk and water for six or eight hours before they
are used ; this will make them plump and fine, and cause them to peel easily."
2637. The chestnut is to be treated like the walnut, after the husk is removed, which, in the chestnut,
opens of itself. Knight (Hor. Tr. i. p. 247.) preserves chestnuts and walnuts during the whole winter,
by covering them with earth as cottagers do potatoes.
2638. Filberts may always be gathered by hand, and should afterwards be treated as recommended for
walnuts Forsyth recommends packing nuts, intended for keeping, in jars or boxes of dry sand.
2639. Other fruits. The barberry and cornel, or dog-wood berry, are used immediately,
when gathered, as preserves. The medlar is not good till rotten ripe. It is gene-
rally gathered in the beginning of November, and placed between two layers of straw, to
forward its maturation. " Others," Marshall observes, " put medlars in a box on a three-
inch layer of fresh bran, moistened well with soft warm water ; then strew a layer of
straw between them, and cover with fruit two inches thick ; which moisten also, but not
so wet as before." In a week or ten days after this operation, they will be fit for use.
Quinces are gathered in November, when they are generally ripe. After sweating in
a heap for a few days, they are to be wiped dry, and placed on the fruit-shelf at some
distance from each other. The service, or sorb apple, never ripens on the tree in Eng-
land. Where grown, it is gathered late in autumn, in a very austere state, and laid on
wheat-straw to decay. It thus becomes eatable in a month.
Sect. IV. Of packing Orchard and other Fruits for Carriage.
2640. In packing fruit to be sent to a considerable distance, great care is requisite. It
should not, Forsyth observes, be packed in baskets, as they are liable to be bruised among
heavy luggage, and the fruit, of course, will be injured. I would, therefore, recommend
boxes made of strong deal, of different sizes, according to the quantity of fruit to be
packed. The following are the dimensions of the boxes in which we send fruit by the
coach to Windsor and Weymouth, for the use of his Majesty and the Royal Family ;
viz. : The larger box is two feet long, fourteen inches broad, and the same in depth.
The smaller box is one foot nine inches long, one foot broad, and the same depth.
These boxes are made of inch-deal, and well secured with three iron clamps at each
corner : they have two small iron handles, one at each end, by which they are fastened to
the roof of the coach ; in these boxes we send melons, currants, pears, peaches, nectarines,
plums and grapes, packed so as always to have the heaviest fruit at bottom. The melons
are wrapped up in soft paper : the pears, peaches, nectarines, plums, and grapes are first
wrapped up in vine-leaves, and then in paper. The cherries and currants are packed in
a flat tin box, one foot four inches long, ten inches broad, and four deep.
2641. In packing, proceed thus : — First, put a layer of fine long dry moss in the bottom of the tin box,
then a layer of currants or cherries, then another layer of moss, and so on, alternately, fruit and moss,
until the box is so full, that, when the lid is hasped down, the fruit may be so firmly packed as to preserve
them from friction. Make a layer of fine moss and short, soft, dry grass, well mixed, in the bottom of the
deal box ; then pack in the melons with some of the same, packing it tight in between all the rows, and
also between the melons in the same row, till you have finished the layer ; choosing the fruit as nearly of
size as possible, filling up every interstice with the moss and grass. When the melons are packed, lay a
thin layer of moss and grass over them, upon which place the tin box with the currants, packing it firmly
all round with moss to prevent it from shaking ; then put a thin layer of moss over the box, and pack the
pears firmly (but so as not to bruise them) on that layer, in the same manner as the melons ; and so on
witli the peaches, nectarines, plums, and lastly, the grapes, filling up the box with moss, that the lid may
shut down so tight as to prevent any friction among the fruit. The boxes should have locks, and two keys,
which may serve for them all ; each of the persons who pack and unpack the fruit having a key. The
moss and grass should always be returned in the boxes, which, with a little addition, will serve the
whole season, being shaken up and well aired after each journey, and keeping it sweet and clean. After
the wooden box is locked, it will be necessary to cord it firmly. My reason for being so particular on
packing of fruit is, that I have known instances of its being totally spoiled in the carriage from im-
proper packing. By pursuing the above method, we have never failed of success ; and if fruit be packed
according to the foregoing directions, it may be sent to the farthest parts of the kingdom, by coaches or
waggons, with perfect safety.
2642. Miscellaneous points of orchard culture. As in treating of kitchen-garden
culture, so here various lesser points of culture and management are omitted, which
the judicious gardener will not overlook in practice ; provided he has, or ought to have,
the whole art and science of gardening, as it were, stored up in his mind, and ready to
apply on every occasion. Among these points may be named the occasional grafting
of orchard-trees, with a view either to introduce new or preferable sorts, or to fill up
the head of a tree. Thinning out temporary trees ; introducing young trees in intervals
of old orchards to succeed the old ; guarding from thieves ; and a variety of other
matters, which circumstances will always suggest to the observing eye and fertile mind
of a gardener attached to his profession. Among these things, one of the first conse-
quence is attention to order and neatness.
2643. In regard to neatness and order, see 2355. to 2373. ; and with respect to recent
improvements, which have not been fully sanctioned by extensive adoption, they have been
already enumerated in Part II. Book IV. On the Operations of Gardening.
Kk
5G2
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
432
Chap. VI.
Construction of the Culinary Forcing Structures and Hot-houses.
2644. The general principles of design in forcing and hot-house structures.ha.ve been already
laid down (1591. to 1692.); and, therefore, the object, in this chapter, is to detail the
most approved practice in regard to the particular construction of such as belong to
the culinary and fruit gardens. These are the pinery, vinery, peach-house, cherry-house,
fig-house, cxdinary pits, frames, and mushroom-house.
Sect. I. Of the Construction of the Pinery.
2645. The external form of a pinery varies less than that of any other description of
hot-house. The necessity, in glass structures, of placing all plants intended to thrive
near the glass, and a bed of bark or leaves for plunging pots, being most convenient,
when flat or gently sloping, have led, in almost all cases, to a low and rather flat roof,
nearly parallel to the bark-bed. This gave rise, many years ago, to the growing of
pines in pits, as practised by the Dutch, and generally on the continent, and as recently
adopted in this country by most commercial gardeners ; by Nicol, in giving designs
for this class of buildings ; and by Baldwin, one of the best pine-growers of the present
day.
2646. The pinery of Nicol consists of three pits in a range ; one for crowns and
suckers, one for succession, and one for fruiting plants. The fruiting-pit to be placed
in the centre, and the other two, right and left ; forming a range of a hundred feet in
length ; which would give pine-apples enough for a large family. The fruiting-pit to
be forty feet long, and ten feet wide, over walls ; and each of the others to be thirty
feet long, and nine feet wide, also over walls. The breast- wall of the whole to be on a
line, and to be eighteen inches above ground. The back wall of the centre one to be
five feet, and of the others, to be four and a half feet higher than the front. The front
and end flues to be separated from the bark-bed by a three inch cavity, and the back
flues to be raised above its level.
2647. The furnaces may either be placed in front, or at
the back, according to conveniency ; but the strength of the
heat should be first exhausted in front, and should return in
the back flues. The fruiting-pit would require two small
furnaces, in order to diffuse the heat generally, and keep up a
'proper temperature in winter ; one to be placed at each hand ;
and either to play, first in front, and return in the back ; but
the flues to be above, and not alongside of one another ; as in
the latter way they would take up too much room. The under
one to be considered merely as an auxiliary flue, as it would
only be wanted occasionally. None of these flues need be
more than five or six inches wide, and nine or ten deep. Nor
need the furnaces be so large, by a third or fourth part, as
those for large forcing-houses ; because there should be proper
oil-cloth covers for the whole, as guards against severe wea-
ther, which would be a great saving of fuel. The depth of
the pits should be regulated so as that the average depth of the
bark-beds may be a yard below the level of the front flues ;
as to that level the bark will generally settle, although made as
high as their surfaces, when new stirred up. If leaves, or a
mixture of leaves with dung, are to be used instead of bark,
the pits will require to be a foot, or half a yard deeper.
2648. Large pineries should be turned to other jmrjioses, and
such erected as are described above. There cannot be a doubt"
respecting the satisfaction that would follow, if to have good
fruit at an easy rate Mere the object. I have given designs for
no other kinds of new pineries these six years past, but such
as these ; with some variations respecting extent, however, in
order to suit different purses.
2649. The pinery of Baldwin consists of two structures, the
succession-bed and fruiting-house.
2650. The succession-beds or frame (fg. 432.), in which the
voung plants are to remain both winter and summer, should
be constructed of timber, seven feet wide, and seven feet three
inches high at the back, the front being in the same proportion.
The method of preparing the bed is as follows : — " Sink your
Book I.
PINERY.
503
434
pit (2) three feet three inches deep, as long as you require, and sufficiently broad to
admit of linings on each side (1,3); make a good drain at the bottom of the pit to keep
it dry ; then set posts, about the dimensions of six inches square, in the pit, at conve-
nient distances (say about the width of the top lights), and case it round with one inch
and a half deal wrought boards above the surface, and below with any inferior boards
or planks. The dimensions of my succession-beds or frame are thirty-nine feet long,
and seven feet wide ; containing two hundred and seventy-three square feet, which will
hold three hundred and fifty suckers, from the end of September till the seventh of
April." (Cult, of Ana n. p. 11.)
2651. The fruiting-house (Jig. 433.) is a pit with a walk behind; " in it the <dass
should be closely puttied, to keep out the cold air, and to retain the warm, and in the
back there should be three lids (b), to admit air , the dimensions of each to be three feet
long and one foot deep. The flue makes only one course in the passage behind." (Cull,
of Anan. p. 19.)
2652. Aitons pine-pits at Kensington (Jig. 434.)
are constructed exactly in Baldwin's manner, with
this difference, that the sub-soil at Kensington being
moist, they are raised on a small platform (a, b) above
the surface, instead of being sunk under it, as Bald-
win's are. They have, also, the addition of a gutter
in front (c), which, though at first sight it may appear
trifling, yet, in practice, is of very material consequence, by keeping the lining dry, and
not chilling and interrupting the heat in the very part where it should penetrate to the
interior of the pit. Occasionally some plants are fruited in these pits, especially at Kew,
but in general they are removed to a low house
(Jig- 435.) of a most economical and judicious
construction, and calculated both for the growth
of pines and vines. This house is fifteen feet
wide within walls ; the pit (a) is nine feet wide ;
the back path (b) forms a border for the roots of
the vines ; the pit is surrounded by a flue (c, d) ;
the curb is two feet three inches from the glass *s
in front (e), and four feet eight inches from it
behind (jf) ; the vines are planted in the back
border (b), and trained under the roof directly over it and over the back flue ; and others
are planted in the front border (g) ; and trained up the rafters. The length of the
houses in the royal gardens at Kensington varies from thirty-three to fifty feet (^g.436.):
436
each house has two furnaces, one for constant use, and another for giving an extra supply
of heat in very severe weather. The first (a) proceeds directly to the front corner(i), thence
along the front to the opposite end (c), then along the back of the pit (d, e), passing
under the back path, or border, and terminating in a chimney (f) beside the furnace.
The other furnace is placed at the opposite end of the house (g) ; has a short flue under
the back path, which conducts it to the back course of the principal flue (at d), which it
Kk 4
504
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
ioins, anil the smoke of the two fires moves in the same tunnel (from d to e), and passes
out by the same chimney. When this second furnace is not in use, its connection with
the flue of the first is cut off by a clamper at the point of junction (d). A very small fire
made in this furnace, in severe weather, not only adds to the heat of the house by its own
power, but by increasing the draught, or rate of burning, of the fire in the other furnace.
In addition to the fire heat, a steam-apparatus has been lately erected, and the tubes
conducted round the houses on the tops of the flues [Jig. 436. d, e) ; this is found to give
a great command of heat ; and also to admit of filling the house with vapor at pleasure.
The height of the house from the ground to the top of the back wall, is only nine feet
(Jig. 437.) ; the rafters of the roof are placed about four feet apart, centre from centre;
or about twenty-four sashes are given to every hundred feet ; the front sashes (a) are
only eighteen inches high, and slide past each other ; the middle end sash (b) also slides;
the sill of the door (c) and the back path, or border, are on a level with the outer sur-
face of the "round, to admit the easy wheeling in of tan, &c. ; the front border (d) is
raised considerably above it, on account of the wet bottom ; the back sheds are low
and neat ; and the furnaces sunk three feet below the surface (Jig. 436. h, h) to give them
a better draught ; and this also serves to drain the back border. The houses are placed
in pairs, the furnaces for general use at the extreme ends of the range, and the auxiliary
ones in the middle, where the steam-boiler is also placed, but worked by a fire apart ;
on the whole, no plan of pine-stove that has yet appeared is more simple, neat, economical,
and complete than this ; the only objection we have to them, is, that owing to the great
thickness of wood employed in the bars of the sashes, they are rather dark and gloomy
within ; but this might easily be remedied by the substitution of light iron rafters, with
wooden-framed sashes sliding in them, but the bars of the sashes formed of iron. It is
true, o-loomy as these houses are, the pines thrive in them as well as can be wished ; but
probably by having more light, they might thrive so as to surpass all expectation.
2653. The pinery of Knight may be described as a pit forty-five feet long, nine feet nine
inches wide, the front parapet eighteen inches, and the back wall nine feet high. The
roof is constructed of iron sash-bar, fixed, and the bars curved, so that the versed sine of
the segment is about twelve inches. Air is given by horizontal openings immediately
under the copings of both walls. More light is admitted into such a pit in March, than
into a common flat-roofed pit with wooden sashes in May or June.
438
^
2654. As an example of a pinery and grapery combined, we refer to a curvilinear
structure ( Jig. 438. ), erected from our designs, at Langport in Somersetshire. This house
439
2 raspy..
Book I.
PINERY.
505
in the back wall of
is fifty feet long by sixteen feet wide, contains 370 superficial feet of bark-pit for
pine-plants ; 1400 superficial feet for training vines ; and space for 500 pots of straw-
berries or French beans ; quantities greater in proportion to the glass roof, than have
hitherto been obtained in any hot-house of the common form and similar dimensions.
This structure is entered by lobbies at each end (Jig. 439. l), which communicate
with a back passage, having a glass roof and trellis for vines (2)
this passage, and also in the front of
the house, are glazed ventilators open-
ing outwards (Jig- 440. 3), through
which the vines (5) are introduced and
withdrawn at pleasure. The pine-pits
(7) are raised so as to be as near the
glass as is desirable, by vaulting them
beneath (6) ; against the front of these
pits, shoots of vines are brought down
from the roof, and trained (9), and pots
are placed over the front flue (8). The
vines, close under the roof, are trained <*M,3s8Bi^^
on moveable trellis-rods, composed of a centre and two side wires, and placed five feet
apart ; these rods are hinged to the front props, and supported in the middle of the roof,
and at top, by chains and hooks, and in this way can be raised or lowered at pleasure.
This house, since its erection, in 1817, has given the greatest satisfaction, and already pro-
duces considerable crops of grapes.
2655. The pine-pit of Scott
(Jig. 441.) will fruit 120
plants, with three or four
chaldrons of coals. The
bed for the plants is fifty feet
long, and seven feet six inches
wide ; its peculiarities are that
there is only a flue in front
(Jig- 441. a.), which returns
on itself, and requiring no
glass over it, is covered with
flag-stone (b), supported by
props of brick work (c). Co-
vering the flue with flag-
stone, Scott considers a great saving ; it is less costly than glass, and as the part that it
covers requires no heating, by using it, instead of glass, the lights are reduced to a more
442
441
§ 1~ ' ' -ft- '. ~ '
•m^^^^^k:^^^ ^ ~^;;-.
h
a
aaacootaaaaaafl
yr-lln■r5-:^7r^ra^l=^TC^g:^J^^a~'^
I I I II I 11,1 I i I 'ill 13 M
506
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
convenient length. If there were no stone, the lights must be in two lengths, and the
rafters would necessarily be considerably larger, so that there would be more shade on
the centre of the bed, if the flue was within the glass. The back elevation in the lower part
is formed of open brick work (d), to admit the heat of a lining of dung, and the wall (e)
enclosing this lining is bevelled, so that the dung as it sinks may not shrink and allow the
heat to escape in the air. In both back and front walls are ventilators (f), for use in winter
and severe weather. There are two fires (Jig. 442. g, g) the pit being constructed in two
divisions (h, h), in order to keep up a succession of fruit. A drain (i) frees the whole
from subterraneous water. In the use of this pit, the dung is thrown into the cavity be-
hind, fresh from the stable : " when the weather is dry," Scott observes, " and a moist
heat is required, I turn the dung once a week ; but if the weather be wet, I use the fire,
and let the dung lie undisturbed, so that I have either a damp or dry heat at pleasure. I
consider that no expense is caused by the use of the dung in this way, because, after being
turned two or three times, it answers the same purpose, as it would after having been
thrown up in heaps to sweeten it for cucumber or melon beds." (Hort. Trans, v. 221.)
This appears to us the best plan of a pine-pit, that has yet appeared. The flue, by being
situated in front, will have a perfect command of the air of the house, and the dung be-
hind, which should be covered in wet or very dry weather, comes conveniently in aid both
of the flue and tan-bed.
Sect. II. Of tlie Construction of the Vinery.
2656. The vinery affords the greatest latitude of construction ; for the fruit-tree the most
easily cultivated of all that are grown under glass, is the vine. For a crop which is to
be forwarded by the natural influence of the sun, chiefly or alone, almost any form will
suffice, provided the plants are trained near the glass. For very early crops, small
houses with steep roofs (figs. 443, 444.), in order freely to admit the sun in the winter
and spring months, are most desirable, and the section (fig. 443.) of
the steep-roofed house used by the Dutch, is not surpassed by any form
adopted in this country. It is commonly supposed that pits are the
best buildings for early forcing, and as far as respects artificial heat,
they are not much inferior to the Dutch vinery ; but as to light, with-
out which forced productions are not worth using, they are, from the
low angle of their roof, greatly deficient. A house for early forcing
(fig. 444.) may be thirty feet long, eight feet wide ; the glass (a) twelve
feet high, placed at an angle of 15° to the perpendicular; the flue en-
tering at one end (f) may pass under the front glass (b), and afterwards make two or
three returns in the back wall (d) ; the vines may be trained on a trellis nearly parallel to
the glass, between the flue and the back wall [c], and the shed behind may be fitted up
with shelves (e), and used as a mushroom-house. Such a house, being small, will be very
easily managed in the most severe winters.
444
■■'m vm/A
2657. The vineries made use of by the Dutch for early forcing are generally about twenty-
five or thirty feet long, about five feet wide at bottom, and at the top about three feet.
The height generally about ten feet, which is that of the wall against which they are placed.
The fire-place is at one end, and the flue runs along the bottom to the opposite end, and
generally returns to a chimney built in the middle of the frame. The vines are brought
down from the wall, and nailed all along the front close to the glass frames, and are
securely covered at nights. The black and white sweet- water are the kinds preferred for
this early forcing. As this kind of forcing spoils the vines, it is necessary to have the
vine-walls at least five times the length of the frame, in order to furnish a succession of
well-perfected wood. After the crop is over, therefore, the vines in the course of the en-
suing winter are cut down nearly to the bottom, and they require a term of four or five
years to recover themselves for another early crop. (Tr. on the Vine, p. 127.) Similar
forcing-frames heated by a bed of dung within, have been adopted by P. Lindegaard,
gardener to the king of Denmark. (New Method of forcing Grapes, &c. 8vo. 1817.)
IiOOK I.
VINERY.
507
2658 The vinery of Speechly consists of a roof, and glass lights covering a border of about ten feet wide
on the south side of'a flued wall, about 14 feet high. Upright glasses, two feet and a half or three feet
high in front to support the roof, are proper for vines to be forced at an early season, because it admits
the sun and light to the border ; but when grapes are not wanted at an early season, a considerable ex-
pense may be saved by adopting a low wall in front. The shade of this wall would be injurious to the
border if the vines were to be forced early in spring ; but the meridian altitude of the sun, in the begin-
ning of summer, renders it no way prejudicial at that season. Supposing a flued wall, twelve feet high,
the breadth of the border ten feet, and the height of the upright glass frame, or wall in front, three feet,
the roof will then form an angle of about forty-three degrees. Experience shows this to be a proper pitch
for vines forced after the vernal equinox. I mention this circumstance, because some persons who give
designs for buildings of this kind, lay so great a stress on this point, as to pronounce a vinery or peach-
house incapable of answering the intended purpose, should the pitch of the roof happen only to vary a de-
gree or two from their favorite angle. In Holland, the frames for winter forcing are almost perpendicular,
but for those forced in summer, they are almost as flat as those made use of for melons. Hence it follows,
that the construction of different frames or buildings, for the purpose of producing grapes, should not
onlv vary according to the quantity required, but also according to the season in which that fruit is in-
tended to be produced. The roof should be steep for early forcing, and flatter for the summer. (TV. on
the Vine p. 99.)
2659 The vinery of Nicol for early forcing, to be commanded by one furnace, should not much exceed
thirtv feet in length. If it were forty or forty-five feet long, it would require two furnaces to be placed,
and the flues to run as described below. The width of the house may be ten or eleven feet, and the
height thirteen or fourteen ; the front, including parapet and glass, not exceeding four feet in height.
But if the roof were made to rest on the parapet, without having any upright glass, and if the parapet
were about eighteen inches high, it would have a better pitch, and there would be a longer run for the
vines. The front flue should be two feet clear of the parapet, should return in the middle of the border,
and double by the back wall, being separated from it by a three-inch cavity ; that is, in the case of there
being but one furnace for the house. But if the house be much above thirty feet in length, and require
two furnaces, one should be placed at each end, in the shed behind, and the power of both should be
brought to the front, the flue of the one to be placed within two feet of the parapet, and of the other close
behind the first, being separated by a two-inch cavity only, and both to stand on a common foundation.
The one may return in the middle of the house, and the other by the back wall ; but it will be unnecessary
to have a double return to either of them ; as a house of the above-mentioned width and height, to the
extent of fifty feet in length, may thus be fully commanded.
2660. The vinery of Nicol for late forcing may be of any convenient length, from thirty to fifty feet;
fourteen feet wide, and fifteen or sixteen feet high ; with or without front glass, as above hinted. But if
it have upright glass, both glass and parapet should not exceed five feet in height ; as it is but seldom that
any fruit grows below the angle of the rafter ; and, if it do, it is never so well ripened as the fruit growing
under the sloping sashes. The flues may be conducted, in every respect, as above directed for the early
house, and the number of furnaces must be regulated by its length. If under thirty-five feet, one furnace
may do ; but if longer, it will require two furnaces, in order to have a perfect command of the temper-
ature necessary for grapes. The parapet and front flue of both these houses should stand on pillars, three
and a half feet deep under the ground-level, in order that the roots of the plants may have free scope to
run to the border without the house ; as the intention is to plant them inside, and train them, under the
roof, to a trellis fixed to the rafters. . '
2661. Vineries of other horticultural architects. Hay seems to make very little difference in the slopes
of glass roofs for whatever purpose the house may be intended. In his very extensive designs for Lundie
and Dalmeny (fig. 445.) the difference is inconsiderable. The same may be remarked of most of the
ranges of houses built by G. Tod. (Ed. Encyc. art. Hort. ; Tod's Plans for Hot-houses, &c. fol. 1812.)
445
iiiil.
«1..|.H-I»I"I"I"I
w#
I
2662. A vinery for a crop to ripen in July, Knight recommends to be roofed at an angle of 35°, Wilkinson
(Hort. Trans.) and Miller {Diet, in loco,) 45°, which is that adopted most commonry for summer crops,
both of grapes and peaches. Abercrombie says, " The diagonal side of a glass case, designed for a short
periodical course of forcing, to begin the 21st of December, may be 55°; 22d January, 50° ; 21st *et>ru-
arv 46° • 21st March 43°." He adds, " Too much importance must not be attached to the angle ot in-
clination in the glass work." It is of some consequence to remark, that the roofs of vineries may be
fixed, provided there are shutters in the front and back wall for ventilation, though for these, as tor every
description of house, gardeners prefer a roof in which the sashes slide, are raised up, or take off
. 2663. A vinery on the curvilinear principle, with a fixed roof (resembling^. 163.), was erected from our
designs at Finchley, in 1818 ; no form or manner of construction can admit more light, lne vines are
trained within a foot of the glass; ventilation effected by shutters in the front and back walls, and the
whole is managed by one fire. It is a beautiful object, the vines have grown admirably,, and in li$M
produced a small crop (their first) of highly flavored fruit. Several other curvilinear- roofed vineries have
508
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
been recently erected with iron roofs, and from their decided superiority in admitting light, we have no
doubt of curvilinear iron roofs being ultimately adopted, not only for vineries, but for every description
of hot-house, as soon as the great importance of light to vegetation, and especially to the flavor of fruits,
is fully understood by practical men.
Sect. III. Construction of the Peach-house.
2664. A peach-house not intended for early forcing, may be of any shape, provided that
the trees are either standards or trained near the glass. Knight and many practical
gardeners are of opinion, that the roofs of all peach-houses should be made to lake off,
in order to color the fruit, and afterwards expose the trees to the weather for the sake of
destroying insects.
266*5. In Holland, peaches are often forced in deep frames {fig. 446.), filled within a
1
1
, 1
>".
r=f-^
737 1
{=§
L
—
_
!
U=^
r
jpfut
^
foot or eighteen inches of the glass with tan (a), and heated by an exterior lining if ne-
cessary. The tree is planted in a box {b), by which its roots are confined so as to be-
nefit by the heat of the tan, and the branches are trained on a trellis (c), close on the bed.
Instead of tan, dung may be used, covered in the flowering season with earth, or tan
and earth. In such pits peaches are ripened in Holland, by the middle of May. (Hart.
Trans, v. 325.)
2666. In Denmark, peaches are forced by dung-
heat : the tree is planted against the back wall
{Jig. 447 a.) which is heated by a lining of dung
(6), as are its roots, and the area of the house by
another lining (c). {Lindegaard in Hort. Trans.
v. 320.)
2667. The peach-house of Nicol for the earliest
forcing, to be commanded by one furnace, may be of
any length, between thirty and forty feet ; eight or
nine feet wide, and twelve feet high. It should
have no upright glass. The parapet may be about
eighteen inches in height, and the rafters should
rest immediately upon it. The intention here is,
to train the peaches and nectarines up the roof, in
the same manner as vines, only a little nearer to
the glass, and none against the back wall. The
front flue may run within two feet of the parapet, and should return by the back wall,
being separated from it by a three-inch cavity. The parapet and front flue must stand
on pillars, three feet deep under the ground-level, in order to give full scope to the roots of
the plants.
2668. A succession peach-house to the above, that is, not to be forced so early, may be
of a like length, ten or eleven feet wide, and thirteen or fourteen feet high ; also without
upright or front glass, and otherwise may be constructed in all respects as above.
2669. A late peach-house, to be managed by one furnace, may be forty or forty-five feet
long ; thirteen or fourteen feet wide, and fourteen or fifteen feet high. It may either have,
or not have, upright glass in front ; which should not, however, exceed four, or four and a
half feet in height, including the parapet. The flues may be conducted as above specified
for the early houses. The intention here is, to train plants on trellises against the back
wall, and likewise half way up the roof, in the manner of vines ; so that it may be termed
a double peach-house.
2670 The peach-house of M'Phail was made sixty-four feet long, ten feet wide ; the height of the back
wall was four feet, and that of the front five feet, in pillars of brick work four feet each in length,
which supported the sill to support the frame for the lights to rest upon ; so that there were in the front
eight vacuities in width, four feet each between the said pillars, for the roots of the trees to extend into
the border " In the inside of the pit, I had a wall built the whole length of the pit, and thirty inches
distance from the front pillars. The wall was nine inches thick, and three feet six inches high, about one
foot lower than the pillars of brick. I then made a border of good loamy earth, mixed with some very
rotten dune four feet deep, which left a vacancy between the pillars and the sill of nearly one foot, which
was filled un with the earth of the border, which reached to the nine-inch wall within the pit, so that
Book I.
PEACH-HOUSE.
509
thirty inches wide of the border was in the inside of the pit. I had the border made fourteen feet wide."
" I got the floor of the pit paved with bricks, and in the back side, between the pavement and the trees,
there was between five and six feet, so that a person had room to walk under to prune and manage the
trees." The door was made in the back wall, at the west end ; and at the east end a fire-place was made
in the back wall, about three feet high, without a return. M'Phail began to force in the middle of March,
and ripened abundant crops of fruit in the month of July.
2671. As a suitable peach-house, for early forcing, we would suggest a length of forty feet, width eight
feet, and height twelve feet : the glass in two planes, each plane forming an angle with the perpendicular
of fifteen degrees, and formed into sashes ( fig. 448. a) hinged at their upper angles, and opening outwards.
The flue {d) entering the house at one end (c), passing under the front glass, and making two turns in the
back wall ; and the trellis {e, b) placed between the flue and back wall. Such a house will be easily
managed, and, like the early vinery, may be covered by mats in front during the most severe nights of
winter.
448
2672. As a peach-house for a main crop, we would suggest a polyprosopic roof, with
the sashes (Jig. 449. a) opening on the principle of Venetian blinds ; the flue (d) may-
pass round the house, and the trellis (c) be placed between the flue and front glass ;
both the flues and front glass may be supported on cast-iron props (<?). The length
may be forty feet, breadth and height twelve feet.
449
2673. Peach-houses and vineries combined. It is a common practice to combine the
vinery and peach-house, and to train the vines close under the glass, and the peach-trees
against the back wall (Jig. 450. a) ; or to train the peach-trees against the back wall, and
also on a flat or table trellis, in the middle of the house (6) ; but if the house be wide,
neither modes are advisable, on account of the distance of the plants from the glass ;
and even in narrow houses, it can only be considered as a temporary expedient till the
450
vines cover the roof. So important is light to every kind of plant, that, in our opinion, the
vine should be very sparingly introduced even in pineries, where some plants are generally
trained close under the roof (c), and where some gardeners think their shade beneficial. ,
510
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
Sect. IV. Construction of the Cherry-hov.se and Fig-house.
2674. Any form will answer for a cherry-house. Some market-gardeners grow them
in houses placed south and north, glazed on all sides, as Andrews at Lambeth ; others
in pits, and some in moveable glass cases.
2675. The cherry -house of Nicol, to be worked by one furnace, may be from thirty to
forty feet in length ; from ten to twelve feet wide, and twelve or fourteen feet high.
The parapet a foot or eighteen inches, and the front glass two feet, or two and a half feet
hi"h. The front flue to stand on the same foundation with the parapet, and its return
to&be by the back wall ; but both flues to be separated from the walls by a cavity of
three inches. The front parapet and flue to stand on pillars ; which pillars should be
thirtv inches deep under the surface ; the depth, or rather more than the depth requisite
for the border. The back wall to be trellised for training cherries to ; and the border
to be planted with dwarf-cherries, or with dwarf apricots and figs, or with all three.
The front and end flues to be crib-trellised, (i. e. shelves of lattice-work to be placed
over them,) for pots of strawberries, kidneybeans, or the like.
2676. The fig-house may be of any form not very lofty. One constructed like the
cherry-house, Nicol considers, will answer « perfectly well. The figs might be trained
to the trellis at back, and either dwarf figs, apricots, or cherries, or all of these, might
be planted in the border." As figs are not a popular fruit in Britain, a sufficient num-
ber for most families may be grown in pots and tubs, placed in the other hot-houses.
Sect. V. Of Constructing Hot-houses in Ranges.
2677. The culinary hot-houses are very frequently placed in a range, by which it is sup-
posed something is saved in the expense of the ends, some heat gained, and greater conve-
nience of management obtained. Nicol practised this mode, and Hay, as we have seen
( fia 445.) has adopted it at Dalmeny Park, Lundie, and other places. The same plan
seems to be followed by Tod, of which, as an example, we may refer to a very substan-
tial range (Jig. 451.), constructed for the Honorable Champion Dymoke, at Scnvelsby.
One of the most ornamental ranges of this sort in the neighborhood of London, is that
of the Duke of Devonshire at Chiswick ; but it is also the most gloomy within, of any
we have seen. If we may submit our opinion, we should, in most cases, recommend
detached houses (as in fig. 262.), in which opinion, we may add, Knight coincides.
451
Sect. VI. Construction of Culinary Pits, Frames, and Mushroom-houses.
2678. Culinary pits may be constructed either with or without flues ; and either of
such a height behind as to admit of a walk ; or, so low, as to be managed like a common
hot-bed frame. The intention of these pits, as far as culinary gardening is concerned, is
first to force fruit-trees, as peaches, grapes, cherries, figs, apples, &c. in pots ; and in
this case the design which admits of a passage behind from which to water and manage
the plants, will be found preferable ; and secondly, to force strawberries, kidneybeans,
potatoes, asparagus, sea-kale, rhubarb, &c. for which a pit sunk in the ground, and to be
managed from without, will suffice, and is even preferable, because the plants may be
brought close under the glass.
2679. The pit for fruit-shrubs may be forty feet long, eleven feet wide, within walls ;
the angle of the roof from 15° to 20° ; the back path two feet wide, the furnace placed
at one*end, and the flue passing along the front, separated by a three-inch vacuity from
the tan-bed, and returning close under'the back wall. These dimensions will give a
bark-bed six feet wide, thirty-seven feet long, and, supposing the surface of the pit to
be kept level, it may be raised to any convenient height, according to that of the trees to
be forced. Whatever be the height to which the pit is raised, the back of the pit should
always be at least three and a half feet higher than the front, which will admit of diflerent
sizes of trees. The sashes for this pit may be in two lengths, one sliding over the other, as
in hot-house roofs ; but a better plan is, to have them to rise in the manner recommended
for an early peach-house. (Jig. 449.)
Book I.
CONSTRUCTION OF CULINARY HOT-HOUSES.
511
452
6fe&
2680. The pit for forcing herbaceous vegetables may be in all respects of the same di-
mensions as above, but with the angle of the glass not more than 15°. On this plan and
ano-le, the back of the pit will be two feet higher than the front : but the simplest plan
is to omit the passage, and lessen the width of the pit two feet, retaining the slope of 15°,
and the compound, or double sashes, between each rafter.
2S81. Pits without fire heat, to be worked by that arising from the bed of bark or
dung, may be of any length, six or seven feet wide within, and with the glass at an
angle of fifteen degrees.
2682. M'PhaU's pit is approved of by many gardeners for growing cucumbers and
melons, and may be considered as coming into general use. Abercrombie, after de-
scribing it as a " flued pit without a furnace," says, " some persons approve of this kind
of frame, and others disapprove of it ; but when the management of the air-chamber is
* understood, it may be applied very successfully to the forcing of early melons and choice
esculents. It allows new stable-dung, even before any of the fiery particles are exhaled,
to be used without any danger of burning the roots of the plants." (Pr. Gard.
p. 662.)
2683. Other pits and fixed frames. West's pit (fig. 1547.) and the Alderstone fixed
frame (fig. 1549.) are both structures deserving introduction where neatness is an object,
and it is to be hoped that these and similar structures (see Hort. Trans, vol. iv. and v. )
will soon come into more general use, and elevate the melon-ground from a disorderly
dung-yard, to a scene fit for general inspection.
2684. Knight's melon-pit (Jig. 452.), and which may also be applied to the culture of cucumbers, young
pines, or other low vegetables, is surrounded by a cellular
wall, (see 1561.) The front wall is four feet, and the back
wall five feet six inches high, enclosing a space of six feet
wide, and fifteen feet long, and the walls are covered with
a wall-plate, and with sliding lights, as in ordinary hot-
beds. The space included may be filled to a proper
depth with leaves or tan, where it is wished to promote the
rapid growth of plants; Knight, however, did not use dung
internally, but grew the melon-plants in large pots, and
trained them on a trellis at a proper distance from the
glass. The wall is externally surrounded by a hot-bed
composed of leaves and horse-dung, by which it is kept
warm, and the warm air contained in its cavity is per-
mitted to pass into the enclosed space through many small
perforations in the bricks. At each of the lower corners is
a passage (a), which extends along the surface of the
ground, under the fermenting material, and communicates
with the cavity of the wall, into which it admits the ex-
ternal air, to occupy the place of that which has become
warm and passed into the pit. The entrances into these
passages are furnished with grates, to prevent the ingress of
vermin of every kind. The hot-bed is moved and renewed in small successive portions, so that the
temperature may be permanently preserved, the ground being made to descend a little towards the wall
on every side, that the bed in shrinking may rather fall towards than from the walls ; and Knight enter-
tains " no doubt, but that the perpetual ingress of warm air, even without an internal leaf-bed, wdl
prove sufficient to preserve pine-apple plants without the protection of mats, except in very severe
weather." {Hort. Trans, v. 224.)
2685. The Edmonstone pine or melon
pit (fig. 453.) is eighteen and a half
feet long, by six feet in breadth ; the
height of the back is five feet, the
height of the front three feet nine
inches ; the declivity for the glass one
foot three inches. The pits for the
dung are on the outside of the frames,
and sunk level with the surface of
the earth, or gravel, on the outside.
The height of these pits is three feet,
their breadth two feet. The outside
of the pits for the dung is built with
a nine-inch wall up to the surface,
with one course of hewn stone on the
top. One inch is cut out for the
boards that cover the space allotted . . , ,
for the linings to rest upon : that appearance of litter and dung, which is so offensive in ordinary hot-
beds is thus prevented. The boards that cover the dung are one inch thick, by two feet two inches in
breadth. They are of the length of the pit, and have rings at each end for lifting them with. The
pits should be well drained, to carry off the under water, and a small grate should be made at the end of
the drains. The kind of matter which is generally employed to fill these pits, is a mixture of new horse and
cow dung : sometimes we use tree leaves and short grass, which do very well, provided they be duly pre-
pared, by throwing them up in a high heap, to remain eight or ten days, that they may ferment to an
equal temperature. To maintain seventy degrees of heat with horse and cow dung, or leaves of trees is
no difficult matter, and it is easy to preserve the plants in health, and in a fruitful state during the
severest winter, by covering the pits with mats in time of frost. (Caled. Hort. Mem. iii. 336.)
2686. The common hot-bed frame is generally from four to five feet wide within, and
from nine to twelve feet long, divided into three or four lights or sashes. The back is
generally double the height of the front, so that the slope of the glass is seldom more
than ten degrees. Knight, with great correctness of principle, considers this as too flat
to admit the sun's rays in the winter season, and recommends a basis of earth sloped to
512 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
an angle of fifteen degrees, then forming on it the dung-bed, by which means its surface
will be at the same angle as the base ; and, lastly, he constructs the frame equally high,
both in front and behind, and placing it on the dung, still retains the above an<rie.
{fig. 375.)
2687. The common form of the mushroom-house and that recommended by Oldacre
have been described. (1694. and 1695.) The latter plan, though adopted in several places,
does not appear to be so generally countenanced by practical, and especially by market-
gardeners, as to justify our giving it a preference in this part of our work. In the
greater number of cases where mushrooms are grown for the London market, they are
raised in the open air on dung-ridges ; and a number of gentlemen's gardeners make use
of back sheds, either closed, or open, and some of old cucumber-beds.
Sect. VII. Details in the Construction of Culinary Hot-houses.
2688. There are certain details of construction in glazed structures, on which from their
novelty or rarity there is considerable difference of opinion among gardeners. These are
chiefly metallic roofs, steam, furnaces, flues, trellises, and ventilators.
2689. Materials of the roof In the construction of the roof, iron and copper, and
other metals, have been lately introduced, in order to admit more light, and be more
durable. This improvement, Abercrombie observes, " is at present too new to afford
ground for a decisive opinion ;" and Nicol says, " On account of the high price of tim-
ber, some are now constructing the framing of hot-houses of cast-iron. I would beg
leave to remind such, that there is nothing so prejudicial to vegetation as the dripping of
rusted iron ; and would advise, that the frames be well and frequently painted, in order
to prevent the bad effects of irony water falling on the foliage and fruit. I am of
opinion, however, that iron-framed hot-houses will soon get out of fashion. From the
quantity of water that must be used, in order to keep the plants in health, the frames
must be often moistened, and will corrode." Not only cast-iron rafters, but roofs entirely
of iron have wonderfully increased since Nicol's time.
2690. Themocle of heating by steam is becoming very general in the neighborhood of the
metropolis, and especially by such commercial gardeners as have extensive forcing depart-
ments, asLoddiges, Gunter, Grange, Andrews, Wilmot, &c. and wherever there is a range
of any extent, this mode seems far preferable to heating by smoke-flues. Nicol gives no
opinion on this point ; but M'Phail says, " At present, I must freely own, that I have
some doubts both of the cheapness, and superiority in other respects, of this new scheme
of forcing by the influence of hot water, over the generally adopted methods of the in-
fluence of fire, dung, and tan heat." Even " if found to answer better than fire alone,
which I much doubt, it will only, I apprehend, be adopted in gardens where there is
much forcing, and therefore, of course, the more simple methods of forcing by fire, dung,
and tan heat, will be continued in moderate-sized gardens and in small ones." (Gard.
Rem. p. 122.) Experience confirms the propriety of these remarks.
2691. The furnace used by Nicol is simply an oven, capable of containing less or
more fuel, according to the kind of hot-house to which it may be attached, and the kind
of fuel to be used, with a grate in front, just large enough to kindle the mass of fuel,
and keep it alive. In one of a middle size, the oven is thirty inches long and twenty
inches wide ; the grate eighteen inches long and ten broad ; the furnace-door ten inches
square ; the ash-pit door ten inches wide but fifteen inches deep, both with circular
valves in their centres. The grate is placed close to the furnace-door. {Kal. p. 280. ) Others
have been tried, but none answer better for the general purposes of flued hot-houses.
2692. Flues. Nicol gives the decided preference to flues constructed of brick and
tiles, thus — " The sole of two-inch thick tiles, each fifteen inches long, by twelve broad ;
jointed on cross bricks on edge, or pillarets, to keep them about four inches clear of the
surface. The walls of well-moulded, or stock bricks, six inches clear of each other, and
the height of two bricks placed on edge, covered with inch and half thick tiles, each
twelve inches long and ten broad, laid the length to the run of the flue, by which means
the covers will not be flush with the sides of the flue, but each edge will he champhered
or bevelled, which makes the flue look very light and neat. The open or void of the
flue will thus be (with the height of two bricks on edge, and two joints of lime,) ten by
six inches, or thereby. It is clear, and detached on all the four sides, except the in-
terruptions of the pillarets ; and is the most effectual flue of many different sizes I have
tried." — Of air flues, the same author observes, " I think I have ascertained the use-
lessness of air-flues." Our opinion is that air-flues in most cases are more injurious
than useful, and we believe there has been no mode yet discovered for issuing a current
of heated air into a hot-house that is not liable to the most decisive objection on account
of the risk of heating to excess. A mode of heating air by steam and then intro-
ducing it to the house is now disseminating by some London tradesmen under the name
of caloriferes, and which is particularly obnoxious to these objections.
2693. Trellising. " Roof-trellising," Nicol observes, " is now universally of wire,
Book I. GENERAL CULTURE IN FORCING STRUCTURES. 513
and often also that against back walls. It is cheaper tlian wood, and, on account of its
lightness, fitter for the purpose, especially when placed on the roof, or against the end
lights. The distance at which the wires should be placed apart for grapes, is ten or
twelve inches ; for cherries or peaches, four or five. The distance of the wires from the
glass, for grapes, a foot ; for peaches and nectarines, nine inches. But there should be
a lower trellis, with the wires placed at two feet apart, and a foot under the proper
trellis, on which to train the summer shoots of vines that are in a full-bearing state, in
order that there may not be too great a confusion of fruit, shoots, and foliage. When
vines are trained up the rafters in a stove or green-house, they should not be nailed to
the beam ; but three rows of wire should be extended for them, at the distance of four
or five inches from each other, and three from the rafter ; being set out with studs of
wire, or of iron, made to screw into it, and with eyes to take in the wire. "
2694. Ventilators. " The hot-house may require to be ventilated at times, when it
may be improper to open the sashes for that purpose. Ventilators are then useful.
They may be contrived in different forms, and may be placed in different situations.
If the hot-house have a shed behind it, they might be made to open, in the manner of a
common window, near to the top of the back wall ; and three in an ordinary-sized house
would be enough. I lately made four ventilators in a house that had no shed behind
it, in this manner : when the wall was raised to within a yard of its full height, aper-
tures were formed in the manner of a common chimney or fire-place, eighteen inches
wide, and two feet high, from which a small vent was carried through the coping. On
the top was fixed a horizontal tube, three inches square, and two feet long, with a
centre pipe fixed into the vent. The aperture or chimney was filled in front, with two
moveable panels or boards hung in the manner of common sashes, the one to move up
and the other down, for the admission of air through the tube at top, thus diverting or
breaking a strong current, which might be prejudicial to the grapes. Ventilators in
front, at the distance of six or eight feet from one another, may be made thus : Pierce a
hole an inch diameter, through the bottom rail of the under sash if the house have no
upright glass, or through the upper rail of the upright sash, if it have. In this hole
insert a tin tube to fit, having a funnel mouth outwards, and a fine rose, like that of a
watering-pot, to fit to it inside. The tube should be made in lengths of two feet each,
that the air may be either diffused as it enters through the front, or be carried to the
centre of the house, or farther if thought necessary. When not in use, it should be
stopped with a cork or plug. When a full stream is wished, the rose need not be put
on ; but it should if the air be keen. In order the better to collect the air, the funnel
should be pretty large ; that is, about seven or eight inches diameter. With these and
with the ventilators at or near to the top of the back wall, as mentioned above, any hot-
house may safely be aired or ventilated, even in the severest weather ; and also when it
may be improper to open the glasses, as during rain."
2695. Annual repairs. The best gardeners clean the flues, white-wash the walls, and
paint the wood -work of hot-houses every year, or paint every other year. In general,
once in four or five years may suffice ; but every thing will depend on the purpose to
which the house is applied ; a system of early and severe forcing being evidently much
more trying for the roof than moderate sun-heat, aided by occasional fires. The breakage
of glass from frost amounts frequently, in the northern counties, to five per cent, on the
surface of the roof, especially in flat green-houses, and others, where there is not a sufficient
heat kept up to prevent the water from freezing in the unputtied interstices ; but we know
instances of pineries and other stoves where, for ten years, as many panes have not been
broken. A roof at an angle of not less than 45°, diagonal or fragment glazing, or a
closed lap, seem preventives to breakage" in cold-houses : Stewart's copper lap is still
more effectual, but produces a dark, heavy effect, not at all suitable to hot-houses of
any sort, and with difficulty admits of repairs. Our opinion is, that by using the best
crown glass, small panes, and a lap of not more than one eighth of an inch, no breakage
from frost will take place in any description of roof. If the work is performed in a
masterly manner, closing this lap by putty, lead, or copper, will be unnecessary even for
pineries or winter forcing.
Chap. VII.
Of the general Culture in Forcing Structures and Culinary Ilof-liouses.
2696. By general culture, we are here to understand the formation of the soil, the
arrangement of the trees or plants, and their general treatment when planted, in regard
to temperature, air, water, training, and other points of management.
;h
PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
Sect. I. Culture of the Pinery.
2697. The pine-apple is a native of the tropical regions of Asia, Africa, and South
America ; and thus, from its original habitation and nature, it requires a higher degree of
heat than any culinary or fruit-bearing plant at present cultivated as such. It is by no
means, however, so delicate as many imagine ; for as it will bear a higher degree of heat
continued for a length of time than either the vine or the peach, so, at any period of its
growth, it will bear, without injury, a degree of cold for a space of time which, though
short, would have destroyed the foliage of a vine or peach-tree in a state of vegetation.
" This incomparable fruit," Weeks observes, " can be obtained even in frames without
fire-heat, having only the assistance of tan and dung ; and is more easily brought to ma-
turity than an early cucumber." Though liable to the attacks of insects, it is less so than
the peach, and less speedily injured by them than the common cabbage. Diseases it has
almost none. The pine is generally grown in pots, and plunged in a bed of tanner's bark,
or other matter in a state of fermentation ; recently, however, it has been grown without
bottom heat, and even with a lower atmospherical temperature than it has been accustomed
to receive, at least, during winter ; but as the experience of gardeners is very limited on
this mode of treatment, we shall reserve whatever we have to offer on it, till we have
brought into view the established practices. The fruit being reckoned the most delicious
of all others, and gardeners being valued by the wealthy in proportion to their success in
its cultivation, we shall here lay before the reader a copious view of the present modes of
culture, from the works of the most reputable practical men who have written on the
subject ; noticing also, occasionally, the practices of those who grow them for the London
market.
Subsect. 1. Varieties of the Pine and General Mode of Culture.
2698. The most esteemed varieties of the pine-apple for general cultivation are, accord-
ing to Speedily, the following, here arranged in the order of their merits : —
The queen pine I Providence I Sugar-loaf I Havannah I Silver striped
Brown antigua S. Vincent's, or Montserrat Ripley Gold striped
Antigua queen | green olive | Black Jamaica | King | Striped queen.
According to Abercrombie, they are the following : —
Queen I Pricklv striped sugar-loaf I Havannah | Black Jamaica.
Brown sugar-loaf | Silver striped 1 Black Antigua |
M'Phail says, the pines most worthy of cultivation are —
The black Antigua | Ripley I Black Jamaica ; and | Montserrat.
Nicol states, the kinds most generally cultivated in hot-houses to be —
The king I Black Antigua I Pricklv striped sugar-loaf I Montserrat I Havannah ; and
The queen | Brown sugar-loaf | Smooth striped sugar-loaf | Silver striped | New Providence.
Griffin recommends —
. The oval, or queen | Pyramidal, or sugar-loaf; and | New white Providence.
Baldwin, for expeditious forcing, on which alone he treats, recommends —
The old queen; and | Ripley's new queen.
2699 Plan of culture. As the. pine-plant is a triennial, bearing fruit once only, unlike the peach and
vine and other fruit-bearing plants, its propagation, rearing, and fruiting are necessarily all carried on
in every warden where it is cultivated. Its culture generally commences in a common hot-bed frame, heated
by dung^ at the end of a period varying from six to nine months, it is removed to a larger framed hot-
bed or p'it, generally called a succession bed or house ; and after remaining there from eight to twelve
months, according to circumstances, it is removed to its final destination, the fruiting bed, pit, or house.
Here it shows its fruit, continues in a growing state during a period varying from six to twelve months,
according to the variety grown, mode of culture, &c. ; and finally ripens its fruit and dies, leaving the
crown or'terminal shoot of the fruit, and one or more suckers or side-shoots as successors. The produc-
tion of a single pine-apple, therefore, requires a course of exotic culture, varying from eighteen months to
three years, and generally not less than two years.
Subsect. 2. Soil.
2700. The pine-apple soil of Speechly is as follows : " In the month of April or May, let the sward or
turf of a pasture, where the soil is a strong rich loam, and of a reddish color, be pared off, not more than
two inches thick : let it then be carried to the pens in sheep-pastures, where sheep are frequently put for the
purpose of dressing, which places should be cleared of stones, &c. and made smooth ; then let the turf be
laid with the grass side downwards, and only one course thick; here it may continue two, three, or more
months, during which time it should be turned with a spade once or twice, according as the pen is more
or less frequented bv the above animals, who, with their urine and dung, will enrich the turf to a great
degree, and their feet will reduce it, and prevent any weeds from growing. After the turf has lain a suf-
ficfent time, it should be brought to a convenient place, and laid in a heap for at least six months (if a
twelvemonth it will be the better), being frequently turned during that time ; and after being made pretty
fine with the spade, but not screened, it will be fit 'for use. In places where the above mode cannot be
adopted, the mixture made by putting a quantity of sheep's dung (or deer's dung, if it can be got) and turf
together But here it must be observed, that the dung should be collected from the pastures when newly
fallen ; also, that a larger proportion should be added, making an allowance for the want of urine. 1. Three
wheelbarrows of the above reduced sward or soil, one barrow of vegetable mould from decayed oak-leaves,
and half a barrow of coarse sand make a compost-mould for crowns, suckers, and young plants ;
3 Three wheelbarrows of sward reduced as above, two barrows of vegetable mould, one barrow of coarse
sand and one fourth of a barrow of soot, make a compost-mould for fruiting plants. The above composts
should be made some months before thev are wanted, and very frequently turned during that time,
that the different mixtures mav get well and uniformly incorporated. It is observable, that in hot-
houses, where pine-plants are put in a light soil, the young plants frequently go into fruit the first season
Book I. ARTIFICIAL HEAT. 515
(and are then what gardeners term runners) ; on the contrary, where plants are put in a strong rich soil,
they will continue to grow, and not fruit even at a proper season : therefore, from the nature of the soil
from whence the sward was taken, the quantity of sand used must be proportioned : when the loam is
not strong, sand will be unnecessary in the compost for young plants."
2701. Abercrombie's compost for the pineapple "is formed of the following articles: 1. vegetable
mould; 2. the top-spit earth from an upland pasture, loamy, friable, and well reduced ; 3. hard-fed dung,
rotten and mellowed by at least a year's preparation ; 4. small, pearly river-gravel ; 5. white sea-sand ;
6. shell-marl. If no vegetable mould has been provided, light rich earth, from a fallowed part of the
kitchen-garden, may be substituted : there is no difference of any account between one and the other,
further than this : the vegetable mould is sure to be virgin earth, from which no aliment has been ex-
tracted ; the mould from the kitchen-garden, however you may trench, and rest, and enrich it, cannot but
contain many particles which have given out their fertilising qualities to previous crops. Dung perfectly
decomposed comes to the same thing as vegetable mould; therefore that one of them which is most at-
tainable, or best prepared, may fitly serve instead of the other. Of the first three take equal quantities ;
making three fourths of the intended compost. Constitute the remaining fourth thus : let river-gravel
and shell-marl furnish each a twelfth part. The small gravel is to afford something for the roots to lay
hold of; the sea-sand, to promote lightness and dryness ; the shell-marl, the better to support the growth
of fibres and integuments and parts not pulpy. Mix with the whole a fortieth part soot, to offend and
repel worms. Incorporate the ingredients fully ; and turn the heap two or three times before using it."
2702. The soil for the pine-apple, recommended by M'Phail, " is any sort of rich earth taken from a compart-
ment of the kitchen-garden, or fresh sandy loam taken from a common, long pastured with sheep, &c. If
the earth be not of a rich sandy quality, of darkish color, it should be mixed well with some perfectly
rotten dung and sand, and if a little vegetable mould is put among it, it will do it good, and also a little
soot Though pine-plants will grow in earth of the strongest texture, yet I have found by experience
that they grow most freely in good sandy loam not of a binding quality."
2703. The soil for the pine, used by Nicol. " In this, vegetable mould being a chief ingredient, a stock of it
should be provided wherever the culture of the pine is followed. The kind to be used here is that from
decayed tree-leaves, and those of the oak are to be preferred ; but when a sufficient quantity of them
cannot be had, a mixture with those of the ash, elm, birch, sycamore, &c, or indeed any that are not
resinous, will answer very well. In autumn, immediately as the leaves fall, let them be gathered, and be
thrown together into an heap ; and let just as much light earth be thrown over them as will prevent them
from being blown abroad by the wind. In this state let them lie till May, and then turn them over and
mix them well. They will be rendered into mould fit for use by the next spring ; but from bits of sticks, &c.
among them, they will require to be sifted before using. Strong brown loam is the next article. This
should consist of the sward of a pasture, if possible ; which should, previous to using, be well reduced, by
exposing it a whole year to the action of the weather. Pigeon-dung, also, that has lain at least two whole
years in a heap, has been frequently turned, and well exposed to the weather, is to be used. Likewise
shell-marl. And, lastly, sea or river gravel, which should be sifted, and kept in a dry place ; such part of
it as is about the size of" marrowfat peas is to be used. This is the proportion : for crowns and suckers,
entire vegetable mould, with a little gravel at bottom, to strike in ; afterwards, three fourths vegetable
mould, and one fourth loam, mixed with about a twentieth part gravel, and two inches entire gravel at
bottom, till about a year old. For year-olds, and till shifted into fruiting-pots, one half vegetable mould,
one half loam; to which add a twentieth part gravel, and as much shell-marl, with three inches clean
gravel at bottom. For fruiting plants, one half loam, a fourth part vegetable mould, and a fourth part
pigeon-dung ; to which add marl and gravel as above, and lay three or four inches of clean gravel at
bottom. I he above compositions are what I formerly used for pine-plants with much success ; and are
what may be reckoned good medium soils for the production of pine-apples."
2704. Griffin's pine-apple soil is free from many different strange ingredients for composts recommended
by others ; for after " numerous experiments made with mixtures of deer's, sheep's, pigeons', hens', and
rotten stable-dung, with soot, and other manures, in various proportions and combinations with fresh
soil of different qualities from pastures and waste lands, I can venture with confidence to recommend the
following : Procure from a pasture, or waste land, a quantity of brown, rich, loamy earth, if of a reddish
color the better, but of a fattish mouldy temperature ; that by squeezing a handful of it together, and
opening your hand, it will readily fall apart again : be cautious not to go deeper than you find it of that
pliable texture ; likewise procure, if possible, a quantity of deer's dung : if none can be conveniently got,
sheep's dung will do, and a quantity of swine's dung. Let the above three sorts be brought to some con-
venient place, and laid up in three different heaps ridge-ways, for at least six months ; and then mix
them in the following manner, covering the dung with a little soil before it is mixed : four wheelbarrows
of the above earth ; one barrow of sheep's dung, and two barrows of swine's dung. This composition,"
he adds, " if carefully and properly prepared, will answer every purpose for the growth of pine-plants of
every age and kind. It is necessary that it should remain a year before applied to use, that it may receive
the advantage of the summer's sun and winter's frost ; and it need not be screened or sifted before using,
but only well broken with the hands and spade, as when finely sifted it becomes too compact for the roots
of the plants." (Tr. on the Pine-apple, p. 26.)
2705. Baldwin's soil for the pine-apple is still more simple than Griffin's. " From old pasture or meadow
ground strip off the turf, and dig to the depth of six or eight inches, according to the goodness of the soil ;
draw the whole together to some convenient place, and mix it with one half of good rotten dung ; fre-
quently turn it over for twelve months, and it will be fit for use. This is the only compost-dung for
young and old plants." (Cult, of Ananas, p. 8.) Weeks's soil agrees with Baldwin's: he takes unex-
hausted earth and some rotten dung, and gives them a twelve month's preparation, by turning and mixing
previously to using. (Forcer's Assistant, p. 50.)
Subsect. 3. Artificial Heat.
2706. Bottom heat. The pine, when originally introduced in England, was cultivated,
without bottom heat, on stages, like other succulents. Ingenuity, however, soon sug-
gested, and experience approved the advantage of the latter, first in preserving a moist
equable heat ; and, secondly, in preventing the plants from feeling so much as they other-
wise would any casual declension in the fire-heat, or sudden vicissitude in the temperature
or moisture of the external air. " Pines," Nicol observes, " do certainly not require
so strong a bottom heat as many keep them in ; yet there is something in a mild tan
heat, so congenial to their natures, that they thrive much better in pots plunged in a bark-
bed, if properly managed, than when planted out on a bed of earth that is heated, and
often scorched, by under flues." The tan or bark pit is therefore considered essential to
the pinery.
2707. Bark-pits are filled with tan which has previously undergone a course of draining
and sweating. The heat thus produced, will last from three to six months, when it is
sifted and again put into a state of fermentation, by replacing the deficiency occasioned
LI 2'
516
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
by decay, And separation of the dust by sifting with new tan. In this way the bark-bed is
obliged to be stirred, turned, refreshed, or even renewed several times a year, so as to
produce and retain at all times a bottom heat of from 15 to 85 degrees in each of the
three departments of pine culture. These operations being common, we have placed a
summary of management under the head of General Directions for the Bark-pit, at the end
of this section. (See Subsect. 8.)
2708. Dung-heat. Pines are grown to the greatest perfection by many gardeners with-
out either bark or fire heat simply by the use of dung. A frame double the usual depth
and also about a third part broader than the common cucumber frames, is placed on a bed
of dung, or of dung and tan, or dung and ashes, or even dung and faggots mixed or in
alternate layers. This bed of itself supplies heat for a while, and when it begins to be
exhausted, linings are applied in the usual way, and continued for a year or more, reviv-
ing and renewing them as may become requisite, till the bottom bed becomes too solid
for the ready admission of heat. The frame and pots are then removed to a prepared bed,
and this old bottom taken away, or mixed up with fresh materials. In this way, as
Weeks observes, every one that can procure stable-dung may grow pines. In a tract
On the Ananas and on Melons, by A. Taylor, printed in 1769, the author tells us
that he both rears and fruits pines in a pit formed of boards or of brick-work three
feet deep, and of any convenient length and width ; and on the walls or boards which
enclose the tan, he places a frame two and a half feet deep in front, and four feet high
behind. The ends and front are of glass, and the latter is formed into small sashes,
which slide in a groove. The back is formed of inch boards ; and against these he places
a powerful lining of dung. The pit he fills with tan, or dung, as may be most convenient ;
" dung," he says, " does as well as tan and only requires a little more trouble, which is
amply repaid to' the gardener by the value of the dung to the garden, when no longer in
active fermentation. " An anonymous annotator (to the copy of Taylor's book, in the library
of the Horticultural Society) says, " I find by experience, that the dung of four horses is
sufficient to work two frames twenty-six feet each in length, and six in breadth ; one for the
fruiting-house, the other for succession plants ; and that it may be reasonably expected to
cut forty fruit yearly after the first year, and that dung as valuable for the field or garden,
as if this use had not been made of it." {Taylor on Ananas, &e. p. 3. ; Diff. Modes of
Cult. P. App. &c. p. 47.)
2709. Fire-heat for the atmosphere. The high temperature requisite for the pine in
very stage of its growth, renders it necessary to have recourse to fire-heat for eight or
ine months in every year ; unless indeed the plants are grown in pits heated by linings
of dung ; in which case, these linings become necessary every month in the year in order
to keep up the bottom heat. What respects the management of fires being also common
to the culture of this plant in all its stages, we have placed the directions as in the case
of bark-pits under such as are general. (See Subsect. 8.)
2710. Dung-heat and fire-heat com-
bined. Jenkins, of the Portman nur-
sery, London, grows his pine-plants in
large hot-beds, and fruits them in a
house (fie. 454), which " though fur.
nished with flues, yet these have been
very little used. The heat imparted to
the plants is produced by the ferment-
ation of stable-dung in a pit below the
plants, the top of which is covered by
tiles supported by iron rafters, with the
joints closely cemented, to prevent the
passage of steam into the house. The
pots are neither bedded in tan, nor in
mould, but stand on the tiles, and the
interstices between them warm the air of
the house." The dung is managed as in
West's pit, but with the addition of being
watered after it is thrown in, which is
found to promote fermentation, and the
intensity of the heat. {Hooker, in Hart.
Trans, iv. 363.)
2711. Steam-lieat, with or without any of the other modes of heating, has been tried
extensively as far as respects heating the air of the bouse, and with the most perfect suc-
cess. As a bottom heat it has also been tried in different places by turning it into vaults
of air, or cisterns of water, or chambers of large rough stones (which imbibe the heat and
give it slowly out to the bed above ) with different degrees of success, but not such as to
induce cultivators to relinquish fermenting substances in its favor, where they can be
procured at a reasonable expense.
Subsect. 4. Propagation of the Pine-apple.
271 2. The pine is generally propagated by croums and suckers, though, in common with
every other plant, it may be propagated by seed. Speedily prefers suckers, because ge-
ev
nine
Ww//,/'/,
Book I. PROPAGATION OF THE PINE-APPLE. 517
nerally larger than crowns, and those produced near the middle of the stem, he consi-
ders the best. He does not, however, reject crowns ; but selects the largest, which he
says, when nine inches in circumference at their bottoms, equal any suckers. (Treatise on
the Pine- Apple, 2d edit. 22.) Abercrombie says, " Suckers which rise from the extre-
mities of the roots, at a distance from the stem, though they have radical fibres, are apt to
to have ill-formed hearts. With Speechly, he prefers stalk-suckers and strong crowns."
(Pract. Gard. 621.) Andrews uses suckers only, not from any objection to crowns, but
from the difficulty and trouble of getting them returned from the fruiterers, and the risk
of different kinds being mixed through the carelessness of servants. M'Phail, Nicol,
Griffin, and Baldwin, do not express any preference. •
2713. Separation of crowns and suckers. Speechly and Abercrombie concur in the following directions :
" When the fruit is served to table, the crown is to be detached by a gentle twist, and returned to the gar-
dener, if it be wanted for a new plant. Fruit-stalk suckers are taken off at the same period. Suckers at
the base of the herb are commonly fit for separation when the fruit is mature; though, if the stool be vi-
gorous, they may be left on for a month after the fruit is cut, the stool receiving plentiful waterings on
their account. The fitness of a sucker to be removed is indicated, at the lower part of the leaves, by a
brownish tint there ; on the appearance of which, if the lower leaf be broken off", the sucker is easily dis-
planted by the thumb." Speechly says, " Suckers cannot with safety be taken from the plants, till" they
are grown to the length of twelve or fourteen inches, when their bottoms will be hard, woody, and full of
small round knobs, which are the rudiments of the roots. It would endanger their breaking, if they were
to be taken oft' sooner. When the suckers are taken off", the operation should be performed with great
care, that neither plant nor sucker may be injured. To prevent which, one hand should be placed at the
bottom of the plant to keep it steady; the other as near to the bottom of the sucker as conveniently can ;
after which, the sucker should be moved two or three times backwards and forwards in a sideway direc-
tion, and it will fall off' with its bottom entire. Whereas, when a sucker is bent downwards immediately
from the plant, it frequently either breaks off" in the stem, or splits at the bottom." Andrews allows the
suckers to remain on the parent plant till they have attained a large size ; sometimes even till they are fit
to occupy a large pot at once.
2714. Season of separating crowns and suckers. Crowns and suckers taken off from the parent plant later
than October, should not be planted before the month of February or March ; for, in the winter time, pro-
bably, they would not strike root, but rot : they may be hung or laid in a dry part of the hot-house. Un-
matured young suckers and crowns should lie unplanted, till their natural juices be so exhausted that there
may be no danger of their rotting after being planted ; but if they are grown to such a size as to be easily
separated from the parent plant, they may be planted immediately. (Gard. Rem. 83.)
2715. To generate suckers. If the old fruiting-plant offers only small bottom-suckers, or fails to furnish
any, you may bring out good suckers thus : Having waited till the fruit is cut, take the old plant in its pot
out of the bark-bed ; strip off the under leaves near the root, and with the knife cut away the leaves to
six inches from the bottom. Take out some of the stale mould from the pot, fill up with fresh, and give a
little water. Plunge the old plant into a bed with a good growing heat. Let the routine culture not be
neglected, and the old plants will soon send out good suckers. Allow these to grow till they are four
inches long, or more ; and on the signs of fitness, detach them.
2716. Preparation of crowns or suckers. As soon as either crowns or suckers are detached, twist off some
of the leaves about the base; the vacancy thus made at the bottom of the stem is to favor the emission
of roots. Pare the stump smooth ; then lay the intended plants on a shelf in a shaded part of the stove,
or of the green-house, or of any dry apartment. Let crowns and fruit offsets lie till the part that adhered
to the fruit is perfectly healed ; and root-suckers in the same manner, till the part which was united to the
old stock is become dry and firm. They will be fit to plant in five or six days. As to the prolonged period
for which they remain out of culture, pine-plants have been kept six months without mould, in a mode-
rately warm dry state, and the only injury has been loss of time. Crowns or suckers coming off before Mi-
chaelmas should be planted, without any unnecessary delay, to get established before the winter. When
late-fruiting plants do not afford offsets till after Michaelmas, it is best to keep them in a dormant state
during the months least favorable to artificial culture ; therefore, as you obtain these late offsets, hang
them up in the house, not too near the flues, to rest till March. Some think it necessary to dry, or win,
all crowns and suckers before potting them, and for that purpose lay them on the shelves, &c. of the stove
for a week or ten days. By this treatment, they certainly may be hurt, but cannot be improved, provided
they have boen fully matured before being taken from off the fruit or stocks, and that these have prevu
ously had no water for about ten days. They will succeed as well if planted the hour they are taken off", as
if treated in any other way whatever ; and I only advise their being laid aside as above, as being a matter
of conveniency. (Nicol.)
2717. Planting croivns and suckers. Nicol plants his suckers in summer and autumn as the fruit is ga-
thered, sticking them into the front part of the bark-bed, " where they will strike root as freely as any
where. If a large proportion of the crop come off early, the crowns and suckers may be potted at once,
and plunged into the nursing-pit ; or they may be twisted from oft'the stocks, and may be laid by, in a dry
shed or loft for a few days, till the other operations in the pinery be performed, and the nursery.pit be
ready to receive them and the crowns (collected as the fruit have been gathered) ; which, if rooted, may
be potted, and may beplaced for the above time, cither in a frame, or in a forcing-house of any kind, as
they will sustain no injury, though out of the bark-bed for so short a time. Such crowns as have not struck
root, may be laid aside with the suckers." Griffin generally plants his crowns in the bark till they have
struck root ; but the suckers he pots at once, unless they are small and green at bottom, when he treats
them like the crowns. Baldwin says, " Towards the end of September, take off the suckers from the
fruiting-plants, and lay them in any warm place for about three days ; then strip off' a few of their bottom
leaves, and they will be ready for planting. Plant them in the old tan, on the surface of the bed, without
pots, about four or five inches apart, according to the size of the plants ; observing, that the tallest be
placed at the back of the frame, and the shortest in the front. In this state let them remain till the fol-
lowuig April." (CiUt. of Anan. p. 13.) Andrews pots his suckers in September, and plunges them in a bark-
bed during the winter.
Subsect. 5. Of rearing the Pine apple in the Nursing Department.
2718. The rearing of the pine-apple requiring different modes of treatment at different
stages of its progress to maturity, established practice has adopted three houses or
pits, through each of which the plants pass in succession. They are usually named
the nursing, succession, and fruiting houses, or pits. The nursing-pit is used for bringing
on crowns and suckers until they are established in growth, and for this purpose they ge-
nerally remain there one year.
LI 3
518 PRACTICE OF GARDENING, Part III.
2719 Nursing-pit with fire-heat. The nursing-pit is generally flued, but some adopt a common dung hot-
bed, and others the flued pit or bed recommended by M'Phail, and which answers extremely well. The
minimum depth of the bark-bed in the nursing-house, Abercrombie states, to be three feet ; " the maximum
three and a half. The less depth is the right, when bark alone is employed to produce the bottom heat ;
and the greater, when tree-leaves are substituted on account of their weaker influence. In either case,
the pit may be six inches shallower than that in the fruiting-house ; because the requisite altitude in the
different pits partlv depends on the perpendicular dimension of the pots, and on the thickness to which a
layer of old bark must reach from the surface, to keep the pots from contact with the new bark, that the
roots may not be burnt. In the nursery-pit, the neutral layer need not be deeper than eight inches." " If
the bark-bed has been in action to bring forward a previous set of plants, now removed to the succession-
pit, recruit it by taking away the wasted bark, to the extent of a sixth, fourth, third, or half part, and by
substituting an equal quantity of fresh. A lively bottom heat is requisite to make pine offsets strike
freely.
27a). Same growers of pines, he adds, " who cannot command higher means, choose to cultivate
crowns and suckers in pits without flues. As the aid of the furnace, however, allows a freer admission of
air, and prevents the necessity of covering the glasses in very cold days, it is not to be deliberately rejected
from the nursing-pit, when new buildings, or fundamental alterations, are in agitation — unless the vici-
nity of some large establishment for horses should offer a regular supply of dung, without much expense of
carriage. When dung is employed, it is proper to force with that alone. The bottom heat from tan-bark
or tree-leaves is alwavs to be preferred, in combination with flues."
2721. Speedily adopts the iiued pit, and occasionally the frame, but generally a part of the succession-
pit. Nicol the nursing-house. Griltin adopts three houses, the two last diminutives of the first, which is
the common pine-stove of Nicol and Abercrombie. Baldwin makes use of a succession or nursing bed,
without lire-heat, and of a fruiting-stove, both smalL
2722. Nursing-pit, without fre-heat. " Hot-beds used for growing suckers," Speechly
observes, " should be well prepared, and the violence of the heat allowed to be fully
over before the suckers are taken oft'. It is then to be levelled and covered with eight
or ten inches of tan, into which to plunge the pots." (Treat, on the Pine, 34.) M'Phail,
who, when gardener to the Earl of Liverpool, was reckoned one of the best pine-growers
in England, recommends the brick bed of his invention as answering well for small suc-
cession-plants. " A pit," he says, "built on the same construction, but of larger
dimensions, without cross flues, is a suitable one for growing pine-apple plants of any
size ; for by linings of dung the air in it can be kept to a degree of heat sufficient to
grow and ripen the pine-apple in summer, as well as it can be done with fire-heat ; only
it will require a little more labor and plenty of dung." Baldwin, as already observed,
grows both his nursery and succession plants in a bark-bed excited by external linings
of dung.
2723. Culture of nursing-plants. Whether pits or hot-beds be adopted, the potting,
temperature, air, water, &c. are nearly the same.
2724. Potting bi) Speechly. For full-sized crowns and suckers, Speechly employs pots six inches diame-
ter at top, and five and a half inches deep. Less-sized suckers and crowns, he puts in less-sized pots. He
pots ripe or knobby-bottomed suckers immediately after taking off, letting the others lie a few days to har-
den. He inserts the end of the sucker no farther'into the earth than what is necessary to hold the plant
fast. They are to remain ten or twelve days without water, and afterwards be watered twice a week.
{Treat, on the Pine, 37.)
2725. Potting by Abcrcromfrie. " The pots, to receive unstruck crowns and suckers, should be three
inches in diameter, inside measure, and four inches and a half deep, for the smaller plants, four inches in
diameter, and six inches deep, for the larger. Lay at the bottom of each pot dry shivers, or clean gravel,
to an inch in depth. Fill the pots with the compost before described, not pressing it too close. With a
dibble make a hole, for the smaller plants, two inches deep ; and two inches and a half, for the larger. Set
the plants/and level the surface of the mould, leaving a vacancy half an inch deep from the rim. Plunge
the pots in the bark-bed down to their rims, leaving between each an interval equal to the diameter of the
pot. After planting, shut the house; and withhold water and admissions of air for some time."
2726. M'PhaiPs mode of potting. " The fruit being partly over, and a cucumber brick bed prepared for
unstruck crowns and suckers, towards the end of August or in September, I planted them in rich earth in
pots suitable to the size of the plants ; I then had the pots plunged to their rims in the tan-bed in which
there was a good growing heat ; the lights were then shut down close, and as great a heat kept among the
plants as the heat of the tan and sunshine could raise, and when the sun shone long and very bright, the
plants were shaded a few hours in the middle of the day. The plants were thus managed till they had
struck root and begun to grow, when a gentle watering was given to them, and a little air admitted daily.
About the end of October, or beginning of November, if the state of the bed required it, a little fresh tan
was added, and if the plants bv growth had become crowded, some of them were removed into another
place, and the remainder plunged into the tan-bed, in which they continued till February or March, when
of course the bed required an addition of fresh tan, which was given it, and the plants plunged again into
it at such distances one from the other as to give them room to grow."
2727. Potting by Nicol. Twist off a few of the bottom leaves, and pare the end of the stump smooth with
the knife. Then till pots of about three or four inches diameter, and five or six inches deep, (the less for the
least, and the large for the largest plants,) with very fine, light earth, "or with entire vegetable mould of
tree-leaves, quite to the brim ; previously placing an inch of clean gravel in the bottom of each, and ob-
serving to lay in the mould loosely. Thrust the large suckers down to within two inches of the gravel, and
the small ones and crowns, two inches into the mould ; firming them with the thumbs, and dressing offthe
mould, half an inch below the margin of the pots. Then plunge them into the bark -bed, quite down to, or
rather below the brim, especially of the smaller pots. If the pots be placed at the clear distance of three
or four inches from each other, according to the sizes of the plants, they will have sufficient room to grow
till next shifting.
2728. Potting by Griffin and Baldwin. Griffin plants suckers and crowns in pots five inches diameter,
and four inches deep ; and very strong ones in pots seven and a quarter wide by six and a half deep. Bald-
win plants his nursing plants in the bark-bed, without pots.
2729. Temperature of nursing-plants. Speechly does not mention his summer tem-
perature for nursing-plants, farther than referring to a peculiar thermometer which he
used, and " made for sale ;" but he says, after the beginning of November, " the house
should be kept in a cold state, and little or no water given the plants till the middle or
latter end of January." (Treat, on the Pine, p. 39.)
Book I. PINERY. — NURSING DEPARTMENT. 519
2739. Abercrombie is more definite : "The artificial heat in the nursing-pit is 55? for the minimum.
This will keep the plants, in winter, secured from a check, and a few degrees above a dormant state. It is
enough to aim at this minimum, when dung-heat is employed ; for as its decline is never abrupt, there is no
danger in going pretty close to the lowest extreme. When fire-heat is applied, it is better to aim at 60°,
as the charge in the flues is more liable to fluctuate suddenly. The maximum artificial heat, in winter,
need not go beyond 65° : but as the season for excitement advances, this becomes the minimum. When the
plants are growing vigorously in autumn, or spring, the artificial maximum is 70°. In winter, the maxi-
mum, with the aid of sunshine, should not be allowed to rise higher than 70°, because the benefit of airing
would be lost : in summer, the maximum, under the effect of strong sunshine, may rise to 85° ; to keep it
down to this, give, in July and August, the benefit of air freely."
2731 M'Phail says, " The heat of the air in the nursing-pit, exclusive of sun-heat, is not required to be
greater than from 606 to 65°." But at first planting of crowns and suckers, he gives them " a great heat
and no air till they begin to grow." (Gard. Rem. 81. 319.)
2732. Nicol directs the temperature o<the nursing-pit in January with fire-heat, to be kept, as near as
possible, to 65°, mornings and evenings ; and in sunshine, on good days, it may be allowed to rise about
70°. In March, from 70° to 80°, and after newly potting and plunging unstruck crowns and suckers, to 80°
or 85°.
2733. Covering at nights. One great advantage of growing pines in pits is, that they
may easily be covered with mats, or by other means, in winter. Abercrombie considers
covering not positively indispensable to flued pits, in which the minimum degree of
lire-heat is regularly maintained ; but it will add to the security of the plants, and
admit of some retrenchments in fuel, if some warmer screen, in addition to that of the
glass, is applied at night, during all the season when frost prevails, or may be expected.
For this purpose, provide either double mats, or a strong canvass cover. The latter is
commodious, because it can be mounted on rollers, and let down at will, or drawn up
under a weather-board. Remove the covering at sunrise, that the essential benefit may
not be obstructed.
2734. M'Phail covers his pits during the colder months. In January, he " covered up about three or
four o'clock in the afternoon, and uncovered in the morning about eight or nine. In very cold weather,
it may be necessary, sometimes, not to uncover them in the day-time, only as far as to give them a little
light."
2735. Nicol says, " The pit should be carefully covered up soon after sunset every evening, either with
double mats, or with a proper thick canvass cover, made on purpose for it, and mounted on rollers. The
cover should be removed by sunrise in the morning, and should never be kept on through the day, except
occasionally, in verv severe weather. For if all the light possible be not admitted to the plants, they lose
color, and become sickly. By using a proper cover, however, in the night, and only in very severe weather
in the day, at particular times, a considerable deal of fuel may be saved."
2736. Griffin, Baldwin, and Weeks offer nothing on covering any description of pine frame or pit.
2737. Air. When the weather is warm, Speechly admits " a great deal of air" to
nurse-plants. Having potted unstruck offsets, Abercrombie admits little or no air until
the plants begin to grow ; but as soon as the leaves show that the root has struck, he
gives plenty of air, in order to make the leaves expand, and the entire plant robust.
(Pr. G. p. 628.) Speaking of the winter treatment of pines, M'Phail says, " Admit
air in fine days into every place where pine-plants are." In warm summer weather, he
admits some all night. (G. Rem. p. 142.)
2738. Nicol says, " Air should be admitted to the nursing-pit every good day to a certain extent ;
dividing the quantity admitted equally, that there may be a regular circulation in all parts of the pit Even
in hard frost, when the sun shines, two or three of the lights should be slipped down, to let the rarefied air
escape at top." After potting unrooted offsets, he gives no air till the heat begins to rise in the bark-bed ;
but " as the plants take on growths, it must be given in larger portions, especially in sunshine, so as to
keep down the thermometer to 85° or 80°." Griffin gives air at all favorable opportunities. Baldwin from
the back and ends, but not from the roof, either in summer or winter.
2739. Watering the nursing-pit. Speechly waters offsets over the leaves after they
have begun to strike, but gives to all pines much less water in a moist than a dry season,
depending on the humidity of the air. (Tr. on Pine, p. 37.) He waters once a week or
fortnight in September and October, and then leaves off till the middle or end of
January, depending on the moisture of the tan, and the state of inaction of the plants.
In frosty weather, he sometimes plunges the pots so deep in the tan that their rims
may be covered two or three inches in order to give heat, and prevent the surface of
the mould from becoming too dry. In March, he waters once in a week or ten days,
and advances to twice a week in summer. (Tr. on Pine, p. 47.)
2740 Abercrombie, after planting crowns and suckers, gives no water till " the heat of the bark has
risen and the plants show signs of striking. Then water moderately at the root ; but give none over the
herb until the heart-leaves begin to grow. Meanwhile repeat watering at the root every four days.
After the plant is established, water freely at the root, and give sprinklings over the leaves from a fine
2741. M'Phail says, " No certain rule can be laid down for the exact quantity of water that must be
given to the pine-apple plant, or how often ; nor is it necessary to be particular. These and many other
matters must be left to the gardener who has the care of the plants." In July, " besides watering the
earth in the pots in which the roots of the plants grow, when it begins to get dry, the leaves and fruit
should be watered now and then, till they are all wetted, with clean water out of a fine- rosed pot f the
water should be as warm as the medium heat of the air in the house. The best time to water over the
leaves, is about eight o'clock in the morning, or about four in the afternoon ; though it will do them no
harm to water them at any time of the day, if you keep the air in the house sweet, and up to a heat
strong enough for the growth of the pine-plant. The plants in this month will want water about once a
week, and if the weather be hot, perhaps oftener. However, it is rare that pine-apple plants require
water oftener than twice a week."
2742. Nicol says, nurse-plants require verv little water in winter ; " perhaps a little only once in eight
L 1 4
520 PRACTICE OF GARDENING Part III.
or ten days, or even at greater intervals, if the weather be moist and hazy. It is safer, in winter, to give
too little, rather than too much water to pine-plants, nor should they be watered over head at this season.
They should be watered in the forenoon of a sunny day, at this time of the year, in order that any water
spilt on the bark, or in the hearts of the plants, may be exhaled by the heat of the sun, and by an. extra
quantity of air purposely admitted. This precaution, however, is only necessary for the sake of such
crowns and suckers as have been struck late last season, and are not very well rooted ; such being more
apt to damp oft' than others that are better established." In summer he supplies water regularly and
plentifully once in three days ; giving the proper quantity at root, and then a dewing over the leaves.
Water frequently with the draining of the dunghill.
2743. Temperature of the water. M'Phail says, " Eighty degrees is the medium
heat of the water with which pines should be watered." He adds, " I would advise
never to water them with water under seventy, unless in very warm weather, when the
<;arth about their roots will soon regain its natural warmth." (G. Rem. p. 128.)
2744. Steaming. M'Phail obtains this in summer " by sprinkling the flues and paths
now and then with clean water in the afternoon, and shuts up the houses with a strong
heat in them." (G.Rem. p. 240.)
2745. Shading. This, all the authors quoted, agree in recommending during bright
sunshine, after newly potting offsets. Abercrombie says, " shade them with thin mats
in the middle of hot days ; dividing the hours before and after twelve, so as to amount
to a fourth of the morning, and a third of the afternoon." (Pr. G. p. 629.) Speechly
approves of shading, and effects it in an ornamental and useful manner by training vines
on the rafters.
274G. Shifting nurse-plants. " Offsets planted early in the season," Speechly says,
''• should be carefully looked over in September, and all the forward crowns and
suckers that are grown large, and with an appearance of being under-potted, should
be removed into larger-sized pots, with their roots and bulbs entire." (TV. on Pine,
p. 38.)
2747. Abercrombie says, " When offsets have been potted in July or August, remember by October to
examine the roots of the most vigorous plants. Should any have filled the pots, shift them into larger ;
but new roots will not often have filled the pots at that inconvenient period." (Pr. G. p. 625.)
2748. M'Phail does not shift unstruck crowns and suckers, planted in the end of August or September,
till the following March or April, and pots with entire balls like Nicol.
2749. Nicol new-pots offsets planted in summer in the following March. " Let them be shaked out
entirely ; the balls be quite reduced ; the roots be trimmed of all straggling and decayed fibres ; and let
them be replaced in the same, or in similar pots. The proper size of pots, however, in which to put
crowns and suckers struck last season, is about four inches inside diameter at top, and six inches deep.
A little clean gravel should be laid at the bottom of each pot, in order to drain off extra moisture, and
this should be observed in th*> potting of pine-plants of all sorts. I have generally observed, that if the
bark-heat be not violent, the plants will push very strong fibres into this stratum of gravel, in which they
seem to delight. I therefore generally make it two inches thick in small pots, and three or four in larger
ones, less or more, according to their sizes. From the time I first adopted this mode of potting, I hardly
ever had an instance of an unhealthy plant ; and this very particular, together with that of keeping the
plants always in a mild bottom heat, is of greater importance in the culture of pines, than all the other
rules that have been given respecting them, out of the ordinary way. The roots of pines seem to delight
in gravel ; and I have been careful to introduce it into the mould for plants of all ages. I generally
used small sea-gravel, in which was a considerable proportion of shells, or chips of shells, with other
particles of a porous nature ; and I have uniformly observed the finest fibres cling to these, and often
insinuate themselves through the pores, or embrace the rougher particles. Therefore, if sea-gravel can
be obtained, prefer it ; and next, river-gravel ; but avoid earthy pit-gravel, and rather use sharp sand, or
a mixture of pounded stone, chips, and brick-bats. The plants being repotted, plunge them in the
bark-bed again, quite down to the rims of the pots, keeping them perfectly level. Eight or nine
inches from centre to centre will be distance sufficient. When they are all placed, give a little aired
water, to settle the earth about their roots. This need not be repeated till the heat in the bed rise to the
pots, after which, as the plants will now begin to grow freely, they must be watered at the root once in
four or five days : and they may have a dewing over head, from the fine rose of a watering-pot, occasion-
ally, if the weather be fine."
2750. In May, Nicol again shifts, " but the plants are not to be shaken out at this time, but are to be
shifted, balls entire, into pots of about six inches diameter, and eight inches deep. If the roots be any-
wise matted at bottom, or at the sides, they must be carefully singled out ; and in potting, be sure that •
there be no cavity left between the ball and the sides of the new pot. In order the more effectually to
prevent which, use a small, blunt-pointed, somewhat wedge-shaped stick, to trindle in the mould with ;
observing that it be in a dry state, and be sifted fine ; and also to shake the pot well (potting on a bench
or table), the better to settle the earth about the ball. Pots of this size should be filled to within half an
inch of their brims (the balls being covered about an inch with fresh earth), as the whole will settle
about as much, and so leave a full inch for holding water, which is enough. In preparing the plants for
potting, observe to twist off a few of the bottom leaves, as they always put out fine roots from the lower
part of the stem. Also, before letting the plant out of hand, trim off the points of any leaves that may
have been bruised or anywise injured in the shifting. Replunge the pots to the brim, as before, observing
to keep them quite level, at the distance of fifteen inches from centre to centre of the plants on a medium ;
then give a little water, which need not be repeated till the heat rise to the pots."
2751. Nicol, in November, shifts such others whose roots have filled their pots, and have become any-
wise matted. " Examine any you suspect to be so, and let them be shifted into pots of the next size im-
mediately above those they are in ; keeping the balls entire, and only singling out the netted fibres at
bottom. The rest should be trimmed of any dead leaves at bottom of their stems, and should have a
little of the old mou'd taken irom off the surface of the pots; which replace with fresh earth ; filling the
pots fuller than usual, as but little water will be required till next shifting time in the spring. The
whole should then be replaced in the bark-bed as before, and should be plunged quite to the rims of the
pots ; giving a little water to settle the earth about their roots, which need not be repeated till the heat
rise in the bed."
2752. Insects and diseases. See this article unaVr General Directions. (Subsect. 8.)
Book I. PINERY.— SUCCESSION DEPARTMENT. 521
Subsect. 6. Successio?i Department*
2753. The culture of succession pine-plants necessarily coincides in many particulars
with that of nurslings ; but less heat is generally allowed the former in order not to
draw them ; and they are allowed plenty of room in the bed, frequently shifted, and
abundance of air admitted, in order to make them broad-bottomed and bushy : thus
strengthening the heart or root part, in order that it may throw up a strong fruit the
second or third year.
2754. Growing succession plants without fire-heat. M'Phail says, " Succession pine-
plants grow exceedingly well in pits covered with glazed frames, linings of warm dune
being applied to them in cold frosty weather. The north wall of a pit for this purpose
had best be only about four feet above the ground ; and if about two feet high of it, the
whole length of the wall, beginning just at the surface of the ground four feet below the
height of the wall, be built in the form of the outside walls of my cucumber bed, the
lining will warm the air in the pit more easily than if the wall were built solid. The
linings of dung should not be lower in their foundation than the surface of the tan in the
pits in which the plants grow (for it is not the tan that requires to be warmed, but the
air among the plants) : and as during the winter the heat of the air in the pit among the
plants, exclusive of sun-heat, is not required to be greater than from sixty to sixty-five
degrees, strong linings are not wanted : one against the north side, kept up in cold
weather nearly as high as the wall, will be sufficient, unless the weather get very cold in-
deed, in which case a lining on the south side may be applied. In cold, frosty weather,
a covering of hay or straw, or of fern, can be laid on the glass above mats in the night-
time."
2755. Most nurserymen and growers of pines for the London market employ dung-beds of the common
kind, keeping up the heat by powerful linings. The same practice is successfully adopted by Miller and
Sweet, of Bristol. Baldwin combines the nursing and succession beds, growing both on tan with dung-
linings.
2756. Shifting and potting. The middle of March Speedily considers the most eligi-
ble time for shifting and potting such nurse-plants as are to be removed to the succession-
house. " If the work is done sooner," he says, " it will prevent the plants from striking
freely ; and if deferred longer, it will check them in their summer growth." — In this
shifting, he " always shakes off the whole of the ball of earth, and cuts off all the roots
that are of a black color, carefully preserving such only as are white and strong. He
then puts the plants into pots eight inches and a half diameter at the top, and seven
inches deep, in entirely fresh mould. The bark-bed is renewed, the pots plunged to
the rims, the house is kept pretty warm, till the heat of the tan arises ; the plants are then
sprinkled over the leaves with water, and watered first once a week and afterwards twice
a week, till next shifting in the beginning of August, when they are shifted into fruitino-
pots with their balls entire. The size of these pots is eleven inches and a half at top by
ten inches deep."
'2757. Abercrombie observes, that most of the remarks on the nursing-house will apply to the succession-
pit. " Sometimes the plants, originated in the nursing-pit in August or September, will be fit to bring into
the succession-house in March or April following; and sometimes not till the anniversary season. Those
from late fruiterers, originated in March, will be most established by the end of summer."
2758. Introductory shifting. Where at the first shifting of rooted plants, thev are
transferred to this department, proceed as in nursing-pit, except in regard to the size of
the pots, which should be twenty-four inches, or about seven inches across, and nine
deep. When the plants are a year old, and the shifting for culture here is the second or
third, begin as before : — make arrangements to complete the business in one day. Be
prepared with a bed of lively tan, the number of pots, the compost for pines, and some
clean sea-gravel or shivers. As each plant is taken from the nursing-pit, tie the leaves
together. Turn them out of the old pets singly. Then proceed as follows : — Shake off
the ball of mould. Strip oft" a few of the lower leaves. Cut the roots off entirely : fur-
ther, if the roots are scanty, or decaying, prune away a small portion of the stem, cutting
into the quick. Pot the plants ; plunge them in the tan, not entirely to their rims, till
the new heat rising from the bark can be ascertained. Leave about five inches space
between each. Keep them under a strong heat; and forbear to give water, or to admit
cold air, till the plants have struck root.
2759. Intermediate shifting. When plants are to remain in the succession-house a
year, shift them in the March following their introduction. Let the fresh pots be full
tight inches in diameter, and ten* inches deep. It is one of the most availing precau-
tions against the premature fruiting of pines, to allow rising plants a capacious bed, and
free space for the herb to expand. In turning healthy plants, now, out of the old pots,
endeavor to preserve the ball of earth entire. But where plants appear to be sickly,
to be infested with insects, or to have bad roots, brush away the old earth entirely : then
with a long knife trim the longest fibres; and if any part of the main root be unsound.
.522 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
cut it away. Strip off some of the lower leaves. Replant in the new pots. Set the
plants in the bark-bed, leaving the pots partly out, lest the first heat should be too
strong. There should be a distance of seven inches from pot to pot. Water full-rooted
plants gently, to settle the mould. Plants divested of roots are not at present to receive
water.
2760. Second intermediate shifting. The roots of large plants which were shifted in
March should be examined at the end of May, or in June. If they have filled the pots,
it will be necessary to shift them into pots of an increased size, so as to admit new corn-
post to the extent of an inch all round the old ball. The diameter of the cradle at top
should be nine inches ; the depth twelve, including an inch of pearly gravel at the bottom.
If the roots are matted, carefully disentangle them : prune off old fibres, or not, ac-
cording as the root has been spared or retrenched. In all cases, cut away unsound parts
of the root, and slip off a few of the oldest leaves. After replanting, distribute the pots
eight inches apart over the surface of the bed, without plunging them to their full depth,
till the heat of the renewed tan is ascertained.
2761. M'Phail says, " If in March you have any nurse-pines a year old, shift and repot them at this sea-
son. Having a bed prepared for them, strong enough to raise a good heat, take the plants and tie their
leaves together carefully ; then turn them out one after another, and cut all their roots off close to the
stem ; and if the stems of them be bare of roots, or appear rotting or black, cut a part of them offup to the
quick. Rub the mould clean from the stems, divest them of a few of the lower leaves, and pot them in
good rich mould, in small pots suitable to the size of the plants, and plunge them in the tan up to their
rims. Let all this work be done in one day, if it be convenient. Keep a strong heat about them, and give
them no air nor water till they have struck root and begin to grow ; but remember, the earth should be
moist in which they are potted, for no plants can make shoots without moisture. When large succes-
sion plants have been divested of their roots, and potted in the month of March, they will probably by this
time have rilled the pots with roots; if so, they ought to be shifted into pots a size larger, just "large
enough to admit of mould falling easily round their ball. If they were not shifted when the roots begin to
get matted, it would check them, and probably make them fruit in August or September. In August or
September, the plants are again shifted into pots large enough to admit earth easily round their balls be-
tween their roots and the sides of the pots." In these pots, he lets the plants remain in general till the
fruit is over. (Gard. Rem. 82.)
2762. M'Phail and Speechly agree in remarking, that " some large kinds of pine-apple plants require
three seasons to grow before they can bring large-sized fruit, such as the black Antigua, the Jamaica, the
Ripley, Sec. ; therefore, in the month of April or May, after they have been planted upwards of a year, it
is best to take them out of the pots, and to cut off all their roots close to the stem, or leave only a few
which are fresh and strong, and then plant them again in good earth in clean pots, and plunge the pots in
a tan-bed with a lively heat in it. After this process a stronger heat than usual must be kept in the house,
till the plants have made fresh roots and their leaves be perceived to grow, when a little water may be
given to them, which, together with a good bottom and top heat, will make them grow finely."
2763. Nicol recommends a general potting of the succession plants in August, when the fruit are all or
nearly all cut ; removing the old stocks from which the fruit had been cut to make room for them in the
fruiting-pit. " The nurse-plants now become the succession ; the succession the fruiters for next season,
and the crowns' and suckers produced by the plants whose fruit have been cut, occupy the nursing-pit."
(Kal. 410.) "The succession plants, before removal into the fruiting-pit, must be shifted into pots of about
eleven or twelve inches diameter, and fourteen or fifteen inches deep. The plants should be plunged en-
tirely in old tan to within an inch or two of their brims, keeping them quite level, and eighteen or twenty
inches centre from centre. Great care must be taken to keep the heat of the bark-bed moderate and
steady, lest the plants should start into fruit, which, if they did, they would be next to lost. I would
rather have a one-year-old than a two-year-old plant show now, as the loss would evidently be less; but
frequently the former will bring a better fruit than the latter in the end of the season. Some of the succes-
sion plants, potted from the nurse-pit in August, may require repotting in November ; but, in general, not
till March, when the plants are to be shaken out of their pots, and replaced in the same or similar pots
(seven or eight inches diameter, by nine or ten deep) in fresh mould, placing some gravel at bottom. The
plants are then to be replunged (the bark-bed being refreshed, &c. agreeably to the general mode of man-
agement laid down in Subsect. 8.) at the distance of fifteen inches from each other. In this state they re-
main till May, when they are reshifted with their balls into pots a size larger (nine or ten inches diameter,
and twelve deep), and plunged till August, when they are shifted into fruiting-pots (eleven or twelve
inches diameter, and fourteen or fifteen deep) and removed to the fruiting-pit as above described.
(Kal. 413.)
2764. Griffin shifts his succession plants for the second time, in March, into pots nine inches in dia-
meter, by eight inches deep, "turning each singly out of its present pot, with the ball of earth entire
around its roots, unless any appear unhealthy or any ways defective, when it is eligible to shake the earth
from the roots, and trim off all the parts that appear not alive. He plunges them in the bark (refreshed
as at each shifting) eighteen inches from plant to plant in the row, and twenty inches' distance row from
row." It is to be observed here, that Griffin's practice, in not divesting the plants entirely of their balls of
earth at this shifting, agrees with Baldwin's, but differs from that of all the other authors quoted. Griffin,
it is alleged, obtains larger fruit ; and Baldwin, by his practice, fruits the plants a year sooner, that is,
in fifteen and eighteen months.
2765. Baldwin takes up the crowns and suckers planted in the tan in September in the succeeding April ;
divests them of all their roots, which " must not," he says, " be taken off at any future transplanting,"
and put into pots of five, six, or seven inches' diameter, according to the size of the plant. About the mid-
dle of the following June, when the pots are beginning to be filled with roots, take out the plants with
their balls entire, and put them into pots about nine inches in diameter ; replunge them into your bed, and
Jet them remain till the end of September. [Cult, of Anan. p. 15.)
2766. The practice of shaking off the balls of earth, and cutting off the lower roots of jrines
in the second year's spring shifting, has at first sight an unnatural appearance, and vari-
ous theorists, and some gardeners, recommend shifting the plants from first to last with
their balls entire. On attentively examining the pine-plant, however, it will be found, that,
in its mode of rooting, it may be classed with the strawberry, vine, and crowfoot, which
throw out fresh roots every year, in part among, but chiefly above the old ones. This
done, the old ones become torpid and decay, and to cut them clear away, if it could be
done in all plants of this habit, would no doubt be assisting nature, and contribute to the
.Book I.
PINERY. — SUCCESSION DEPARTMENT.
523
growth of the new roots. At the same time, it is to be observed, that encouraging, in an
extraordinary degree, the production of roots, though it will ultimately increase the vigor
of the herb and fruit, will retard their progress.
2767. On shifting with the balls entire, Speechly has the following judicious observ-
ations, which coincide with those we have above submitted : —
2768. First, It is observable, that the pine-plant begins to make its roots at the very bottom of the stem,
and as the plant increases in size, fresh roots are produced from the stem, still higher and higher ; and the
bottom roots die in proportion : so that, if a plant in the greatest vigor be turned out of its pot as
soon as the fruit is cut, there will be found at the bottom a part of the stem, several inches in length,
naked, destitute of roots, and smooth : now, according to the above method, the whole of the roots
which the plant produces being permitted to remain on the stem to the last, the old roots decay and
turn mouldy, to the great detriment of those afterwards produced. Secondly, The first ball which
remains with the plant full two years, by length of time will become hard, clodoy, and exhausted of its
nourishment, and must, therefore, prevent the roots afterwards produced from growing with that free-
dom and vigor, which they would do in fresher and better mould. Thirdly, The old ball continually re-
maining after the frequent shiftings, it will be too large when put into the fruiting-pot, to admit of a suffi-
cient quantity of fresh mould to support the plant till its fruit becomes ripe, which is generally a whole
year from the last time of shifting.
2769. Temperature. Speechly approves of rather a lower top and bottom heat for
pines in the winter season than what some later authors recommend. " There is nothing
so prejudicial to the pine-apple plant, (insects and an overheat of the tan excepted,) as
forcing them to grow by making large fires, and keeping the hot -house warm at an im-
proper season, which is injudiciously done in many hot-houses. It is inconsistent with
reason, and against nature, to force a tropical plant in this climate in a cold, dark season,
such as generally happens here in the months of November and December ; and plants
so treated, will in time show the injury done them ; if large plants for fruiting, they
generally show very small fruit-buds with weak stems ; and, if small plants, they seldom
make much progress in the beginning of the next summer." " In the hot regions,"
Abercrombie observes, " to which the pine-apple is indigenous, the growth of the herb
and fruit proceeds, at all times of the year, as the new plant may happen to spring, and as
the advancement of the herb, and the expansion of the organs of fructification follow at
natural intervals. Thus the rising and intermediate pines have, at home, the same heat
as fruiting plants. As the force of the climate is always equal to conduct the plant to
the next stage, whatever the present may be, nature's plants always show their blossoms
opportunely ; and the fruit is swelled to perfection, however different periods of growth
in plants of one family fall together. But, under a course of artificial culture, although
a similar promiscuous succession may go on, and be cherished to the end of fruiting with-
out miscarriage ; yet to let the critical periods of growth fall in winter, without any failure
of the crop, or debasement of the fruit, requires so much additional expense and attend-
ance, that our cultivators of pines endeavour to keep the main stock of established plants
just vegetating in winter, and to bring the time of full expansion in the herb, and as
much as may be of the long and trying time of fructification, to coincide with the spring
and summer of this climate. The dependence of the plant on artificial excitement is
then so much less. Hence, though it is contrary to the free progress of nature, the suc-
cession pines are kept under a temperature rather lower than that of the nursing-pit, in
order that while the complete developement of the herb is provided for, the plant may not
be excited into fruit prematurely in regard to its age, nor unseasonably as to the course of
the natural climate during the period which the fruit will take to ripen."
2770. The minimum temperature for succession plants,
on which the preservation of a gentle course of growth de-
pends, cannot be safely reduced lower than that which is
specified under Temperature in Nursing Department. But
it is important to carry the maximum, as it respects both
fire-heat, and the accumulation of sun-heat in the cham-
ber, no higher in this than is fixed for that department,
and rather to aim at a maximum from two to five degrees
less intense. Thus the double object, of avoiding to excite
the plants too strongly, and of giving air at a good oppor-
tunity, will be consulted. {See the Table.)
2771. M'Phail says, " Let the succession pine-plants have
about the same degree of heat to their roots in the tan-bed,
and in the air of the house about them, as I have recom-
mended for the fruiting plants ; viz. from 80 to 100 at the
bottom of the pots, and from 65 to 80 in the atmosphere of
the house. Some writers," he says, " recommend that a
less heat be given to succession plants than to fruiting ones.
I can see no reason for making the difference, nor did I
make a practice of doing it, except to young plants in
winter, in pits without fire-heat, which at that season could
not at all times be kept to that degree of heat which might
be done by the influence of fire. When succession plants
are kept in a less degree of heat than that necessary for fruiting them, they require a longer time to bring
them to a proper size for producing large fruit ; and of course the expense of rearing them is greater
than when they are kept in a vigorous growing state. Nothing better suits a pine-apple, nor any fruit-
bearing plant, than to keep it in a vigorous growing state, from the time it is planted till it ripen its fruit."
(Gard. Rem. 126.)
2772. Nicol says, " The temperature in January by fire-heat should be kept as near to 60° as possible,
and even in sunshine, should not be allowed to pass 6i>°, lest the plants start into fruit." In May, he in-
Standard for the Thermometer in the
Succession-House.
MINIMUM.
MAXIMUM.
From the
From the
Climate
From Ar-
From
Climate
and Tan
tificial
Sunshine
andDung-
with Fire
Heat
and con-
heat.
when ne-
fined Air.
Sept.
cessary.
65
65
68
75
Oct.
58
62
64
70
Nov.
55
60
62
68
Dec.
55
60
62
65
Jan.
55
60
62
66
Feb.
58
60
65
70
Mar.
60
65
68
70
April
May
62
65
68
70
64
66
68
72
June
66
66
68
75
July
68
68
68
80
Aug.
70
70
—
SO
524 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
creases the heat to between 65° and 70° in the night. In August, he keeps down the thermometer to 75°
or 80Q in the day-time. In September, he returns to 65° in the night, and 70? or 72° with air in the day.
In October, he descends to 60° mornings and evenings, and 65° in sunshine.
2773. Griffin differs from the above authors in recommending 60Q as the heat proper for the pine in every
stage, not exceeding five or six degrees over or under. The bottom heat he considers proper, is from
90 to 100 degrees ! (TV. on the Pine, p. 60. 66.)
2774. Baldwin does not mention at what temperature he keeps his succession-pit.
2775. Covering at nights. Where succession plants are grown in pits or frames, this is
allowed on all hands to be most advantageous, by saving fuel, and preventing the risk of
an injurious cooling, which in pits and houses warmed by fire, and unprotected but by
the glass, will sometimes happen under the best management. Practical men recommend
mats, canvass, litter, &c. laid on the frames ; but a great improvement consists in keep-
ing the covering of whatever nature, and especially if of mats or canvass, at not less than
six inches on the principle experimentally illustrated by Dr. Wells in his Essay on Dew ;
Leslie, in his experiments on concentric cases {Essay on Heat), and derivable from the
fact known to scientific men (See Young's Led.), that heat follows the same general laws
as light.
2776. Spcechly and Nicol complain of the great breakage of glass, by covering with mats, litter, &c.
2777. Seton adopts portable covers of straw, arranged in the manner of thatch, and which may be com-
pared to the panels of reed fences or screens. They are formed on four laths, fixed at the same width as
the pit or frame one wav, and not more than four feet apart the other. The chief advantage is, that as the
water runs off the thatch, the interior remains perfectly dry, so that there is no consumption of heat by
the creation of vapor in those parts which are near the glass; "whereas mats, cloth, loose straw, and
other similar coverings become impregnated with moisture every night from dew, rain, or snow, and the
evaporation which is thereby constantly generated, and greatly augmented by the contact of the warm
glass, causes a vast and continued drain of heat." Another advantage is the facility with which they may
be put on and taken off, and the little risk there is of breaking glass during these operations. {Hart.
Trans, iii. 296.)
2778. Air. Speechly considers a due proportion of air as essential to the goodness of
pine-plants. The want cf it will cause them to grow with long leaves and weak stems ;
and too great a quantity, or air given at improper seasons, will starve the plants, and cause
them to grow yellow and sickly. Little air will be wanted in winter ; but letting down
the glasses, even for a few minutes in the middle of the day, should never be neglected in
fine weather, to let out the foul air. This will cause the plants to grow with broad leaves,
and stiff and strong stems, provided they have room in the bed. Air may be admitted
all night in the hot season, care being taking that the glasses are left in such a manner as
to prevent the rain, in case any falls, from coming on the plants. ( Tr. on the Pine,
p. 75.)
2779. Abercrombie gives abundance of air in July and August, but with due caution the rest of the year.
2780. M'Phail admits more or less air every tine day during spring and autumn, and abundance in the
summer months, which is also the practice of Nicol, Griffin, and Weeks. Baldwin seems to admit air
rather more sparingly than these gardeners.
2781. Water. Speechly disapproves of ever giving a great quantity of water at one
time to .the pine-apple plant, in any stage or at any season. Too much causes the mould
in the pot to run together and become hard and cloddy ; and, independently of this,
glutting a plant with water will rob it of its vigor, and reduce it to a weak state.
Hence, though keeping of plants too dry is certainly an error, it is not attended with the
same fatal consequences as the contrary practice. Watering the walks and flues, &c.
in an evening, in order to raise a kind of artificial dew, is in imitation of what takqs
place in the West Indies, where no rain falls in the summer for many months together,
and the plants are wholly supplied with moisture from the dews. Gentle summer
waterings over the top are founded on this principle. "Plants lately shifted into the
pots, till their roots get matted, do not require so much water as before their shifting.
Plants that are in large-sized pots, in proportion to the size of the plants, do not require
so much water as plants that are under-potted. Plants that are in hard-burnt pots, made
of strong clay, do not require near so much water as plants in pots less burnt, and made
of clay with a good proportion of sand intermixed. The latter are greatly to be preferred.
Plants in a vigorous growing state require very frequent and gentle waterings. But
plants with fruit and suckers upon them require most of all.- When plants are watered
over their leaves, it should be sprinkled upon them only till every part is made wet,
which may easily be distinguished, as the water immediately changes the color of them
to a sad green. As the leaves stand in different directions, the best method is to dash
the water upon them backwards and forwards, on every side of the bed. Summer
waterings should always be given late in an evening ; but in the spring and autumn, the
forenoon is the proper time. Less water should be given in moist than in dry weather,
for reasons already given. In winter, when water by accident falls into the centres of
the fruiting plants, it should immediately be drawn out, which may easily be effected by
the help of a tin pipe of about three feet in length, one end of which should be no bigger
than the small end of a tobacco-pipe." Pond or river water, or water collected from
the roof of the hot-house, and retained within the house till it has attained its tempera-
ture, is to be preferred. (Tr. oil the Pine, 81, 82.)
Book I. PINERY. — FRUITING DEPARTMENT. 525
2782. Atercrombic, from March to September, gives most water, "keeping the mould during this season
constantly a little moist." In the other months he diminishes the quantity according to the season and
circumstances of the temperature, plants, &c. He uses soft water at 75°, and gives it through a tube
composed of jointed pieces, so that it may be shortened at will, to prevent its falling into the hearts of
the plants. He also steams the flues occasionally, and waters with drainings of the dunghill in the
growing season. (Pr. G. 627, 628.)
2783. M'Phail savs, " Of two evils, it is better to give pine-plants too little water than too much.' He
gives little in the winter months, but more freely in summer. He sprinkles the leaves occasionally with clean
water, not less than 70 degrees warm, and shuts them down in the afternoon with a strong heat in the
house He judges of the temperature of the water by taking a mouthful of it ; and if it feel neither hot
nor cold, it is in a good state, being upwards of 85 degrees. (Gard. Bern. 239.) " When you water your
pines, recollect that some sorts require less water than others ; the sorts called the queen and the sugar-
loaf require rather more water than those called Antigua, black Jamaica, and some others of the large-
growing sorts. In July succession pines require frequent waterings. It is a good sign to see plants
growing broad-leaved, and the water standing constantly in their hearts in the summer months, nor will
it hurt them at any time, if there be a sufficient degree of heat kept in the house. Water them
plentifully about once a-week all over their leaves with clean water, from 70 to 85 degrees warm.
The quantity of water pines require, depends somewhat on the condition of the tan in which the pots
are plunged. If the tan be in a drv state, and a strong heat in it, they will require more water than
when it is moist, and a less heat in it ; so that, in giving water, the person who manages them must be
able to conclude how often and what quantity of water the plants will need." (Gard. Rem.)
2784. Nicol waters succession plants once in eight or ten days in January, the quantity moderate, and the
time the forenoon of good days. He gives a little more in February and March, till August, when " the
waterings are to be forthwith regular and moderate, as it is not intended to force the plants into much
growth, it being supposed that they are now very healthy and strong." In October he lessens and retracts
the waterings, and during winter waters very moderately once in four, five, or six days ; but at the root
only. (Kal. 429.) • ,
2785. Griffin waters moderately in winter, and more liberally in the growing season, from March till Oc-
tober ; want of water to keep the plants moist being one of the reasons of their premature fruiting.
2786. Baldwin gives no water to the voung suckers planted in the tan, from September till April; but
after potting, waters two or three times a week during the summer, according as the temperature
may be.
2787. Shading. " Succession pine-plants," Speedily observes, " do not make half
the progress in violent hot weather in the middle of summer, that they do later in the
season. In order to obviate the above inconveniencies, some persons cover their hot-
houses in the middle of the day, when the heat of the sun is violent, with bass mats
fastened to a rope, which may be moved up and down with great ease. But a better
mode, and which is frequently practised, is, to cover the glasses with a large net, which
admits the air to pass freely, and at the same time breaks the rays of the sun, and retards
their force, especially if the meshes of the net be not large. But if vines were judi-
ciously trained up to the rafters of the hot-house, there would be no need of either of the
last-mentioned coverings. The vines should be planted in the front of the hot-house,
and not more than one shoot trained to each rafter, part of which should be cut down to
the bottom of the rafters every season, by which means the roof of the hot-house may con-
stantly be kept thinly covered with young wood, and by having only one shoot to each
rafter, the vine-leaves will afford a kindly shade, and never incommode the pines ; for
the leaves fall, and the vines are pruned at a season when the hot-house most requires
sun."
2788. Abercrombie only shades new-potted plants till they have struck root. He uses thin mats as in
the nursing-pit. (Pr. Gr. 629.)
2789. M'Phail uses no screens or covers for shades, but supposes his succession plants grown in houses
in which vines are trained under the rafters.
2790. Dressing the plants, &c. Most of the authors quoted agree in recommending
decayed or casually bruised leaves to be twisted off, if they are at the bottom of the
stem ; or such as grow on it carefully trimmed off with the knife. In the season of
free excited growth, Abercrombie says, " Midway between the times of shifting, take off
about two inches of the upper mould, and replace it by fresh compost." Remove all
fungi which grow out of the tan, and in general keep every part of the pinery at all
times clean and sweet.
2791. Insects and Diseases. See General Directions. (Subsect. 8.)
Subsect. 7. Fruiting Department.
2792. The culture of the fruiting department embraces much of the culture of the
nursing and succession pits : but little difference, for example, is made in temperature,
air, and watering, till the last stage of the maturation of the fruit.
2793. Abercrombie observes " that the pine-apple can be carried even through the last stage without fire-
heat : but the fruiting-house is a department in which the aid of the furnace should least of all be
relinquished, unless some very great facilities for employing dung-heat, or some obstacles to the working
of a stove, attend the situation." This is frequently practised by nurserymen and market-gardeners, and
is quite practicable where abundance of dung for linings can be procured.
2794. Speechly says, " Both the growth and size of the pine depend much on the construction and condition
of the stove in which they are cultivated. In many places small stoves of a particular construction (in
the which the pines stand very near the glass) are erected solely for the purpose of fruiting-houses.
These, from their being always kept up to a high degree of heat, are by gardeners usually termed
roasters. When there is such conveniency, it is customary, when any pine-plants show fruit in the large
stoves, to remove such plants (especially the most promising) directly into the fruiting-house ; where, from
the high degree of heat kept, they generally swell their fruit astonishingly."
2795. Griffin's house corresponds nearly with the roaster or small house of Speechly ; but Baldwin's seems
526 PRACTICE O* GARDENING. Paw III.
\n improvement, as being much smaller, losing less room in paths, and being comparatively easily
heated.
2796. Shifting and potting. Speechly shifts into fruiting-pots in August (see this
article under Succession Department), and afterwards, in the following March, divests
the plants of a few of their hottom leaves, renews the mould on the tops of the pots as
deep as can be done without injuring the roots, and fills up with fresh compost earth.
He says, " It is very injurious to the plants, and greatly retards the swelling of the fruit
to remove them after this season." (2>. on Pine, p. 49.)
2"97. Abercrombie differs from this author, in shifting in the spring after the plants show fruit : he says.
" The main set of plants from the succession-pit will usually be ready for the fruiting-house in the course
of August. As to a criterion for removing full-grown pines ; shift them just as the roots have filled the
pot, so as to turn out whole. Late plants may not be in this state till October. The bark-bed, here,
must be renewed, as on everv occasion of repotting plants : but to guard against an untimely show oi'
fruit, the strength of the new bark must be kept considerably below the extreme limit, and there should
be a layer of old bark to the full depth of the pots. For the large sorts, provide pots twelve inches in
diameter and fifteen inches in depth. For forward plants also, which you are apprehensive require free
space for the root and herb, to prevent them from fruiting too early, provide pots two inches wider and
three inches deeper than those out of which they are to be turned ; but the additional room in the pots
should be no more than you mav calculate the roots will fill up by the time at which you propose to have
them fruit. On the other hand, if you have any reluctant fruiters, when you transfer them to the
fruiting-house, postpone shifting them into new pots, in order that the impletion of the pot by the roots
may accelerate their fruiting ; or shift them into pots barely large enough to receive the roots, putting
them into mould rendered, bv an increased quantity of river-sand and fresh loam, somewhat less rich
than the compost for pines in general : whichever of these courses may have been taken, as soon as they
show fruit in the spring, shift them into large pots, without disturbing the ball of earth ; and then fill
the side of the pot with the best mould. Lay in the bottom of the fresh pots clean shivers, or sea-gravel,
to the thickness of two inches, and as much compost as will keep the ball, or root, to be received, level at
top with the rim. At the shifting of plants that come from the succession-pit, twist off" some of the
bottom leaves, as far as the ripened stem is ready to send out new roots. Turn out each plant with the
ball of earth entire ; set it in the new pot, fill the vacancy with compost, and raise the mould to the
lowest leaves by spreading compost over the ball; leaving a hollow descent to the depth of the rim to
hold water. Plunge the pots in the tan-bed, distributing those in the same range eight inches apart."
2798. Second shifting. "There is in general no second shifting ; but the plants remain
in the pots assigned at their coming from the succession-pit till the fruit is ripened.
But, 1. In the case mentioned above, there is sometimes a spring shifting. 2. When
plants which were regularly shifted, come into fruit early, and it is wished to retard them,
you may give them a second shifting in February, or at any time before the fruit has
attained half the full diameter ; putting them into pots one size larger, and proceeding, in
other respects, as at the introductory shifting. Though this acts as a temporary check,
the advantage of fresh mould contributes to swell the fruit. 3. To plants which are
sickly, or growing out of shape, the best remedy is, to shift them as soon as this is per-
ceived, changing the mould, and pruning away decayed parts of the roots as there may
be occasion. ' ' (Abercrombie. )
2799. WPhail, with Speechly, shifts finally in August or September ; gives a dressing in March, and, in
general, does not move them again till they have ripened their fruit, unless to give more bottom heat.
Sometimes, however, plants intended for fruiting the following year, when shifted late in the autumn into
pots which their roots do not fill well before the month of January, do not show fruit till late in the spring
or summer months. For this reason it is advisable, when they cannot be shifted early enough in the
month of August or beginning of September, so as to fill the pots with roots before the winter come on,
to let them remain unshifted till the fruit appear, and the stem of it be grown to its full height, and
then shift the plants into larger pots, in the manner before directed, disturbing the roots of the plants
as little as can be helped. After the plants are shifted, they must not get much water till the fresh
growth of the roots has somewhat exhausted the moisture of the fresh earth put round them. (Gard.
2800. Nicol shifts finally in August, and top-dresses in February ; but plants that are unhealthy, feeble, and
do not' stand firm in their pots, should be shaken out entirely, and be replaced in the same pots ; trimming
their roots according as they may need, but retaining all fresh healthy fibres. Any plants that have
already started into fruit, should also be shaken out, and be fresh potted, as above ; which, by the check
they receive, will keep them back to a better season of ripening, and by the force of fresh earth, make
them swell their fruit larger than they otherwise would have done. I have thus new-potted plants,
even in flower, with very much success, and have swelled the fruit to a size far beyond my expectations ;
of which fact any one mav easily satisfy himself, by fresh-potting a few plants, and comparing their pro-
gress with others treated in the ordinary way. Let the plants be replunged to the brim as before, keep-
ing the pots quite level. If the plants be full-sized, and strong, they will require to be set at about
twenty inches apart from centre to centre, on a medium. But they should be sorted; the smallest
placed in front, and the largest at back, as in arranging plants on a stage, that they may have an equal
share of sun and light. As soon as replaced in the bark-bed, let them have a little water, to settle the
earth about their roots. In May he again top-dresses, " reducing an inch or two of the earth from oft'
the surface, and adding some fresh mould, which will invigorate the plants, cause them to push sur-
face radicles, and so keep them the more firm and steady. This needs not be done, however, to plants
whose fruit are nearly ripe ; but chiefly to healthy plants new-shown in flower, past the flower, or with
the fruit about half grown. And with respect to any that are unhealthy, and whose fruit are less than
half grown, do not hesitate to shift them, shaking them out, trimming their roots, and retaining only
healthy fibres. This is a very great improvement in the culture of pines, which I formerly practised,
have since advised, and have seen followed with much success." (Kal. p. 394.)
2801. Griffin shifts, for the last time, in October, with the balls entire as before, allowing them in the bark-
bed about twentv inches from plant to plant, and two feet distance from row to row ; " the first row
eighteen inches from the kirb, angling them in rows as you go on." The pots he uses are twelve inches
diameter, and ten inches deep.
2802. Baldwin shifts of the last time, in September, into pots " of about fourteen inches diameter, at the
top," at first half plunging the pots till the heat diminishes to a safe temperature. He afterwards fills
up the interstices with tan, and lets the plants so remain until they are fruited off for the table. (Cult, of
Anan. p. 17.)
Book I.
PINERY. — FRUITING DEPARTMENT.
527
2S03. Temperature. Speechly is not definite on this subject ; but observes generally
that nothing is so prejudicial to fruiting plants as making large fires to force them to
grow in the winter season; the fruit-buds they send up are small, and the stems
weak. (2V. on Pine, p. 41.)
Standard Temperature for the Fruiting-
House.
MINIMUM.
MAXIMUM.
From tht
From
From the
Climate
From Ar-
tificial
Heat.
Sunshine
Climate
and Tan,
and con-
and Dung
with Fire,
fined
heat.
if neces-
Heated
Aug.
sary.
Air.
66
66
80 !
Sept.
62
6a
68
75
Oct.
60
62
65
70 |
Nov.
55
58
60
65
Dec.
55
58
60
65 i
Whenever the Plants
show Fruit, the Mini-
mum should be 63 deg.
.Tan.
60
63
65
70 11 75
Feb.
63
66
68 |1
82 1
Mar.
65
67
70
84
April
65
67
72
86 1
jMay
65
68
7-2
8S !
i June
68
68
75
90 || 96
July
70
70
75
100
lAug.
70
70
100
Sept.
66
66
72
98
Oct.
63
66
70
94
Nov.
63
66
68
86
[Dec
63
6G
68
82 !
Average Monthly Temperature of M'PhaWs
Fruiting-House.
2804. Abercrombie observes, " As long as it would be danger-
ous, or at least not desirable, to have the plants show fruit,
the temperature should be kept reduced to that of the suc-
cession-pit. But a capital elevation, in the course of heat
maintained here, must be made for about eight of the last
months which the plants will remain in the house ;
that is, just as it becomes fit to excite them into fruit,
and during the whole period of fructification. In the an-
nexed Table, it will be observed, that August, September,
October, November, December, are set down twice.
Against the first series of these months is marked the
temperature at which it is proper to aim when the plants
have been transferred to the fruiting-house in the July-
preceding, or the current August or September, in order
that they may not start into fruit at the beginning or
middle of winter. Contrasted with this, the second series
respects a distinct pit appropriated to late fruiters ; plants
which have been removed from the succession-house
some months, and in which the object of culture is nearly
finished : however the decline of the natural season pro-
ceeds, a high course of heat must be continued, to ripen
the fruit on these. As to the maximum of artificial heat
for plants already in fruit, the degrees expressed are merely
to indicate, that it would be an unnecessary expense to go
higher ; but should the natural climate not supply a greater
heat, to go five or ten degrees higher, so far from being at-
tended with danger, would be beneficial to ripening pines,
particularly in allowing air to be given with greater security.
So the maximum in the last column is chiefly to be ob-
served for the sake of fresh air, which will do more good
than a greater heat. He adds : " The fruit will not swell off fine, if the heat from the flues be too
languid to support the prescribed minimum temperature, until the full dominion of summer supersede
the aid of the furnace altogether."
2805. M'Phaithas given tables of the temperature in
his hot-house, or fruiting-pinery, for every day in the
year, from which we annex the accompanying monthly
average. In January the thermometer stood at from
63 to 66 degrees in the morning ; from 68 to 85 de-
grees at noon ; and from 64 to 74 degrees in the even-
ing, and so on. On the tables from which the above is
extracted, M'Phail observes, " that the thermometer
was hung in the middle of the hot-house, shaded from
the direct rays of the sun." He does not offer these
tables as exact rules to be followed ; nor deny that the
pine-apple can be ripened in a different degree of
heat than that described ; but he asserts, that such
heat and management as he recommends will bring the
pine-apple to good maturity. " Had I kept a register
of the thermometer another year, and compared it
with that which I kept for twelve months, and have herein given, there would have been a difference ;
the heat of every day, week, or year, would not have been alike ; nor to cultivate the pineapple, or any
other plant, is it necessary that it should be so."
2806. Nicol, in January, keeps the fruiting-pit at the same temperature as the succession department,
(from 60° to 65°,) lest the plants should start into fruit. In February, he requires a " lively, but not
violent bottom heat, in order to start the plants into fruit :" the temperature of the air he raised gradually
to 75°, not allowing the thermometer to pass 80°. From 72° to 75° is his temperature for Marcli and
April. In May, June, July, and August, he requires 75° mornings and evenings, and 80° or 85° at noon.
In September, after fire-heat becomes necessary, he keeps as nearly to 65° as possible, and in sunshine,
by the free admission of air, to about 70° or 72°. In October, November and December, he lowers the
temperature to £10° mornings and evenings, and 65" in sunshine.
2807. Griffin, as before observed, endeavors to keep the air of his fruiting and succession houses as
near as possible to 60°.
2808. Baldwin says, " The fruiting-house, during the winter, should be kept at about 70° ; it may be
left in the evening at about 75°, and it will be found in the morning at about 65°, so that no attendance
during the night will be required.'' {Cult of Anan. p. 19.)
2809. Covering at nights. Speechly observes, that many small hot-houses are covered by large sheets of
canvass, by the help of a roller and pulleys ; " but where hot-houses are large, this mode of covering
cannot so well be adopted ; therefore the most general method is to use light covers of wood, or frames of
wood, covered with painted canvass : the covering the whole of the roof of a hot-house in this manner is
very troublesome, and attended with great expense ; nor indeed is it absolutely necessary, as I have ob-
served above. When either of the above methods are practised, it should be done with discretion. In
many places the covers of the hot-houses are sometimes, in a snowy, dark, severe, or rainy season, per-
mitted to remain on for many days together, which is very detrimental to the plants, as they will in time
draw themselves weak by the continuance of such a practice; for it is observable, that plants grow much
faster in the dark than in the light ; and this is manifest from the progress of plants when first they arise
from seed, in the open ground, in the spring of the year, when they do not grow half so much in the day
as in the night. But here it must be observed, that the sun and light give maturity to the nightly pro-
gress of plants, and the want of them soon causes the plants to grow languid, weak, and, in time, to die.
It is also a bad practice to continue to cover hot-houses late in the spring of the year, which is injudici-
ously done in many places, even so late as the middle of the month of May ; for as the covers are seldom
taken off till aftersix o'clock in the morning (the hour that laborers come to their work at most places),
it makes the hot-house night too long at that season of the year, when generally there are great numbers
of the fruit of the pine in blossom ; for it should be remembered that light, as well as warmth, is essen-
tially necessary to promote the growth of plants. In large double-pitted hot-houses, the covering of the
lower lights may be effected with great ease, and this is found to be of use on a double account ; first,
because the pine plants in the front pit, by standing very near the glass, are in the most need of covering in
severe weather ; and, secondly, because the front pit is generally used for succession plants, which require
Mom.
Noon.
Even. 1
Jan.
from
63 to 66
from
68 to 85
from
61 to 71
Feb.
from
58 to 65
from
68 to 90
from
61 to 70
Mar.
from
61 to 71
from
65 to 90
from
62 to 72
April
from
60 to 78
from
66 to 96
from
65 to 7."
May
from
62 to 73
from
75 to 94
from
66 to 75
June
from
65 to 75
from
83 to 100
from
68 to 82 1
Julv
from
62 to 75
from
80 to 100
from
68 to 78
Aug.
from
60 to 74
from
76 to 100
from
69 to 78
Sept.
from
62 to 78
from
75 to 100
from
67 to 79
Oct.
from
59 to 74
from
63 to 96
from
60 to 72
Nov.
from
57 to 67
from
66 to 85
from
62 to 67
Dec.
from
52 to 65
from
55 to 68
from
58 to 65
528 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
ro be shaded, after being shifted in the spring, whenever the weather is warm and clear, as I have before
observed in treating upon that head."
2810. In Russia, the pine-stoves are frequently kept covered with boarded shutters day and night for
several weeks, and even as long as three months together. As the plants are then as nearly as possible
in a dormant state, it does not appear to injure them so much as a native of a more genial climate would
imagine.
281 1. Air. In March, when the plants are showing fruit, Speedily " admits a great
quantity of air into the hot-house, the want of a due proportion of which causes the stems
to draw themselves weak, and grow tall, after which the fruit never swells kindly."
( TV. on Pine, p. 50. )
2812. Abercrombie says, " Give plenty of air to plants in fruit, without a daily supply of which, they will
not swell to a handsome full size, nor acquire the elevated flavor which belongs to the pine-apple when in
perfection." [Pr. Gard. p. 642.)
2813. M'Phail admits air whenever it can be done consistently with attention to the temperature. In
June, if the nights be cold, and the days cloudy, " you will have occasion for fires, otherwise you will
not be able to give air enough, and keep up the temperature." In July and August, abundance of air is
given, and some often left at the houses all night. /
2S14. Xicol admits air at all seasons, in fine sunshine weather, " freelv, as the fruit approaches maturity,
in order to enhance its flavor."
2815. Griffin gives air to the fruiting-house, " discretionally, in fine, mild, sunny days, from ten till about
two o'clock," and .more freely in the summer season.
2816. Baldwin gives air " when the weather will permit, winter and summer, from the back and ends,
but never from the roof."
2817. Water. Speedily says, " As the fruit and suckers begin to advance in size, the
plants will require plenty of water to support them, which may be given them at least
twice, and sometimes three times a-week ; but too much should not be given them at
one time ; it is better to give them less at a time and oftener." As soon as the fruit
appears full swelled, the watering such plants as produce them should cease ; but it is
a general practice (in order to have the fruit as large as can be got,) to continue the
watering too long, which causes the fruit to be filled with an insipid, watery, and ill
flavored juice. (TV. on Pine, p. 52.)
2818. Abercrombie, between the times of watering plants in fruit, sprinkles the flues, but " suspends
watering over the herb till the olossoms are fairly set. Afterwards, while the fruit continues green, it
will be beneficial to give water now and then, over the herb, from a fine rose-pan : even departing winter
is some restraint upon this; but after March has commenced, wash the herb perfectly clean every eight
days. Use soft water that has been warmed to the temperature of the house; and, for two or three hours
after, have a maximum heat from the flues to exhale superfluous moisture. Moderate humidity and the
suitable degree of heat will make the young fruit swell ap3ce. At seasons when the mid-day suu
has much power, it is best to water over the leaves as soon as the morning-sun is felt on the house, or two
hours before sunset. The fruit will not swell off fine, if there be any deficiency in giving water. When
the fruit is well swelled, forbear to water over the fruit or leaves ; but it is still necessary to keep the earth
about the roots a little moist. Nor, when the fruit is pretty large, should water be poured into the
crowns so copiously as to stand in them more than one day. The different degrees in which the varieties
stand in need of water must not be forgotten. As the pine-apples begin to ripen, put them on short al-
lowance of water, for excessive humidity spoils the flavor of the fruit : begin the reduction by decreasing
the quantity ; for, in hot weather, frequent small supplies should be given on account of the suckers on
the plant, till consideration for the fruit forbid even sparing waterings, lest it should be rendered
insipid."
2819. M'Phail says, " Let it be remembered, that while the fruit is in blossom, and for some days
afterwards, the plants should not be watered all over their leaves, neither should the plants be watered
all over their leaves nor fruit after the fruit is fully swelled, nor should the earth, in which the roots are,
be after that time kept very moist, for they do not require it, because the plant has nearly performed
its office, which it never has to do a second time." To water the fruiting pine-plants in winter; in
gloomy weather, when it is best not to water over the leaves, a small-sized watering-pot, with a long tin
pipe and a flat nose on the end of it, should be in readiness : the water should beat 80°, and never under
iQ9. In January, they may require to be watered two or three times. The same in February. In March,
wash them once or twice over the leaves, till every part be perfectly clean. They may require to be
watered three or four times at root In April and May, water over the leaves with water from 80° to
90°, and at bottom perhaps four or five times. In July, " when any of the fruit are full-swelled, do
not water them over the fruit or leaves; but it is necessary even then to have the earth about their
roots moderately moist, otherwise the fruit would flag for want of nourishment. It should also be ob-
served, that after the fruit is swelled to a pretty good size, water should not be poured into the crowns
of the fruit so plentifully as to stand in them above a day or two." In August, when the fruit are
ripening, give no water.
2820. Xicol waters seldom in January, and not oftener than once in six or eight days in February.
In March, " water may be given oftener than heretofore advised, and also in larger quantities ; generally
a moderate watering at root once in three or four days, and a dewing over head occasionally, to refresh
the leaves, and keep them clean from dust. From the time the plants, are out of flower, and the fruit
begins to swell, water must be applied in a very liberal manner once in two or three days, always giving
the necessary quantity at root, and then a dewing over head. Watering to this extent, however, if the
fruit be not in too forward a state, will seldom be necessary before the end of the month, or till April."
In April, " water must be given in a plentiful manner, once in two or three days, in order the better to
swell off the fruit. The roots have now much to do in sustaining it, and also the suckers, which will be
fast advancing in growth. For this reason, water frequently with dunghill draining*, or with water of
dung, soaked on purpose ; and after each watering at root, give a dewing over the leaves, as directed
above." In May, June, and July, " from the time the fruit begin to color, however, begin also to lessen
the quantity of water ; and towards its being fit for cutting, withhold water entirely, else the flavor will
be very much deteriorated I shall here observe, with respect to the different kinds of pines, that the
queen and the sugar-loaf sorts require considerably more water than the king or Havannah, and the
Antigua. The difference in the manner of watering should be more particularly attended to as the
fruit approach to maturity ; as the latter-named kinds are naturally more juicy and watery than the
former." In August, the plants that have done fruiting being removed, the succession stock which re-
place them are to be watered freely at root, and occasionally dewed over top. In October and Novem-
ber, the waterings are gradually lessened ; and in December, once in eight, ten, or twdve days, will be
sufficient (Ka/.)
Book L PINERY ^FRUITING DEPARTMENT. 529
2821. Griffin never water? pines over the leaves in any stage, nor gives much at root in damp weather.
In other respects his practice agrees with that of Abercrombie and Nicol.
2822. Baldwin waters the plants in the fruiting-house cautiously till towards February ; but as the spring
advances, gives a larger supply. He adds, " Never water your plants in the common broad-cast method,
over their heads and leaves." {Cult, of Anan. p. 21.)
2823. Treatment of the plants in fruit. "Sticks," Speechly says, " should be provided to
support the fruit before it is grown too large ; and in laying them, care should be taken
to leave bandage room sufficient, making allowance for the swelling of the fruit. When
the suckers are grown to about a foot in length they should be taken off, and from that
time the fruit will swell very fast." (TV. on Pine, p. 51.) " Large fruiting plants," he
adds, " will sometimes show their fruit in the months of August and September, but
these are generally thought of no value, and consequently thrown away. To prevent,
this, I frequently take such plants out of the hot-house as soon as their fruits be^in to
appear. I then set them in a shed or out-house for five or six weeks ; at the ex-
piration of which time I pot them as in the month of March, after shaking off their balls.
After this I plunge them into the tan ; and in the month of March following put them
into larger-sized pots, with their balls and roots entire. By this means I have sometimes
cut tolerably good fruit from such plants in the months of May and June following.
Such forward plants generally produce very fine suckers. Whenever the pine-plants are
removed after they are grown large, it will be of service, before they are taken out of
the tan-bed, to mark the side of the pots which stands next the sun ; for it is observable,
that the centres of the plants generally tend that way : so that the plants, when replaced,
may stand as they did before they were removed. I do not mean that it is at all neces-
sary for the plants to be put into the very identical places in which they stood before,
but, in point of position, it will be proper, and the plants will be benefited by bein"- so
placed. This may as easily be done as placing them in a random manner, which is the
common method."
2S24. Abercrombie directs, "to keep the plants growing gently, and to have the pots, in general, com-
pletely filled with the roots by the time at which you intend to excite them into blossom. From the midc.le
of February to the 1st of March is a good time to have the main crop in flower ; as the prospective season is
the finest. About a month before you expect to see fruit, dress the plants by taking away two inches in
depth from the top of the mould. Twist off some of the lower leaves. Fill up with fresh compost, round
the stem, to the remaining leaves. The bark-bed should be revived at the same time, so as to make it
lively; but no new tan should be added, till the time for the fullest heat arrives."
2825. M'Phail says, " It frequently happens that pine -apple plants designed to bear fruit, do not show
their fruit early enough in the spring or fore-part of summer, to ripen their fruit before winter, when there
is not sunshine enough to give the fruit any flavor. This may happen because the plants have not come to
a proper growth, or their roots may have been injured by too violent a bottom heat, or by being over-
watered, or they may have been shifted too late, or been put into pots too large for their roots to have filled
them before the end of the growing season. To make pine-plants show their fruit at an early time in the
spring, some authors have recommended the cutting off some of the roots at the autumn shifting ; but
long experience has convinced me, that cutting off the roots, or destroying them by any means, instead of
making them show fruit, is an effectual mean to prevent them from showing fruit till they have again made
long roots. The fruit of the pine-apple is formed probably not less than seven or eight weeks before it
appears among the leaves ; and if a plant be divested partially or totally of its roots, its growth is stopped
till it has made roots of considerable length, when it will grow quickly. And, if before the roots were de-
stroyed, the fruit had been formed in the hidden secret centre of the plant, the fruit will grow and show
itself when the leaves of the plant, excepting those on the stem of the fruit, will make no appearance of
growing. This, perhaps, may be the reason which induces some persons to think that cutting off the roots
of the plant causeth it to fruit sooner than it would do were the roots suffered to remain. If pine-apple
plants, intended for fruiting the following year, be shifted late in the autumn into pots, which their roots
do not fill well before the month of January, they probably will not show fruit till late in the spring or
summer months." He top-dresses the pots, and trims plants in February, and uses every means to heat
water, &c. to keep them in a growing state during that month and March. If more than two or three
suckers begin to grow out of the stem, they should be destroyed, unless they are so near the earth as to
make roots into it, which will strengthen them without robbing the fruit. " In June, the fruit, when it
gets large, should be supported with sticks to prevent it from falling, and to make the crowns grow up-
right on the fruit. Were the fruit permitted to lean to one side, the crown in growing would force itself
upright, and when the fruit was ripe, the crown would stand crooked on it. If any of the fruit that
showed early are ripe, set the plants out of the fruiting-house, and replace them by any that may have
shown fruit among the succession plants." If in August you have any plants among your succession
pines which have shown fruit, as your fruiting plants are now ripe, set out the pots, and take those in
fruit from among your succession plants, to replace them. In November it may be well to have a few
plants start into fruit, which may come in at an early and very acceptable season. Some may yet be
green or not fully ripe, and should get no more water than what is necessary to keep them from flagging.
(G. Rem.)
2826. Nicol, in February, top-dresses and trims such of the plants as have not then shown fruit. " Some
kinds of pine-apples put out suckers on the fruit-stalk, at the base of the fruit, which should be rubbed off
with the thumb as they appear, because they rob it of nourishment to a certain extent. If the object be to
have large fruit, all suckers of the root, and all but two or three of the best of those rising from between the
leaves, should be destroyed. Those of the root may easily be twisted off, and the others may be destroyed,
or be prevented from growing further, by breaking out their heart-leaves, which is no difficult matter
while they are young, being then brittle. But if the increase of the stock be the object, all suckers of the
stem should be encouraged, and even some of the best of those from the root." (A'«/.)
2827. Time required to fruit the pine. All the authors quoted, excepting Baldwin,
and almost all cultivators of the pine-plant, require from two and a half to four years
from the planting of the crown or sucker to perfecting its fruit. The general period is
from two and a half to three years ; a fruit of the queen pine being gathered in August,
1819, and its crown planted a few days afterwards, will, in the July, August, or Sep-
tember, 1822, produce fruit. A strong sucker from the same plant taken off, as is fre-
M m
530 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
quently the case, a month before the fruit ripens, and planted, will, in the end of 1821,
or early in the spring of 1822, ripen its fruit.
2828. Baldwin, however, accomplishes this by both crowns and suckers in a shorter period, and appears
to have great merit, not only in that, but in growing his succession plants without the aid of fire-heat. The
following are his observations on both subjects. " The New Providence, black Antigua, Jamaica, Enville,
and the other large sorts of ananas, will require the cultivation of three years to bring them to perfection ;
but the old queen and Ripley's new queen may be brought to perfection in fifteen months. To effect this
it must be observed, that some of the plants will fruit in February or the beginning of March, and conse-
quently that the suckers may be taken off in June, or the beginning of July. Make then a good bed of
tan with lining of litter round the outside, to keep in the tan ; make the bed to fit a large melon-frame ;
nut the suckers into pots of about nine inches diameter, filled with the compost ; plunge them in the bed,
prepared in regular order, and throw a mat over them in hot weather, for shade, till they have taken
root ; let them remain till the end of September, and then shift them into pots of about twelve inches dia-
meter, and plunge them in the fruiting-house. I have had fine crops of pines raised from these suckers,
many of them four pounds each, from plants only fifteen months old. This method, in point both of time
and expense, has greatly the advantage of the common plan of raising pines, in three years, by fires ; when
the fruit at last is frequently small and ill-flavored." It is a peculiar recommendation of this plan, that the
plants reared in frames, without fires, the first year seldom or never run to fruit ; whereas, on the con -
trary, where stoves are used, first for the nursery, next for the succession, and lastly for the fruiting
house, it is seldom that one third of the plants come to the fruiting-house, because so many of them have
run to fruit ; and even those that stand are necessarily dried and stinted, being subject to the attacks of
various insects ; not to mention the enormous care and expense attendant upon a three years' cultivation.
By this plan, " one third of the coals are sufficient, and less than one half of the usual labor and build-
ings." (Cult, of Anan. p. 28.)
2829. Growing the fruit of an extraordinary size. Speechly and M'Phail say, " In March, to make some
of your fruit swell very large, prevent all suckers from growing on the plants. You may destroy them by
twisting out their hearts with a sharp-pointed stick, or a piece of iron about eighteen inches long. This,
however, should not be made a general practice."
2830. Abercrombie concurs in this practice, and adds, " A yet further advantage may be given to the swell-
ing of the fruit, by having a few of the lower leaves of the plant taken off, and by putting a rim of tin, or
any thing else in the form of a hoop, round the top of the pot, sufficient to raise the mould three or four
inches. The mould should be of the best quality, and constantly kept in a moderate moist state : this
may be done by having the surface kept covered with moistened moss. The roots of the pine-plant, es-
pecially those produced from the part of the stem just under the leaves, will then make a surprising pro-
gress, and the fruit will be greatly benefited by this expedient."
2831. W. Hogg, who has grown the largest pines next to Baldwin and Buchan, "in March, 1820, had several
of different sorts, which had been suckers taken from the parent plants in 1816, and which, under the usual
treatment, had become too large to receive proper sustenance while remaining in pots. To provide a fit place
for them, he cut a deep trench along the back of the bark-bed, into which he put a quantity of good earth,
and then turned the pines out of the pots into it, and filled up round the balls with mould of the same qua-
lity, which he covered lightly with tan. At the time a few only of the plants were showing fruit, but
they all (with the exception of one plant of the New Providence) fruited immediately, and extremely well,
yielding fruit from 3 lbs. to 5§ lbs. each in weight. The plant of the New Providence continued growing
luxuriantly till the following February, when it showed fruit, which was cut in June, and weighed 9 lb.
4 oz. During the growth of this pine, it was twice nourished by a supply of fresh earth to its roots." (Hort.
Trans, iv. 555.)
2832. Cutting ripe pines. u It is easy to know," Speechly observes, " when the pine
becomes ripe by its yellow color, yet they do not all change in the same manner, but
most generally begin at the lower part of the fruit ; such fruit should not be cut till the
upper part also begins to change, which sometimes will be many days after, espe-
cially in the sugar-loaf kinds. Sometimes the fruit will first begin to change in the
middle, which is a certain indication of its being ripe ; such fruit should be cut imme-
diately."
2833. Abercrombie says, " The indications of maturity are, a diffusive fragrance, accompanied by a change
in the color of the fruit ; most sorts becoming yellow, or straw-color ; others, dark-green, or yellowish tinged
with green. Cut pine-apples before they are dead-ripe, or the spirit of the flavor will be dissipated. Bring
away, with the fruit, above five inches of stalk ; and leave the crown adhering to the top."
2834. Nicol," If pine-apples be not cut soon after they begin to color, that is, just when the fruit is of a
greenish-yellow, or straw-color, they fall greatly off in flavor and richness ; and that sharp luscious taste,
so much admired, becomes insipid."
2835. Retarding and keeping fruit. " It sometimes happens," Speechly observes, "that
great part of a stove of plants will show their fruit at or near the same time, and with
the same treatment, would consequently become ripe too nearly together. To prevent
this, and bring them into a regular succession, when the fruit is nearly ripe, part of
the plants may be taken out of the stove, and set in a dry shady place ; as, for instance,
the stove-shed, where the pots should be covered with moistened moss, but no water
given them ; it must be observed, that every one of the plants must be taken into the
hot-house again, and set in the tan-bed for a week or ten days before the fruit is cut,
to give it a good flavor. When there is a variety of hot-houses, this caution is not
necessary."
2836. Abercrombk says, contrivances for retarding fruit, are sometimes resorted to, that plants which have
started too soon into fruit, may have a better season to ripen in ; and sometimes in order that a whole
crop may not come in at once. The former may be provided for by shifting early in spring, or at any time
before the fruit has attained half the full diameter ; and the latter inconvenience may be thus obviated :
" If you perceive the fruit ripening too fast, or advancing too nearly together, set as many plants as you
intend to retard into a dry airy place, affording both shade and shelter. Give no water as long as you
wish to suspend their progress. For the same purpose, others maybe set out green ; while the excite-
ment of these is lowered, they must be kept in a growing state."
2837. M'Phail observes, " If pines ripen too fast after one another, set the pots out of the house with the
fruit on them, into an airy, cool, drv shade, and the fruit will keep a fortnight or longer, if it be set out
before it is full ripe. The plants, while in this situation, should have no water given them : and it may be
necessarv sometimes, in order to have a succession, or constant supply of fruit for a long time, to set some of
Book I. PINERY— GENERAL CULTURE. 5:31
them out green, into a cooler place, to keep them back : and when you wish to ripen them, take them into
the house, and plunge them in the tan again."
2838. Size of the fruit. Three pounds may be considered the average size of the queen pine-apples
brought to market or sent to table, but occasionally they grow much larger, attaining four and rive
pounds ; and the Providence, with Speedily and Griffin, has weighed seven and nine pounds. Griffin ap-
pears to have been particularly successful in growing large fruit. At Kelham, near Nottingham, while
gardener to J. C. Girardot, Esq. he cut, in the year 1802, twenty queen pines, which weighed together
eighty-seven pounds seven ounces ; in 1803, one weighing five pounds three ounces; in July, 1804, one of
the New Providence kind, weighing seven pounds two ounces; in August, 1804, one of the same kind,
weighing nine pounds three ounces ; and in 1805, he cut twenty-two queen pines, which weighed together
one hundred and eighteen pounds three ounces.
2839. Baldwin, at a meeting of the Horticultural Society of London, held in October, 1817, presented a
queen pine of great beauty and superior flavor. It measured sixteen inches in circumference, seven inches
in length, and weighed four pounds. The plant on which it was produced was little more than fifteen
months old. (Hort. Tr. iii. 118.)
2840. At the anniversary dinner of the society on the -ith of June, 1822, four New Providence pines were re-
ceived from Baldwin, which together weighed 32 lbs. 10± ounces ; the largest 8 lbs. 14| oz. ; the next 8 lbs.
5 oz. ; the third 8 lbs. 2 oz. ; and the fourth 7 lbs. 5 oz. (Hort. Tra?is. v. 20o\)
2841. On the 11th July, 1821, Wm. Buchan, gardener to Lord Cawder, at Stackpool Court, Pembrokeshire,
produced a pine which weighed 10 lbs. 8oz. and was 10§ inches high, exclusive of the crown and stalk.
This was larger than any pine which had been exhibited to the society, and with the exception of a few
which have been grown by Baldwin, is the heaviest, as far as has been ascertained, that has been
fruited in this country. Buchan fruited three other Providence pines, of extraordinary weight, in
the same season ; one weighed 10 lbs. 6 oz. ; another lOlbs. 2 oz. ; and a third 9 lbs. 8 oz. making the total
weight of the four, 40 lbs. 8 oz. (Hort. Trans, v. 264.)
Subsect. 8. General Directions common to the Three Departments of Pine-apple
Culture.
2842. That which is general in the culture of the pine-apple chiefly respects the bark-pit,
air, water, and insects.
2843. Management of the bark-pit. The first point deserving attention here is the
preparation of the tan, after it is brought from the tan-vats ; but this has been already
described. (See 1974.)
2844. Formation of the bed. M'Phail says, "Pits for tan need not be made deeper
than three feet six inches ; if they be very wide, three feet will do ; and to admit large
fruiting pine-plants, the surface of the tan-bed will require to be five or six feet from the
glass above it. When a pine-pit is to be filled wholly with new tan, if it be late in the
autumn or winter, the tan had best lie in a state of fermentation for some time before
the pots be plunged in it. If pine-plants in pots be plunged in wet tan, it is apt to affect
their roots, and if the roots be hurt, the plant must suffer."
2845. Abercrombie says, " It is desirable on the first formation of a bed, to mix new and old tan together ;
in which case the quantity of new bark to be brought into the pit will depend upon the goodness of the bark
and the bottom heat required. As much new tan as will fill two third parts of the bark-pit, with a mix-
ture of old, rotten almost to earth, will produce a bottom heat of about 85°. When old tan with higher
remains of strength is used to modify the new, the same heat may be produced, if the quantity of new be
not more than half the capacity of the pit. This is said of a new pit. After a bark-bed has been in ac-
tion, partial renewals of bark, to keep up the heat, are frequently sufficient in the reduced proportion of
one third, one sixth, one twelfth, or less. At intermediate stages between the partial renewals, the bed re-
quires only to be excited into a brisker fermentation by forking-up. About five sevenths of the pit from
the bottom should be occupied by the new and old tan as a fermenting body of bark : and about two
sevenths from the top, or a little more than the depth of the pots, whatever that may be, should consist
of old tan incapable of heating so as to burn the roots of the plants ; at least such should be the ordinary
distribution of the tan ; but where peculiar circumstances require a speedy augmentation of heat, without
displacing the pots, as when fruit is to be swelled off in the last stage, the earthy tan at top may be taken
away, and new tan substituted."
2846. M'Phail has found, " that when a tan-pit is about six feet wide, and three feet deep, filled with good
new and old tan in nearly equal quantities, it is enough to raise and retain a sufficient heat for the growth
of the pine-apple for about half a year, with the addition of as much new tan as will keep it up to its ori-
ginal height; at the expiration of which time, the exhausted part of the tan is to be taken out, and the
bed recruited with new bark. When tan gets too dry, pour water into it now and then between the
pots ; this will cause a fine moist heat to arise among the plants to help to nourish them, and it will like-
wise enable the tan to retain its heat longer than if it were suffered to become dry, for no body of veget-
ables will continue to ferment and generate heat after the moisture in them is evaporated. " (Gard.
Reman.)
2847. Temperature of the bed. The general practice is to keep this from five to ten
degrees higher than that of the air of the house in the winter months ; somewhat higher
in spring and autumn ; and about the same temperature in summer. M'Phail and Griffin
prefer rather a higher degree of bottom heat. One hundred degrees, these authors re-
commend, or " about milk-warm, at the bottom of the pots, is heat enough for the roots
of the pine-apple plant to grow in ; therefore the depth, whether of tan, leaves of trees, or
dung put into the pit, should be proportioned according to the qualities of the materials
in regard to raising heat. If the air in the house be kept up to a proper degree of heat,
the roots of the plants will grow in a heat of eighty degrees, so that it is safer to have the
pots stand for a time in such a gentle heat than in a heat of upwards of a hundred ; but
let it be remembered, that the heat of the bed, especially from its surface to eight or nine
inches downward, is liable to increase and decrease in a uniformity, though not so
quickly, with the variations of the heat kept up in the atmosphere of the house. But be
this as it may, the heat of the tan at the bottom of the pots when the roots are there, had
best not be warmer than about milk-warm, especially in winter, when, if the roots at the
bottoms of the pots be destroyed, there is not at that season of the year a kindly natural
M m 2
532 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
warmth in the house to cause young roots to spring from the stems of the plants to draw
into them sufficient nourishment to sustain them ; and farther, if the roots of fruiting plants
be destroyed in winter, it will probably hinder them from showing fruit in time to ripen,
or make them show weak." (Gard. Rem.)
2848. Abercrombie and Xicol agree in the following standard for the different classes of pines, allowing a
latitude of from five to eight degrees, below or above :— Nursing bark-bed 75° ; Succession bark-bed 72° ;
Fruiting bark-bed 82°. The standard for the succession-pit is fixed lower than that for the nursing-pit, to
guard against the chance of starting the -plants into untimely fruit. Abercrombie observes, that when the
bottom heat of a bark-pit is as high as 80°, with a layer composed of old and new tan at top, that layer will
scarcely exceed 65°. " Many persons," he adds, " work pine-stoves with a bottom heat five or ten degrees
higher than the maximum standard set down for each house above. These, on the one hand, and the
theorists, on the ether, who censure the application of any bottom heat to exotics as unnatural, both seem
to be in extremes. In tropical climates, the earth itself about the roots of plants is frequently so pene-
trated with the violent heat of the atmosphere, as to maintain a temperature of 80 degrees, or more, in the
shade ; consequently, for the roots of exotics from such climates to be plunged into a bed heated to that
degree is not unnatural : still it should be recollected, that the heat of the air there has a proportionate
elevation above that of the earth. During our winter, therefore, instead of keeping the roots of
pine-plants in a factitious heat of 80°, while the artificial temperature of the air is, in some cases, let
down to 55° and 60°, perhaps a better relation of the bed with the atmosphere would be supported by
having the bark-bed at 60° or 65°, and the air of the pit at 70°, at least never less than the heat at the
roots."
2849. The measurement of bottom heat is effected by keeping trial-sticks in the bed,
which M'Phail considers sufficient for any experienced person ; but the most accurate
mode is, to plunge the bulb of the thermometer about a foot into the bed, till it reach that
depth where the layer of old bark into which the pots are plunged, and the fermenting
mass may be supposed to join. This will give the heat at the bottom of the pots.
2850. Renewal of the bark-bed. When the decline of the bed below a given temper-
ature requires it to be renewed, take out the pots, tie the leaves carefully with bass, to
protect them from being broken, and set them in a place where the plants will receive no
check. If the top layer be earthy and decayed, so as to run through the screen, take it
entirely off. Let the rest of the old bark be screened, and that which passes through be
carried out of the house. Bring in new bark equal to the quantity taken away ; but, be-
fore mixing it with the retained portion of the old, separate the least efficient of the old to
serve as a top layer. Proceed then to mix the new bark equally with the soundest part
of the old, turning over the bed from the bottom with a fork. Tread this part equally.
To receive the pots, spread on lightly at top a layer composed three fourths of old bark,
extending at least to the depth of the pots. Dress the surface of the bed full up to the
sides of the pit, making it rather higher in the middle. After renewing a bark-bed, if
there has been a great proportion of new tan introduced, or if there is any probability that
the heat may rise excessively, plunge the pots but one third of their depth into the bark,
or set them merely on the surface, till the full heat has risen and been found not in ex-
cess ; then plunge them to the rims.
2851. Reviving tan with the fork. If it be not requisite to take off the top, begin at one
end of the bed, and dig out as much bark as will allow the remainder to be loosened, and
completely forked over, without spilling any into the house. Fork it accordingly ; return
the bark taken out, level the top, and replunge the pots to their rims.
2852. Times of renewing and reviving the bark-bed. After the bark-bed has been re-
newed by the substitution of new bark for that which is quite wasted, it may be expected
to last in good action, with the help of an intermediate forking up, for ten or eleven weeks ;
consequently, it will require renewal about five times in the year. As a gradual decline
must take place between one renewal and another, the heat can scarcely be kept by any
management from fluctuating less than ten degrees ; and therefore, in planning the busi-
ness of the year, it is a desirable thing to distribute the times of renewal so that they may
just precede those periods when something critical depends on having the bark-bed at a
maximum heat. The principal occasions seem to be these : —
2853. The time of the principal annual potting and repotting, when established plants are advanced to the
last and intermediate stages, and new plants are brought into the nursing-pit. This will commonly fall in
the first week in August; but let it fall when it will, one of the fundamental reparations of the bed must
be adapted to it ; because the plants want a good growing heat to strike them, and the successive clearance
of one pit after another afibrds the easiest opportunity for shifting the bark.
2854. That crisis of autumn when the weather is declining, yet not cold enough to light fires. This hap-
pens about the beginning of October, and may commonly follow too close after the entire restitution of the
bed to admit of timing the second renewal exactly to it ; the bed may be, however, well forked up, when
the season is on the turn. The second renewal will scarcely be demanded by the state of the bed till elevt n
weeks after the first. As it respects the fruiting-house, it should be particularly sound and complete, to
allow of timing the third to a critical period in the culture of the pine. Rather protract the interval be-
tween the second and third renewal to three months or more, than precipitate the third, which might start
the plants too soon into blossom. In the fruiting-house, accordingly as you calculate that the plants
will show fruit at the end of January or later, renew the bed just before, in the proportion of one third,
if necessary, so as to have the bed steadily up to 80° when the plants come into flower.
2855. In March. A shifting of the roots into larger pots is frequently requisite for plants in the nursery
and succession pits. about the middle or end of March. Whenever repotted plants are to be struck, the
bed should be prepared for yielding the approved degree of heat.
2856. In May. The same principle prescribes a renewal at the partial repotting, which is commonly made
at the end of May. This may be combined with another object : — contrive to have the pit in lively action
just before you discontinue fire-heat. As to forking up merely : if this be done at the end of six weeks
Book I. PINERY. — GENERAL CULTURE. 533
after renewal, there will be four or five weeks to run, while the heat is to be sustained on the old mate-
rials, which will be generally found a convenient distribution of this business. In the continued hot
weather of full summer, the fermentation in the bed may decline faster than the strength of the tan is
given out, from the mass of tan getting excessively dry. In this case, pour as much water on the surface,
between the pots, as, in addition to that passing through the pots in common waterings, will restore suffi-
cient moisture to the bed. With a small fork, keep the surface of the bark free from fungi, or crusty
spawn, which are apt to generate there.
2857. Substitutes for tan. Tan is in many places scarce and dear, and in others not to
be got; in either case it becomes an object to know the best substitutes, and their manage-
ment. Horse-dung alone, as already observed, is used by some ; and, by others, mixed
with bark, with ashes, with leaves, sawdust, shavings, clippings of leather, chopped
spray, and such other durable substances as can be brought to ferment along with it, and
prolong its duration as a fermenting mass,
2858. Nicol, when tanners' bark is difficult to be procured, recommends a mixture of leaves with stable-
litter, using only a little bark (fifteen or eighteen inches), in which to plunge the pots. But in using leaves,
or leaves mixed with litter, they must always be well fermented, and the rank heat extracted out of them
before thev are made up into a bed for the plants.
2859: Nail observes, that flax-dressers '/refuse ferments very slowly and regularly, and that, used instead
of stable -dung, it will keep up a steady heat longer than almost any other substance.
2860. Oak-leaves. Speechly used oak-leaves with great success, and gives the follow-
ing directions for their preparation : —
2861. After being raked into heaps, they should immediately be carried to some place near the hot-house,
where thev must lie to couch. I generally fence them round with charcoal-hurdles, or any thing else to
keep them from being blown about the garden in windy weather. In this place we tread them well, and
water them in case they happen to have been brought in dry. We make the heap six or seven feet in
thickness, covering it over with old mats, or any thing else, to prevent the upper leaves from being blown
away. In a few days the heap will come to a strong heat. For the first year or two that I used these
leaves, I did not continue them in the heap longer than ten days or a fortnight ; but in this I discovered a
considerable inconvenience, as they settled so much when got into the hot-house, as soon to require a
supply. Taught by experience, I now let them remain in the heap for five or six weeks, by which time
they are properly prepared for the hot-house. In getting them into the pine-pits, if they appear dry, we
water them again, treading them in layers exceedingly well, till the pits are quite full. We then cover
the whole with tan to the thickness of two inches, and tread it well, till the surface become smooth and
even. On this we place the pine-pots in the manner they are to stand, beginning with the middle row
first, and filling up the spaces between the pots with tan. In like manner we proceed to the next row, till
the whole is finished ; and this operation is performed in the same manner as when tan only is used.
2862. Thus prepared, they will retain a constant and regular heat for twelve months without either
stirring or turning; and if I may form a judgment from their appearance when taken out, (being
always entire and perfect,) it is probable they would continue their heat through a second year ; but,
as an annual supply of leaves here is easily obtained, such a trial with us is hardly worth the trouble
of making. However, as a saving in leaves may be an agreeable object in places where they are less
plentiful, I was induced to make the following experiments :— In 1777, one of the pine-pits was filled
with one part of old, and two parts new leaves well mixed together ; and the next year, 1778, one
pit was filled with old and new leaves in equal quantities : — in both these experiments, I had the
satisfaction to find the pits so filled to retain a heat through each season, equal to the other pits that
were filled entirely with new leaves; and since that time we have always used the whole of the
undecayed leaves mixed along with the new ones. I also have constantly used the leaves after
they were taken out of the hot-house in the early-made hot-beds, and always found them to answer
quite as well as fresh leaves. I must beg leave to observe, that when the leaves are intended to be used
a second time, it will be proper at the taking them out of the pits to remove some few at the top, as also
on each side ; because the leaves at the top and outside of the pit approach most to a state of decay.
After this the pines will have no occasion to be moved but at the stated times of their management ; viz.
at the shifting them in their pots, &c. when at each time, a little fresh tan should be added to make up
the deficiency arising from the settling of the beds ; but this will be inconsiderable, as the leaves do not
settle much after their long couching. During the two first years of my practice, I did not use any tan,
but plunged the pine-pots in the leaves, and just covered the surface of the beds when finished, with a
little sawdust, to give it a neatness. This method was attended with one inconvenience; for, by the
caking of the leaves, they shrunk from the sides of the pots, whereby they became exposed to the air, and
at the same time the heat of the beds was permitted to escape. Many powerful reasons may be given
why oak-leaves are preferable to tanners' bark. I believe that oak-leaves are preferable to those of any
other sort ; but I have found, by repeated trials, that the leaves of beech, Spanish chestnut, and horn-
beam, will answer the purpose very well. It seems, that all leaves of a hard and firm texture are very
proper ; but soft leaves that soon decay, such as lime, sycamore, ash, and of fruit-trees in general, are
very unfit for this mode of practice.
2863. Superiority of oak-leaves. They always heat regularly; for, during the whole time that I
have used them, which is near twenty-five years, I never once knew of their heating with violence ; and
this is so frequently the case with tan, that I affirm, and indeed it is well known to- every person convers-
ant in the management of the hot-house, that pines suffer more from this one circumstance than from all
other accidents put together, insects excepted. When this accident happens near the time of their fruit-
ing, the effect is socn seen in the fruit, which always comes ill-shaped and exceedingly small. Sometimes
there will be little or no fruit at all ; therefore, gardeners who make use of tan only for their pines, should
be most particularly careful to avoid an over-heat at that critical season — the time of showing fruit.
2864. The heat of oak-leaves is constant ; whereas tanners' bark generally turns cold in a very short
time after its furious heat is gone off. This obliges the gardener to give the tan frequent turnings, in
order to promote its heating. These frequent turnings, not to mention the expense, are attended with
the worst consequences ; for, by the continual moving of the pots backwards and forwards, the pines are
exposed to the extremes of heat and cold, whereby their growth is considerably retarded ; whereas, when
leaves are used, the pines will have no occasion to be moved but at the times of potting, &c. The pines
have one particular advantage in this undisturbed situation ; their roots grow through the bottoms of
the pots and mat amongst the leaves in a surprising manner. From the vigor of the plants, when in this
situation, it is highly probable that the leaves, even in this state, afford them an uncommon and
agreeable nourishment.
2865. There is a saving in point of expense, which is no inconsiderable object in places where tan
cannot be had but from a great distance, as is the case here, the article of carriage amounting to ten shil-
lings for each waggon-load. Indeed, this was the principal reason that first induced me to make trial of
leaves.
M m 3
534 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
2866. Decayed leaves make good manure ; whereas, rotten tan is experimentally found to be of no value.
I have often tried it both on sand and clay, also on wet and dry lands, and never could discover, in any of
my experiments, that it deserved the name of a manure ; whereas, decayed leaves are the richest, and
of all others, the most suitable for a garden. But this must only be understood of leaves after they
have undergone their fermentation, which reduces them to a true vegetable mould, in which we experi-
mentally know that the food of plants is contained. This black mould is, of all others, the most proper to
mix with compost-earth, and I use it in general for pines, and almost for all plants that grow in pots : for
flowers it is most excellent. The remainder of this vegetable mould may be employed in manuring the
compartments of the kitchen-garden, for which purpose it is highly useful.
2867. Leaves mixed with dung make excellent hot-beds ; and beds compounded in
this manner, preserve their heat much longer than when made entirely with dung. In
both cases, the application of leaves will be a considerable saving of dung, a circum-
stance very agreeable, as it will be the means of preventing the contests frequently
observed in large families, between the superintendent of the garden, and the directors
of the husbandry.
2868. Steam as a bottom heat, Speechly observes, " seems to stand forward among the
modern improvements of gardening." Speechly knew, in 1796, only two instances in
which steam was applied as bottom heat ; and, with M'Phail, does not think it will
finally answer as a substitute for tan. Instances in which it is adopted, are now much
more numerous ; but time sufficient has not elapsed, and the opinions of gardeners are
yet too unsettled on its merits to enable us to recommend it for adoption in general
practice. For heating the atmosphere of hot-houses, there seems little (or at least much
less) doubt of its being preferable to fire-heat.
2869. Gunter, of Earl's Court, tried the application of steam as a bottom heat, by introducing the vapor
into a chamber in the bottom of the pit, over which were laid cross bars covered with brush-wood, and, in
some places, oak-planks, pierced with holes. On these the mould was placed in which the pines were
planted. The quantity of heat imparted to the earth was very great, but, contrary to his expectation, no
vapor ascended into the mould, which became excessively dry and husky ; nor was he able, by frequent
waterings, to keep it in a state fit for vegetation ; the roots of the plants in it, in spite of every precaution,
becoming shrivelled and dry. (Hort. Trans, iv. 408.)
2870. J. Hay, of Edinburgh, gives three examples (Caled. Mem. voL iii.) of steam having been adopted as a
bottom heat in Scotland. It is there introduced under vaulted pits, or chambers covered with rafters and
slates laid close in mortar, and has been found to succeed. (Different Modes of cultivating the Pine
Apple, &c. 174.)
2871. Hot water as a bottom heat. Count Zubow, at St. Petersburg, employed steam
to heat a pit or cistern of water, over which, at about three inches' distance, a frame,
covered with faggots, was placed, and on this was laid the earth, in which his pines and
other exotics were planted without being in pots. The plan is said to have succeeded,
and a wholesome temperature to have been obtained and communicated to the mould
above the faggots. (Fischer, in Hort. Trans, iii. 430.)
2872. Fire-heat. Recourse must be had to the furnace whenever the temperature of
the house, from the natural heat of the season, aided by the bark-pit, falls below 60°.
At 55° the decline of atmospheric heat will not be got so far as to hurt pines and stove-
plants in general ; but, if you light no fires till the thermometer fall to 55°, it may
happen that, before the flues can be brought into full action to affect the house, a
sudden retrocession in the natural season may sink the air at once five or six degrees
lower — then, the tenderest exotics will be in a hazardous situation. It is not advisable
to expose a plant that has been lately potted even to the extreme, 55°, lest it should be
checked in making new roots. To refuse the aid of the furnace till the latest moment
will also restrain the gardener from admitting fresh air, in the meantime, so as to have
always pure air in the house. The maximum heat to be caused by fire alone in abso-
lute winter, is 68°. This should be thrown to the middle of days not enlivened by
sunshine ; also, to periods when the heat of the bark-bed is from any cause deficient.
The medium, 64°, for mere fire-heat, should be interposed on preparing to air the
house in the forenoon ; and in the evening, between three and eight.
2873. Pit-coal is the best kind of fuel, mixed with cinders of the same, on account of
the duration of the fire and regularity of the heat : cinders are lasting in the next de-
gree : peat may be resorted to under a deficiency of either of the others ; it -will require
more attendance : wood blazes off so rapidly, that to maintain and regulate a furnace fed
by it is very troublesome. (Pr. G.)
2874. Coal-dust, formed into bricks, with one third of its bulk of clay or pond-mud,
has been tried by Knight. With these he found he could sustain a high and regular tem-
perature in his pinery with little expense or trouble, and that the burnt clay and ashes
were valuable as manure. (Hort. Trans, iv. 156.)
2875. Time of the day for lighting fires. As soon as fires become necessary, Aber-
crombie says, " the attendant on the furnace should set it at work every afternoon, at
five, four, or three o'clock, according to the time of year, beginning an hour before sun-
set. His last examination of the furnace for the evening should not be earlier than ten
o'clock, when as much fuel should be added as will support the proper heat till the
morning, while the front of the fire is smothered with ashes to prevent too consuming a
draught. He ought to be again at the fire, to refresh it with fuel in the morning, within
Book 1. PINERY. — GENERAL CULTURE. 535
seven hours after leaving it : when the nights are longest, the decline of the fire will
thus be repaired three hours before sunrise."
2876. The season for fire-heat falls mostly within the limits of eight months, specified
below. Fire-heat is first resorted to in evenings ; and is extended to mornings when
the weather is cloudy and damp, or frosty. The lateness or forwardness of the seasons
will require occasional deviations from any outline drawn from the practice of a single
year : the following outline is given to assist, and not to fetter, the director of the
stove : —
2877. October. As soon as cold nights or foggy days occur, fires will be wanted in houses where the stand-
ard temperature marks a high minimum. The pinery first demands the aid of the furnace, on account of
all the plants having been recently potted. Gentle fires made in the evening, to last only for the night,
will supply the few degrees of heat in which the natural climate is defective. Artificial heat is not ap-
plied to excite the pines to grow in the herb at this time; but merely to prevent any check to the new
roots from cold and damp. If the tan-bed send up a good heat, the use of the stove in the pinery may be
deferred till the middle or end of the month. One object is, to keep the temperature up to a given mini-
mum ; another, to interfere with fire-heat when the declension in the natural climate is unseasonably
abrupt. Thus 62 degrees at the end of September, is more severe than 58 degrees at the end of October.
2878. November. Work regular fires every evening, and occasional fires on cold mornings, and through-
out severe days. A violent heat would be pernicious. The maximum to aim at for the day-time, in rigorous
frosts, is 65 degrees, independent of any rise in the thermometer from occasional sunshine.
2879. December. Attend punctually to the furnace in the afternoon, late at night, and timely in the morn
ing. Between five and nine in the forenoon, never let the course of the fire-heat relax : but if, between nine
and three, the sun should shine sufficiently to raise the thermometer to 70 degrees, the furnace may
be stopped, and need not work again till three in the afternoon.
2880. January. Recruit and regulate the stove evening and morning. To have the heat defective, or in
excess, would be alike prejudicial.
2881. February. The furnace must be carefully attended as the three principal hours of daily regulation
come round. Maintain fires all day in rigorous weather.
2882. March. From the returning influence of the sun, and the gentle impulse of the stove, the plants will
be excited strongly into growth. To conduct them by an equal progression, the fire-heat should be regu-
larly sustained morning and evening, and raised, as noon approaches, to 70, 72, and 75 degrees, in case the
power of the sun alone has not elevated the thermometer, by ten in the morning, at least to 70 degrees.
To make the continuation of fire in a hot-house during the day depend merely upon the presence or ab-
sence of frost, is to treat a stove like a green-house. According to the climate to be imitated, the tenor
of artificial heat ought to bear some analogy to the revolutions of temperature caused by the sun, as it
respects both the history of a day, and the rise and acme of a growing season.
2883. April. Continue fires regularly while the sun is down ; and when the weather is chilly and gloomy,
work the furnace all day.
2884. May. Goon with the evening fires : have a gentle heat in the early part of the morning, at least till
appearances promise a fine warm day. Some managers, to spare fuel, dispense with the stove as soon as
the thermometer can be kept, by the shelter of the house and the influence of the bark-bed, from sinking
below 60 degrees at the coldest time between sunset and sunrise. But, on the principle laid down in
March, the heat ought to be progressive where pines are grown, and, indeed, where any fruit is forced
that will repay the cost : in the pinery, then, the minimum for May is 64 degrees at the beginning, and
68 at the close.
2885. June. If the weather be seasonable, no fire-heat will be wanted. But, if it be midsummer, ac-
cording to the kalendar, resume fires in unseasonably cold intervals, in order to give sufficient air, without
checking plants that have been excited by a higher temperature than that at which the natural climate
may happen to be during an anomalous day or two. {Abercrombie.)
2886. Air. The following monthly directions on this subject by Abercrombie cor-
respond with the practice of the other authors quoted : —
2887. July and August. You can scarcely give air without restraint, even in the day-time, at any other sea-
son than the last weeks of July and the course of August. When the nights are warm, leave openings for
a gentle interchange with the unconfined atmosphere, so as not to expose the pines to casual rain. A con-
stant circulation of pure air will always invigorate growing plants, and heighten the flavor of ripening fruit.
In the middle of sultry days, keep down the heat to the maximum under Temperature, by a very free
circulation of air.
2888. In September commences the necessity for caution in admitting air, so as not to lower the temper-
ature beyond the minimum for the house. When air is given in reduced quantities, divide it equally to all
parts of thepit. The atmosphere at the autumnal is not equally cool as the vernal equinox, because the
heat from the past summer is not at once dissipated. The 23d of September will more often correspond
with the middle of May than with the 21st of March, as to the influence on the glass of the withdrawing
smd returning heat in the natural climate. Proceed in September as in June and May below.
2889. October. To give air without hazard, see Temperature for the house, and the directions in April
and March.
2890. November. In calm fine days, give moderate admissions of air from about ten till two. Be careful
to shut the sashes, if the atmosphere turn cloudy or excessively cold.
2891. December. In the middle of a clear sunny day, when such occurs, though the air be frosty with it,
slide down a light alternately a little way. Meanwhile keep up a maximum heat by the flues ; and shut
the glasses by two o'clock, or sooner, if the weather or the thermometer requires.
2892. January. As in December.
2893. February. As in November ; rather freer : in order to which keep good fires.
2894. March. Watch for favorable opportunities to give air. In warm cheerful days, with a little wind,
draw open some of the glasses about three hours before twelve, and close again by four in the afternoon j
or reduce the interval, as the suitable hours may be few.
2895. April. Every fair warm forenoon, as soon as the sun's influence will prevent the house from being
chilled, admit fresh air by opening the sashes a little. From nine till noon, gradually widen the aperture
for the air. Close again two hours before sunset, or before the thermometer is below 60 degrees, or
the higher minimum prescribed by the forced advancement of the plants in particular houses. Whenever
the weather is gloomy, raise the fire-heat preparatory to giving air.
2896. May. Fresh air may be admitted, in bright warm mornings, an hour sooner than in April ; and, on
fine afternoons, the sashes may be kept open proportionally later, so as the thermometer be watched, and
the exceptions after shifting plants, or renewing the bark-bed, be attended to.
2897. June. Give air liberally from seven to six, if the weather has attained a seasonable settled
warmth. When the thermometer is down to 66 degrees, shut the glasses for the evening.
2898. Water. The same agreement is observable in Abercrombie's general instwe-
M m 4
536 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
tions for watering. " Use soft water ; in winter, let water that is to be given to plants
stand in the house to acquire the same temperature, or warm the water to 75 degrees
before applying it."
2399. From November to February, or as long as the deficiency of a strong exhaling heat in the natural cli-
mate makes it unsafe to let water fall into the hearts of the plants, give the water through a tube, composed
of jointed pieces, so that it may be shortened at will, and having a funnel into which you may pour water.
~y00. From March to October it is proper to water over the leaves, excepting in the last stage of fruit and
plants ; let the water be warmed to 80 degrees before it is applied, which will contribute to kill several tribes
of insects.
2901. From the middle of October to the end of February the plants will require to be moderately watered
only once in eight or ten days. When they have been recently potted, they require less than at other times.
Under a continuance of moist and hazy weather, the plants may be kept without water for a lengthened
interval, without any privation : in the beginning of October and March, once a-week may be sufficient.
During the course of September and April, they may require watering every five davs ; August, May,
June, and July, every three or four. If, by accident, water fall into the heart of a plant in winter, the
best remedy is, to shut the house close, and raise the heat something above the customary standard, that
the water may go off in vapor before it can injure the plant.
2902. From the first of March to September is the season of free-excited growth, though this must commence
sooner, or be continued later, according to the forwardness or delay of the plant, and the desired time of
fruiting. During this season, the mould in the pots should be kept constantly a little moist. Maintain
the bark -bed in good action, when you begin to water at the root in an increased degree ; heat the air of
the chamber nearly to the maximum, before you at any time dew the herb, and raise it- fully afterwards ;
for moderate humidity, corrected and exhaled by heat, will make the plants thrive.
2903. From May to August, the time of day for watering must recede more and more from the hour of
noon to ten, nine, and eight in the morning ; or to three, four, or five in the afternoon, according to the
power of the sun. When July and August happen to be sultry, the pine, as a plant, will flourish the better
for a little water once in two or three days : but from pines' in fruit withhold water, as the signs of ripe-
ness appear. In the height of summer, pour the water over the leaves, and into the centre of the plant.
It promotes the health of the herb, to have water standing continually in the heart of the plant, under a
well-sustained heat, never fluctuating more than ten degrees below 80°. Shut the house close after water-
ing, which will cause a dewy exhalation.
2904. Watering with drainings of the dunghill. In the growing season, about mid-day,
between the times of shifting the plants, pour every six or eight days a quantity of dung-
hill drainings on the mould, which is a compendious way of applying manure. Plants
making new stalks and leaves may thus be invigorated ; but after fruit is shown, only pure
water should be given even at the root.
2905. Steaming the flues. Having the flues at a maximum heat, sprinkle them occa-
sionally with water from a rose-pan. The steam thus raised is congenial to vegetation,
and destructive to insects. It is a fine resource when you cannot water over the leaves.
(Abercrombie.}
2906. Insects. The white scaly coccus, or mealy pine-bug, is the most injurious in-
sect to pine-apples. It adheres closely to the leaves ; and, if not removed, will in time
consume them, though in appearance it seems almost inanimate. It infests the vine, the
orange, and many plants besides the pine ; and lurking in the pots of earth plunged in
the bark-bed, insinuating itself into every crevice of the walls and wood-work, is not to
be extricated without extreme difficulty.
2907. The broiun turtle insect, or brown scaly coccus, or bug, also infests the pine. It is nearly allied in
form to the white scale, but is much less injurious in its effects.
2908. The white mealy crimson-tinged insect is also enumerated by Speechly ; and by some is thought to
be the same as the white scale, with which it is equally injurious, " wedging itself in between the protu-
berances of the fruit in the most surprising manner," so as not to be got out without great difficulty, ren-
dering the fruit unsightly, robbing it of its juices, and rendering it deficient in flavor, and ill tasted. (TV.
on Pine, p. 133.)
2909. Destroying insects. So many different processes have been recommended for destroying these in-
sects, that Abercrombie justly observes, " To devise any remedy new in principle would be difficult and
altogether superfluous. Of the recipes and specified methods which have fallen into disuse, or were at
once rejected by men of business, we shall avoid quoting any merely to say, that this is too simple to be ef-
fective, that too elaborate to be of practical use, and a third as fatal to the plants as to the insects. It
will be enough to select one or two remedies, which are safe, with a little qualification, and certainly effi-
cacious. The ingredients of the first prescription are met with in many recipes : to Nicol belongs the
credit of mixing them in the proportion recommended below. We shall previously observe, however,
that many experienced growers of pines concur in the opinion, that a chemical preparation is not to be
resorted to till the effects of a sound, cleanly course of culture have been tried."
2910. Nicol's recipe. Take soft soap, one pound ; flowers of sulphur, one pound ; tobacco, half a pound ;
nux vomica, an ounce ; soft water, four gallons ; boil all these together till the liquor is reduced to three
gallons, and set it aside to cool. In this liquor immerse the whole plant, after the roots and leaves are
trimmed for potting. Plants in any other state, and which are placed in" the bark-bed, may safely be wa-
tered over-head with the liquor reduced in strength by the addition of a third part water. As the bug
harbors most in the angles of the leaves, there is the better chance that the medicated water will be effec-
tual, because it will there remain the longest, and there its sediment will settle. The above is a remedy
tor every species of the coccus ; and for most insects, on account of its strength and glutinous nature. Its
application will make the plants look dirty ; therefore, as soon as the intended effect may be supposed to
have followed, whatever remains of the liquor on the leaves should be washed off with clean water. It
wxmld be improper to pour a decoction charged with such offensive materials over fruiting plants. Further,
this peculiar dose for a tenacious insect is not to be applied indiscriminately to exotics in a general stove,
as it might make the more delicate leaves of shrubs drop off
2911. M'PhaiVsmode consists in the application of a powerful moist heat. Of this method we have
already given an account, and shall only here observe, that it proceeds on the fact experimentally proved,
that a degree of heat and moisture, which is speedily fatal to animals, will not immediately destroy or in-
jure vegetable life, and this the more especially of plants of such a robust nature as the pine.
2912. Griffin's recipe. To one gallon of soft rain-water, add eight ounces of soft green soap, one ounce of
tobacco, and three table-spoonfuls of turpentine ; stir and mix them well together in a watering-pot, and
let them stand for a day or two. When you are going to use this mixture, stir and mix it well again, then
strain it through a thin cloth. If the fruit only is infested, dash the mixture over the crown and fruit,
Book I. COMPENDIUM OF A COURSE OF CULTURE. 537
with a squirt, until all is fairly wet ; and what runs down the stem of the fruit will kill all the insects that
are amongst the bottom of the leaves. When young plants are infested, take them out of their pots, and
shaking all the earth from the roots (tying the leaves of the largest plants together), plunge them into
the above mixture, keeping every part covered for the space of five minutes ; then take them out, and set
them on a clean place, with their tops declining downwards, for the mixture to drain out of their centre.
When the plants are dry, put them into smaller pots than before, and plunge them into the bark-bed.
{Tr. on the Pine, p. 84.)
2913. Baldwin's recipe. Take horse-dung from the stable, the fresher the better, sufficient to make up
a hot-bed three feet high to receive a melon-frame three feet deep at the back ; put on the frame and
lights immediately, and cover the whole with mats, to bring up the heat. When the bed is at the strong-
est heat, take some faggots, open them, and spread the sticks over the surface of the bed on the dung, so
as to keep the plants from being scorched; set the plants or suckers, bottom uppermost, on the sticks;
shut down your lights quite close, and cover them over well with double mats, to keep in the steam ;
let the plants remain in this state one hour, then take out the plants, and wash them in a tub of cold
water, previously brought to the side of your bed ; then set them in a dry place, with their tops down-
wards, to drain, and afterwards plant them. This treatment is sure to kill every insect. You will observe
likewise, that the crowns and suckers in the beds heated by linings of dung without fire-heat, will have
all their insects killed, or be kept free of them, if they were clean when planted, by the effluvia of the dung.
{Cult. ofAnan,33.)
2914. Miller's recipe. Miller recommends turning the plants out of the pots, and cleaning the roots ;
then keeping them immersed for four-and-twenty hours in water in which tobacco-stalks have been in-
fused : the bugs are then to be rubbed off with a sponge, and the plants, after being washed in clean water
and dripped, are to be repotted. Muirhead, a gardener in the north of Scotland, has described a similar
mode (Caled. Horf. Soc. Men?, i. p. 209.), only in the place of tobacco-juice, he directs flowers of sulphur to
be mixed with the water. With a bit of bass mat fixed on a small stick, and dipt in water, he displaces as
many of the insects as he can see. He then immerses the plants in a tub of water, containing about 1 lb.
of flowers of sulphur to each garden-potful. They remain covered with the water for twenty-four hours,
as described by Miller. They are then laid with their tops downward to dry, and are repotted in the usual
manner. What share of the cure in either cf these ways may be due to the sulphur or to the tobacco-
liquor does not clearly appear ; the rubbing off or loosening the insects is evidently important; and it is
not unlikely that immersion in simple water, so long continued, may alone be sufficient to destroy them.
Indeed, the experience of one of the best practical gardeners in Scotland (Hay), leads him to conclude,
that even moderate moisture is destructive to these insects. During many years, he regularly watered
his pine-plants over head with the squirt, during the summer-months: this was done only in the
evening; it never injured the plants ; and the bug never appeared upon them. (Ed. Encyc. art. Hort.)
2915. Knight's suggestion. " Baldwin recommends the steam of hot fermenting horse-dung : I con-
clude the destructive agent, in this case, is ammoniacal gas ; which Sir Humphry Davy informed me he
had found to be instantly fatal to every species of insect ; and if so, this might be obtained at a small ex-
pense, by pouring a solution of crude muriate of ammonia upon quick-lime ; the stable, or cow-house,
would afford an equally efficient, though less delicate, fluid. The ammoniacal gas might, I conceive, be
impelled, by means of a pair of bellows, amongst the leaves of the infected plants, in sufficient quantity to
destroy animal, without injuring vegetable life : and it is a very interesting question to the gardener,
whether his hardy enemy, the red spider, will bear it with impunity."
2916. Cleansing and refitting the house. Every department of the pinery must be kept
at all times sweet and clean. At the period of removing sets of plants (or oftener, if
necessary) that have completed specific stages, purify the house thoroughly, and have
the flues swept, the plaster white-washed, the wood-work and glass washed at all
events, and the latter painted, if necessary, all broken glass mended, and every other
substantia], or casual reparation effected. If insects are supposed to be harbored in
the building, the following wash is to be introduced with a brush into the cracks and
joints of the wood-work, and the crevices of the wall : " Of sulphur vivum, take 2 oz. ;
soft soap, 4 oz. Make these into a lather, mixed with a gallon of water that has been
poured in a boiling state upon a pound of mercury. The mercury will last to medicate
fresh quantities of water almost perpetually." (Abercrombk.)
Subsect. 9. Compendium of a Course of Culture.
2917. The following judicious summary of practice, from the planting of the crown to
the cutting of the fruit, is given by Abercrombie. The dates are arbitrary; but
specific days or months must be assumed to mark anniversary and other periods.
2918. Nursing-jnt. Aug. 15. 1813. Crowns and suckers planted.
Oct. 30. 1813. If the plants, from forward growth, require more room, some are removed to another
pit, and the remainder set at increased distances.
March 30. 1814. Such plants as want it are shifted. Plants of the same standing are now sometimes
distributed to houses where the treatment differs, as the plant is expected to fruit at the end of two or
three years. 1. The large black varieties require three years' culture. 2. Crowns and fruit-suckers are
seldom so forward as suckers from the stem. The last, indeed, commonly grow too vigorously, and do
best under a moderate excitement during the first two stages.
2919. Three-year fruiting plants. Nursing-pit. May, 1814. Plants intended to complete a year in this
pit, are repotted ; having the ball of earth shaken away, and all the old root-fibres pruned off.
2920. Succession-pit. Aug. 15. 1814. Plants that have been in the nursing-pit the previous year, are
shifted and transferred to this house.
2921. Fruiting-house. Aug. 1815. Plants which have consumed one year in the nursing-pit, and a
second year in the succession-house, are removed to this department.
Aug. 1. 1816. Fruit ripe.
2922. Two-year fruiting plants. Succession-pit. March 30. 1814. Plants from the nursing-pit are put
into larger pots ; and brought for culture here, as directed under this division.
May or June, 1814. Succession pines are sometimes intermediately shifted, without disturbing the
balls of earth.
2923. Fruiting-house. Aug. 15. 1814. Plants from the succession-pit, having consumed one year in the
first and second stages, are shifted into the largest-sized pots, to be treated as under this head.
Aug. 1. 1815. Having been cultivated as under fruiting-house, the ripe fruit is fit to cut.
538 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
Subsect. 10. Recent Improvements in the Culture of the Pine-apple.
2924. The most recent improvements in the culture of the pine-apple consist chiefly of some
attempts by Knight and others to grow this fruit, as well without the aid of bottom heat
as with it. Knight also employed a much higher degree of solar heat during summer, and
much less fire-heat during winter, than is generally done by practical gardeners. Some
lesser improvements, such as nourishing the suckers on the parent stem after the fruit is
cut, are less recent, and though not mentioned in the popular manuals of gardening, are
yet frequently practised by the best cultivators. With respect to growing pine-plants by
the heat of dung or tan without fire-heat, there is nothing new or extraordinary in the
practice, as may be seen in the foregoing subsections, by the quotations from M'Phail
and others.
2925. The effect of a very high temperature during the day, in bright weather, and of comparatively low
temperature during the night, and in cloudy weather, was tried by Knight in 1819. " A fire of sufficient
power only to preserve in the house a temperature of about 70°, during summer, was employed ; but no
air was given, nor its escape facilitated till the thermometer, perfectly shaded, indicated a temperature of
95° ; and then only two of the upper lights, one at each end, were let down about four inches. The heat,
of the house was consequently sometimes raised to 110°, during the middle of warm and bright days, and
it generally varied, in such days, from 90° to 105°, declining during the evening to about 80°, and to' 70° in
the night. Late in the evening of every bright and hot day, the plants were copiously sprinkled with
water, nearly of the temperature of the external air. The melon, water-melon, Guernsey lily, fig-tree,
nectarine, orange and lemon, mango, Avocado pear, Mamme-tree, and several other plants, part of them
natives of temperate climates, grew in this hot-house so managed " through the whole summer, without
any one of them being drawn, or any way injured, by the very high temperature to which they were
occasionally subjected : and from these and other facts,*' Knight continues, " which have come within
my observation, I think myself justified in inferring, that in almost all cases in which the object of the
cultivator is to promote the rapid and vigorous growth of his plants, very high temperature, provided it
be accompanied by bright sunshine, may be employed with great advantage ; but it is necessary that the
glass of his house should be of good quality, and that his plants be placed near it, and be abundantly sup-
plied with sand and water." In the above case liquid-manure was employed. It is added,
2926. My house contains a few pine-apple plants ; in the treatment of which I have deviated somewhat
widely from the common practice ; and I think with the best effects, for their growth has been exceed-
ingly rapid, and a great many gardeners, who have come to see them, have unanimously pronounced them
more perfect than any which they had previously seen. But many of the gardeners think that my mode
of management will not succeed in winter, and that my plants will become unhealthy, if they do not
perish in that season ; and as some of them have had much experience, and I very little, I wish, at
present, to decline saying more relative to the culture of that plant. {Hort. Trans, iii. 465.) The above
information, the result of Knight's experiments in 1819, was communicated to the Horticultural Society
in the autumn of that year. On the 7th of March following, a paper was read to the Society on the same
plants, of which the following is a transcript : —
2927. Of those gardeners who doubted whether the plants would stand the winter, it is stated, — The same
gardeners have since frequently visited my hot-house, and they have unanimously pronounced my plants
more healthy and vigorous than any they had previously seen : and they are all, I have good reason to
believe, zealous converts to my mode of culture. I had "long been much dissatisfied with the manner in
which the pine-apple plant is usually treated, and very much disposed to believe the bark-bed, as Kent
has stated {Hort. Trans, iii. 288.), " worse than useless," subsequent to the emission of roots by the crowns
or suckers. I therefore resolved to make a few experiments upon the culture of that plant ; but as I had
not at that period, the beginning of October, any hot-house, I deferred obtaining plants till the following
spring. My hot-house was not completed till the second week in June (1819), at which period I began my
experiment upon nine plants, which had been but very ill preserved through the preceding winter by the
gardener of one of my friends, with very inadequate means, and in a very inhospitable climate. These, at
this period, were not "larger plants than some which I have subsequently raised from small crowns, (three
having been afforded by one fruit,) planted in the middle of August, were in the end of December last ;
but they are now beginning to blossom, and in the opinion of every gardener who has seen them, promise
fruit of great size and perfection. They are all of the variety known by the name of Ripley's queen
pine.
2928. Upon the introduction of my pine-plants into the hot-house, the mode of management, which it is
the object of the present communication to describe, commenced. They were put into pots of somewhat
more than a foot in diameter, in a compost made of thin green turf, recently taken from a river-side,
chopped very small, and pressed closely, whilst wet, into the pots ; a circular piece of the same material,
of about an inch in thickness, having been inverted, unbroken, to occupy the bottom of each pot. This
substance, so applied, I have always found to afford the most efficient means for draining off superfluous
water, and subsequently of facilitating the removal of a plant from one pot to another, without loss of
roots. The surface of the reduced turf was covered with a layer of vegetable mould obtained from
decayed leaves, and of sandy loam, to prevent the growth of the grass roots. The pots were then placed
to stand upon brick piers, near the glass; and the piers being formed of loose bricks (without mortar),
were capable of being reduced as the height of the plants increased. The temperature of the house was
generally raised in hot and bright days, chiefly by confined solar heat, from 95 to 105 degrees, and some-
times to 110 degrees, no air being ever given till the temperature of the house exceeded 95 degrees ; and
the escape of heated air was then only in a slight degree permitted. In the night, the temperature of
the house generally sunk to 70 degrees, or somewhat lower. At this period, and through the months of
Julv and August, a sufficient quantity of pigeons' dung was steeped in the water, which was given to the
pine-plants, to raise its color nearly to that of porter, and with this they were usually supplied twice a-day
in very hot weather ; the mould in the pots being kept constantly very damp, or what gardeners would
generallv call wet. In the evenings, after very hot davs, the plants were often sprinkled with clear water,
of the temperature of the external air ; but this was never repeated till all the remains of the last sprink-
ling had disappeared from the axilla? of the leaves. It is, I believe, almost a general custom with
gardeners, to give their pine-plants larger pots in autumn, and this mode of practice is approved by
Baldwin. {Cult, of Anon. 16.) I nevertheless cannot avoid thinking it wrong ; for the plants, at this
period, and subsequentlv, owing to want of light, can generate a small quantity only of new sap ; and con-
sequentlv, the matter which composes the new roots, that the plant will be excited to emit into the fresh
mould, must be drawn chiefly from the same reservoir, which is to supply the blossom and fruit : and I
have found, that transplanting fruit-trees, in autumn, into larger pots, has rendered their next year's
produce of fruit smaller in size, and later in maturity. I therefore would not remove my pine-plants into
larger pots, although those in which they grow are considerably too small. As the length of the days
diminished, and the plants received less light, their ability to digest food diminished. Less food was in
consequence dissolved in the water, which was also given with a more sparing hand ; and as winter ap-
proached water only was given, and in small quantities.
Book I. IMPROVEMENTS IN PINE-APPLE CULTURE. 539
2929. During the months of November and December, the temperature of the house was generally little
above 50 degrees, and sometimes as low as 48 degrees, and once so low as 40 degrees. Most gardeners
would, I believe, have been alarmed for the safety of their plants at this temperature ; but the pine is a
much hardier plant than it is usually supposed to be ; and I exposed one young plant in December to a
temperature of 32 degrees, by which it did not appear to sustain any injury. I have also been subsequently
informed by one of my friends, Sir Harford Jones, who has had most ample opportunities of observing,
that he has frequently seen, in the East, the pine-apple growing in the open air, where the surface of the
ground, early in the mornings, showed unequivocal marks of a slight degree of frost
2930. My plants remained nearly torpid, and without growth, during the latter part of November, and
in the whole of December ; but they began to grow early in January, although the temperature of the
house rarely reached 60 degrees ; and about the 20th of that month, the blossom, or rather the future fruit,
of the earliest plant, became visible ; and subsequently to that period their growth has appeared very ex-
traordinary to gardeners who had never seen pine-plants growing, except in a bark-bed or other hot-bed.
I believe this rapidity of growth, in rather low temperature, may be traced to the more excitable state of
their roots, owing to their having passed the winter in a very low temperature comparatively with that of
a bark-bed. The plants are now supplied with water in moderate quantities, and holding in solution a less
quantity of food than was given them in summer.
2931. In planting suckers, I have, in several instances, left the stems and roots of the old plant remaining
attached to them ; and these have made a much more rapid progress than others. One strong sucker was
thus planted in a large pot upon the 20th of July (1819), and that is (March 1820) beginning to show fruit.
Its stem is thick enough to produce a very large fruit ; but its leaves are short, though broad and numer-
ous ; and the gardeners who have seen it, all appear wholly at a loss to conjecture what will be the value of
its produce. In other cases, in which I retained the old stems and roots, I selected small and late suckers,
and these have afforded me the most perfect plants I have ever seen ; and they do not exhibit any symp-
toms of disposition to fruit prematurely. I am, however, still ignorant whether any advantage will be
ultimately obtained by this mode of treating the queen pine : but I believe it will be found applicable with
much advantage in the culture of those varieties of the pine, which do not usually bear fruit till the plants
are three or four years old.
2932. Some remarks are next made upon the facility of managing pines in the manner recommended, and
upon the necessary amount of the expense. " My gardener is an extremely simple laborer, he does not know
a letter or a figure ; and he never saw a pine-plant growing, till he saw those of which he has the care. If I
were absent, he would not know at what period of maturity to cut the fruit ; but in every other respect he
knows how to manage the plants as well as I do; and I could teach any other moderately intelligent and
attentive laborer, in one month, to manage them just as well as he can : in short, I do not think the skill ne-
cessary to raise a pine-apple, according to the mode of culture I recommend, is as great as that requisite to
raise a forced crop of potatoes. The expense of fuel for my hot-house, which is forty feet long, by
twelve wide, is rather less than sevenpence a day here, where I am twelve miles distant from coal-pits :
and if I possessed the advantages of a curved iron-roof, such as those erected by Loudon, at Bayswater,
which would prevent the too rapid escape of heated air in cold weather, I entertain no doubt, that the ex-
pense of heating a house forty-five feet long, and ten wide, and capable of holding eighty fruiting pine-
plants, exclusive of grapes or other fruits upon the back wall, would not exceed fourpence a-day. A roof
of properly curved iron bars, appears to me also to present many other advantages : it may be erected at
much less cost, it is much more durable, it requires much less expense to paint it, and it admits greatly
more light." {Hort. Trans, iv. 72.) The president has since (in June, 1820) had such a house as he has
hinted at erected, and roofed with our bar ; and in a long paper {Hort. Trans, iv. 543.) read in November,
1821, and two others [Hort. Trans, v. 142. 227.) he has given some account of it, and of his experience
in pine-apple culture. The first paper is quoted at length in The different modes of cultivating the
pine-apple from its first introduction to Europe, to the improvements of T A. Knight, in 1822, (a work
which should be in the hands of every pine grower,) and the following remarks are from that
work : —
2933. To draw any conclusions in the present stage of Knight's experiments would be premature,
and might excite prejudice to anticipate the final result. That the pine-plant will grow and thrive, with-
out what is technically called bottom heat, is an obvious truth, since no plant in a state of nature is found
growing in soil warmer than that of the superincumbent atmosphere. But to imitate nature, is not always
the best mode of culture ; for the more correct the imitation, the less valuable would be the greater part
of her products, at least as far as horticulture is concerned. What would our celery, cabbage, and apples
be, if their culture were copied from nature? Though the pine-apple will grow well without bottom heat
it may grow with bottom heat still better; and though the heat of the earth, in its native country, may
never exceed that of the surrounding atmosphere, it does not follow that earth heated to a greater degree
may not be of service to it, in a state of artificial culture. But admitting for the sake of argument, that
the pine-plant could be grown equally well with, as without bottom heat; still it appears to us that the
mass of material which furnishes this heat, will always be a most desirable thing to have in a pine-stove, as
being a perpetual fund of heat for supplying the atmosphere of the house in case of accident to the flues or
steam-apparatus. Besides it appears from nature, as well as from observing what takes place in culture,
that the want of a steady tenrperature and degree of moisture at the roots of plants is more immediately
and powerfully injurious to them than atmospheric changes. Earth, especially if rendered porous and
sponge-like by culture, receives and gives out air and heat slowly ; and while the temperature of the air of
a country, or a hot-house, may vary twenty or thirty degrees in the course of twenty-four hours, the soil at
the depth of two inches would hardly be found to have varied one degree. With respect to moisture, every
cultivator knows, that in a properly constituted and regularly pulverised soil, whatever quantity of rain
may fall on the surface, the soil is never saturated with water, nor, in times of great drought, burnt up
with heat. The porous texture of the soil, and sub-soil, being at once favorable for the escape of super-
fluous water, and adverse to its evaporation, by never becoming so much heated on the surface, or con-
ducting the heat so far downwards as a close compact soil. These properties of the soil relatively to plants
can never be completely attained by growing plants in pots, and least of all by growing them in pots sur-
rounded by air. In this state, whatever may be the care of the gardener, a continual succession of
changes of temperature will take place in the outside of the pot, and the compact material of which it is
composed being a much more rapid conductor of heat than porous earth, it will soon be communicated to the
web of roots within. With respect to water, a plant in a pot surrounded by air is equally liable to injury.
If the soil be properly constituted, and the pot properly drained, the water passes through the mass as soon
as poured on it, and the soil at that moment may be said to be left in a state favorable for vegetation. But
as the evaporation from the surface and sides of the pot, and the transpiration of the plant goes on, it be-
comes gradually less and less so, and if not soon resupplied, would become dry and shrivelled, and either
die from that cause, or be materially injured by the sudden and copious application of water. Thus the
roots of a plant in a pot surrounded by air, are liable to be alternately chilled and scorched by cold or heat,
and deluged or dried up by superabundance or deficiency of water, and nothing but the perpetual care and
attention of the gardener, to lessen the tendencies to these extremes, could at all preserve the plant from
destruction . To lessen the attention of the gardener, therefore, to render the plant less dependent on his ser-
vices, and, above all, to put a plant in a pot as far as possible on a footing with a plant in the unconfined soil,
plunging the pot in a mass of earth, sand, dung, tan, or any such material, appears to us a most judicious
part of culture, and one that never can be relinquished in fruit-bearing plants with impunity. Even if no
heat were to be afforded by the mass in which the pots were plunged, still the preservation of a steady
temperature which would always equal the average temperature of the air of the house, and the re-
540 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
tention, by the same means, of the steady degree of moisture, would, in our opinion, be a sufficient argu-
ment for plunging pots of vigorous-growing, many-leaved, or fruit-bearing plants.
2934. Had Knight's plan been brought forward by a less eminent horticulturist, it
would have claimed but little attention, as the plan of growing pines without bottom
heat, is generally considered to have been tried, — first by M. Le Cour, and subsequently
by various others, and abandoned. In Knight's hands, however, whether it fail or suc-
ceed, it is certain of doing good, by the observations it will elicit from the fertile and
ingenious mind of so candid and philosophical a horticulturist. (The different Modes,
&c. p. 170.)
2935. Estimate of Knight's efforts as to the culture of the pine-apple. Knight's two
subsequent papers contain merely incidental observations of little consequence ; but in
so far as they go, rather adverse than otherwise, both to the plan of house, as well as
the mode of culture. On the whole, it may safely be asserted that no light has been
thrown on the culture of the pine-apple by this eminent horticulturist, notwithstanding
his assertions respecting the great facility of its culture by the most ignorant laborer ;
that the culture in the bark-bed, or other hot-bed, if the pots be plunged into it, is worse
than useless (Hort. Trans, iv. 544.) ; and that every one of a very great number
of gardeners who visited the garden, declared himself a zealous convert. (lb. 545).
The truth is, Knight commenced his operations a perfect novice in that depart-
ment of gardening ; and it is most curious to observe, from his own accounts, that he
has only succeeded in so far as he has appi-oached to the modes in common use. Very
large pots were adopted (Hort. Trans, v. 144.), which served as an approach to plunging
smaller pots in a mass calculated to preserve a uniform degree of moisture : a house
with a fixed roof is found less suitable for ventilation than one with sliding sashes (Hort.
Trans, v. 287-8-9.) ; and this circumstance, and that of the iron bars admitting so much
light, render the risk of over-heating such, that it was " thought best" to be " provided
with a net" to shade in hot weather. In short, notwithstanding the " many converts"
among the " practical gardeners," and the confident assertions in the communications to
the Horticultural Society, the failure may be considered as not only complete, but as
having been attended by nothing useful or new on the subject. It is but rendering
justice to practical gardeners to state this freely ; and Knight is too sensible a man to
be offended at us for having done so. We, therefore, recommend all those who wish
to grow the pine-apple in the first style of excellence, and at a moderate expense, to
adopt the pits and houses of Baldwin, Aiton, or Scott ; and to imitate their practice,
or that of M'Phail and Griffin. See the useful treatise above (2932.) referred to for
more minute details.
2936. The mode of employing the vigor remaining in the old stock or plant after the fruit is cut,
to nourish, for a certain time, the sucker or suckers which may be growing on it, was prac-
tised by Speechly ; but scarcely to the extent to which it has been carried lately. This
we think, a considerable improvement, if kept within certain limits ; but, if carried too
far, what might be gained by the sucker coming earlier into fruit, would be lost by the
retardation of its own suckers.
2937. A queen pine, grown by Peter Marsland, of Woodbank, near Stockport, was exhibited to
the Horticultural Society, on Nov. 3. 1818. " It weighed three pounds fourteen ounces, measured seven-
teen inches in circumference, and was peculiarly well-flavored. The singularity of this pine was its being
the produce of a sucker which had been removed from the parent root only six months previous to the
time the fruit was cut The plant on which the sucker grew had produced a fruit, which was cut in
October, 1817 ; the old stem, with the sucker attached, was allowed to remain in the pine.pit till May,
1818 ; at that time the sucker was broken off, potted, and plunged into a fresh pit ; it soon after showed
fruit, which, in the course of four months, attained to the weight and size above stated. P. Marsland is in
the practice of producing pines in this way with equal success and expedition. His houses are all heated
by steam." (Hort. Trans, iv. 52.)
2938. Specimens of the New Providence, globe, black Antigua, and Enville, were exhibited on the 17th of
October, 1819, all which were produced in a similar manner to the above. P. Marsland considers, that
" though not of the largest description, yet as far as beauty of form and richness of flavor are concerned,
they would not yield to fruit of more protracted growth." The success which has attended this gentle-
man's mode of " treating the pine, so as to ensure the production of fruit within twelve months from the
cutting of their previous produce, has been perfectly satisfactory ;" and the following is his account of it.
" In November, 1819, as soon as the fruit had been cut from the pine-plants, which were then two years
old, all the leaves were stripped off the old stocks, nothing being left but a single sucker on each, and that
the strongest on the plant ; they were then placed in a house where the heat was about sixty degrees,
and they remained till March, 1820. At this period the suckers were broken ofF from the old stocks, and
planted in pots from eight to twelve inches in diameter, varying according to the size of the sucker. It
may be proper, however, to observe, that the length of time which the young sucker is allowed to remain
attached to the mother plant, depends in some degree upon the kind of pine : the tardy fruiters, such as
the black Antigua, and others, require to be left" longer than the queen, and those which fruit readily.
After the suckers had been planted, they were removed from the house, where they had remained while
on the old stock, to one in which the temperature was raised to seventy-five degrees. Immediately upon
their striking root, the largest of the suckers showed fruit, which swelled well, and ripened between
August and November, being, on the average, ten months from the time the fruit was cut from the old
plant, and seven months from the time the sucker was planted. The fruit so produced, though, as may
be expected, not of the largest description, I have invariably found to be richer and higher flavored than
that grown on older plants. The suckers of inferior strength will not show fruit in the same season, but
in the following they will yield good fruit, and strong suckers for a succeeding year's supply. Those
suckers are to be preferred which are produced on plants that have ripened their fruit in November, for
those taken from plants whose fruit is cut in August or earlier, are apt to show fruit in January, or
Book I. CULTURE OF THE VINERY. 541
February, while yet remaining on the mother plant. But whenever this happens, the sucker should be
broken off immediately upon being perceived, and planted in a pot so as to form a root of its own, to
maintain its fruit." (Hort. Trans, iv. 392.)
2939. This experiment shows what can be done ; though it must be obvious that a considerable part of the
saving in time is lost by the small size of the fruit. Baldwin, in our opinion, has hit on the proper use of
this mode, the principle of which, as already observed, consists in the employment of the otherwise lost
vigor of the old stock. He contrives to produce tolerably sized fruit, and to have such a degree of vigor
in his suckers, as that they are able, in their turn, to throw out other vigorous suckers to succeed them.
In aid of this, he often earths up the old stock, so as to cover the lower end of the sucker ; and partially
wrenching it off, he, by these means, obtains for it a good stock of roots before he renders it an in-
dependent plant.
Sect. II. Of the Culture of the Vinery.
2940. On the culture of so important a fruit as the grape, it is not surprising that there
should be a great variety of opinions. Without quoting those of the earlier, and of
foreign authors, neither of which are of much value as to the hot-house culture of this
plant, we shall give those of the best modern British gardeners ; on the general modes
of culture adopted in ordinary vineries ; in regard to particular modes of culture ; as to
gathering and preserving the fruit ; and as to insects and diseases.
Subsect. 1. Of the General Culture of the Grape in Vineries.
2941. The culture of the grape in ordinary vineries embraces the subject of soil, sort of
grapes, sort of plants, pruning, training, bleeding of the shoot, culture of the borders,
time of beginning to force, temperature, air, water, ripening and resting of the wood.
2942. Soil. The kind of compost Speechly made use of for the vine border of the hot-
house a1: Welbeck, was as follows, viz. " One fourth part of garden mould (a strong
lo; m) ; one fourth of the swarth or turf, from a pasture where the soil is a sandy loam ;
ore fourth of the sweepings and scrapings of pavements and hard roads ; one eighth of
rotten cow and stable-yard dung, mixed ; and one eighth of vegetable mould from
reduced and decayed oak-leaves. The swarth or sward should be laid on a heap, till the
grass roots are in a state of decay, and then turned over and broken with a spade ; then
put it to the other materials, and work the whole well together." ( TV. on Vine, p. 25.)
Speechly covers his vine border with a coat of gravel two inches thick.
2943. Abercrombie says, " materials and proportions of a good compost are of top-spit sandy loam from an
upland pasture, one third part; unexhausted brown loam from a garden, one fourth part ; scrapings of
roads, free from clay, and repaired with gravel or slate, one sixth part ; vegetable mould, or old tan
reduced to earth, or rotten stable-dung, one eighth part; shell-marl or mild lime, one twelfth part."
The borders he recommends to be from three to five feet in depth, and, where practicable, not less than
four feet wide in surface within the house, communicating with a border outside the building, of not less
than ten feet wide.
2944. M'Phail directs as follows : " To make a suitable border where it is required for the grape-vine,
provide a large quantity of earth of a loamy nature; that from arable land, or from a ridge in which a
hedge-row of hazel, maple, elm, &c. have grown many years, and have been grubbed, is good ; or a spit
deep from the surface of a common, long pastured ; or from the head or end lands of a corn-field ; either
of these will do very well." For forcing early, he adds, " vines do best in a strong deep loam,
not destitute of a mixture of sand, and well manured with rotten dung, on a dry bottom of hard
clay."
2945. Nicol, after premising that the bottom of the border is to be made perfectly dry by draining and
paving, says, " the average depth of the border should not be less than a yard. If four feet, so much the
better. It is not easy to say how broad it should be ; but it should not be narrower, outside and inside of
the house taken together, than thirty feet. The soil should be thus composed : one half strong hazelly
loam, one fourth light sandy earth, an eighth part vegetable mould of decayed tree-leaves, and an eighth
part rotten dung; to which may very properly be added, a moderate quantity of lime, or of shell-marl. These
articles should be perfectly decomposed, and intimately mixed, before planting."
2946. Griffin, who has received the medal of the Horticultural Society for his skill in cultivating grapes at
Woodhall, in Hertfordshire, forms his vine borders as follows : After being completely drained, the
whole bottom is covered with brick, stone, or lime rubbish, about six inches thick, and on this is laid a
compost of " half good loamy soil with its turf, one quarter of rich solid old dung, and one quarter of
brick and lime rubbish ; the turf well rotted, and the whole well incorporated." {Hort. Trans, vol. iv.
p. 100.)
2947. Judd uses half of rich gritty loam from a common ; a quarter of rich old dung ; and a quarter of
lime rubbish, tan, and leaf mould, mixed together. These materials were kept separate, and frequently
turned during winter, and when afterwards well mixed were not sifted, but laid on a prepared bottom to
the depth of three feet. He says he does not use so much dung as is usually done, because, though the
vine will bear an extraordinary quantity of manure, yet its growth is thereby retarded, especially when
young. He recommends the addition of old tan, from having experienced (with Speechly, Mitchell,
and others) that the vine will root in that more freely than in any other substance. {Hort. Trans.
vol. iv. p. 4.)
2948. Sort of grapes. In the horticxdtural catalogue will be found a description of the
best sorts of grapes for forcing, or the open wall, from which a selection may be made,
according to the taste of the party.
2949. For a mere glass case, in which the fruit is to be ripened by the heat of the sun,
the following, which are the hardiest sorts, will succeed best, viz. white muscadine, white
sweetwater, black sweetwater, black Hamburgh, large black cluster, black July, miller
grape, and black St. Peter's.
2950. For a s?nall house to be forced, or to which fire-heat is to be applied in spring and autumn, the
following sorts are what experienced gardeners recommend, as sure bearers and high-flavored grapes :
black and red Hamburgh, black and grizzly Frontignac, black prince, white muscat of Alexandria,
SitwePs white sweetwater, and early white Teneriffe.
2951. M'Phail, for general forcing, recommends, as " the best sorts of grape-vines for forcing, the black
542 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
Hamburgh, red Frontignac, black prince, black muscadel, red Lombardy, royal muscadine, white
muscadine, white Frontignac, white muscat, white sweetwater, white muscadel, and white Syrian."
[Gard. Rem. p. 77.)
2952. Xicol, for general forcing, names twenty-four sorts, as under, marking those he esteems the best
with an asterisk * .
Black Grapes.
Mu>cadine, * Frontignac, *Hamburgh,
*muscat of Alexandria, cluster, *Con-
stantia, St. Peter's.
Red Grapes.
*Frontignac, *grizzl_v Frontignac, rai-
sin, *flame tokay, *Lombardy.
White Grapes.
*Sweetwater, *muscaaine, *royal mus-
cadine, * Frontignac, Hamburgh, raisin,
*tokay, *passe musque, *niuscat of Alex-
andria, *Constantia-
2953. Speedily, Forsyth, and Abercrombie give long descriptive lists, and leave the reader to choose from
their descriptions.
2954. Sort of plarits. Vines are to be had in the nurseries, propagated either from
layers, cuttings, or eyes ; and provided the plants be well rooted, and the wood ripe,
many are of opinion that it is a matter of indifference from which class the choice is
made. Justice prefers plants raised from cuttings, as likely to have ripened roots ; but
where they have to be sent from a distance, he prefers to plants, cuttings containing an
inch or two of the old wood, and twelve or fourteen inches of the new. These he plants
at once where they are to remain, as practised in France. Speechly prefers plants which
have been raised from the eye, for the following reasons : " They have more abundant
roots, grow shorter jointed, are more prolific, and will, if permitted, come into bearing
the second vear." Abercrombie takes indifferently plants raised from cuttings or eyes ;
and M'Phail does not direct any preference. Nicol approves of " plants raised from
cuttings that have been two seasons in pots, and have been properly treated and trained
to a single shoot." The shoot of the first year should have been headed down to within
six or eight inches of the pot ; and that of last season to four, or, at most, five eyes.
" The plants should have been fresh potted into good earth last season, and should be
now in pots of nine or ten inches diameter, well rooted, and healthy. Such plants are
much to be preferred to those raised from layers that are seldom well rooted, and never
grow so freely as plants raised from cuttings. "
2955. Cuttings and eyes. It may be remarked, that the most general mode of pro-
pagating the vine at present, in the best nurseries, is from buds or eyes ; and that, both
as the cause and effect, such plants are made choice of by most gardeners. The great ob-
jection to layers is, that being propagated in the open air, they grow till checked by frost,
and then do not ripen their roots, which generally die off, so that the plants make very
weak shoots the first year after planting. Layers kept in the nursery one year after being
separated from the mother plant, are, of course, not so liable to this objection. Plants
raised from cuttings or eyes, having no adventitious support, produce no more roots than
what the shoot and leaves enable them to ripen, and at two years' growth, may be justly
considered as the best description of plants for stocking a house.
2956. Expeditious propagation. Neill (Edin. Enci/c. art. Hort.) describes * an in-
comparably more speedy mode of storing a new grape-house," than that of employing any
description of plants to be procured from a nursery.
2957. This mode is only to be adopted " where a vinery previously exists in the garden, or where there is
a friend's vinery in the neighborhood. It is practised 'frequently at the gardens of Dalkeith House, by
James Macdonald, head gardener there, and a distinguished member of the Caledonian Horticultural So-
ciety ; and Neill has been an ocular witness of « its complete success.' In the end of June or beginning of
Julv, when the vines have made new shoots from ten to twelve feet long, and about the time of the fruit
setting, he selects anv supernumerarv shoots, and, loosening them from the trellis, bends them down so as
to make them form a' double or flexure in a pot filled with earth, generally a mixture of loam and vegetable
mould ; taking care to make a portion of last year's wood, containing a joint, pass into the soil in the pot
The earth is kept in a wet state ; and at the same time a moist warm air is maintained in the house. In
about a week or ten davs, roots are found to have proceeded plentifully from the joint of last year's wood,
and these mav be seen by merely stirring the surface of the earth ; or sometimes they may be observed
penetrating to its surface. The laver may now be safely detached. Very frequently it contains one or two
bunches of grapes, which continue'to grow and come to perfection. A layer cut off in the beginning of July
generallv attains, by the end of October, the length of fifteen or twenty feet. A new grape-house, there-
fore, might in this way be as completelv furnished with plants in three months, as by the usual method,
above described, in three vears. Supposing the lavers to be made on the 1st of July, they might be cut,
and removed to the new house on the Pth : by the 9th of October, the roof would be completely covered
with shoots, and next season the house would vield a full crop of grapes. It is not meant that they should
be allowed to do so, if permanently bearing plants be wished for ; on the contrary, they should be suffered
to carrv onlv a verv moderate crop, as it is pretty evident that the roots could not sustain the demand of a
full one, or at any rate, that the plants would necessarily show their exhausted state, by barrenness in the
following season. By this means the more delicate kinds, as the Frontignac, may be quickly propagated ;
we have seen lavers of the Gibraltar or red Hamburgh made in the beginning of July, reach the length of
thirteen feet before the end of the month, vielding at the same time two or three bunches of grapes. The
more hardv, such as the white muscadine, form still stronger plants in that space of time. Little difficulty
is experienced in removing the plants from the pots into the holes prepared for them : if there be fears
of preserving a ball of earth to the new roots, the pots may be sunk with them, and then broken and re-
moved ; or the plants mav be kept in the pots till autumn, when they may very easily be taken out of them
without detriment. Mac'donald's experience does not lead him to think that plants propagated in this
way are less durable than those procured bv slower means, and where the roots and branches bear a rela-
tive proportion to each other. But supposing they were found to be less durable, it is evident that one may
thus very easily keep grape-houses constantly stored with healthy fruit-bearing plants, and that the kinds
may be changed almost at pleasure. "When 'it happens that too much bearing wood has been trained in,
the plants are relieved, and sufficient sun and air admitted, by thus removing two or three shoots ; and
supposing these to contain each several bunches of some fine sort of grape, they are not lost, but may be
ripened, by setting the pots on the side shelves, or flue-trellis, of the pinery, or any hot-house." We have
tried this mode with success, and find it greatly aided by ringing the larger at or below the tongue.
Book I. CULTURE OF THE VINERY. 543
2958. Choice by anticipation. A mode of very general utility is to select the plants in
the nursery a year before wanted, and to order them to be potted into very large pots,
baskets, or tubs, filled with the richest earth, and plunged in a tan-bed. They will thus
make shoots, which, the first year after removal to their final destination, will, under or-
dinary circumstances, produce fruit.
2959. Planting inside or oiUside the house. Vines are commonly either trained against
the back wall, or on a trellis under the glass roof. In the former case, the plants are al-
ways placed inside the house ; but in the latter, there are two opinions among practical
men, one in favor of planting them outside, and the other inside the parapet wall. Where
the vines are to be drawn out when in a dormant state, as is generally the case with those
trained under the rafters of pineries, there can be no question that outside planting must
be adopted ; but for vineries, where this practice is not requisite, it seems preferable to
plant them inside. This is Nicol's practice, who places one plant " behind the parapet,
and between it and the front flue, in the centre of each light."
2960. Mode of planting. Abercrombie says, "Let them be carefully turned out of
the pots, reducing the balls a little, and singling out the matted roots. Then place them
in the pits, just as deep in the earth as they were before, carefully spreading out
the fibres, and filling in with fine sifted earth, or with vegetable mould. Settle all with
a little water ; and let them have plenty of free air every day, defending them from very
severe frost or much wet ; which is all the care they will require, till they begin to push
young shoots."
2961. Judd's mode of planting seems to be excellent in its kind ; it is founded on the principle of
increasing the number of mouths or feeders of the roots of plants (740.), to enable them to search for,
and take up food, rather than gorging such as they may have with too much food, or with food of too
rich a quality. The vines being raised from single eyes in March, were in the March of the following year
cut down to one eye, and put in bottom heat till they produced shoots of sufficient length to draw through
the holes in the parapet of his vinery, or about two feet ; afterwards they were hardened in the green-
house, where a temperature was kept of about 60°, and there they grew two feet more. Holes were opened
in the vine border in the beginning of May, and in about a fortnight after, a wheelbarrow full of old tan,
or earth of tan, was put in each hole, in the middle of which the roots of the pine-plants remained alter
being treated as follows. " The leaves were cut off from the lower part of the plant, about two feet and
a half of its length ; the end of the shoot was then drawn very carefully through the hole, so that the
pot being removed, the ball was placed two feet distant from the front of the house, upon its side, so that
the stem lay in a horizontal position, about six inches below the level of the surface of the border. When
thus placed, the whole of the stem which was to be covered was slit, or tongued, at each eye, like a
carnation layer, by passing a sharp penknife at three quarters of an inch below each eye, and on the side
of the eye, about one third of the thickness into the wood, and then upwards to the centre of the joint.
This being done, the stem was covered with about four inches of old tan, and the other two inches were
filled up with the mould of the border." It is essential to the safety of the shoot, that the slitting be done
the last thing, and whilst it is laid in its position, lest the stem should be broken. By slitting the stem,
he adds, " abundance of roots are produced from every eye : the progress of the shoot is not very
great until the roots begin to push out ;" after which, however, it is so surprising that those under Judd's
management were from twenty-five to thirty feet in length, and of proportionate strength. {Hort. Trans.
iv. 4>.)
2962. Season of planting. As the plants are generally in pots, and may be turned out
with balls, they may be planted in almost any month in the year ; but the autumn or
spring months are of course to be preferred. Nicol says, " I have planted grape-houses
in May, and in June, that have succeeded so well, as that the plants have reached the top
of the house before November in the same years. They were kept in pots, and so care-
fully turned out of them in transplanting, as that the plants experienced no check, although
sprung many inches. I have also done the like with peaches."
2963. Distance. Speechly disapproves of the common practice of planting all the dif-
ferent sorts of grapes at the same distances, and advises a larger or less space to be allowed,
in proportion to the natural character and qualities of the plant. Vines planted at three
or four feet apart he considers as crowded ; for though by this mode a house will soon
get furnished, and tolerable crops of grapes be produced in a few years ; yet after remain-
ing many years so close together they will be cramped in their growth for want of room,
and thereby rendered less productive. On a wall or trellis twelve feet high, he recom-
mends six feet between plant and plant for the weak and delicate kinds, and twelve feet
for those that grow robust and strong. But in order to obtain a crop of grapes as soon
as possible, he proposes to introduce temporary plants between the principals ; such tem-
porary plants to have been grown two or three years, in large pots, so as to come imme-
diately into bearing, and to be trained so as to occupy the upper parts of the wall, while
the principals are furnishing it below. {Treat, on Vine, 102.)
2964. Temporary plants. " At first planting a house," Abercrombie observes, " some
of the vines may be introduced as temporary plants. After the wood from a good stool is
able to cover the space between two or more lights, plants less vigorous, or which bear
fruit not so well approved, may be taken quite away. A vinery is better adapted for cul-
tivating a single plant to a considerable extent than a hot-house."
2965. Pruning and training. The opinions of authors and practical men on this sub-
ject are very various ; and each, as M' Phail observes, lays " much stress on his own mode ;"
he adds, " but I am of opinion, that to have good crops of grapes much more depends
544
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
on the soil they are planted in, and the climate in which they are kept, than on any me-
thods of pruning or training that have been, or ever can be, adopted." In this sentiment,
every person of observation who has seen a number of the vineries in this country, or
vineyards on the continent, must entirely concur : but as every operation of art is,
or ought to be, conducted in a manner suitable to the end in view, it is highly necessary
that system should enter into this as into every thing else. We shall, therefore, give
the various opinions of practical men as to training vines in vineries, in chronological
series, beginning with Speechly, the Moses, as he may be called, of modern British
vine-dressers.
2966. Speedily 's mode qfprurb- 455
ing and training. Speechly, hav-
ing planted a vine against a wall
or roof-trellis, cuts it down to
two eyes or buds (Jig. 455. a) ;
the next winter the shoots of the
preceding summer are shortened
each to one eye (b) ; two leading
shoots are produced, trained up-
right during summer, and in the
following winter headed down to
from three to five feet each, and
laid in horizontally parallel to the
ground, and about a foot above
it (c) ; these main stems pro-
duce shoots from every eye, but
only a few are selected, which
stand from a foot to fifteen inches
apart, and these are trained up-
wards during summer, and in
winter every other one is cut out
to within two or three eyes of
the main stem, and the rest
shortened to one third of the
length of the trellis (d). The
following summer, the third, a
moderate crop will be produced
from the side shoots of the wood
of the preceding year, and from
the spurs on the main stem. In
the winter following, the shoots
which have produced the fruit
are shortened down to two eyes,
excepting the leaders to the long
shoots, which are left with four
or five eyes (e). Next summer, the fourth, the top of the roof, or wall, will be reached
by the leading shoots, and the spurs are now allowed to produce each one leader. In
winter, both of these leaders are headed down to four or five eyes, and the side shoots,
from the old wood, to one or two eyes (J). In the following summer, the fifth, a full
crop of grapes is produced in every part of the house. This constitutes one course or
rotation ; and the next, and all the future courses, extend only to four years, in which
the object is to renew the upright bearers every fourth year, the intervening spurs fur-
nishing shoots to succeed them. This method is called perpendicular, spur, or Dutch
training : but few who adopt it pursue it so regularly as to renew the old upright shoots
every fourth year, by which, and for other causes, and chiefly the small quantity of fruit
produced during the first four years, it has fallen into disrepute.
2967. Abercrombic's " methods of pruning established vines" admits of much diversity of method, as the
plants are in different situations. Without reckoning the cutting down of young or weak plants, alter-
nately, to the lowermost summer shoot, which is but a temporary course, three different systems of prun-
ing have their advocates.
2968. The first method is applicable only to vines out of doors ; but it maybe transferred to plants in a
vinery without any capital alteration. In this method, one perpendicular leader is trained from the stem, at
the side of which, to the right and left, the ramifications spring. When the plant is established, the imme-
diate-hearers, or shoots of the growing season, and themother bearers, or shoots of the last year's growth,
are thus managed. Soon after the growing season has commenced, such rising shoots as either are in fruit
and fit to be retained, or are eligibly placed for mother bearers next season, are laid in, either horizontally
or with a slight diagonal rise, at something less than a foot distance, measuring from one bearing shoot to
the next : the rising shoots, intended to form young wood, should be taken as near the origin of the
branch as a good one offers, to allow of cutting away, beyond the adopted lateral, a greater quantity of
the branch, as it becomes old wood ; the new-sprung laterals, not wanted for one of these two objects, are
£ inched off. The treatment of those retained, during the rest of the summer, thus differs. As the shoots
» bearing extend in growth, they are kept stopped about two eyes beyond the fruit : — the connate shoots,
dL
Book I.
CULTURE OF THE VINERY.
545
cultivated merely to enlarge the provision of wood, are divested of embryo bunches, if they show any ;
but are trained at full length as they advance during the summer, until they reach the allotted bounds :
were they stopped in the middle of their growth, it would cause them to throw out troublesome laterals
In the winter pruning, there will thus be a great choice of mother bearers. That nearest the origin
of the former mother bearer, or most commodiously placed, is retained, and the other or others on the
same branch are cut away; the rest of the branch is also taken off, so that the old wood may terminate
with the adopted lateral : the adopted shoot is then shortened to two, three, four, or a greater number of
eyes, according to its place on the vine, its own strength, or the strength of the vine. The lower shoots
are pruned-in the shortest, in order to keep the means of always supplying young wood at the bottom of
the tree.
2969. The second method is to head down the natural leader, so as to cause it to throw out two, three,
or more principal shoots ; these are trained as leading branches ; and in the winter pruning are not
reduced, unless to shape them to the limits of the house, or unless the plant appears too weak to
sustain them at length. Laterals from these are cultivated about twelve inches apart, as mother bearers ;
those in fruit are stopped in summer, and after the fall of the leaf are cut-in to one or two eyes. From
the appearance of the mother bearers, thus shortened, this has been called spur-pruning.
2970. The third method seems to flow from taking the second plan as a foundation, in having more than
one aspiring leader; and from joining the superstructure of the first system immediately to this, in
reserving well placed shoots to come in as bearing-wood. Thus, supposing a stem, which has been
headed, to send up four vigorous competing leaders, two are suffered to bear fruit ; and two are divested
of such buds as break into clusters, and trained to the length of ten, twelve, fifteen feet, or more,
for mother bearers next season. In the winter pruning, the leaders which have borne a crop are cut
down to within two eyes of the stool, or less, according to the strength of the plant; while the reserved
shoots lose no more of their tops than is necessary to adjust them to the trellis.
2971. M'Phail also describes three modes of priming the vine; the first, or fruit-tree
manner, he calls the old method, the general shape of the plant when pruned and trained
being like that of a trained peach 456
(Jig. 456. ) ; the second he agrees
with Abercrombie in calling
spur-jrruning (fig. 455. ) ; and the
third he calls the long or new
method (Jig. 459.) ; " though,"
he adds, " I understand by
books (Sivitzer and The Retired
Gardener), that it was in practice
nearly one hundred years ago,
and I saw it in practice forty years
since." It is singular that this
old method of M'Phail should
have been recently described and
figured by a German horticul-
turist, as a new and " experi-
mentally proved superior method of vine culture ;" Versuch einer durch Erfahrung
erproblen methode den Weinbau zu verbessern, von J. C. Kecht, Berlin, 8vo. 1813.
2972. Forsytti 's method of vine train- 457
ing nearly resembles that of Speechly ;
but instead of laying-in the shoots in a
straight direction, either upright or ho-
rizontal, he bends and attaches them
in a serpentine form (Jig. 457.), which
has some effect in the open air, or
under gentle forcing, of making them
break more regularly : though even
this is denied by some, who contend
that, so treated, they break only at the
angles or bends.
2973. NicoVs opinion, as to the dif-
ferent modes of training, is in unison with
M'Phail's and our own. He says, " With respect to the manner in which vines should be
trained, opinions are at variance. Some advise training the shoots in a straight and
direct manner ; others in a horizontal manner ; and others in a serpentine form. If
grapes be otherwise well managed, they will do well in any of the above ways ; and I
have just to observe, with respect to the last-mentioned method, that it necessarily leads
to more confusion, particularly with regard to the training-in of the summer wood, than
either of the preceding methods. On dwarf-walls or trellises, the horizontal or zigzag
manner of Hitt (Jig. 386. g.), or Forsyth (Jig. 457.), may he very proper; but in a
properly constructed and properly planted grape-house, the most sensible manner of
training, in my opinion, is directly up the roof."
2974. The first year after planting, " after the buds have sprung an inch or two, it will be proper to single
out those to be trained, and displace the others with the thumb. Three shoots only should be trained on
each plant ; that is, the two lowermost, and the uppermost, if it be vigorous ; but otherwise displace it,
and train the next below it. As the shoots advance, they should be trained at the distance of ten or
twelve inches from each other; allowing them sufficient room in the ties to swell without being bound.
Pinch off all laterals as they appear, except one or two nearest to the point of the shoot, lest by any acci-
Nn
546
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
dent it be broken, and in that pase, that a substitute may readily be found; which, however, is never
equal to the main shoot ; so that great care should be taken in the training of principal leaders. One
side shoot of each plant may be stopped when it is five or six feet in length, and the other when nine or
ten, (as they are to be cut well down in the winter pruning,) which will throw in the more strength to
the middle shoots, that are only to be headed down to about six or eight feet, and which, if well
ripened, may yield a few fruit next season. These should be encouraged, therefore, and be carefully
trained, as long as they will grow."
2975. In the end of the season, say in the month of November, "these shoots," Nicol observes, " are to
be pruned thus : the side shoot, stopped first, to three eyes ; the other to five or six feet ; and the middle
shoot, to seven, eight, or ten feet, according to its strength : from which may be expected a good deal of
fruit next season, and a shoot from its extremity, to be stopped at the top of the house, this time twelve-
month. From the side shoot, pruned to five or six feet, may be expected a few fruit ; and from its ex-
tremity, a shoot to be headed at this time next year, at nine or ten feet in length, which will, the season
following thereafter, produce a full crop. From the side shoot, shortened to three eyes, are to be expected
two shoots ; the one to be trained to the height of about nine or ten feet (to be pruned to five or six at
this time next year) ; and the other to four or five only, as it is again to be pruned back to two or three
buds this time twelvemonth ; thus providing for wood to fill the under part of the trellis."
2976. Bearing shoots. In a properly constructed grape-house, the plants trained up the roof, and the house
filled with wood, "there should be," Nicol observes, "three ranges of bearing shoots; viz. one range, at
bottom of the trellis, from end to end of the house, reaching from within two feet of the ground, five or
six more feet upwards ; a second, reaching from a foot, or perhaps two feet under the tops of these, that
is, from within seven or eight feet of the ground, to the distance of fourteen or fifteen feet upwards from
it ; and a third range, reaching from a foot or two under the tops of these last, to the uppermost row of
wires on the trellis : the shoots of the first, or lower range, being headed at about five or six feet ; those
of the second, or middle range, at about seven or eight ; and those of the third, or uppermost, at about
nine or ten feet in length ; all a foot or two, more or less, according to circumstances, according to their
strengths, how low or how high upon the plants they have issued, and how far they have sprung, and are
fully matured. The distance at which these shoots should be placed from each other, in their respective
ranges, is about thirty inches ; which distance is necessary to give room to the stubs of next year, on which
the clusters are to hang, as in this season ; and which distance may be varied a few inches, according to the
kinds of grapes, some growing stronger than others. The undermost shoots on the trellis, or those placed
nearest to the ground, and which were only trained to the height of a few feet, must be shortened back
to two or three joints ; it being a principal point in the training of vines, always to provide for a supply of
bottom wood, and to keep young wood as near to the ground, or lower parts of the plants, as possible."
2977. Cutting and laying in the shoots. " In pruning, cut generally at two inches above the bud. Some cut
nearer, even as near as half an inch, which is apt to weaken the shoot of next season, and sometimes to
prevent its vegetating at all ; the buds being very susceptible of injury, on account of the soft and spongy
nature of the wood. In the cutting out of old wood, be careful to cut in a sloping direction, and to
smooth the edges of the wound, in order to prevent its being injured by moisture. The pruning being
finished, let the loose, shreddy, outward rind on the old wood be carefully peeled off, observing not to
injure the sound bark, and clear the trellis and branches of leaves, tendrils, &c. Let the shoots
and branches be afterwards regularly laid in, at the distances above specified, particularly the young
shoots that are expected to bear next season. As to the others, it is not so material ; nor is it ma-
terial how near the young shoots be placed to the old, or even though they sometimes cross them.
Choose strands of fresh matting, or packthread, to tie with ; and observe to leave suificient room for the
swelling of the shoots and branches next season, as often already cautioned."
2978. General treatment after pruning. " The house should be shut up at nights, for ten days or a fortnight,
after being pruned, particularly if there be any appearance of frost ; admitting air freely through the day.
It is proper to keep the plants from the extremes of heat or cold for some time, in order that their pores
may contract, and the wounds may heal gradually ; as otherwise they are apt to bleed now, and to break
out afresh on the application of fire-heat in the spring. When they are judged to be safe, expose the
house night and day."
2979. Hayward's pruning and 458
training proceeds on the opinion,
u that the greater length the sap has
to pass through the body of the vine,
the more abundant, fine, and high-
flavored will the fruit be ;" he re-
commends introducing only one plant
in a vinery, and training it over the
whole trellis, either in horizontal
shoots from two main leaders (Jig.
458. a) ; or in his wavy manner (6) ;
and he can, as the tree advances in
growth, gradually convert the latter
into the former mode.
2980. Setons training. A very scientific mode of training vines under a glass roof,
has been adopted at Stamford HiU, by J. Seton, Esq. one of our most enlightened horti-
culturists, and practised by him for several years with considerable success. It is thus
described : —
2981. The vine having, like other trees, a tendency to produce its most vigorous shoots at the extremities of the
branches, and particularly so at those which are situated highest, it generally happens, when it is trained,
as is most frequently done, across and upwards, from the front to the back of the house, that the greater
portion of the fruit is borne near the top, while the lower parts are comparatively barren. This takes
place, whether the branches be made to consist chiefly of vigorous terminal shoots, preserved at con-
siderable length, or the leading shoots be kept short, and lateral spurs be left for the production of the
fruit ; but in the latter case, the evil exists in a smaller degree : for the spurs, or short lateral branches,
divert the sap in its ascent, producing, by means of its flowing to their extremities, an approximation to
the effect of long branches. The same inconvenience would occur, to a certain extent, if the vines were
trained in a like manner in the open air, but it is greatly augmented in a house, in consequence of the
air being much hotter, as every one knows, at the top than beneath. Having observed that the fruit pro-
duced on the vigorous shoots, which usually grow s£ the extremities of the long branches, is, generally,
more abundant, and of a finer quality, than that produced on the short lateral ones, I was desirous to
promote the growth and preservation of the former ; but the usual mode of training the branches across
the house and upwards, being subject to the objection before-mentioned, and little scope being afforded for
-r- — ■*-— ' — ' *— ■' ■■■^
Book I. CULTURE OF THE VINERY. 547
it in a house of small dimensions, I thought I should obviate these inconveniences, in great part, and
attain another object, presently to be mentioned, by training the branches in a horizontal direction, and
keeping the whole of the fruit-bearing part of each tree nearly on the same level.
2982. Five vines ivere planted at the ends of a house, twenty-Jive feet in length, for this purpose, provided
with rods placed horizontally under the glass of the roof, twenty inches asunder, and extending from end
to end. The first vine, placed at one end, being trained up to the two lower rods, a shoot of it was laid
along each of them, and continued successively from year to year, till it reached the other end : then the
shoot on the lower rod was turned upwards to the next, and led back upon it towards the stem of the
tree; while that on the upper rod was turned down, and led back, in like manner, on the lower one.
During this process, a sufficient number of spurs, or short branches, was left annually on the old wood,
to produce fruit. When the leading shoots, which had been thus trained in a retrograde direction, ap.
proached towards the end, whence the original branches proceeded, preparation was made for a succession
of young wood, bringing forward two fresh shoots from the stem of the tree, and leading them along
close to the preceding ones. As these, and the leading shoots of the first branches, which were then on
their return, advanced, the spurs on that part of the old wood, to which they had reached, were cut out
to make room for them, the naked stem only being left. When the second series of branches had re-
turned nearly to the end, at which the trunk was situated, the first series, on which there was then but
little of the herbage remaining, was cut out at the trunk. Fresh shoots were then brought forward to
succeed the second series ; and so on without end. It would be superfluous to dwell on the mode of
managing the other trees ; as it will be perceived that, following the same principle, they must be laid
along the higher rods in succession, two rods being allowed to each tree ; and when the stem is not at the
end of the house, two branches are to be trained eastward, and two westward, along the rod. Thus, in a
house of twenty-five feet in length, instead of having only fifteen or sixteen feet, to admit of the length
of a branch, as would be the case under the usual mode of training across the house, we have a range of
thirty feet, which affords ample scope for the long shoots at the extremities ; and these, I find, when laid
on in the horizontal position, and left from three to five feet long, according to their strength, usually bear
fruit at all their buds, while the spurs on the old wood are also very productive. By these means, the
tree possesses the double advantage of no part of it being robbed of its nourishment, by means of any other
vegetation, which is supplied from the same root, being situated either in a higher position or warmer
atmosphere. To what extent the former of these circumstances alone may operate, I cannot determine
from any actual experiment ; but, from the general observations I have made, that the growth of the
vine, as well as of other trees, is most luxuriant in the parts that are situated highest, I am inclined to
think, that its effects are very considerable. Others, who have made the same observation, have recom-
mended the training of the shoots in a zigzag manner, advancing upwards, with the view of retarding the
ascent of the sap through the inclined parts : this, however, I have found to have little or no effect, the
general direction of the shoot being upwards, through all the bendings. But whatever may be the effect
produced by the horizontality of the position, in equalising the luxuriance of the growth, I conceive that
no doubt will be entertained, in regard to that of a uniformity of temperature; and this is fullv
obtained by the method in question. I now come to the other object to be attained by the mode of
treatment, which will be stated in a few words, as the effects produced in regard to it will be very
evident.
2983. In the usual mode of management, each tree is under the influence, in its different parts, of all the
degrees of temperature in the house; but under the mode now proposed, each tree has its own peculiar
climate, to which alone all its parts are exposed. This affords us the command of a most convenient variety,
in regard to earliness in the ripening of fruit. For example, if there be a wish to save fuel, and yet to have
grapes of several varieties, which ripen at different seasons, of the late sorts there will, under the common
method, be only a few brought to perfection at the tops of the trees, whilst those that are near the bottom
will not ripen, and that part of those trees will accordingly be useless. But in the arrangement above de-
scribed, the early and late sorts may be procured at the same time in equal abundance and perfection, by
training the early sorts, let us suppose the sweetwater, at the bottom ; the middling ones, such as the black
Hambro', next ; and the late, such as the muscat of Alexandria, at the top. Again, ifit be wished to have
some very early, and others very late, the order may be reversed, by placing the early varieties at the top,
and the late at the bottom ; in which ease more fuel will be required. This method, it will be perceived,
may be varied in many ways, and will operate under all the degrees of forcing. (Hort. Trans, vol iii.
p. 9. to 13.)
2984. In Griffin's mode of training and pruning, only a single shoot is led up under each rafter. The
vine is planted outside, close to the parapet, and introduced through a hole immediately under the rafter
up which it is trained. On planting, it is cut down to one eye ; about Christmas, the shoot formed during
the preceding summer is cut down to two or three feet ; the second year one shoot only is trained from
the extremity, and it is again headed down in winter, so that the joint length of the two years' wood is
from ten to fifteen feet ; and at the Christmas of the third year, the shoot is cut off at the end of the rafter.
The fruit, it is obvious, is to be obtained from the side shoots, or spurs, proceeding from this main shoot.
The spurs are cut down to single eyes every winter, till the main shoots get coarse and rugged, which
will happen in about ten years ; it is then cut away entirely, a young stem having been previously trained
up the two preceding years from the bottom to substitute in its place. As soon as the plants become suf-
ficiently strong to furnish wood, from the point where they enter the house, for a second and third branch,
then a proper number must be fixed on as permanent plants, and their side branches brought successively
forward and trained to the contiguous rafters, " one bearing branch being applied to each rafter, and the
plants which originally belonged to these rafters taken away entirely." The weight of grapes produced by
the vine under each rafter by this mode of pruning is generally about forty pounds, two bunches to each
spur, or from fifty to a hundred bunches, averaging half a pound each. When the house is in forcing, the
branches are suspended from the rafter by strings from two to three feet long, fastened to nails or hooks
on each side the rafter ; by this means they are let down from the glass when danger from frost is appre-
hended, in the manner effected by the hinged rafter-trellis. (1677.) " I also contrive," adds this very
successful cultivator, " to spread the branches, when in bearing, on either side of the rafters, under the
glass, but so as not to occupy the whole space under the glass with the foliage, for I consider that very great
advantage arises to the fruit from giving free admission to the sun from the centre of each light." It will
be asked by some gardeners, what is done with the leading shoot at the end of every main stem ? This
Griffin " stops during its growth in the summer, leaving three or four joints at the utmost ; and these must
be cut away, at the time of pruning, down to the old wood, or nearly so : sometimes, to prevent the top of
the house being crowded, a little of the old wood at top may be cut off also, and replaced by the next year's
shoot." {Hort. Trans, iv. 104.)
2985. The long, or succession mode of pruning vines, may be exemplified in the practice
of Mearns of Shobden Court, Herefordshire. The vinery there, as at Wood Hall, is of
the common form, with wooden sashes and rafters ; the vines are planted inside the house,
at two feet and a half apart, nearly close to the front wall, and are headed down to
within a foot of the soil (Jig. 459. a). One shoot only is allowed to proceed from
each plant, which at the end of the first season is cut down to the second or third eye
(b). Next year, two leading shoots are encouraged, the strongest of which is stopped
Nn 2
548
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
when it has grown three or four joints beyond
the middle of the roof, and the weaker after
having grown three or four feet, for the purpose
of strengthening the eyes. At the fall of the
leaf, the leading shoots are reduced, the main
one to the length of the middle of the roof (c),
and the lower one to the third eye (rf). In the
third season, one leading shoot is trained in from
each shoot (c and d), and from the bearing shoot
(c), fruit-bearing side shoots are produced, one
bunch is left on each, and the shoot stopped at
one or two joints above it : no side shoots are
allowed to proceed from the spur (rf), the lead-
ing shoot from which is to become the bearing
wood for the next year. Thus in the autumn of
the third season the lower part of the house is
furnished with a crop of grapes from shoots pro-
ceeding from wood of the preceding year (e), and
parallel to this bearing shoot on each vine is the
young shoot for next year's crop. In winter,
the shoot from the extremity of the bearing
branch (e) is cut off at the top of the roof, or
within twelve or fifteen inches of it (g), and the
shoot (y) from the spur (c/) is cut down to the
middle of the roof, and all the spurs (on e) which
had borne the grapes are now cut out. Each vine
is now furnished with two shoots of bearing wood
(g,f), a part of old barren wood (<?), and a spur
for producing a young shoot the following year (A).
In the fourth summer a full crop is produced
both in the upper and lower half of the house ;
the longer shoot bearing on the upper half of its length, and the shorter on its whole
length ; a leading shoot is produced from the short shoot, and another from the spur.
In the pruning season of the fourth year, the centre shoot is entirely removed, and re-
placed by the side shoot (£), now the whole length of the roof, and this side shoot is in
its turn supplanted by the shoot (k) from the spur, while a spur (Z) is prepared to suc-
ceed it. This constitutes one rotation or period of the system of Mearns, which he has
followed since 1806, attended by abundant crops of large-sized bunches; and he con-
siders it may be continued for any length of time. (Hort. Trans, iv. 246.)
2986. In the garden of Marie Leerne, at Ghent, the vines are planted in front, on the
outside of the house. Every year a new set of wood is taken into the vinery : the
wood produced this year, is trained upright on an exterior trellis, and is next season
laid down to a sloping trellis, and made to yield its fruit within the house. The wood
which has once been forced is cut entirely out, and, from the same roots, new upright
shoots are annually required ; but unfortunately for the success of this plan these
shoots do not always ripen. {Hort. Tour. 62.)
2987. Summer pruning. This depends generally on the necessity of admitting light
and air to the fruit and young wood ; and particularly on the sort of winter pruning to
be adopted. " The gardener, therefore," as Nicol observes, " must have a predesti-
nating eye to the following season." " Whatever methods of pruning are used,"
M'Phail remarks, " the grape-vine, through the whole course of the growing season,
requires constant attendance, so as not to suffer the plant to be crowded in any part
with superfluous shoots or leaves, and no more fruit ought to be suffered to swell on the
plant than it is well able to bring to perfection. The berries also on each bunch
should be thinned, so that they may have room to swell, without pressing too hard
upon each other."
2988. Abercrombie and M'Phail agree in directing, that " as the shoots of newly planted vines advance, they
must be kept regularly fastened to the rafters. Divest them of their wires, and also take off their laterals
as they appear. The vines in general may be permitted to run twenty feet, and the most vigorous thirty-
five feet, before they are stopped, if the rafters extend so far. Sometimes a vigorous shoot, having ex-
tended the width of the house, is conducted either in a returning direction down a contiguous rafter, or
laterally along the top of the stove, as may be most convenient. Stop the shoots by pinching off their
tdps. After they have been stopped, they usually send out laterals from three or four of the upper eyes.
If these laterals are at once taken off, the sap will be merely diverted to the lower part of the shoot ;
permit them, therefore, to proceed about twelve inches, and then pinch off their tops. These shortened
laterals will, in their turn, send out others, which should be stopped at the second joint"
2989. In the second season, " as soon as the shoots are half a span long, the rudiments of the bunches will
be perceptible. The bunch is produced on the naked side of the shoot, opposite the leaf-bud. Having
ascertained the most promising shoots, divest the vines of supernumerary branches as they rise. Fruitful
laterals will sometimes show two or three bunches at each eye ; and this is apt to tempt the pruner to
retain too many. On the leading shoot, retain of the best laterals, to the right and left, a number pro-
Book I. CULTURE OF THE VINERY. 549
portioned to the vigor and age of the plant : one on each side, as near the bottom as it offers, with a
second, third, fourth, up to seven, at the distance of three feet, if the plant is in its fourth summer, but
only five, at the distance of four feet, if this be the third summer since the plant was struck. Train the
shoots reserved on each side the rafter, tying them to the trellis with strands of matting. Leave on each
branch two bunches, or a single bunch ; according as the plant is in the fourth or third season from its
origin : pinch off the others. Afterwards stop the bearing laterals at the second joint above the fruit.
Rub off water-shoots from the older wood. Pinch off' inferior laterals and tendrils."
2990. Nicol observes that most of the summer pruning of vines may be performed with the fingers, with-
out a knife, " the shoots to be displaced being easily rubbed off, and those to be shortened, being brittle,
are readily pinched asunder." After selecting the shoots to be trained for the production of a crop next
season, and others necessary for filling the trellis from the bottom, which shoots should generally be laid
in at the distance of a foot or fifteen inches from each other, rub off all the others that have no clus-
ters, and shorten those that have at one joint above the uppermost cluster. For this purpose, go over the
plants every three or four days, till all the shoots in fruit have shown their clusters ; at the same time
rubbing off any water-shoots that may rise from the old wood.
2991. Train in the shoots to be retained, as they advance ; using strands of fresh matting, and allowing
sufficient room in the ties for the swelling of the shoots. Likewise pinch off all laterals and tendrils, every
time you go over the plants, as these only tend to confusion, and take greatly from the strength of the
clusters.
2992. If there be an under trellis, on which to train the summer shoots, they may, when six or eight feet
in length, or when the grapes are swelling, be let down to it, that the fruit may enjoy the full air and light,
as it advances towards maturity. Such of these shoots as issue from the bottom, and are to be shortened
in the winter pruning to a few eyes, merely for the production of wood to fill the trellis, may be stopped
when they have grown to the length of four or five feet. Others that are intended to be cut down to
about two yards, and which issue at different heights, may be stopped when they have run three yards or
ten feet, less or more, according to their strength. And those intended to be cut at, or near to, the top of
the house, should be trained a yard or two down the back wall (a trellis being placed against it purposely) ;
or they may be run right or left a few feet on the uppermost wire.
2993. In order to be a good trainer of vines, and be able to provide for a crop the following
season, a man must have some forethought, and be capable of making his selections, as the plants shoot,
even at this distance of time. He must predetermine how he shall prune, and where he shall cut, at
the end of the season ; and so, as it were, fashion the plants to his mind. He has this more effectually
in his power, with respect to the vine, than any other fruit-tree, on account of its rapid growth and
docility.
2994. The stubs, or short shoots, on which the clusters are placed, will probably push again after being
stopped, if the plants be vigorous. If so, stop them again and again ; but after the fruit are half grown,
they will seldom spring. Observe to divest the shoots, in training, of all laterals as they appear, except
the uppermost on each ; in order to provide against accidents, as hinted at above, in training the new-
planted vines. When these shoots are stopped, as directed above, they will push again. Allow the lateral
that pushes to run a few joints, and then shorten it back to one; and so on, as it pushes, until it stop
entirely. When the proper shoot gets ripened nearly to the top, the whole may be cut back to the origi-
nally shortened part, or to one joint above it, if there be reason to fear that the uppermost bud of the pro-
per shoot will start.
2995. Divest the plants of all damped or decayed leaves, as they appear, as such will sometimes occur in
continued hazy weather ; and some may be bruised by the glass, in moving the sashes for the admission
of air, or by other accidents.
2996. Hat/ward, in the summer prunings, takes off all collaterals as they arise, and any shoots which,
though laid in for fruit, turn out unproductive, that the whole strength of the tree may be properly ap-
plied. (Hort. Trans, vol. i. 172.)
2997. Mearns in his summer pruning stops the bearing branches at the bunch, instead of the next joint
above it, which is the usual practice ; " for I found that the fruit did equally well, and it divested the
branch of an incumbrance, while it allowed a much larger portion of light to come into the house, together
with a more free circulation of air among the fruit and young wood. I blind all the eyes on each fruit-
spur as soon as they push, except the uppermost, which I retain, to draw up the sap to nourish the fruit :
I never suffer them to push above a joint or two before I pinch them back, always cautiously retaining an
eye, and am particularly cautious that nothing should happen to injure the leaf that accompanies the
bunch, for if that is lost, the fruit of course will come to nothing." {Hort. Trans, iv. 255.)
299S. Thinning the leaves and fruit. " Every one of penetration and discernment,"
Nicol observes, " will admit the utility of thinning the berries on bunches of grapes, in
order that they may have room to swell fully ; and further, that of supporting the
shoulders of such clusters of the large-growing kinds as hang loosely, and require to be
suspended to the trellis or branches, nn order to prevent the bad effects of damp or '
mouldiness in over-moist seasons. Of these, the Hamburgh, Lombardy, royal mus-
cadine, raisin, St. Peter's, Syrian, Tokay, and others, should have their shoulders sus-
pended to the trellis, or to the branches, by strands of fresh matting, when the berries
are about the size of garden-peas. At the same time, the clusters should be regularly
thinned out, with narrow pointed scissors, to the extent of from a fourth to a third
part of the berries. The other close-growing kinds, as the Frontignacs, muscats, &c,
should likewise be moderately thinned ; observing to thin out the small seedless ber-
ries only of the muscadine, sweetwater, and flame-colored Tokay. In this manner,
handsome bunches and full-swelled berries may be obtained ; but more so, if the clus-
ters on over-burdened plants be also moderately thinned away. Indeed, cutting off
the clusters, to a certain extent, of plants over-loaded and pushing weak wood, is the
only means by which to cause them to produce shoots fit to bear fruit next year ; and
this should be duly attended to, so long as the future welfare of the plants is a matter
of importance."
2999. Remedies for bleeding. " If the pruning has been timely, the vine is not liable
to bleed. When the sap rises before the wound is healed, bleeding ensues, and is not
easily stopped. This retards the plant ; and, out of doors, the loss of a few days is,
in some seasons, irreparable : but in other respects, the consequences of bleeding are
not so disastrous as many seem to apprehend ; and a gardener is sometimes surprised
by a subsequent crop of uncommon goodness. Innumerable remedies for bleeding have
been proposed : the following rank among die best. Sear the place, and cover it with
N n 3
550 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
mehed wax, or with warm pitch spread upon a piece of bladder, or peel off the outside
bark to some distance from the place ; and then press into the pores of the wood a
composition of pounded chalk and tar, mixed to the consistence of putty." (Abercrombie.)
3000. NicoFs remedy. Vines " will bleed in autumn, as well as in spring, though not so copiously at the
former season. The best preventative is timeous or early pruning in spring; and not pruning till the
wood is thoroughly ripe in autumn. Plants that have been pruned too late in the spring, and forced too
soon afterwards (a great mistake), will bleed, and the best remedy I know of is searing the end of the
shoots by a hot poker, or rod of iron, in order to dry it, and then to apply hot wax."
3001. Switzer, to stop bleeding, opens a hole at the roots with a spade, and pours in a few pailfuls of cold
water, which he says will have a sure and immediate effect As this must be by chilling the roots and
weakening the vital functions, it seems questionable whether the remedy may not be worse than the
disease. *
3002. Speechly's remedy for bleeding is to peel off or divest that part of the branch adjoining the wound of
all the outside bark ; then with a sponge dry up the moisture, and immediately wrapt round the wounded
part a piece of an ox's bladder, spread over with tar, or pitch made warm, in the manner of a plaster.
Then tie the whole securely with a strong thread, well rubbed with bees' wax. These must remain for
three weeks or a month. (TV. on the Vine, 145.)
3003. Knight's remedy consists of four parts of scraped cheese to be added to one part of calcined oyster-
shells or other pure calcareous earth, and this composition pressed strongly into the pores of the wood.
" This done," he says, " the sap will instantly cease to flow." (Hort. Trans, vol. i.) When the vine is
in full leaf, it is not liable to bleed when cut ; therefore the largest branches may be cut off during the
growing season with perfect safety.
3004. Stirring the soil, mid culture of the borders. " The borders," Abercrombie
observes, " should be kept at all times clear from weeds. In winter and spring, the
surface of an open border should be turned with a three-pronged fork, not digging deep
so as to injure the roots. The design is merely to revive the surface. When it is ne-
cessary to recruit the soil, dig the exhausted part carefully up, and work in such a com-
post as has been described under Soil, or similar. The dung out of a cow-house, per-
fectly rotted, is a fine manure for the vine." He adds, " From the time the buds rise
till the fruit is set, manure the border once in ten days, with the drainings of the dung-
hill, poured over the roots of the plants."
3005. M'Phail recommends digging in rotten dung, and watering with dung- water from the melon-beds,
or with that which has run from a dunghill in a state of fermentation. Forking over, and working a little
short dung or compost, if thought necessary, is Nicol's preparation for the winter. A week or two pre-
viously to commencing to force, say about the middle of January (forcing to begin the first of February),
he directs the border to be pointed or forked over carefully ; and let it be watered all over with the
drainings of the dunghill ; which repeat at the end of four or five days, and also again at a light interval ;
giving as much as will sink down to the deepest -placed roots and fibres. The border on the outside should
also be covered, or rather should already have been covered, to a good thickness, with stable-yard dung ;
not, however, mere litter, but good fres'h dung, the juices of which may be washed down to the benefit
of the roots. The intention of this covering is to answer as a manure ; and also to keep severe frost
from the roots, from the time the sap is put in motion, till the spring be so far advanced as that the plants
shall sustain no injury. Previous to laving on the dung, the border should be pointed or forked over,
that the juices may descend the more readily to the roots, and not be washed off.
3006. Speechly covered the vine-border in front of his hot-house with gravel ; the best gardeners do not
crop them at all, or only with the most temporary crops of vegetables.
3007. Time if beginning to force. " The growing season of our climate," Aber-
crombie remarks, " does not last long enough to bring out, swell to full size, and per-
fectly ripen, the fruit and summer shoots of the vine. Hence, when the artificial ex-
citement, applied to this plant,' begins just before the natural spring, and is continued
till the leaves fall, the plant is beneficially assisted under a deficient climate rather than
forced. The best time to begin to force is the first of March, if the object be simply to
obtain grapes.in perfection moderately early. In proportion as the start is accelerated
before this, the habits of a deciduous plant, and the adverse state of the weather, leave a
greater number of obstacles and discouraging contingencies to intercept final success.
Managers, however, who work a number of houses, and who have to provide, as well as
they can, against demands for grapes in early succession, begin to force about the 21st
of December, and, successively, in other houses, the 1st of January, 1st of February,
and so on. Attempts are even made, by bold speculators, to lay forward for a crop in
3Iarch, by beginning to force in August, and getting the fruit set before November :
but such labor and expense is often lost. The period of ripening is not early in pro-
portion to the time of beginning : when the course of forcing coincides nearly with the
natural growing season, ripe grapes may be cut in five months or less ; when short days
compose a third part of the course, in about six months ; when the course includes full
half the winter, it will last nearly seven months."
3008. M'Phail, in case grapes be not wanted very early, considers the month of February the best time
to begin to force. On the subject of very early forcing, this author remarks : " On the supposition that
the earliest crop of grapes was over by the end of June, and the glasses laid aside, or left open on the
house day and night, you mav, if it is desired to try to have grapes early in the spring, prune your vines
in Augus't, and put your house in order ; and if it is necessary to dig in manure about the roots and sterna
of the vines, let it be done. If vour border be dry, give it a good watering ; and if with dung-water, at
this time, it will help to enrich it When this is done, draw on your glasses, and keep the air in the
house to a moderate degree of heat, and vour vines will afterwards shoot out, and if they are in a fit
state for bearing, they will show fruit If you have not plenty of vines in other houses to succeed these,
it would not be advisable to begin to force at this season of the year, for there are several things that
might reasonably be urged against the probability of the success of this attempt to ripen grapes early in
the sprin" • but it may succeed, and therefore, it is worth giving it a trial. By custom, the vines can
be brought, as it were naturally, to shoot forth in the autumn, and their fruit maybe set before the
shortest days ; the greatest art will then, after that, be to preserve them through the dead of winter in
Book I. CULTURE OF THE VINERY. 551
a lively growing state. This can be done only by much attention, in making gentle fires, and admitting
an easy circulation of fresh air in the house every favorable opportunity."
3009. Nicol says, " Those who have two or three grape-houses, generally begin to force the earliest by
the first of the year, and sometimes even in November or December."
3010. In Holland, Speechly observes, " they begin to force the vines in November, in order to have
ripe grapes in April, and sometimes they succeed in producing them by the end of March, in pretty
good perfection."
3011. Griffin puts on the sashes and commences forcing early in January ; no fire is used the first week ;
in the second week a little fire is made every other night ; the third week the heat is kept from 50° to
52°, but not allowed to exceed 55° till the vines begin to break; from that time, until they blow, the
heat is kept between 52° and 57°; and whilst they are in bloom the heat is raised to between
57° and 65°. " Air is regularly given plentifully through all these stages, until the bloom appears,
when the house is kept close, except the sun be very powerful. When the bloom is past, attention
is paid to thinning the grapes, a regular heat is then kept up, and air in due quantity, as the weather
permits, is admitted, observing to give a larger proportion when the heat of the sun is strong, and always
shutting up the house early in the afternoon." The crop so treated generally ripens in July. {Hort.
Trans, hi. 106.)
3012. Care of outside stems. " At whatever season forcing commences, the stems of
vines planted outside the house should be guarded from the stagnating effects of cold,
by a bandage of hay, or moss and bass matting, round the bole, and a mulching of dry
litter over the root. The excluded stems must be protected in the same way at the com-
mencement of the forcing season. While the vines are young, it will also be advisable
to cover the outside border, in winter, with strawy dung taken from the outside of old
hot-beds." (Abercrombie.)
3013. Griffin keeps the stems of his vines inside the house moist, from the time of beginning to force
till the bunches show themselves, by daily watering them with a syringe. This, he says, contributes
materially to the production of vigorous shoots. Some gardeners wrap the stems round with moss, which
they keep moist for two or three months, for the same purpose. In hard forcing, practices of this sort are
particularly necessary.
3014. Temperature. " Begin," Abercrombie says, " at 50° min. 55° max. In a
week, raise the minimum to 55Q, and the maximum to 60°. Till the time of budding,
the temperature should not exceed 60° from artificial heat, and 64° from collected sun-
heat. After the buds are in full motion, it may be raised to 60° min. 64. max. from
fire, and 68° from sun-heat. By the time the bloom expands, the lowest effect from
the flues should be 66° : the highest may be 72° ; and when the sun's influence is strong,
let it be accumulated, by confining the interchange of air to the ventilators, till the
heat rise to 80°. After the fruit is set, the minimum should be 75°, and fresh air co-
piously admitted."
3015. M'Phail says, in beginning and continuing to force the vine, " nature should be imitated, by 'in-
creasing the heat as the days lengthen ; but it should be remembered, that to ripen the best sorts of
grapes, they require as great a heat as the pine-apple does to ripen it in the summer ; for the vine has no
artificial heat to its roots."
3016. Nicol's directions, supposing the forcing to commence on the first of February, are as follow :
" Make the fires so moderate as that the thermometer may not pass 50°, or at most 55Q, mornings and
evenings, until every bud in the house have begun to spring. This is a point of very great importance in
the forcing of grapes. If the forcing be commenced with a dash, as some fast-growing gardeners term it, and
if a high temperature be kept up from the beginning, the chance is, that a third or fourth part of the
buds will not push, and of course there will be a great falling off" in the expected crop. After the whole
of the shoots and buds are in an evident state of vegetation, the temperature may be gradually raised to
60°, 65Q, and 70°, at which it may continue till the bloom begin to open. This rise from 50° to70Q must
not be sudden : it should not be effected in less time than a fortnight ; or, if the plants be not in a very
strong state, three weeks, otherwise the shoots will push weakly." After the plants come into bloom, he
directs the heat to be raised to 75°. M'Phail and Abercrombie allow it to be a little higher " with the
sun heat, and if there be air at the house. When the fruits are ripening, the air of the house ought to
rise from 75° to 85°, with sun-heat and plenty of air." (Pr. Gr.)
3017. Mectrns, in forcing the vine, considers it of the utmost importance to the bold breaking of the buds,
and to the strength of the wood, not to force vines hard until the first leaves arrive nearly at their full
size. " After that period," he says, " I give them a much less portion of air, suffering the sun to raise the
thermometer to 90° or 100° before I give any. There is no danger of drawing the wood after that stage of
growth, and if the thermometer sinks at night to 60°, the vines will do better in a higher temperature in
the day." {Hort. Trans, iv. 254.)
3018. Air. Abercrombie directs this to be given pretty freely by the sashes till the
leaves unfold. Before the foliage is fully made out, begin to keep the house close, ad-
mitting air only by the ventilators ; and particularly observe to have a sultry, moist cli-
mate while the blossom is coming out, and until it is off and the fruit set. While the
fruit is swelling and ripening, the plants will want abundance of heat and air." (Pr.
Gr. 651.)
3019. M'Phail recommends a little air to be given during a part of the day while the thermometer is
above 65°, and the sun shines in the winter months, and abundance in the summer season when the heat
exceeds 75° or 80°.
3020. Nicol, in beginning to force, admits air freely every day, by opening the sashes in the ordinary way,
until the foliage begin to expand ; and to an extent that the thermometer may not rise to more than five
degrees above the fire-heat medium in sunshine ; thus bringing away the buds strong and vigorous. But
after the foliage begins to expand, except in fine weather, the house should be chiefly aired by means
of the ventilators, until the blossom is over, and the fruit begin to set ; or at least until the season become
mild.
3021. When grapes are setting, air need not be admitted so freely as before, grapes being found to set best
in a high moist heat. " A moderate circulation by the ventilators will be sufficient for the purpose, except
perhaps in clear sunshine ; when it may be necessary to open a few of the sashes at top, in order to let the rare-
fied air escape, and keep the temperature within due bounds. Air is to be increased as the season and growth
of the plants and fruit advance. When the fruit is ripening, it should be admitted more freely than here-
Nn 4
5J2
PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
tofore, in order to give the fruit flavor; for on this, and on the withholding of water, as advised above,
^^watAdrutatmosphele''for vines' is strongly recommended by Williams (Hort. Trans. L), because in it
" the'wood though of slower growth, is more compact, and the fruit more saccharine. Hence vines grow-
ing on the sides of mountains in the south of Europe, and in the dry warm province of La Mancha in
Smin vield richer grapes and make stronger wine, than when cultivated in the neighboring valleys,
where however, they experience greater warmth, and the fruit arrives sooner at maturity From the be-
ginning of July till the middle of October, he generally leaves several of the upper nghts of bis vinery open
about two or three inches all night."
3023. Watering and steaming. Abercrombie says, vines require a plentiful supply of
water~from the time the fruit is well set till it begins to color, particularly when the ber-
ries become transparent at the last swelling. Withhold water entirely when the grapes
approach maturity.
3024 M'Phail savs " If the vines be planted in the inside of the house, care should be taken to keep
them sufficientlv watered, and in dry weather, in the spring and summer, the border in the outside of the
house in which "the roots of the vines run, should get plentiful waterings. In order to keep the leaves and
fruit clean let the plants be washed occasionally with clean water, thrown on them by a tin squirt or en.
sine but take care that the decaying paint on the rafters be not washed down on the leaves and fruit,
which would stain and hurt them. Should there be any danger of that, it will answer the purpose fully as
well bv filling the house full of steam now and then, by sprinkling water on the flues when they are warm.
Alluding to the first stage of early forcing, the same author observes : " In some houses, the border or
Dart of the border in which the vine is planted, is in the inside of the house; where that is the case, let it
be watered and sprinkled now and then to keep it in a moist state. Water the flues sometimes when they
are hot which will produce a fine steam, very beneficial to the plants in promoting their growth, and in
preventing them from being infested by the red spider. Steam, however, should not be used too copiously.
If the border for the vines be in the house, or if there be plenty of plants in pots of earth in it, the evapor-
ation arising from the moist earth is generally sufficient to moisten the air properly ; and besides, there is
a continual draught of external air coming into the house among the plants; and it is known that the
common atmosphere contains moisture at all times, especially in cold weather when the ground is full of
rain from the clouds." In March, the fruit being set and swelling, he says, " \\ ater the borders in the
house and sprinkle them and the flues now and then with sweet clean water. If this be attended to and
. .' . *>.__ j .u. i ,.,« n;n ^ 1'ont ;n !. cmoor tfafp Thp vinps mav sometimes be watered all
air
over;
hurt with the decaying paint having L—
bv the force of the water. If the paths, flues, and borders in the house be sprinkled and watered occa-
sionally as I have directed, grape-vines will do without giving them water over their leaves and fruit, at
this season of the year ; though I by no means disapprove of washing them well, now and then, all over,
leaves and fruit provided it be done with clean water, and no filth driven on them from any part of the
house " From the time that grapes are swelled to a size that you can hardly perceive them to grow
larger" till the black sorts begin to change color, and the white ones to appear ot a more bright color than
at an earlier period of their swelling, let the borders be watered plentifully, and the flues sprinkled now and
then with clean water. The border outside the house may, probably, in the summer months, require a
S°<^dXkolS after the commencement of forcing, " has the border duly and freely refreshed with water,
eenerallv once in two or three days ; and if occasionally watered with the drainings of the dunghill, it
would add much to the vigor of the plants. The branches should be watered once in two days by the en-
than is generally imagined ; and many, very many gardeners, half ruin their plants, and very much injure
their crops of fruit by withholding this element. I know some who do not give as much water to a vinery
in a whole season as it ought to have in a month. But what is the consequence ? Wood as large as wheat-
straw and berries the size of garden-peas !" Increase the supplies of water with the advances of the season
and e'rowth of the plants. " As the fruit begin to color and swell off for ripening, the quantity of water,
hitherto liberally given, must be lessened by degrees ; and, towards its coming to full maturity, must be
entirely withheld that it be not rendered insipid. The operations of the engine on the foliage must also
cease -but previously, be particularly severe, and be careful to scourge it well, that no vestige of the red
spider be left. This is a matter of very great importance, and but too little attended to : and for want of
taking this care, I have more than once seen a whole crop of grapes very much spoiled, and the berries ren-
dered dirty, nauseous, and bitter."
3026. Ripening the wood. Abercrombie directs, " If the fruit be not off by the middle
of August, the continuation of fine dry weather, or of the heat dependent on the natural
climate, will hardly be sufficient to ripen the wood ; and therefore, as soon as the external
air declines to 68°, resume gentle fires, morning and evening, so as to keep the minimum
temperature of the house to 70°. The maximum need not exceed 75° in sunshine ; for
fresh air should circulate at every proper opportunity. Proceed thus until the shoots of
the season have ceased to grow, and turn brownish at bottom, and the leaves begin to fall,
indications that the wood is ripe, when the first and last are not caused by a deficiency of
heat." He adds, " If the weather continues warm after the fruit is cut, take off the
glass frames ; as the shoots will ripen the better under full exposure to it. In October,
however, it will be advisable again to put on the frames, as well by shelter to assist the
ripening of the wood, if that is not complete, as to protect the house from injury, when
rough wintry weather may be expected."
30<>7 Nfcol says, " If the lower part of the shoots be not, by the beginning of August, turning brownish,
then it is advisable to applv a little fire-heat, in order to further the growth of the plants, and the perfec-
tion of the wood Some would put this matter off", perhaps another month ; but if the application ot tire-
heat be at all necessary, less trouble and expense for fuel will attend the process of ripening the shoots in
September than in October. Another consideration is, that, as it were, you take up vegetation on the way,
and hand her forward to the end of her journey, instead of allowing her to lag behind, and then forcibly
push her on against her inclinations; a matter of the very first consideration and importance in every
species of horticulture. Let very moderate fires be made at first, increasing their strength as the season
advances, and so as to keep the temperature, mornings and evenings, at about /0 . 1 his should be con-
tinued till the growth of the plants begin to stop, and till the part of the leading shoots whereat you would
Book I.
CULTURE OF THE VINERY.
553
cut, that is, about six or eight feet upwards, become brownish. The portions of air, hitherto freely ad-
mitted, must be lessened by degrees, as the weather turns cooler ; and so as that, in sunshine, the mercury
may not fall below 75°. When the growth of the plants is over, expose the house day and night, except in
rain. Water must also be withheld, as the growth of the plants abates, and somewhat in the proportion in
which you would have vegetation stop ; not all at once, but gradually. Continue the operations of the en-
gine to the latest ; not merely to subdue the enemy at present, but, as far as possible, to prevent his ap-
pearance next campaign."
3028. Exposure and resting of the wood. " Some managers," Abercrombie observes,
" leave the house quite exposed when the vines have done growing ; and whether it be
covered or not, there should be constantly a circulation of air through it. Vines which
have been exposed to the weather, or freely to the dry air, in a state of rest, when forced
after a proper interval, generally break at almost every eye." The rest proper to a de-
ciduous plant cannot be given to vines where the branches are kept subject to the influ-
ence of a permanent heat after the leaves are fallen, as in the case of vines grown in pine
or other stoves. The top of its stem, with its branches, must therefore be withdrawn
from the house immediately after the fall of the leaf, to remain on the outside till it be
proper again to force the plant. Abercrombie says, " the branches will require no cover-
ing in this climate ;" but many gardeners lay them down, or tie them to stakes, and cover
them with litter or mats.
3029. M'Phail says, " Some modem writers on gardening recommend that the glass frames of the
grape-house be taken off the vines as soon as the vines are all cut ; and also to take the vine-plants out of
hot-houses appropriated to the culture of the pine-apple when the grapes are over. This they tell us is to
ripen the wood, and give the plants rest, &c. I do advise that the glass frames of grape-houses be suffered
to remain over the vines all the year, excepting in July and August, and that grape-vines in hot-houses
for the pine-apple should not be taken out to remain for any length of time at any season of the year. If
fruit-trees ripen their fruit well, the wood for bearing the following year will be sufficiently matured ; but
the plants, whether they be the grape-vine, peach, &c. had best remain in that artificial climate made for
them all the year, for though the fruit be over, the wood of the plant requires protection. As well,"
he adds, " might they expect the cherry-tree to blossom in September and October ; which months are
some years warmer than the month of April, when the cherry-tree is in full blow, or that the Christmas-
rose may be excited by summer heat to blossom in July or August. It is natural for the grape-vine to
produce only one crop in the year ; and when it is accustomed to grow in a hot-house appropriated for the
pine-apple, its nature is not changed ; nor will it offer to put forth its bud before January in hot-houses
kept to a heat sufficient for growing the pine-apple, when the pine pots are plunged in a bed of warm
tan."
3030. Knight, as we have seen (2185.), is highly favorable to putting the vine into a state of repose, as early
as possible in the autumn preceding the season in which it is to be forced.
3031. Nicol, after the growing season, and when the wood is ripened, " exposes the house day and
night, except in rain." After an autumn pruning, he
shuts up the house for ten days or a fortnight, particu-
larly if there be any appearance of frost ; admitting air
freely through the day. The object in thus keeping
the plants from the extremes of heat and cold, is, in or-
der that their pores may contract, and their wounds heal
gradually ; as otherwise they are apt to bleed now, and
to break out afresh on the application of fire-heat in
the spring. When they are judged to be safe, expose
the house night and day, as before. (Kal. 428.)
3032. S. Galton describes a plan of exposing the
branches of vines growing in a stove to the external
air, without the necessity of suspending the forcing or
heat in the stove, or of drawing the stems back through
apertures by which they are introduced into the house.
This was put in practice at Derby, in the garden of
Joseph Strutt, of that town, where it has been in suc-
cessful use, forabove fifteen years. Thefoundation wall in
front of the house is capped with a stone sill {fig. 4(30. a);
the front upright lights(6)move on centre pins, and can be
taken out from their places without disturbing the rafter-
plate (c), or the uprights which support the plate ; these
lights, when taken out, can be fixed by the lower ends
to the inner side of the stone sill, the spaces of the
uprights being filled by other pieces, whilst the tops are
held by a board (d) longitudinally fixed to the rafter by
hinges (e), and capable of being raised and let down at
pleasure. When the vines are to be exposed they are
unfixed from their places between the rafters, and laid
down on the stone sill (a) ; the front upright lights (&)
are then taken out and fixed on the inner side of the
sill (/), thus leaving the whole of the vine on the out-
side of the house, and under cover, protected from rain,
until it is desired to put it again into heat, when the
situation of the upright lights is changed, and they are
replaced in their former situation. (Hort. Trans, iv. 567.)
Subsect. 2. Of particular Modes of cultivating the Grape, adapted to particular Situations.
3033. The jmrticular modes of cultivating the grape which we shall now enumerate, re-
fer to its culture in pineries, green-houses, and other plant structures, by dung-heat, in
hot-bed frames, temporary frames and glass covers, hand-glasses, and cultivating for re-
tarding maturation.
3034. Forcing the vine in a pine or other stove. Abercrombie, in a comparison between
the hot-house or general stove and vinery, justly observes, that the former " has many cir-
cumstances of inferiority to the vinery ; and, although its shades of inconvenience or iin-
554 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part IIJL
perfect accommodation are not weighty enough to forbid the dedication of any spare room
to the vine, yet they are sufficient to confer very great credit on the manager who obtains
a good crop of fine-flavored grapes under them." (Pr. G. 657.)
3035. Speedily considers, that the vine and pine may be advantageously grown together ; but subse-
quent experience having led to the culture of pines in pi'ts, most gardeners, and among these Nicol, prefer
growing them separately.
3036. M'Phail, without giving a decided approbation of their union, gives the following directions on
the subject, which are to be taken in connection with his opinion as given above, on the impropriety of
withdrawing the wood to rest it in the open air. To manage the grape in a hot-house appropriated for
growing the pine-apple, and for ripening its fruit, treat them in the following manner : in the month of
November or December, cut down all the old wood to about the height of the pit, leaving only two young
shoots, the strongest that can be got, the strongest one to shoot from the buds and bear the fruit, the other
to be cut short and to grow long shoots to bear the fruit the succeeding year. This is to be done succes-
sively year after year, leaving the old stem of the vine to grow, as the older the plant is the better. After
the vines are pruned, tie them up nearly close to the glass, with matting, to iron rods or laths fixed to the
rafters of the house. As soon as they begin to swell in their buds and show themselves ready to break, let
them down about a foot from the glass, so that they may receive the benefit of the warm air round about
them, and not be liable to be affected by the frosts. If the buds burst strong and bushy, it is a good sign
that they will show fruit; but if weak", the contrary; and, if they miss showing fruit on the fourth or
fifth joint, they will show none at all ; and in that case the young shoot that does not show fruit should be
cut off, as it would only take the nourishment from the others which have shown fruit. Do not let more
than one or' two bunches grow on one bud, for if too many are left on the plant, they will not swell well.
If the vines be planted in the inside of the house, care should be taken to keep them sufficiently watered ;
and in dry weather, in the spring and summer, the border on the outside of the house, in which the roots of
the vines'run, should get plentiful waterings. In order to keep the leaves and fruit clean, let the plants
be washed occasionally with clean water, thrown on them by a tin squirt or engine, but take care that the
decaying paint on the rafters be not washed down on the leaves and fruit, which would stain and hurt
theni. Should there be any danger of that, it will answer the purpose fully as well by filling the house full
of steam now and then, by sprinkling water on the flues when they are warm.
3037. Growing grapes in green-houses and other houses. Vines are grown under the rafters in green-
houses, conservatories, and in most kinds of forcing and other hot-houses ; but, as the gardener who un-
derstands their culture in the vinerv and pine-stove, can be at no loss in any case of that sort, we do not
consider it necessarv to introduce here anything farther on the subject. The excellence of the fruit, and the
grateful nature of the plant, than which none is more certain of rewarding the gardener's care by abund-
ant crops, will, we trust, justify our having brought together the practice of so many cultivators.
3038. Forcing vines by dung-heat. Justice, Lawrence, and Switzer state instances of
this being done on wooden walls in their time. Fletcher, a market-gardener near Edin-
burgh, has practised it with great success in a glass case, keeping constantly, till the fruit
is about to ripen, a heap of dung, or dung and weeds, in a state of fermentation in the
area of the house. But the most systematic and extensive forcing of this kind is that
which has for fifteen years been practised by J. French, Esq. a gentleman farmer of East
Hornden, in Essex, and which has been thus described by a late intelligent fellow of the
Horticultural Society.
3039. French's mode of forcing vines by dung-heat. About the beginning of March, French commences
his forcing, by introducing a quantity of new long dung, taken from under the cow-cribs in his straw -yard ;
being principally, if not entirely, cow-dung, which is laid upon the floor of
his house {fig. 461.), extending entirely from end to end, and in width
about six or seven feet, leaving only a path-way between it and the back
wall of the house. The dung being all new at the beginning, a profuse
steam arises with the first heat, which, in this stage of the process, is found
to be beneficial in destroying the ova of insects, as well as transfusing a
wholesome moisture over the yet leafless branches ; but which would prove
injurious, if permitted to rise in so great a quantity when the leaves have
pushed forth. In a few days the violence of the steam abates as the
buds open, and in the course of a fortnight the heat begins to diminish ; it
then becomes necessary to carry in a small addition of fresh dung, laying it
in the bottom, and covering it over with the old clung fresh forked up ; this
produces a renovated heat and a moderate exhalation of moist vapor. In j3
this manner the heat is kept up throughout the season, the fresh supply of
dung being constantly laid at the bottom in order to smother the steam, or rather to moderate the quantity
of exhalation ; for it must always be remembered, that French attaches great virtue to the supply of a rea-
sonable portion of the vapor. The quantity of new dung to be introduced at each turning, must be regu-
lated by the greater or smaller degree of heat that is found in the house, as the season or other circum-
stances appear to require it. The temperature kept up is pretty regular, being from 65 to 70 degrees.
French contends, that the moist vapor which is transfused through the house is essentially beneficial, not
only because it discourages the existence of insects, and destroys their ova, but it likewise facilitates the
setting and swelling of the fruit. I ought to observe, that I am not offering any opinion of my own in the
present statement, but merely recording, as faithfully as possible, the remarks made to me by a person of
ingenuity and observation, whose extraordinary success is, in my mind» the best test that can be given of
the merits of his practice. {Anderson, in Hort. Trans, vol. ii.)
3040. Mearns " approves greatly of applying the steam and heat of dung to the forcing of grapes, and
uses it in the earliest part of forcing with great advantage, forming a large ridge of it in the back part of
his vinery, and introducing the additions of recent litter always under the old dung." {Hort. Trans, iv.
p. 256.)
3041. Advantages of using dung-heat. The practice of applying the heat of horse-dung, and of other fer-
menting substances, to the forcing of vines and the growing of pines and other plants, usually excited or
preserved by means of fire-heat, is becoming very general, and is attended with this advantage, that the
ammoniacal and carbonic gas, which is disengaged during the decomposition of the dung, is highly noxious
to insects, while to vines before the buds protrude themselves, and to pine-plants at most seasons, it is
found not at all injurious. These things known, every farmer might have an excellent vinery attached to
his straw-yard, or placed over, or near to his dung-pit, at very little expense, and with very little con-
trivance in ordinary cases. A few apertures along the upper part of the house being kept at all times
open, there could hardly occur any injurious accumulation of steam, and the same openings would render
daily attention in giving air unnecessary ; for there is abundant experience to prove that a vinery in
which the apertures for admitting air at bottom and top are opened in spring, may be left with them in
that state night and day till autumn, without the smallest injury. All that the farmer would have to do,
Book I. CULTURE OF THE VINERY. 555
would be to water the plants two or three times a week with a syringe or engine, and to tie up the shoots,
as they grew, to the trellis. As in this way the enjoyments of a numerous class of men might be increased
at very little expense and labor, we intreat the attention of head gardeners and proprietors to the subject,
as calculated, like the dissemination of every other rational luxury, to be conducive to the general good.
Opulent, or proprietor farmers, who have extensive farmeries, and probably two or three separate straw-
yards (fig. 4G2. a and b), might raise all the fruits grown in first-rate gardens by the same means, and add
not a little even to the elegant appearance of their establishments. A pinerv, for example, might be
formed over a large dung-pit, and the side walls, being hollow, like those of Silverlock {Hort. Trans.
iv. 244. and fig. 238.), or of West {Hort. Trans, iv. 220. and out fig. 230.), would preserve the air within
perfectly pure, so as to admit the growth even of ornamental exotics, &c. The additional expense of
management to the farmer, in this case, would be chiefly the difference between keeping a half-bred
gardener and a common laborer.
462
"Ja^MlHllHllilliKVH'
3042. Forcing the vine in hot-bed frames, and otlier glass cases. Knight, after de-
scribing his inclined hot-bed and frame, and its advantages in respect to cucumbers and
melons, adds, " I have often used, with great success, a frame and hot-bed thus formed,
for forcing grapes, by placing the bed at three feet distance from the wall, to which the
vines were trained, and introducing their branches into the frame, through boles made at
the north end of it (the vines having been trained to a south wall), as soon as the first
violent heat of the bed had subsided. The white Chasselas grape, thus treated, ripens in
July, if the branches of the vine be introduced in the end of April ; and a most abundant
crop may be thus obtained ; but the necessity of pruning very closely renders the
branches which have been forced unproductive of fruit in the succeeding season ; and
others from the wall must consequently be substituted. I have always put a small
quantity of mould in the frame, and covered it with tiles. If an inclined plane of earth
be substituted for the hot-bed, and vines be trained in a frame adapted to it, the grapes
(the Chasselas) ripen perfectly in August ; and if small holes be made through the sides
of the frame, through which the young shoots of the vines can extend themselves in the
open air, a single plant, and a frame of moderate size, will be found to yield annually a
very considerable weight of grapes. For this purpose, the frames should not be more
than eight or ten feet long, nor more than five or six in breadth, or the young shoots
will not be so advantageously conducted out of them into the open air; and the depth
of the frame, either for the hot-bed or inclined plane of the earth, should not be less
than eighteen inches. The holes in the side of the frame, through which the young
shoots are to pass, should of course be closed during the spring, and till wanted ; and if
the weather be cold, it will be necessary to cover the frames at night. When the grapes
are nearly full-grown, and begin to ripen, it will also be highly advantageous to draw off
the glasses during the day, in fine weather, by which means the fruit will be exposed to
the full influence of the sun, without the intervention of the glass, and will attain a
degree of perfection that it rarely acquires in the vinery or hot-house."
3043. Mean, gardener to Sir A. Hume, has practised a mode very similar to that of Knight, for a num-
ber of years ; and, as such simple modes of obtaining early or well ripened grapes are within the reach of
every one who has a grape-vine trained against a wall or house, we shall quote his account of it. " This
method is particularly applicable in cases where vines are trained to walls, and do not ripen their fruit, nor
bear well. The frame must be high enough in the sides, to admit of the vines being trained horizontally
on a trellis, to keep the pendent bunches clear of the dung, and to give free room for the leaves between
the vine branches and the glass. The frames used at Wormleybury have either one or two lights ; the
latter are nine feet long and six feet wide ; the fronts of the frames are eighteen inches high, and the backs
are two feet high ; the trellis is fixed nine inches from the glass, which gives sufficient space above and
below. The upper board at the back of the frame, being nine inches wide, lifts up or slides off, so that the
branches are laid in without suffering the injury they would sustain in their buds, if they were drawn
through holes. In the first or second week in April, just before the vines begin to move, you make up a
common dung hot-bed at a convenient distance from the wall, or from the place where the shoots of the
vines are ; lay your frame on the bed, with its back towards the ,rine, and fronting the sun, as it would
naturally be if placed against a south-wall : the branches must then be introduced into the frame ; these
you train along the trellis already mentioned, with their points directed downwards, towards the front of
the frame. By these means, through the heat of the dung, and that of the sun from the glass, your vines
produce an abundant crop ; and it is found, that the ripening of the fruit is accelerated, by laying slates or
tiles all over the dung. At the end of the season, those shoots which have borne their crop are cut
entirely away, and a fresh supply introduced of young shoots, which have been making and ripening their
wood on the wall ; these are treated in the same manner, the wall annually yielding a successive supply
of young wood to be taken into the frame." (Hort. Trans, ii. 230.)
3044. Temporary frames and glass cases have been constructed by Lindegaard, Tor-
bron, and various gardeners, foreign as well as British, but more especially those of
Holland and Flanders, against walls of vines. Sometimes a temporary furnace and
flue is built, and at other times a dung-bed is resorted to, and very excellent crops are
obtained.
3045. Ripening grapes under hand-glasses. About twenty years ago, a market-
gardener at Bath published a plan of ripening grapes under common hand-glasses. He
planted the vines in a soil composed in great part of lime rubbish ; placed a glass over
each plant, taking out half a pane in its summit, through which the leading shoot of the
55G PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
vine protruded itself, and grew in the open air. The bunch or bunches of grapes
remained within the hand-glass, and enjoyed the advantages of protection from cold
winds, dews, and rains, during night, and of a high degree of confined solar heat during
the day.
3046. Forcing vines in pots. This is not a very common practice, because the vine
requires a greater extent of pasturage for the roots than any other fruit-tree. It has,
however, been occasionally attempted by gardeners in pits and stoves, and three or four
bunches are sometimes thus obtained from one plant. The soil must be as rich as pos-
sible, and every attention paid to keeping the plants regularly supplied with water and
liquid manure. Knight employed water impregnated with pigeons' dung to the color of
porter, and found, in consequence, the most vigorous growth. He states, that a pot
containing two cubic feet of very rich mould, properly supplied with water and manure
in a liquid state, is fully adequate to nourish a vine, which, after being pruned in
autumn, occupies twenty square feet of the roof of a hot-house. Such vines he con-
stantly found to produce more vigorous wood when forced very early, than others of the
same varieties, whose roots were permitted to extend beyond the limits of the house.
(Hort. Trans, vol. ii. 373.)
3047. Marsland, of Woodbank, near Stockport, has a succession of grapes during eleven months
in the year, by forcing vines in pots. The pots are placed on stages, and as the fruit is cut, they are
removed and replaced by others; the plants are from one to four years old, and at the latter age they
bear abundantly, and produce large bunches. {Hort. Trans, vol. ii. 373.)
3(>48. Buck rinds this method of obtaining grapes answer particularly well, and by removing the pots
in the winter months, when the fruit is full ripe, into a dry airy situation, he can preserve it fit for
the table much longer than he can in the vinery, when cloudy and damp weather prevails. {Hort.
Trans, vol. iv. 561.)
3049. Cultivating for retarding maturation, so as to obtain a supply in the winter
season, is thus described in the Transactions of the Horticultural Society, as practised by
Arkwright, of Willersley.
Tt/c sorts cultivated for this late crop are the white muscat of Alexandria, the black Damascus, the
black Teneriffe, the St. Peter's, the black raisin, the Syrian, and the white Nice. They are grown in
houses alternately used as pineries and vineries. About the second week in February, the pine-plants are
always removed into another vinery. The grapes which remain on the vines are all cut, and the house
thrown open for the free admission of air at all times, till the end of April, when the vine-buds begin to
swell, when a gentle fire is applied in the night, and in dark and cold days ; but air is admitted freely
when the thermometer is up at 708. At this period, a proportion of the pine-plants is again brought into
the house, where they remain till the succeeding February. The treatment from this time is quite in the
common way ; and by this late and slow process, the grapes do not begin to ripen till towards the end of
October, and the very late sorts, such as the St. Peter's, are scarcely ripe at Christmas. The following
note is added to this paper by the secretary : —
Speci?nens of grapes ripened in this manner were exhibited by Arkwright to the society on the 3d of
February, 1819, and were as rich, perfect, and fresh, as if they had been produced at the usual season : and
the leaves of the vine, which were sent at the same time, were in an undiminished state of vegetation.
These leaves, Arkwright has since stated, were from the late sorts of vines, viz. the Syrian, the Nice, and
the St. Peter's ; those of more early kinds, such as the muscat and the Damascus, begin to assume their
yellow tinge about Christmas, but their fruit continues quite fresh and good for a considerable time after-
wards. The conclusion is obvious, that the vines made to produce these late grapes had acquired the
habit of late bearing, and this habit, Arkwright states, has been brought on gradually. Whenever he
introduces a young vine into the house, where his late grapes are grown, it is treated exactly like the
vines which are in bearing, and in the second or third year after planting, when it begins to yield fruit,
it is found to have lost its disposition to break into leaf at the accustomed season. Arkwright began to
practise his present plan of growing late grapes about twelve years ago, at which time he also used to
force early grapes ; and so successful was his plan of retardation, that, on the 1st of May, 1810, he had on
his table fresh-gathered fruit, the produce of two years, viz. of the late crop of the past, and the early crop
of the present year. He has now ceased to force any vines for early fruit, and confines his cultivation to
that of late grapes alone.
Subsect. 3. Of Gathering and Keeping forced Grapes.
3050. With respect to t/ie gathering of grapes, Nicol observes, "they should be
allowed to hang till fully matured and ripened ; especially the thick-skinned and fleshy
sorts. Even the thin-skinned and juicy kinds, as the white svveetwater, white Frontig-
nac, and muscadine (that are often cut before nearly ripe,) are much improved in flavor,
by being allowed to remain on the plant till the skin become transparent, and of a russet
or yellowish color." The grapery, when the fruit is ripe, ought to be kept dry and cool
in order to preserve the fruit as long as possible on the branches, and thus to prolong the
grape season. Covering the border an inch or two with dry sand, ashes, or gravel, Nicol
says, contributes to dry the air and dispel damps. The leaves round the bunches are
to be picked off for the same end, and a fire to be made in the day-time in gloomy
weather.
3051. Thompson, gardener to Earl Cowper, at Panshanger, preserves grapes in his vinery till February, by
lighting fires in the day-time, and giving plenty of air; but putting them out in the afternoon, and shut-
ting the house close up at night. " The fire in the day, aided by the circulation of the air, renders the
whole interior of the houses perfectly dry, so that no damp exists in them when shut up; a night fire, on
the contrary, with the houses closed, creates a vapor, which causes the fruit to become mouldy, and to
decay. The sorts used were the Frontignacs, sweetwater, and black Damascus." {Hort. Trans.
vol. iv. 132.)
3052. M'Phail observes, " there are some sorts of grapes, such as the black muscat of Jerusalem, the
Syrian, Tokay, and some others, which will keep on the tree a long time after they are ripe, provided the
house be kept dry and cool."
Book I. CULTURE OF THE VINERY. 557
3053 Braddick covers the floors of his vinery in autumn about three inches thick with coal-ashes,
which by preventing any damp from rising, to mildew or injure the fruit, enables him to preserve
the grapes hanging on the tree in a very perfect state till the end of January, or later. (Hort. Trans.
3054 Torbron, in a temporary vinery, or a glass case placed against a wall on which grapes were trained,
has ripened a late crop, and kept the fruit on the trees in a state fit for use till February. (Hort.
Trans, vol. iv. 118.)
3055. Various modes for drying the air in a grapery. Decayed granite or trap, which
has been discovered by Professor Leslie to be powerful absorbents of moisture, where
they can be obtained, would be excellent substitutes for ashes ; or oatmeal might be
used (being swept up and dried occasionally), were the harboring of vermin not to be
dreaded. (See Supp. Encyc. Brit. art. Cold.)
3056. To preserve grapes by removal from the tree, Forsyth directs, " Where there are
several bunches in one branch you may cut it off, leaving about six inches in length, or
more, of the wood, according to the distance between the bunches, and a little on the
outside of the fruit at each end ; seal both ends with some common sealing-wax, such
as wine-merchants use for sealing their bottles with, which you may buy at the wax-
chandler's ; then hang them across a line in a dry room, taking care to clip out, with a
pair of scissors, any of the berries that begin to decay or become mouldy, which, if left,
would taint the others. In this way I have kept grapes till the 6th of February ; but, if
they are cut before the bunches are too ripe they may be kept much longer."
3057. Grapes may be kept by packing them in jars, " every bunch being first wrapped
up in soft paper, and covering every layer with bran, which should be well dried before
it is used ; laying a little of it in the bottom of the jar, then a layer of grapes, and so on,
a layer of bran and of grapes alternately, till you have filled the jar ; then shake it gently,
and fill it to the top with bran, laying some paper over it, and covering the top with a
bladder tied firmly on to exclude the air ; then put on the top or cover of the jar, observ-
ing that it fits as close as possible. These jars should be kept in a room where you can
have a fire in wet or damp weather." (Tr. on Fr. Tr.)
Subsect. 4. Of the Insects and Diseases attendant on forced or Hot-house Grapes.
3058. The insects and diseases of the vine are not numerous : of the latter there are
few or none, unless bleeding may be excepted, the remedies for which we have already
given. (2999.) The insects which infest the vine, are chiefly the red spider and coccus.
To remove these, Speedily and Abercrombie recommend washing the stem and all the
shoots with soap and water ; the stem being previously divested of the loose bark.
Abercrombie adds, give the border two or three soakings over the roots with soap-suds.
If the plants get infested with the pine-bug or turtle insect, it is to be extirpated by
syringing the leaves with a strong infusion of tobacco-stalks. Watering is the best pre-
ventive of the red spider, and aphis or green fly, and fumigation keeps down, and in
part destroys the latter and the thrips.
3059. M'Phail observes, that the red spider, the mealy white bug, and the brown turtle insect are the
most injurious to the vine. " These insects lodge upon the wood of the trees, and upon their leaves, and
upon their fruit. To prevent accidental infection, care should be taken not to introduce infected plants into
the house ; keeping the air in the house among the plants sweet, and to a strong degree of heat, with
constant admission of fresh air, are good preventives against insects. To help to destroy insects on the
vine, peel off, in the autumn, winter, or spring, before the plants begin to grow, all the loose outside bark,
and wash, with soap-water mixed with sulphur, the stem and all the branches, rubbing them well with a
sponge or brush, which will destroy the insects, and the spawn of them that have been deposited thereon.
If they happen to be infested very much, after they are well washed with clean water, let the stem and all
the branches be smeared with a mixture of sulphur, soot, and water, put upon them with a painter's
brush." Rotten and decayed berries or leaves are to be removed, that they may not spread their
infection. , . „ • . , . ,
3060. Nicol considers the red spider as the grand enemy to the vine. After every winter pruning and re-
moval of the outward rind on the old wood, he directs to anoint the branches, shoots, and trellis, with the
following composition, the object of which is the destruction of their eggs or larva;.
3061. NicoVs recipe. " Soft soap, two pounds; flowers of sulphur, two pounds ; leaf or roll tobacco, two
pounds ; nux vomica, four ounces ; and turpentine, an English gill ; boiled in eight English gallons of sott or
river water, to six." This composition is to be laid on, milk-warm, with a painter's brush, " then with a
sponge carefully anoint every branch, shoot, and bud ; being sure to rub it well into every joint, hole,
and angle." If the house is much infected, the walls, flues, rafters, &c. are also to be painted over with
the same liquor. Watering over the leaves and fruit at all times, except the ripening season, is the pre-
ventive which he proposes, and which all gardeners approve.
3062. Birds, wasps, flies, &c. several gardeners direct to be excluded by gauze frames,
calculated to fit the openings by which air is given. Some recommend putting bags of
o-auze over each bunch ; others hang up bottles, boiled carrots, &c. M'Phail says, " Fix
nets on the parts of the house where you admit air, and fix them in such a way as that
the sashes will slide backwards and forwards either in the outside or inside of the nets.
The net should be as thick in the meshes as that a wasp cannot fly through them." It
may be noted, that a flying wasp (the wings being distended) will not require meshes
smaller than an inch square.
558 PRACTICE OF GARDENING, Part III.
Sect. III. Culture of the Peach-house.
3063. Soil. Abercrombie recommends three parts of mellow unexhausted loam, and
one part of drift-sand moderately enriched with vegetable mould, or the cooler dungs.
The border or bed to be thirty inches or three feet deep. The nectarine wants the
warmer, richer, and deeper soil, if any difference be made. (Pr. G. 292.)
3064. M'Phail recommends the soil for peach-trees which are to be forced, to be " fine loamy well-
prepared earth of a medium texture, neither very light, nor of a strong binding quality, well mixed with
some good manure. The border to be four feet deep, and so broad, that the roots cannot get into a
bad soil." (Gr. Rem. 18.) .
3065 Nicol. The bottom being made " comfortable by draining and paving, if not naturally dry,
directs the breadth of the border to be the width of the house within, and to the extent of ten or twelve
feet without. The average depth thirty inches at the least ; but if a yard, it would not be too much. The
soil to be thus composed : three fourths strong loam, an eighth part light sandy earth, and an eighth part
rotten stable-yard dung, with a competent quantity of lime and marl ; all being properly mixed before
planting." (Kal. p. 291.) , „
3066 Flanagan, for peaches and nectarines, whether in houses or on open walls, uses the top-spit of a
pasture of rich yellow loam, if it can be procured, without adding to it any manure whatever ; if poor and
sandy it should have a little rotten dung added to it, and the whole^ should be laid up on ridges, and
turned over for six months previously to using." (Hort. Trans. voL v. 57.)
3067. Choice of sorts. The following list is given by Abercrombie as the most proper
for forcing : —
PEACHES.
Cling Stones.
Late admirable. Mid. Sept.
Old Newington. Late in Sept
Portugal. End Sept.
Golden. Sept.
Catharine. Early in Oct.
Monstrous pavie. End Oct.
Free Stones.
White nutmeg. End of July.
Large Mignonne. Mid. Aug.
Belle Chevreuse. Late in Aug.
White Magdalen. End Aug.
Red Magdalen. End Aug.
| Montauban. End Aug.
Chancellor. End Aug.
Early admirable. Beginn. Sepi
Malta. Early in Sept.
Royal George. Mid. Sept.
Noblesse. Mid. Sept.
Le Teton de Venus. Late in Sept.
Late purple. Late in Sept.
NECTARINES.
Cline Stories. 1 Golden. Sept. I Free Stones. I Temple. Sept.
Red Roman. Late in Aug. Brugnion. Late in Sept. Scarlet. End Aug. White. Aug. and Sept.
Newington. End Aug. I Murray. Early in Sept. |
3068. M'Phail says, " The names of peach-trees fit for forcing are the Magdalen,
Montauban, royal George, and noblesse ; of nectarines, the scarlet, temple, Murray, and
red Roman." {G. Rem. p. 18.)
3069. Nicol recommends the following : —
PEACHES.
Red Magdalen I Royal George 1 Montauban I Teton de Venus I French Mignonne I Early purple ; and
White Magdalen | Noblesse | Admirable | Late purple | Smith's Newington I Orange.
NECTARINES.
Elruge | DucdeTello [ Scarlet | Murray | Temple | Roman | Newington; and | Brugnion.
3070. Choice of plants. " Before a house for forcing peaches and nectarines be built,"
M'Phail observes, " trees to plant in it had best be got in readiness ; and if they be
growing on the premises it will be an advantage. If it can be avoided, no tree should
be planted in a forcing-house until the fruit of it have been seen and tasted. The trees
should be well trained ones, four or five feet high : indeed it is of no consequence what
their age be, provided they be healthy, well rooted, and in a bearing state : and if they
have been transplanted several times since they were budded, they will be the fitter for
transplanting again ; and if the work of taking them up and of planting them in the
peach-house be carefully and methodically done, the trees by their removal will be but
little retarded in their growth. When every thing in a forcing-house is got in readiness
for the reception of the trees, loose them from the wall to which they were fastened with
nails and shreds, and dig a wide semicircular trench four feet distant from the stem of
each tree, and a little deeper than their spreading roots ; then by little and little with a
pointed stick work the earth out among their roots, taking care to break as few of them
as possible : in this manner the roots of the plants are to be divested of earth in a careful
manner, so as to undermine the stem, that the tree may be lifted out of its place without
straining the roots of it. Having holes previously prepared about eight or ten inches
deep, and four feet wide, set the trees into them one after another, training their roots
out in a regular horizontal manner at full length, and after the ends of the roots be cut
so as to take the raggedness off, cover them no deeper than about six inches at their
extremities, and at the stem of the tree about four inches."
3071. Nicol prefers clean, healthy dwarfs, that have been one or two years trained, to older plants ; and
riders three or even four vears trained ; because, being temporary, it is desirable to have them produce
fruit as soon as possible, for if the dwarfs thrive, the former will have to be removed in three, or, at most,
in four years. In a house thirty-five feet long, three dwarfs should be planted, and in a house thirty-five
or forty "feet long, four dwarfs ; in both cases with riders between them. (Kal. p. 323.)
3072. P. Flanagan prefers plants that have been grown in stiff loam and three years trained.
3073 Situation of the plants in the house. Permanent occupants, intended to be forced early, Aber-
crombie plants in a front border, training them on a trellis just under the roof. In late forcing-houses, he
trains them to an upright trellis near the back wall. _
3074. M'Phail plants so as to train under the glass ; and Nicol's practice concurs with that recom-
mended by Abercrombie.
Book I. CULTURE OF THE PEACH-HOUSE. 559
3075 For a late peach-house, dwarfs should be planted in front, to be trained about half way up the roof ;
and dwarfs, with riders between them, against the back wall, to be trained to the top. In this case, the
trees on the back trellis would not be shaded by those in front, provided they be not trained to more than
half way up the sloping glass ; and thus the greatest possible extent of unshaded surface, and the greatest
quantity of unshaded fruit may be obtained. A house planted in this manner, about forty or forty-five
feet in length, may have four dwarfs in front, and four dwarfs and five riders at back ; and when in a
full-bearing state, would produce a large quantity of nectarines and peaches. If only thirty or thirty-five
feet in length, three dwarfs in front, and three dwarfs and four riders at back, would be trees enough to
fill it. (Pract. Gard.)
3076. For an early jwach-house many consider the plants as safer when trained against
the back wall, or on a trellis not nearer the glass than three feet. This is the Dutch
practice, and was that of Speechly, and Kyle, of Moredun.
3077. Season of Planting. Abercrombie recommends November and December as
preferable ; or otherwise February and March : M'Phail, " any time when the weather
is open, between October and March ;" which practice is also agreeable to that of Nicol.
Flanagan plants in the latter end of autumn, or beginning of spring, placing a compost
of three parts loam and one of dung immediately round the roots, in order to encourage
the plants to strike more freely into the general soil of the border. {Hort. Trans, v. 58.)
3078. Training. All seem agreed in recommending fan-training for peaches and nec-
tarines ; which being the simplest and most natural of all training, we deem it unnecessary
to quote opinions at length.
3079. Pruning. This, according to Abercrombie, may be performed at the fall of
the leaf; but should be completed before the blossom-buds are considerably advanced.
M'Phail says, the best season is the spring, when the blossom-buds can be distinguished.
3080. Nicol, in the case of a newly planted house, heads down the maiden plants, or cuts in the trained
trees, about the end of March or beginning of April. " With respect to the dwarfs, the shoots on the
lower branches should be cut back to two or three buds, that the trellis may be furnished from the bottom
with young wood. The shoots on the upper or farther extended branches may be shortened back to half,
or one third of their lengths, according to their strength, provided they have been well ripened, and are
free from canker ; but if the tree be anywise diseased, let them be cut so far back as to get rid of the can-
kered or mildewed part. I mention this as a matter of precaution, but would rather advise that no dis-
eased tree be planted, unless of a particular kind, that cannot be easily obtained. The riders need not be
headed so much in as the dwarfs ; the object being rather to throw them into a bearing state, than to
cause them to push very strong shoots, which would not be fruitful. If they make moderately strong shoots,
and if these be well ripened in autumn, a good crop may be expected on them next year. Let the
young shoots be laid in, as they advance, at the distance of about nine inches from each other ; that
is, of the dwarfs. Those of the riders may be laid in considerably closer, it not being intended they shall
grow so vigorously as those of the dwarfs."
3081. Flanagan says, " If the trees appear to make luxuriant shoots in any part where bearing wood
is wanted, the shoots should be stopped at the third or fourth leaf, and if they are still inclined to
grow strong, they must be stopped a second time ; this will obtain kindly wood. Two or three times in
the spring the whole should be looked over, and the shoots moderately thinned out, leaving those
which are most kind and well placed at regular distances for the next year's bearing. The first
thinning of the young shoots should be just after the fruit is set, and when they are eight or ten inches
long ; when at that length, they must be laid in at such distances as to admit the sun and air to ripen the
wood destined to bear in the ensuing season. The principal business of the first season is to keep the young
wood regularly laid in, to attend to the top and bottom waterings, and to the free admission of air
at all opportunities. If all this has been done, and the plants have been kept clean, they will in this
season have made plenty of good bearing wood for the next year, and they will have nearly covered halt
the extent of trellis within the house." (Hort. Trans, v. 59.)
3082. The winter pruning in a bearing-house is supposed to take place in November; and if the summer
shoots have been regularly trained, and laid in at the distances of nine inches in the dwarfs, and
rather less in the riders, they will not require much pruning at this time. A few of the shoots may
be shortened about the lower and middle parts of the tree, for the purpose of providing a supply of
young wood in these parts, and thinning out such shoots here and there as have been left too thick;
for others should not be shortened, but should be laid in at full length ; that is, such as are short, stout,
nearly of an equal thickness, and have a bold wood-bud at the extremity ; as from these may be expected
the best fruit next season. " In some parts of the tree, perhaps, or in some particular trees, it may be
expedient to cut out such old branches as have but few young shoots on them, provided there be
neighboring branches better furnished, whose shoots may be spread out, so as to fill, or nearly to fill,
the vacancy occasioned by such lopping. In this case, the shoots, borrowed as it were for this purpose,
must be shortened more or less, according to the size of the vacancy to be filled up, and according
to their strengths, in order that the plant may appear complete in all parts as soon as possible."
3083. The summer priming consists in pinching off all fore-right shoots as they appear, and all such as
are ill placed, weakly, watery, deformed, or very luxuriant, leaving a leader to every shoot of last
year, and retaining a plentiful supply of good lateral shoots in all parts of the tree. If any blank is to be
filled up, some conveniently placed strong shoot is shortened in June to a few eyes, in order that it may
throw out laterals.
3084. The fruit is thinned after the stoning season, as already described in treating of
thinning of wall-fruit. (2570.)
3085. Abercrombie says, " There should be a preparatory" thinning before the time of stoning, and a
final thinning afterwards, because most plants, especially such as have overborne themselves, drop many
fruit at that crisis. Finish the thinning with great regularity, leaving those retained at proper distances,
three, four, or five, on strong shoots ; two or three on middling, and one or two on the weaker
shoots ; and never leaving more than one peach at the same eye. The fruit on weakly trees thin more
in proportion." . .
3086. Nicol concurs with these remarks. " If," he says, " the trees set an immoderate quantity of truit,
which plants not in a healthy and vigorous state will often do (that is to say, such will frequently set more
than they are able to sustain or nourish), they should, in that case, be moderately thinned at this time. Also,
the fruit on trees in a more vigorous condition should be thinned ; thinning most where health is most
wanting, and least where it prevails over sickness. And observe, that for want of timely and judicious
thinning, sickness is often induced, and the whole crop lost. In a peach-house in a state of bearing,
when the fruit is swelling off; in order that it may attain a greater degree of perfection, such leaves and
summer shoots as overhang and shade the fruit are taken off or thinned."
560 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III
3087. Fall of the leaves of forced peach-trees. Nicol says, the leaves of peach-trees " may be dressed off,"
when the wood is ripened, by the use of a withe or small cane, which is more necessary in a house than if
the trees were growing in the open air, where the wind or frost might make them tumble down fast.
3088. Stirring the soil. The borders are to be pointed and forked up after pruning,
and a little well rotted dung or compost added where deemed necessary. The part of
the borders on the outside may, in addition, be covered with dung ; and after forcing is
commenced, those in the inside may be occasionally watered with the drainings of the
dunghill. (Kal. 324. 438.)
3089. Time of beginning to force. " From the rise of the sap," according to Aber-
crombie, " it occupies, in some sorts, about four months to make mature fruit ; in the
later varieties, five months ; and when much of winter is included in the course of forcing,
the time is proportionally lengthened. To ripen moderately early kinds by the end of
May, begin to force on the 21st of December. Little is gained by commencing sooner.
But you may put on the glasses a week before, and make gentle fires, admitting a con-
stant stream of fresh air, to get the house ready."
3090. M'Phail says, " Those who wish to have peaches and nectarines ripe in May, should begin to force
them about the beginning or middle of December. " For a general crop, Nicol, \Veeks, and most gar-
deners, recommend forcing to begin the month of February. Nicol offers " a word to the novice in forcing :
Be diffident, and drive too slow rather than too fast. Most new beginners in this business make haste to
outdo, or to eclipse their neighbors ; and so drive on at a pace they cannot long keep up, but founder their
steed, and stop short by the way."
3091. Temperature. Abercrombie directs to " begin at 42° min. 45° max. from sun-
heat ; and rise in a fortnight to 45° min. 50° max. from sun-heat, giving plenty of air ;
in the progress of the second fortnight, augment the temperature from three to eight de-
grees, so as to have it at the close up to 53° min. 56° max. from sun-heat, admitting air
in some degree daily. When the trees are in blossom, let the minimum heat be 55° min.
60° max. Continue to aim at this till the fruit is set and swelling. When the fruit is
set, raise the minimum to 60°, the artificial maximum to 65°, in order to give fresh air :
when the sun shines, do not let the maximum, from collected heat, pass 70°, rather em-
ploying the opportunity to admit a free circulation of air."
3092. M'Phail, beginning in February, keeps the thermometer to about 55°, increasing it as the day*
lengthen; when set and swelling, raise it to 60° with fire-heat ; when the sun shines, let it rise to 65° or 70°
with air. A short time before the fruit begins to ripen, from 55° to 70° is not too much, with fire-heat,
and in sunshine davs a little above 75°.
3093. Flanagan begins to force a new-planted house in the second week of February, by putting on the
lights, and begins fire-heat at the end of the'month. -The second season he puts on the lights in the latter
end of January. (Hort. Trans, v. 58, 59.)
3094. Nicol, in a house begun to force on the 1st of February, begins with 45° for the first fortnight, and
then increases the heat to 50° or 52°. The times of regulation are supposed to be at six or seven in the
morning, and at eight or nine at night. At the end of a month the temperature is to be kept as steadily as
possible to'55°. In two months, keep it to about 65°, seldom allowing it to pass 70°, which, if it does, it will
have the effect of drawing the shoots up weak, and may cause the setting fruit to drop. He recommends
60° by fire-heat, mornings and evenings, as proper after the fruit is fairly stoned.
3095. Flanagan, the first season of forcing a peach-house, "attains a temperature of from 55° to 55° from
fire the last week of February, and does not allow the sun-heat to exceed 65°. The second season of forcing,
fires are made in the second week of February, just to keep the heat by fire from 45° to 50°, not exceeding
70° of sun-heat ; in the third week the fire-heat is gradually increased from 50° to 55°, and not exceeding
75° sun-heat. In March, particular attention must be paid to the regularity of heat, which may be pro-
gressively increased a degree or two as the season advances, but I do not allow it to exceed the last-named
temperature until the fruit is perfectly stoned, when I increase it from 55° to 60° at night, and from 77° to
80° of sun-heat. At the medium of these the temperature should continue during the remaining part of
the season." [Hort. Trans, v. 60.)
3096. Air. A constant stream of fresh air is to be admitted before beginning to force,
and plenty of air during sunshine throughout the whole progress of forcing. M'Phail says,
when the fruit is set and swelling, " give the house air every day, whether the sun shine
or not." Give plenty of air, and keep the house dry, when the fruit begins to ripen.
When the intention is to begin to force on the 1st of February, Nicol shuts up the house
from the middle of January, admitting plenty of free air through the day. During the
first month of forcing, he admits air freely "every day, even in frosty weather, by the
sashes, till the flowers begin to expand ; after which time by the ventilators, except in fresh
weather, till the season become mild. Air should be admitted all this month, to such an
extent as to keep down the temperature, in sunshine, to within five degrees of the fire-heat
medium ; and this in order to strengthen the buds as they break, and that the young shoots
may spring in a vigorous manner." Admit large portions of air every day when the fruit
is swelling off, except in damp weather, from seven or eight in the morning to five^ or six
in the evening ; opening the sashes to their fullest extent from ten till two or three o'clock,
giving and reducing gradually, &c.
3097. Watering and steaming. " While the fruit is in blossom," Abercrombie ob-
serves, " steaming the flues must be substituted for watering over the herb ; at the same
time, you may water the roots now and then gently, avoiding such a copious supply as
might 'risk the dropping of the fruit to be set. Let' the water be warmed to the air of the
house."
Book I. CULTURE OF THE PEACH-HOUSE. 561
3098. M'Phail directs to keep the border moist by watering ; and after the fruit arc as big as nuts, sprinkle
the flues now and then with water to raise steam, and wash the trees about once a-week with clean water
not too cold. It is better not to wash all over the top till the fruit are set. A sunshine morning is to be
preferred, and the water may be about 65°. Do not water after the fruit begin to ripen, but re-commence
when all are gathered. (Gard. Bern. 148. 191.)
3099. Nicol says, " newly planted peach-trees should be freely supplied with water at the root throughout
the season, in order to promote their growth ; and the engine must be applied with force to the branches, for
the suppression of the red spider, and refreshing the foliage, generally once in two or three days." In a
fruit-bearing house, after the fruit is set, " water should be given pretty freely to the plants at root, once
in two or three days ; increasing the quantity as the fruit begins to swell, and as the shoots advance in
growth. Also, continue the operations of the engine regularly ; and do not be sparing, or be afraid to hurt
the foliage, if the red spider appear on it. Hit hardest at, or near to the top of the house ; as it is there he
preys most, being fostered by the extreme heat, in which he delights. In looking out for this enemy, there-
fore, keep your eye particularly on this part. Withhold water from the border, and cease to exercise the
engine on the foliage when the fruit is swelling off." (Kal. 358. 401.)
3100. Flanagan, whilst the trees are in bloom, neither sprinkles nor steams the house, for he " considers
that sufficient moisture arises from the earth in the house at this stage of forcing." (Hort. Trans, v. 60.)
When the fruit is set, he gives the trees a gentle syringing on a fine morning with clean water, and
waters the borders within the house occasionally after the stoning, until the fruit is arrived at full size, and
begins to change color, then all watering should be left off both with the syringe and on the borders.
3101. Insects and diseases. The red spider is the grand enemy to peach-trees; but
they are also attacked by blight, mildew, the aphis, thrips, and sometimes even the coccus.
" The blight," Abercrombie says, " is caused by small insects, very pernicious both to
the trees and fruit in their growth ; this is apparent by the leaves curling up, and often
by the ends of the shoots being bunched and clammy, which retards their shooting. In
this case, it is advisable to pick off the infected leaves, and cut away the distempered part
of the shoots. Further to check the mischief, if the weather be hot and dry, give the trees
a smart watering all over the branches. A garden-engine will perform the watering much
more effectually than a common watering-pot, as it discharges the water in a full stream
against the trees. Apply it two or three times a week ; the best time of the day is the
afternoon, when the power of the sun is declining. These waterings will clear the leaves,
branches, and fruit, from any contracted foulness ; refresh and revive the whole consider-
ably ; and conduce greatly to exterminate the vermin."
3102. M'Phail directs, when the plants have begun to expand their blossoms and leaves, and the aphis, or
green insect, makes its appearance, to fill the house full of tobacco-smoke once a week, or oftener. If there
be any appearance of mildew, dust a little sulphur on the infected parts ; and if the gum or canker be seen
on the shoots on any part of the trees, open the bark, and cut out the dying wood. Inspect the trees in
every part minutely, and if you perceive the bark dying, or the gum oozing out of any part of them, cut off
the bark as far as it is dead or decaying ; and if the branches be strong, that you cannot well effect it with
your knife, take a chisel with a semicircular edge, and a mallet, and cut out the wood as far as you see it is
affected ; you need not be afraid of hurting the tree, even if the branches or main stem are cut half away.
I have cut sometimes more than half of the stems of standard trees away from the ground farther up than
where the branches began to separate, which was the means of saving them alive. This method exposes
the old wood to the sun and air, by which it is dried, and the tree is thereby assisted in casting off the
unwholesome juices, or those kept in it too long for want of a more dry, genial climate. {Gard. Rem. 131.)
3103. Mitchel, of Montcrieff House, Perthshire, hangs on his peach-trees, when the fruit are ripe, " large
white glass phials, with a little jam or jelly in them, in order to entice large black flies, which he finds
very destructive to peaches. Wasps he destroys by finding out their nests in the day, marking them with
a stick ; and going in the evening with a lantern and candle, he introduces a burning stick, smeared with
wet gunpowder, which stupifies the wasps. He then pours water over them, and with a spade works up the
nest, earth, and water, into a sort of mortar. Nests on trees or hedges he stupifies by the wet gunpowder,
which causes the wasps to fall nearly dead, when he crushes them, &c." (Caled. Hort. Tram. vol. i. 194.)
3104. Nicol strongly recommends watering for keeping down insects, especially the red spider. If the green
fly or thrips make their appearance, recourse must be had to fumigation. Shut the house close up at
night, and fill it so full of tobacco-smoke that one person cannot see another. If this should be repeated
the next evening, they will be completely destroyed. Calm weather is most favorable for this operation.
" The coccus and chermes," he says, " are not so immediately hurtful, and unless very numerous, need
not be much minded at this season ; but they must be more particularly attended to at the time of pruning
in November. The males, which have wings, and are active, will be dislodged by the operations of the
engine ; and the females, which are stationary, and adhere to the shoots and branches, if very numerous,
may readily be crushed by the finger, or by a small flattish stick, that can easily be insinuated into the
angles of the branches, where they often lodge." (Kal. 340 — 358.)
3105. Nicol and Abercrombie recommend that in November, when the winter pruning is finished, the
plants and trellis should be anointed with the composition recommended for vines. (3061.)
3106. Ripening the fruit. Knight finds that neither peaches nor nectarines ac-
quire perfection either in richness or in flavor, unless they be exposed to the full in-
fluence of the sun during their last swelling, without the intervention of the glass. In
consequence, he says, some gardeners take off the lights wholly before the fruit begins
to ripen ; but he recommends taking them off only in bright sunshine, and putting them
on during rain, and at night to protect the fruit from dews, &c. " When the fruit
begins to ripen, which will be about the second week in July, I gradually expose the
house to the open air on fine and dry days, by drawing down the lights as much as
convenient in the day, and shutting them again in the evening. It is this which gives
the fruit both flavor and color. " (Hort. Trans, v. 61.)
3107. Gathering the fruit. M'Phail advises laying moss or some soft material over
the borders, to save those which drop off of themselves. Nicol recommends the peach-
gatherer. (Jig. 148.) Sir Joseph Banks, quoting from a French author, states, that
" Peaches are never eaten in perfection, if suffered to ripen on the tree ; they should
be gathered just before they are quite soft, and kept at least twenty-four hours in
Oo
562 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
the fruit-chamber." (Hort. Tra/is. vol. i. App.) Williams, of Pilmaston, says,
t* Should the season prove wet when the peaches are ripe, they should be gathered, and
placed for about two days in a dry airy room before they are eaten." (Hort. Trans.
vol. ii. p. 113.)
310S. Ripening the wood. Abercrombie says, " On account of the fruit of most sorts
of peaches ripening somewhat earlier than grapes, and the growth of the shoots stopping
sooner than the summer- wood of vines, it is not so often necessary to assist the plant,
in September or October, by artificial heat ; but in some of the late kinds, if, by the
time the external air is down to 60 degrees, the shoots have not taken a greenish-brown
tint as high as several eyes from the origin, and if the blossom-buds on these, round
when full swelled, are not distinguishable from the oblong wood-buds, apply a little
fire-heat, and continue it till the leaves fall."
3109. Kicol directs attention to be had to the ripening of the wood of peach-trees in September. A Httle
fire-heat maybe necessary fully to mature the shoots, especially of young trees. " Fire-heat should be
continued till the growth of the smaller and middle-sized shoots stop, their bottom parts become greenish-
brown, and the buds upon them, that is, the flower-buds, appear turgid, and be distinguishable from the
wood-buds. The stronger and more extreme shoots of the dwarfs in particular will continue to grow
later than the above shoots; which, as they are to be considerably shortened back in November, for the
production of wood to fill the trellis next season, is not very material, provided the bottom part be pretty
well hardened."
3110. Resting the wood. The management of the peach-house, when at rest, Aber-
crombie says, " Should be nearly the same as for the grape-house, except when there is
but one set of frames to serve both an early peach-house and late grape-house ; in which
case, as soon as the young wood of the vines is perfectly ripened, the glasses should be
brought back to the peach-house ; for although the fruit of the grape is to be set and
ripened in a higher heat, the peach-tree, as a plant, is more tender than the vine; and
independently of forcing, comes into blossom about two months sooner."
3111. M'Phail keeps on the glasses from the time the fruit is gathered till he begins to force, in order to
keep the wood drv ; but gives them all the air he can. (Gard. Remem. 367.)
3112. Nicol exposes the house fully dav and night, only shutting up in the time of heavy rains.
(Art/. 420.)
3113. Forcing peaches and nectarines by dung-heat. The following mode is practised
at Dagnam Park : — " The house is seventy feet long by eleven feet wide, the front wall
being five feet and a half deep from the bottom of the lights, the depth from the roof
(there being no upright lights in front) to the ground : about three feet and a half of
the bottom of this wall in open brick -work, with a flue in the inside, the top of which
is covered with plain tiles. The inside of the house is filled up with earth to within two
feet of the bottom of the lights, and the trees planted as near as possible to the front
wall, and trained under the lights or wires, in the same way as vines. The back wall of a
pine-pit is built of the same height as the front of the peach-house, and three feet distant
from it ; this of course forms a space three feet wide for the hot dung. As soon as I wish to
begin forcing, this space is filled with hot dung : the roots being near the flue, soon begin
to feel the warmth, and I sometimes take off a few tiles from the top of the flue, so as to
admit the steam from the hot dung into the house ; I find this of great advantage, and
productive of no ill effects, until the leaf-bud begins to expand, and if the stream is not
then perfectly sweet and moderate, the places left to admit it must be secured. You
will of course observe, that while this hot dung lining is forcing the peaches and nec-
tarines, it is assisting to work the pines in the pine-pit at the same time, and without any
additional expense, there being also a lining at the front of the pine-pit, as well as this
one at the back ; and when it has become cooled by frequent turnings, I either make
cucumber-beds of it, or take it inside the peach-house or vinery. For these five years
past, I Jiave never failed in producing an abundant crop of peaches and nectarines by
the above method." (Breese, in Hort. Trans, v. 219.)
3114. Forcing the peach-tree in pots. " All the varieties of the peach and nectarine."
Abercrombie observes, " are extremely well suited for forcing in large pots or tubs.
Small plants, intended to come in before or after those in the borders, may be excited,
in the first stage, in a distinct house ; so as the temperature of that in which they are
brought to finish fruiting be suited to their progress. The compost for plants in cradles
ought to be lighter and richer than the mould in the borders." The pots or tubs should
be such as not to contain less than a cubic foot of earth ; the soil should be lighter and
richer than that recommended for the borders, and liquid manure should be plentifully
supplied, to make up, in some degree, for the confinement of the roots. They are best
forced in a peach-house, but succeed in a vinery or succession-stove; best of all, how-
ever, in a pit or Dutch frame (Jig. 446.), where the temperature can be regulated at
pleasure, and where they are near the glass. Great care must be taken to supply them
regularly with water, for which purpose some place saucers under the pots ; others cover
their surface with moss, or, what is better, fresh cow or rotten horse dung. Casing the
pots with copes made of moss, is also a very good method, as it not only preserves a uni-
Book I. CULTURE OF THE CHERRY-HOUSE. 563
form degree of moisture, but also of temperature. Of course the moss must be kept
watered. Peach-trees, in pots, are sometimes trained to small fan-trellises attached to
the pot ; but in general they are pruned as dwarf-standards, in which form they bear
fully better than when trained. When the fruit is nearly ripe, the pots ought to be re-
moved from the hot-house or vinery to a cooler and more airy situation ; or, if in pits,
the sashes may be taken off a part of every fine day. In other respects, the treatment
of peach-trees in pots is similar to that of trees in borders.
3115. Williams, of Pilmaston, observes, that in respect to the quality of fruit from peach-trees in pots,
" by far the best-flavored peaches I have ever tasted, were from trees planted in large pots, and kept in a
vinery from February till the first week in June ; when the trees were removed into the open air, and
after being shaded a little from the sun for the first ten days, were placed in the most open part of the
garden till the fruit became ripe. Treated in this way, the peach becomes beautifully colored on the out-
side, and of a most exquisite flavor." Occasionally, in very warm seasons, peach-trees in pots, when
forced very early in the season, and afterwards plunged in the open air, will produce a second crop late
in autumn ; but this is more matter of curiosity than of utility. It frequently happens with forced
cherries and strawberries. [Hort. Trans, iii. 367.)
3116. Peach-trees as standards. The peach bears remarkably well in the standard
form, planted in the middle of a house ; and the flavor of the fruit is universally ac-
knowledged to be preferable to that grown on the trellis, from the comparatively free cir-
culation of air. The glass tent, or moveable house (Jig. 226. ), might be most advan-
tageously applied in this way ; and when the fruit began to ripen, the sashes could be
removed, and applied to ripening a late crop of grapes against a common wall, or
to cover pits or houses which had not been forced.
Sect. IV. Of the Culture of the Cherry-house.
3117. Nofndt is more dijficidt to force than the cherry. The blossoms of forced trees
are apt to fall off before the fruit is set, and the fruit will keep falling off before and
after they are as large as peas. This is thought to be occasioned by a kind of stagnation
of air about them, which affects the tender blossoms and young fruit.
3118. Soil. M'Phail says, " Take light, sandy, rich, mellow earth, and make a border
of it the whole width of the house, and four feet deep." Nicol — " The border snould be
from twenty-four to thirty inches deep ; the bottom, if not naturally mild and dry, to be
drained and paved. The soil should be a sandy loam, or light hale garden-earth, made
moderately rich with stable-yard dung well reduced, or with other light compost. If a
small portion of lime, or a moderate quantity of marl were mixed with it, so much the
better. The soil for cherries to be forced in pots or tubs, should be considerably richer
than the above." Torbron uses fresh virgin soil and rotten dung. (Hort. Trans.
iv. 116.)
3119. Choice of sorts. M'Phail, Nicol, and all gardeners, agree in giving the prefer-
ence to the May-duke. Nicol says, " None of the other kinds set so well, except the
Morella, which I do not hesitate to say well deserves a place : it is a good bearer, and
the fruit, when forced, acquires a superior size and flavor." (Kal. 295.)
3 1 20. Choice of plants. M'Phail takes standards of different heights in a bearing state ;
Nicol, clean, healthy, young plants, that have been one or two years in training against a
wall. Torbron trees, eight or ten years from the bud, and selected of such various
heights as best suited the size of the house.
3121. Situation of the plants in the house. M'Phail and Torbron plant in rows, be-
ginning with the tallest in the back side, reserving the shortest for the front, letting them
slope to the south gradually, somewhat in the form in which plants are set in the green-
house. (G. Rem. 146. ; Hort. Trans, iv. 116.)
3122. Nicol has a trellis against the back wall for wall-trained trees, and a border in front, in which he
plants dwarf-standards. The dwarfs against the back trellis, he plants eight or ten feet apart. Riders that
have been three or four years trained, and are well furnished with fruit-spurs, may be planted between the
dwarfs. They may probably yield a few fruit the first season ; and will hardly fail to produce plentifully in
that following. " In the border may be planted, as dwarf-standards, to be kept under five feet in height,
some well furnished plants that have been kept in large pots or tubs for a year or two ; such being more
fruitful, and less apt to grow to wood than plants that have grown in the open ground. In planting these
the ball of earth should not be very much reduced ; only a few of the under roots should be spread out •
for if the ball were reduced, and the whole roots spread out, as in the ordinary way of planting, when it is
wished that a plant may push freely, the intention here would be thwarted ; which is, to have the plant
dwarf and fruitful, growing little to wood. Along with these may be planted in the same way, an apricot
or two, or figs, or both, that have been dwarfed in pots or tubs, as above. If they succeed, it would give a
pleasant variety ; of which there need be little doubt, as the temperature, soil, and general treatment for
cherries will suit apricots, and not far disagree with figs. These little standards may be allowed a space of
about four feet square each, which is sufficient, as they must not be suffered to rise high, or spread far, on
account of shading the trees on the trellis. In planting of the principal dwarfs and riders, let the work be
carefully performed. They should be raised with as good roots, and be kept as short time out of the
ground as possible ; placing them just as deep as they have been before ; spreading out their roots and
fibres, and filling in with fine earth. The whole should have a moderate quantity of water, and have air
freely admitted every day ; defending them, however, from snow or much rain. The house should not be
forced the first year ; and it will be better to defer heading in the plants till the middle or end of March,
than to prune them now. I shall, therefore, take no further notice of them till then, supposing they are to
be attended to with respect to air, and moderate waterings. It is necessary, however, to remark, that the
plants should be carefully anointed with the liquor, either just now. or some time in the course of the
month."
Oo 2
564 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
3123. Time of planting. According to Nicol and M'Phail, January and February ; to
Torbron, early in the autumn.
3124. Pruning. " Trees planted in January may be pruned about the middle or end of
March. The dwarfs, planted against the trellis, should be well cut in ; that is, each
shoot of last year should be shortened back to three or four buds, that the plants may
throw out a sufficiency of young shoots to fill the rail from the bottom. The dwarfs,
planted in the border as little standards, need not be headed in so much ; as the intention
is to have them fruitful, and that they may grow little to wood from the beginning. Their
short stubby shoots need not be touched, unless bruised or hurt in transplanting ; shorten-
ing back the longer and weaker ones only, a few inches, according to their strengths. The
riders, planted against the back trellis, may be treated very much in the same manner ;
the sole intention being to obtain a few crops of them while the dwarfs are making wood
and filling their spaces. In November following, the trees may be pruned for the suc-
ceeding season. In order to produce wood to fill the trellis as soon as possible, the dwarfs
should°be pretty much headed in. The shoots may be pruned very much in the manner
of the trees in the early house, shortening no shoots that are fully ripened, except a few of
those at the extremities of the tree, in order to make them throw out others for its full
extension upwards next year. November is also the proper time for pruning an esta-
blished cherry-house, preparatory to forcing for next year. As cherry-trees which have
been forced make very little wood, very little pruning is required ; probably nothing
further than moderately to thin out the spurs, and to prune off any accidental breast- wood
or water-shoots that may have risen since the crop was gathered. The leading shoots,
except for the purpose of producing wood to fill up any blank or vacancy, need not be
shortened ; nor need those in the lower parts of the tree, except for the same reason. But
if it be necessary to shorten these, let them be cut pretty well in, as otherwise they will
push very weakly. Shoots on the extreme parts of the tree, that should be shortened for
the above purpose, need not, however, be cut so closely in. If they be headed back one
third, or to half their lengths, it will generally be found sufficient."
3125. Summer pruning. Very little of this is requisite, such water-shoots or breast-
wood as arise among the spurs are to be pinched off as they appear ; laying in such
shoots only of this description as may be wanted to fill an occasional vacancy. Train in
the summer shoots of the dwarfs as they advance, at the distance of about eight or nine
inches from each other ; and otherwise observe the general rules for pruning cherries on
walls and espaliers.
3126. Stirring the soil. After pruning, the borders are to be forked up, and a little
well rotted dung, mixed with sand, worked in, if thought necessary. In summer, they
may be slightly stirred on the surface, and weeded to keep them fresh, clean, ;
and where a part of the border is outside the house, cover with horse-dung or li
early part of the season.
3127. The time of beginning to force is sometimes December, but more generally Janu-
ary or February. " Newly planted trees," Nicol observes, " will bear gentle forcing
next spring, from the first or middle of March ; which ought to be considered merely as
preparatory to forcing them fully, from about the first of February, the third year. "
Torbron, if the trees have been removed with good balls, admits of gentle forcing the first
spring, but prefers deferring it till the third year. He says, " I have had an abundant
crop of fine cherries, from trees which had been planted only a few months before forcing,
but would not recommend the risking a whole crop, unless the trees have been longer
established." "Where cherries are to be ripened early in the season, he " shuts in about
the beginning of December, and lights the fires about the third or last week of that month. "
(Hort? Trans, iv. 116.)
3128. Temperature. Abercrombie begins at 40°, " and throughout the first week,
lets the minimum be 40°, and the maximum 42°, giving plenty of air. By gradual ad-
vances in the second, third, and fourth week, raise the course to 42 min. 45' max. In
strono- sunshine, admit air freely, rather than have the temperature above 52°, by collect-
ing the warm air. In the fifth'and sixth week, the artificial minimum may be gradually
elevated to 45J, but the maximum should be restrained to 48° from fire-heat, and to 55"
from sun-heat, until the plants are in flower. After the blossoms are shown, and until
the fruit is set, aim to have the heat from the flues at 48° min. 52 max. At this stage,
maintain as free an interchange of air as the weather will permit ; and when the sun-heat
is strong do not let the temperature within exceed 60°. As the fruit is to be swelled and
ripened, the requisite heat is 60 mm. 65° max."
Sl°9 WPhail in January, does not let the cherrv-house rise higher than 50°. In February, " If the
thermometer in a morning is as low as 35°, there is no danger ; but it should rise in the course of the day,
to imitate nature as near as possible. In the month of March, the thermometer in the open air in the
shade seldom rises above 55°. In the month of April, it seldom rises above rb°. But it is observed, that
when the sun shines on a cherrv-tree or other trees in the open air, the heat on them is higher than in the
thade The cherrv-tree is of such a delicate nature to force, that it is impossible for any person to write
down the exact temperature of the air, which would ensure a crop of fruit from it in the forcing way."
and neat,
itter in the
Book I. CULTURE OF THE CHERRY-HOUSE. 565
3130. Nicol does not force the newly planted cherry-house the first season. The established house he
begins in January, making fires so moderate for the first ten or twelve days, as that the thermometer shall
not rise by the force of the fire-heat to more than 40° ; afterwards increase the fire-heat gradually, and so
as to raise it to 45° ; at which keep as nearly as possible for the remainder of the month. In sunshine, in
good weather, the thermometer may be allowed to rise to 50Q or 55°, but not more. In February, continue
to regulate the temperature of the house, so as that the thermometer may not rise, by the force of fire-
heat, to more than 50° ; and by the free admission of air in sunshine, keep it down to 60° or 55°. In
March the fruit will be setting, and the temperature of the house must therefore be kept as steadily as
possible to about 50", lest the fruit drop ; this being the most critical period of the forcing with all stone-
fruit. In April the fruit will be beginning to color and swell off for ripening, when the temperature may
be raised four or five degrees.
3131. Torbron says, " For the first three, four, or five weeks of lighting fires, if the weather be so
severe as to depress the thermometer in the open air from twenty-two to twelve degrees ; then let the
thermometer inside the house be kept from thirty-five to forty degrees, or just sufficient to exclude the
frost. If the weather be not severe during the above period, the thermometer may be kept to forty-five
degrees inside the house. As the season advances and becomes more mild, and the days longer, probably
about the first or middle of February, the thermometer may be raised to fifty degrees, and then it is expe-
dient to give gentle sprinklings by an engine or syringe, two or three times a week, in the evening. Whilst
the trees are in bloom, no sprinkling must be used ; but the flues, when only moderately hot, are to be
steamed morning and evening, and everyday and hour of sunshine, and calm and mild weather, fresh air
must be copiously admitted. When the petals begin to drop, and when the fruit is set, the temperature
may be raised to fifty-five degrees, the house being engined three or four times a week in the evening;
but never till the bloom is all down. When the cherries are completely stoned, the thermometer may be
raised to sixty degrees by fire-heat, sprinkling every evening bv engine, till the fruit is nearly ripe ; the
house may be kept higher by day, as well as by night, after stoning." (Hort. Tram. iv. 119.)
3132. Watering. M'Phail waters occasionally at root and over the top, till the trees
are in blossom ; but when the stones in the fruit are become hard, the trees may be
washed all over occasionally with clean water, not too cold. " Let this be done in a fine
sunny morning, and take care not to spatter the fruit with any kind of dirt. In April,
when the cherries are grown large, give the border a good watering now and then, which
will enable the trees to swell their fruit to a good size : by keeping them in a healthy
growing state, the fruit will be fine-flavored, and the trees will make strong flower-buds
for the ensuing season. If the fruit are not ripening, wash the trees occasionally, in a
fine sunshine morning, with sweet clean water."
3133. Nicol, after he begins to force in January, " gives moderate supplies of water at the root ; and
once in two days, let them be well scourged with the engine ; first right and then left. This is done to re-
fresh the branches and infant foliage; but chiefly, at this time, for the suppression and prevention of in-
sects that are as troublesome here as in any other forcing-house, and are easier kept down than brought
down." In February, " the plants must have regular and moderate supplies of water at the root till the
fruit be set, and then more freely, as the season, and as their growth advances. The engine may be ex-
ercised upon their branches, in a moderate manner, once in two days; generally in the afternoon, about
sunset'; using always well aired soft water. But from the time the flowers begin to open, until the petals
begin to drop again, desist from using the engine. At this interval, the foliage must be refreshed by
steam, which may be produced plentifully every evening, by pouring water on the flues when the fire is at
the strongest. A very fine dew might be thrown on the plants by a soft syringe ; but as soon as the fruit
is set, the engine is the instrument we should trust to for the suppression of insects." In March, the
fruit will be setting, and till this is completed, " the border should be kept rather in a drier state than here-
tofore ; as if it be kept too moist, it may occasion their dropping ; but afterwards, let it be regularly and
freely watered, in order to promote the growth of the plants, and the swelling of the fruit. Now again re-
sume the use of the engine ; and exercise it with force upon the branches, every second day, for the sup-
pression of the red spider, and to keep the plants clean." In April, " when the fruit begins to color and
swell off, withhold water from the border by degrees, and towards their being ripe, entirely. At this time
also, watering with the engine must be withheld ; but previously exercise it with force, and often, for a
week or two, so as completely to subdue the red spider, if he have gained any ground lately. After the crop
is gathered, these waterings must be resumed, and should be continued till the foliage begin to drop; not,
however, so much on account of the cherry-trees, as on account of other plants that may be placed in the
house ; for if the enemy be allowed a footing on the former, he will soon show himself on the latter, where
perhaps he may be less vulnerable, especially if the plants be of a tender kind. The border may be kept in
a moderately moist state till the leaves fall, or till the house be exposed, or be uncovered."
3134. Torbron says, " From the time the flower begins to open, till the fruit is completely stoned,
the soil should be but sparingly watered ; but when the stoning is effected, water may be applied to the
roots freely, till the fruit is nearly ripe." (Hort. Trans, iv. 119.)
3135. Air. " In forcing the cherry, it is essential to continue a free renovation of
air ; always sustaining the minimum heat in the different stages. The blossoms will
sometimes fall abortive, or the young fruit drop off after setting, from no other cause
than a stagnant atmosphere. " At first beginning to force, M'Phail gives plenty of air
night and day. In February, when the trees are in blossom, " let air be at the house
day and night ; and as much as you can when the fruit are swelling off."
3136. Nicol says, the airing of the cherry-house may be performed by the sashes, with every safety, till
the buds begin to expand ; and after that, in frosty or bad weather, aifmay be admitted by the ventilators.
In February, nothing is more conducive to the health of the plants, and the setting of the fruit, than a
regular and free circulation of air ; and if this be denied them for many days together, the effect will soon
be visible. The foliage will become languid, and the flowers will drop away. Therefore a day should not
pass in which less or more air is not admitted. As the fruit ripen, give as large and regular portions of air
as possible ; opening the sashes by eight or nine in the morning ; giving full air about ten ; reducing about
two or three ; and shutting up about four or five, sooner or later, according to the state of the atmosphere.
In conducting this matter, however, regard must be had to the temperature ; but air mav be admitted, in
sunshine, to such an extent as to keep down the mercury or spirits in the thermometer to 65Q, and at other
times to 60°. (Kal. p. 339.)
3137. Torbron says, " The cherry, in forcing, requiring more fresh air than most other fruits, particular
attention must be paid to its admission, by the gardener having it in his power occasionally to make as
many inlets or openings as convenient. It will be conducive to this end, that the roof, and the upright or
front sashes, if any, be moveable, and all with little difficulty ; because in changeable weather, the current
of air may be required to be augmented or reduced manv times in one dav. Air must be admitted freely and
Oo"3
566 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
eopiously when the weather is mild and calm, and accompanied with sunshine, during the time the cherries
are in bloom, and also near the time of their ripening." {Hort. Trans, iv. 119.)
3138. Insects, diseases, and depredators. " The cherry is liable to be infested by a
small grub-worm, which rolls itself up in the leaves, and extends its ravages to the fruit.
As soon as this insect is perceived, the trees should be searched daily, that it may be de-
stroyed by the hand, and prevented from spreading. It usually shows itself first about
the time "of flowering. Cherries set, or in blossom, require great attention. Like rose-
buds, they are liable to be destroyed by a small grub-worm, which rolls the leaves round
itself, occasionally, for a covering : it preys on the leaves as well as the fruit. The trees
should be searched once or twice a-day, to destroy them with the hand as soon as they
can be observed. Whenever a leaf appears to begin to curl, be sure there is an insect in
it, or the embryo of one. The cherry-house, as the season advances, may be smoked once
a-week or ten days, which will prevent the trees from being infested with a blackish kind
of insect, frequently very pernicious." {Gard. Remem. 161. 191.) When the fruit
are ripe, it is likely the birds will fly in and eat them, if you do not contrive nets, or some
other method, to keep them out. If the meshes of the nets which you employ are narrow,
the wasps and flies, as well as the birds, will be prevented from getting in ; for, as these
insects generally fly in, they therefore require room for their wings extended, otherwise
they are repulsed in their attempt. {Gard. Remem- p. 246.)
3139. Nicol, after every winter pruning, washes the trees over with the mixture of soap, sulphur, &c.
already mentioned (3061.) ; and in spring and summer waters over the leaves, picks off grubs, and fumi-
gates, like M'Phail.
3140. Torbron fumigates for the black fly, and picks off the grub.
3141. Gathering and keeping the fruit. If it be found necessary, cherries will keep for
some time on the trees, provided the birds can be kept from them. Keep the house, for
this purpose, dry, cool, and well aired. ( Gard. Remem. 246. )
3142. Exposing the wood. This, according to all the authors quoted, may be done from
the time the fruit is gathered, till within a week or ten days of the recommencement of
forcing. The glass should be entirely taken off, unless the cherry-house is in part used
for some other purpose, to which this practice would be injurious.
3143. Forcing cherry-trees in pots. M'Phail and Nicol concur in approving the very
general practice of planting cherry-trees in pots ; in which, or in tubs of a foot or fifteen
inches diameter, they may be successfully forced. " Three or four dozen good plants,
well managed in this way, would give a deal of fruit ; which might be had in succession
for a considerable length of time, by dividing the plants into three or four classes or divi-
sions, and shifting them from one compartment to another. In January, the first twelve
trees maybe placed (from the open air, of course,) in the green-house or conservatory, if
there be one, or in a peach-house now at work ; placing them in the coolest part of the
house, but in the full light, and where they may have plenty of air. They must be duly
attended to with water at the root, and be frequently syringed at top, generally once in
two days. The pots being occasionally watered with the drainings of the dunghill, would
add much to the vigor of the plants : there is no method of manuring more effectual, or
so easily accomplished. The plants may remain here till the fruit be fairly set, the stoning
over, and all danger of dropping be passed. They may then be placed in a vinery or
stove to ripen off, where they would come in early, and be very high-flavored, if placed
near the light, and so as that they might have free air daily. In February, a second and
third dozen should be taken in, and a fourth in the beginning of March, and each simi-
larly heated." {Kalend.) " It is very common with early forced cherry-trees to bear a
second crop late in the same season." {Hort. Trans, iii. 367.)
3144. Forcing by a temporary structure. Torbron observes, that, " where a portion of
wall (especially with a southern aspect), already well furnished with May-dukes, perfectly
established, and in a bearing state, can be spared for forcing, a temporary glass case may be
put up against it ; the flue may be built on the surface of the border,without digging, or sink-
ing for a foundation ; neither will any upright glass or front wall be requisite ; the wooden
plate on which the lower end of the rafters are to rest may be supported by piles, sunk or
driven into the soil of the border, one pile under every, or every alternate rafter. The
space between the plate and the surface of the soil should be filled by boards nailed
against the piles, to exclude the external air, for the plate must be elevated above the level
of the surface from eighteen to thirty inches, or whatever height may be sufficient to let
the sashes slip down, in order to admit fresh air. I believe this to be an uncommon struc-
ture, and it may perhaps be objected to : but I am confident that it will suit well for
cherries, for I have constructed such places even for forcing peaches with good success, as
well as for maturmg and preserving a late crop of grapes. " {Hort. Trans, iv. 117.)
Sect. V. Of the Culture of the Fig-house.
3145. A house for forcing the fig is seldom built expressly for that purpose ; partly
from there being no great demand for the fruit in most families, and partly because figs
Book I. CULTURE OF THE FIG-HOUSE. .567
are generally forced in pots or tubs placed in the peach or cherry-house, and managed as
these trees. The fig-tree, when forced, is very apt to cast its fruit before it is half
swelled. " A separate hot-house," Neill observes, " is but seldom erected for the cul-
tivation or the forcing of the fig ; a few dwarf-trees, such as the brown Italian, and
purple Italian, introduced into the peach or cherry house, being by most people thought
sufficient. It has been found by experience, that dwarf-standard fig-trees, planted in the
middle of a vinery, between the flues, and thus under the shade of the vines, bear fruit
plentifully, ripening both the spring and autumn crops. This may be seen in the vinery
erected by Hay, at Preston Hall, near Edinburgh." (Ed. En. ait. Hort.) Sabine
recommends training fig-trees on the back walls of vineries, where he has seen them
answer well, the vines being trained immediately under the roof. He says, " It is ad-
visable not to train the vines entirely under the whole of the glass, but to leave a space in
the centre of each light, its whole length, for the admission of the sun's rays ;" judici-
ously adding, " the grapes will be perhaps as much benefited by this practice as the figs."
(Hort. Trans, iii. 410.)
3146. The soil for fig borders, or plants in pots, is in all respects the same as that for
the cherry.
3147. Choice of sorts. Abercrombie recommends the
White Genoa | Chestnut | Black Ischia | Brown Ischia | Black Genoa | Malta.
3148. To which Nicol adds the brown Italian, and black and purple Italian.
3149. Choice of plants. Such as are two or three years trained, either as wall or dwarf
standards, are to be preferred.
3150. The situation of the plants in the house is generally against a back wall trellis.
3151. Pruning. Figs are to have a spring and summer pruning ; both of which,
Nicol observes, may be comprised in one, by rubbing or pinching off the infant shoots,
thought necessary to be displaced, in order to give the tree air, and strengthen such as
remain. The summer pruning, or rather thinning, consists chiefly in keeping them
moderately thin of leaves, so as not to overshadow the fruit. Sabine's trees are pruned
in the autumn, after their wood is well hardened ; but as " the object is to get the trees
to the largest possible size, in which state they will produce more of the short fruit-bearing
shoots, they are cut but little, except it be occasionally necessary to thin them, by taking
out a strong limb." (Hort. Trans, in. 410.) Fig-trees, intended to bear fruit abund-
antly, should never be allowed to produce suckers, or any shoots from the main stem,
within eighteen inches of the ground ; fan-training is in general the best method, and the
points of the young shoots may be turned downwards, where it can be done without pro-
ducing fracture, or inducing them to throw out shoots by the strain requisite for this
purpose.
3152. Stirring the soil, &c. After the gathering of the fruit, the borders are to be
forked up and manured, if necessary, as in the cherry-house, and in summer weeded and
refreshed.
3153. The time of beginning to force is generally the same as that for the cherry or
peach house : December, January, or February. Sabine, in the case above referred
to, where the trees are planted against the back wall, says, " the time of beginning to
force is in the middle of April ; the first crop of figs ripens in June, and the second crop
in August." (Hort. Trans, iii. 410.)
3154. Temperature. " From the leafing time," Abercrombie observes, " till the
ripening of the fruit, the fig requires a temperature between that scale which is proper
for the peach, and that for the cherry." M'Phail says, « They require a greater degree
of heat than the cherry." When bringing forward their fruit, they will bear a good
strong heat, if care be taken to keep a free circulation of air moving out of and into the
house. (G. Rem. 147.)
3155. Water. Fig-trees in a house, and especially those in pots, require abundance of
water in the stages suitable for watering fruit-trees. (Abercrombie.) M'Phail says,
" The border in which fig-trees grow, should be kept sufficiently watered, till May, when
watering over the leaves may be commenced."
3156. Air. When the figs are planted under glass, Miller observes, " The heat
should not be too great, nor the glasses or other covering kept too close, but at all times,
when the weather is favorable, a good share of free air should be admitted. In this
respect the fig does not greatly differ from the vine, though it will thrive with less air
than any other fruit-tree." (Diet, in loco.) In summer, as the fruit advances, water
even in that part of the border which is without the house. Refrain from watering over
the leaves and fruit, when the latter begin to ripen. (G. Rem. 192.)
3157. Insects. Very much pains, Nicol observes, should be taken to suppress the red
spider on the foliage of figs ; whether by the engine, syringe, or by frequently brushing with
a painter's sash-tool, the under sides of the leaves, " in order to destroy his webs, which
are there thickly woven." Few other insects annoy the fig, except sometimes the coccus
Oo 4
568 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
or scaly insect ; which is destroyed by washing with soap-suds and sulphur ; or the
liquor recommended for destroying that insect on pines. (A a/. 319.)
3158. Gathering the fruit. Figs begun to be forced in January, Nicol states, will be
ripe about the end of June and July. " If fig-trees in a forcing-house," Miller ob-
serves, " are properly managed, the first crop of fruit will be greater than upon those
which are exposed to the open air, and will ripen six weeks or two months earlier, and a
plentiful second crop may also be obtained, which will ripen early in September." To
preserve the bloom, gather with the peach-gatherer. They may be preserved a short
time on the trees, by covering with mats from the sun, and admitting abundance of air
among the branches. This alludes to what is called the second crop, or that produced
from the wood of the current year. Sometimes a few of the first crop ripen, but in
general it is not to be relied on. Aiton, Sir Joseph Banks informs us (Hort. Trans, i.
253.), " has for several years practised the forcing of figs in the royal gardens of Kew,
with great success, and his chief dependence is on the second crop."
3159. Erposure of the ivood. After the fruit is gathered, the glasses may be removed,
till winter sets in, when they must either be put on, or the trees covered with mats or
straw, to protect them from the frost.
3160. Forcing the Jig in pots. M'Phail says, figs may be ripened at an early season,
by planting them in pots, and setting them into a hot-house or forcing-house. " The
plants should be low and bushy, so that they may stand on the curb of the tan-bed, or
they may be plunged in a gentle tan-heat, or in a bed of leaves of trees. The best way
to propagate plants for this purpose is to take layers or slips which have good roots : plant
them in pots in good earth, one plant in each pot, and plunge them in a bed of tan or of
leaves of trees, in which is a very gentle heat : a brick bed will answer the purpose very
well ; or they will do in the forcing-house, if there be room for them. Let them be put
into the house in the latter end of February or beginning of March, and keep them suffi-
ciently watered. "When they are two years old, they will be able to bear fruit ; the pots
in that time having become full of roots. In the month of November or December, turn
the plants out of the pots, and with a sharp knife pare off the outside of the ball, by which
the plant will be divested of its roots matted against the inside of the pot : then place
them into larger pots, filling up the vacancy round the balls with strong loamy earth.
During the winter, let them be kept in the green-house, or in a glazed pit of a like tem-
perature, till the month of February ; then set them into the forcing-house, where it is
intended they shall ripen their fruit. In this manner let them be treated every year,
which will be a means of preventing the fruit from falling off before it come to matu-
rity." (G. Rem.) Nicol says, fig-trees kept in pots or tubs, may be treated very much
as directed for cherries. Two dozen, or thirty plants, would be a good stock for that
purpose. The first division might be placed in a cherry or peach-house about the middle
or latter end of January. (Kalendar, 319.)
3161. Culture of the Jig-tree in the stove. The fig formed one of the different species
of trees which Knight subjected to a very high temperature during bright weather, and a
comparatively low temperature during the night. (Hort. Trans, iii. 459. 1212.)
3162. The large white fig-tree succeeded perfectly, " just ripening its spring figs, (those which usually
ripen in the open air in this country), and afterwards its summer figs. The trees then produced new
leaves and branches ; and the fruit, which would have appeared in the next spring, ripened in high per-
fection in September. Subsequently also, a few of those, which, in the ordinary course of the growth of
the tree, would have appeared as the summer crop of next year, have ripened, and these, though inferior
to those of the preceding crops, have not been without merit." At the time this communication was
made, this fourth crop was only beginning to ripen, and was thought of inferior quality : but Knight
informs us, in a subsequent communication (read July 18. 1820), that " the subsequent portion of it
proved most excellent ; and some figs which were gathered upon Christmas-day, were thought by myself,
and a friend who was with me, much the best we had ever tasted. The same plants have since ripened
four more crops, being eight within twelve months ; and upon a ringed branch of one year old, and about
an inch in diameter, a ninth crop, consisting of sixty figs, will ripen within the next month. I possess only
two plants, each growing in a pot, which contains something less than fourteen square inches of mould,
and occupying together a space equal to about sixty-four square feet of the back wall of my pine-stove :
from which space the number of figs that have been gathered within twelve months has been little, if any,
less than 300 : and 1 see every prospect of a succession of crops till winter. I therefore send the following
account of the mode of culture, which has been employed, in the hope that it may prove useful to those
who are sufficiently admirers of the fig, to think it deserving a place in the forcing-house. My trees
grow, as I have stated in the communication to which I have above alluded, in exceedingly rich mould,
and are most abundantly supplied with water, which holds much manure in solution. They consequently
shoot with great vigor, notwithstanding the small space to which their roots are confined; and they re-
quire some attention to restrain them within the limits assigned to them ; but I have found the following
mode of treatment perfectly efficient and successful. Whenever a branch appears to be extending with
too much luxuriance, its point, at the tenth or twelfth leaf, is pressed between the finger and thumb,
without letting the nails come in contact with the bark, till the soft succulent substance is felt to yield to
the pressure. Such branch, in consequence, ceases subsequently to elongate ; and the sap is repulsed to be
expended where it is more wanted. A fruit ripens at the base of each leaf, and during the period in
which the fruit is ripening, one or more of the lateral buds shoots, and is subsequently subjected to the
same treatment, with the same result. When I have suffered such shoots to extend freely to their natural
length, I have found that a small part of them only became productive, either in the same, or the ensuing
season, though I have seen that their buds obviously contained blossoms. I made several experiments
to obtain fruit in the following spring from other parts of such branches, which were not successful :
but I ultimately found that bending these branches, as far as could be done without danger of breaking
them, rendered them extremely fruitful ; and in the present spring, thirteen figs ripened perfectly upon a
Book I. CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER. 569
branch of this kind, within the space of ten inches. In training, the ends of all the shoots have been
made, as far as practicable, to point downwards." (Hort. Trans, iv. 202.)
3163. For various ojnnions and practices in pruning and training the fig in the open
air, which may also deserve attention in the forcing department, see the Horticultural
Catalogue.
Sect. VI. Of the Culture and Forcing of the Cucumber.
3164. To produce cucumbers at an early season, is an object of emulation with every
gardener ; and there is scarcely any person, not even the humblest tradesman, as M'Phail
observes, who has not his cucumber-bed in his garden. We shall follow our usual plan,
and lay before the reader a systematic view of the practices of the most approved gar-
deners in the culture of this plant. Cucumbers are forced in hot-beds, pits, and hot-
houses ; and the heat of fire, and steam, and dung, have been applied to their culture ;
but dung, as the author last quoted observes, is the only thing yet found out, by the heat
of which the cucumber may be advantageously cultivated.
3165. Soil. Cucumbers, like every other plant, will grow in any soil, though not with
the same degree of vigor, provided they be supplied with a sufficiency of heat, light,
water, and air.
3166. Abercrombie, for early forcing, recommends a mould or compost of the following materials : —
" One third of rich top-spit earth, from an upland pasture, one half of vegetable mould, and one sixth
of well decomposed horse-dung, with a small quantity of sand."
3167. M'Phail used vegetable mould, made from a mixture (accidental) of the leaves of " elm, lime,
beech, sycamore, horse and sweet chestnut, spruce and Scotch fir, walnut, laurel, oak, evergreen oak,
ash, &c." and among them withered grass, and weeds of various sorts. " This vegetable mould," he
says, " without a mixture of any thing besides, is what I used for growing cucumbers in, and, by ex-
perience, I found it preferable to any other moulds, earths, or composts whatever, either in my new
method of a brick bed, or in the old method of a bed made of hot dung."
3168. Nicol says, soil thus composed will produce cucumbers in great abundance : " Three fourths light,
rich, black earth from a pasture, an eighth part vegetable mould of decayed tree leaves, and an eighth
part rotten cow-dung." (Kal. p. 393.)
3169. Aiton gives the following as the compost used in the Kew-garden : " Of light loam, a few
months from the common, one third part ; the best rotten dung, one third part ; leaf-mould and heath-
earth, of equal parts, making together one third part : the whole well mixed for use." {Hort. Trans.
vol.ii. p. 282.)
3170. Mills (Hort. Trans, vol. iii. p. 148.) states, that the soil he uses " is half bog or black mould,
got from a dry heathy common, and half leaf-mould ; after lying twelve months in a heap, the compost
is fit for use."
3171. Time of beginning to force. Abercrombie says, " Managers who have to pro-
vide against demands for early cucumbers, must raise the seedlings from twelve to ten
weeks before the fruit will be required, according to the length of the days in the interval.
In proportion as the entire course embraces a greater part of midwinter, the liability of
failure from obstacles in the weather will be greater. The last fortnight in January, or
first week of February, is a good time for beginning to force the most early crop. In
the subsequent months, both main and secondary crops may be started as required ; and
will come forward more freely. To have a constant succession, seedlings should be
originated twice a-month. As the course of forcing more coincides with the natural
growing season, the length of it will be reduced to eight, seven, or six weeks."
3172. M'Phail says, " Those who are desirous of having cucumbers early, had best sow the seeds about
the 20th of October ; they may be sown at any time of the year, but the spring and autumn are the best
seasons. Cucumber-plants may be made to bear fruit plentifully from about the middle of March till the
middle of September ; but from the middle of September till the middle of March their produce will be
but scanty. Cucumber-plants raised from seed in October, will begin to produce fruit in February or
March, and will continue to bear till the following month of October, provided they be kept in frames,
and get plenty of heat and water."
3173. Nicol recommends the middle of January. He says, " Some begin sooner, but it is striving hard
against the stream to little purpose. If the dung be prepared, and the bed be got ready, so as to sow about
the 1st of February, the success will often be greater than by sowing a month earlier ; the growth of the
plants being frequently checked by bad weather, and sometimes they are entirely lost."
3174. Aiton, in the paper above quoted, sowed on the 12th and 20th of August, with a view to cultivate
in stoves ; a regular supply of this vegetable being annually required for the royal tables.
3175. Mills sows on the 14th of October.
3176. Sorts. Abercrombie recommends " the short prickly for very early fruit ; and
the long prickly kinds for the chief early and main summer crops." M'Phail prefers
" the green cucumber with black prickles, as best for forcing. When fit for table, it runs
from six to nine inches long, and, when ripe, runs to about eighteen or twenty inches
long." Nicol says, " Every gardener has his favorite sort of cucumber, and it is no
easy matter to advise. He names, as early sorts generally known, the early short
prickly as the earliest ; the early smooth green, a long fruit ; the long green prickly,
and the white prickly, a white fruit." Aiton and Mills do not mention the varieties
they used.
3177. Choice of seed. " It is advisable," Abercrombie observes, " to have that from
two at least to four years old, in preference to newer seed, which is mc re apt to run
luxuriantly in vine, and the plants from it do not show fruit so soon, nor so abundantly
as those from seed of a greater age. But when seed has been kept more than four
years, it is sometimes found to be too much Meakened."
570 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
3178. Forming the seed-bed. " A one-light frame," Abercrombie says, " will be large
enough for ordinary purposes. Choose a dry sheltered part of the melon-ground, and
form a bed for a one-light frame. When high winds are suffered to blow against a
cucumber-bed, they have a very powerful effect on it ; for, in that case, the heat in a
short time will not only be greatly abated, but also forced and driven inco the corners
of the frames, and, consequently, some parts thereof are rendered too cold, whilst other
parts are made too warm ; and, of course, the plants are all equally endangered, retarded
in their growth, and perhaps some, if not all of them, totally destroyed. Therefore,
wThen a cucumber-bed is about to be built, the first object of consideration should be, to
have it, as well as possible, sheltered from the high winds and boisterous stormy weather.
Having put on the frame, and waited till the bed is fit for moulding, lay in five or six
inches depth of the proper earth or compost."
3179. M'Phail makes up a bed of good dung, four feet high, or a one-light box.
3180. Xicol builds a bed of dung, carefully fermented, to the height of five feet at back, and four at
front, keeping it a foot larger all round than a one-light frame, or about five or six feet by three or
three and a half. He then covers with turf; and on that lays fine sand, as free from earth as possible,
to the depth of about six inches ; laying it in a sloping manner, corresponding with the glass, and to
within six inches of it ; over which he lays an inch or two of dry light earth.
3181. Alton and Mills also prepare a bed for a one-light box ; the latter forms it on a stratum of wood
one foot high for drainage, and eight inches higher in the middle than at the sides, " as the sides are liable,
from the weight of the frame, to settle faster than the middle," which causes the hills of earth to crack ;
by which, in fruiting-beds more especially, the roots of the plants are greatly injured.
3182. Sowing. Abercrombie sows some seeds in the layer of the earth, which he
spreads over the bed, putting them in half an inch deep. He also sows some seeds in
two, three, or more small pots of the same kind of earth, which may be plunged a little
into that of the bed.
3183. M'Phail sows in a pot filled with rich earth, covers about two inches thick, and sets the pots on the
surface of the naked dung on the bed. • . '
3184. Xicol sows immediately after the bed is made, without waiting till the heat arise, which, he says,
is losing time, and the opportunity of bringing on vegetation by degrees as the heat rises. He sows in a
broad pan four inches deep, or in small pots four or five inches diameter, and as much in depth. These
he fills with " fine light earth," or vegetable mould, and covers the seeds two inches. He plunges these
to the brim in the back part of the bed (which it will be recollected contains a stratum of earth six inches
thick over one of sand, and another of turf), puts on the light, and lets the frame be matted at night m
the ordinary way.
3185. Raising plants from cuttings. M'Phail says, « Instead of raising cucumber-
plants from seed, they may be raised from cuttings, and thus kept on from year to year in
the following manner : " the method of striking them is this ; take a shoot which is just
ready for stopping, cut it off just below the joint behind the joint before which the shoot
should have been stopped, then cut smooth the lower end of the shoot or cutting, and
stick it into fine leaf or other rich mould about an inch deep, and give it plenty of heat,
and shade it from the rays of the sun till it be fairly struck. By this method, as well as
by that of laying, cucumber-plants may readily be propagated."
3186. Mearns, gardener at Shobden Court, near Leominster, propagates his cucumber-plants for a win-
ter crop in this way, and " finds, that the plants raised from cuttings are less succulent, and therefore do not
so readily damp off, or suffer from the low temperature to which they are liable to be exposed in severe
weather; that they come into bearing immediately as they have formed roots of sufficient strength to
support their fruit, and do not run so much to barren vine as seedlings are apt to do." He takes the
cuttings from the tops of the bearing shoots, and plants them in pots nine inches deep ; half filled with
mould. He then waters them, covers the tops of the pots with flat pieces of glass, and plunges them into
a gentle bottom lieat. " The sides of the pot act as a sufficient shade for the cuttings during the time
they are striking, and the flat glass, in this and in similar operations, answers all the purposes of bell-glasses.
The cuttings form roots, and are ready to pot off in less than a fortnight." (Hort. Trans, iv. 411.)
3187. Temperature of the seed-bed. Abercrombie says, " The minimum heat for the
cucumber is 58 degrees at the coldest time of night ; in the day-time 65 degrees is suffi-
cient for the maximum ; because air admitted when the sun has great influence, will do
more good than a higher heat."
3188. M'Phail says, " If it were possible to keep the heat in the frames always to 80 degrees, with the con-
currence of proper air and moisture, I am of opinion that that would be a sufficient heat for the production
of the cufiimber." _ . .
3189. Xicol keeps the air in the bed to about 65 degrees in the night, allowing a few degrees ot a rise in
sunshine. e, .
3190. Aiton rears and fruits his plants in a stove, and therefore we shall take no farther notice ot ins prac-
tice at present.
3191. Mills says, " The heat I wish to have in the seed-frame is from 6o to i5 degrees.
3192. Treatment till removed to the fruiting-bed. " After sowing, Abercrombie con-
tinues the glasses on the frame ; giving occasional vent above for the steam to evaporate,
that the bed may keep a moderate heat, and not become too violent. The plants will
be up in a few* days, when it will be proper to admit air daily, but more guardedly, at
the upper ends of the lights, which may be raised from half an inch to an inch or two,
according to the temperature of the weather, that the plants may not draw up weak, or
be injured b y the steam. In frosty weather, hang part of the mat over the aperture.
When the plants are a little advanced, with the seed-leaves about half an inch broad,
take them up, and prick some in small pots of light earth, previously warmed by the
Book I. CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER. 571
heat of the bed. Put three plants in each pot, and insert them a little slopingly, quite
to the seed-leaves. Plunge the pots into the earth ; and you may prick some plants also
into the earth of the bed. Give a very little water just to the roots : the water should be
previously warmed to the temperature of the bed. Draw on the glasses ; but admit air
daily, to promote the growth of the plants, as well as to give vent to the steam rising in
the bed, by tilting the lights behind, from half an inch to an inch or two high, in propor-
tion to the heat of the bed and temperature of the weather. Cover the glasses every
night with garden-mats, and remove them timely in the morning. Give twice a week,
once in two days, or daily, according to the season, a very light watering. Keep up a
moderate lively heat in the bed, by requisite linings of hot dung to the sides."
3193. M'PJiail, having sown and placed the pots on the naked bed, says, the plants will come up in a few
days ; and when they have fully expanded their two seed-leaves, transplant them into small pots, three
plants in each pot ; set them on the surface of the dung in the bed, and let a little air be left at the light
day and night, to let the steam pass off freely. " When the seedling plants ha\reone or two joints, stop
them, after which they generally put forth two shoots, each of which let run till they have made one or
two clear joints, and then stop them ; and afterwards continue throughout the season to stop the plants at
every joint."
3194. Nicol directs to guard the seeds from mice, which generally swarm about hot-beds, by laying a
pane of glass over the pot or pan till they have come up ; and afterwards, at night, by covering with a pot
of equal size, till the seed-leaves have expanded, and the husks have dropped : for, until then, the plants
are liable to be destroyed. The cover, however, should always be removed by sunrise, and replaced in
the evening. It is at night these vermin generally commit their depredations. No air need be admitted
till the heat begin to rise, and steam begin to appear ; but after that, the light should be tilted a little
every day, in whatever state the weather may be, until the plants break ground. Air must then be ad-
mitted with more care ; and, if frosty or very chill, the end of a mat should be hung over the opening,
that the air may sift through it, and not immediately strike the plants. A little aired water may be given
once a-day, from the time the seeds begin to chip ; and if a very strong heat rise, the pots should be raised
a little, to prevent the roots from being injured. They should be frequently examined on this account,
and if the heat be violent, should be set loosely in the sand, or be placed entirely on the surface. The air of
the bed should be kept to about 65 degrees in the night ; allowing a few degrees of a rise in sunshine. If
the weather be severe, therefore, the mats must be doubled or tripled ; and if mild, perhaps a single one
maysuffice. But, unless in very bad weather, they should always be removed by sunrise, in order to
admit all the sun and light possible to the plants, which is very essential to their welfare.
3195. Pricking out. When the plants are about an inch and a half high, they are then fit to be pricked
out into nursing-pots. These pots should be about three and a half or four inches diameter at top, and as
much in depth. The mould to be used should be the same as that the seeds were sown in, and should be
laid in the frame a few hours previous to potting, in order to bring it to a proper degree of warmth, that
the tender fibrils be not chilled by it. Let the pots be filled about one half with the earth; turn the
plants' carefully out of the seed-pot; place three in each against the side of the pot, and so as that their
leaves may be just above its margin ; then cover the roots with the mould, rubbing it fine between the
fingers, and filling the pots nearly to the brim. Work over the sand in the frame to its full depth ;
plunge the pots to within an inch of their rims ; and cover the whole surface with a little dry earth as at
first, making it level with the tops of the pots. Then give a little aired water, in order to settle the earth
to the roots of the plants.
3196. Second sowing. As these tender seedlings, at this early period, are liable to many accidents,
it will be proper to sow a little more seeds of the same kinds at this time, in order to provide a supply of
plants. If they should not be wanted, the trouble is not much ; and they may be given to a neighbor, or
be thrown away.
3197. Routine culture. Let air be admitted to them as freely as the state of the weather will allow ; and
supply them moderately with water once in two or three days. Examine the pots frequently, if the heat
be violent, lest the roots be scorched ; setting them loosely, or pulling them up a little in that case ; or, if
thought necessary, placing them entirely on the surface. If much steam abound in the bed at this time,
it may be proper to leave the light tilted half an inch in the night ; observing to hang the lap of a single
mat two or three inches over the tilt. But if the bed was carefully turfed over, as directed at making up,
this will seldom be necessary ; never but in thick hazy weather. Mat up carefully at night ; but make a
point of admitting all the sun and light possible to the plants ; therefore uncover always by sunrise, and
frequently wash or wipe the glasses clean, outside and inside, as they are often clogged by a mixture of
steam and dust. Also, occasionally stir the surface of the sand or earth in the frame with the point of a
stick, in order to extirpate vapor that hovers on the surface, and so purify the internal air of the bed. If
the heat begin to decrease, and particularly if the weather be severe, it may be necessary to line one or
more sides of the bed, that the plants may receive no check in their growth. If it be a one-light box,
both back and front may be lined at the same time ; and, if necessary, in ten or twelve days, the two sides ;
and if much steam arise from the linings after they come into heat, be careful, in matting at night, to
tuck up the edges of the mat, lest it be thrown into the bed.
3198. Mills, as soon as the seed-leaves of the plants are fully expanded, transplants them singly into pots
of the 48th size, gives a little water and air night and day. His temperature for seedlings, as already stated,
is from 65 to 75 degrees. With this heat, and water, as the earth in the pots becomes dry, and a little air
night and day, so as to keep the internal air in the frame sweet, and fluctuating between the degrees
of heat above mentioned, the plants will be fit for finally transplanting out in one month, that is, by
the 14th of November, into the fruiting-frames. (Hort. Trans, vol. iii.)
3199. Forming the fruiting-bed. Abercrombie directs, "When the plants are ad-
vanced in some tolerable stocky growth, that is, when the first rough leaves are two
or three inches broad, or when the plants have been raised about five weeks, transplant
them to a larger hot-bed, with a two-light or three-light frame, sometimes called the
ridging-out bed." Form the bed on general principles, of superficial extent according
to the frame it is to support, leaving from four to six inches all round, and fixing the
height according to the season. Thus, in January, Abercrombie directs the bed to be
" three feet nine inches high in front ; four feet six inches at the back ; and six inches
larger than the frame all round : in February, three feet three inches high at the front ;
four feet at the back ; and four inches to spare round the frame : in March, three feet
high in front ; three feet six inches at back ; and four inches beyond the frame every
way. Put on the frame and glasses presently after the body of dung is built up, to
defend it from the weather. At the same time raise the glasses a little at the upper
572 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
end, in order both to draw up the heat sooner, and to give vent to the rising steam, until
the bed is reduced to a regular temperature. In connection with the thermometer, the
cultivator may be assisted to form a judgment of this, by trying-sticks, that is, two or
more sharp-pointed smooth sticks, thrust down in different parts of the bed ; which at
intervals may be drawn up, and felt by a quick grasp of the hand. The smell of the
vapor is also a criterion : it should not be strong and fetid, but mild and sweet. While
taking care that the heat is not so intense as to burn the mould when applied as below,
let it not be suffered to evaporate unnecessarily by delay. If the temperature appear
not sufficiently high, take off the frame, and add another course of dung."
3200. M'Phail, when he fruits the cucumber on dung-beds, begins to make preparations for the fruiting,
bed, about three weeks before the plants are ready to be planted out for good. The dung collected, after
being well worked, is " made up into a bed of about four or five feet high, and the frames and
lights set upon it. It is afterwards suffered to stand for a few days to settle, and until its violent heat be
somewhat abated ; and when it is thought to be in a fit state for the plants to grow in, its surface is made
level, and a hill of mould laid in just under the middle of each light, and when the mould gets warm, the
plants are ridged out in it. After this, if the bed has become perfectly sweet, and there be heat enough
in it, and the weather prove fine, the plants will grow finely."
3201. Nicol builds his fruiting-bed about four feet and a half high at back, and three feet and a half in
front, keeping it fully a foot longer than the frame all round. He turfs it, and lays on sand as in forming
the seed-bed, if the dung has not been well fermented. " But otherwise, placing a thick round turf, a yard
over, in the middle of each light, so as that its centre may be exactly under the plants, will generally be
found sufficiently safe." The frames are now put on ; and the beds matted up at night to make the heat
rise the sooner.
3202. Mills says, " Well preparing the dung, is of the greatest importance in forcing the cucumber,
and if not done before it is made into a bed, it cannot be done after, as it requires turning and watering
to cause it to ferment freely and sweetly ; fresh dung from the stable will require at least six weeks' pre-
paration before it will be fit to receive the plants. A month before it is made into a bed, it should be laid
into a heap, turned three times, and well shaken to pieces with a fork, and the outsides of the heap
turned into the middle, and the middle to the outsides, that the whole may have a regular fermentation ;
and if any appear dry, it should be made wet, keeping it always between the two extremes of wet and
dry. A d'ry spot of ground should be chosen to prepare the dung on, that the water may drain away
from the bottom of the heap. The dung having been a month in heap, I make the bed as follows : I form
a stratum one foot high, of wood of any kind, but if large the better (old roots of trees, or any other of
little value will do) ; this is to drain the water from the bottom of the bed ; for, after a month's prepar-
ation, with every care, it will frequently heat itself dry, and require water in large quantities, which, if
not allowed to pass off freely, will cause an unwholesome steam to rise, in which the cucumber-plant will
not grow freely : on this bottom of wood I make the bed, four feet high, with dung, gently beating it down
with a fork : this is done about the 1st of November, and by the month of February the four feet of dung
will not be more than two feet thick, which, with the foot of wood at the bottom, will make the bed three
feet high ; this I consider a good height, for if lower, it cannot be so well heated by linings, which is the
only method of warming it in the months of February and March, as by that time the first heat of the
bed will have quite declined. Having made the bed, "I put on the frames and lights, which I shut close
till the heat rises. I then give air night and day, sufficient to allow the steam to pass off, and once in two
days I fork the surface over, about nine inches deep, to sweeten it, and if, in the operation, I find any
part dry, I carefully wet it. The bed being quite sweet, I prepare it for the mould, by making the middle
about eight inches lower than the sides, as the sides are liable, from the weight of the frames, to settle
faster than the middle, which often causes the hills of earth to crack, by which the roots of the plants are
greatly injured." [Hort. Trans, vol. iii. p. 147.)
3203. Moulding. " As soon," Abercrombie observes, " as you deem the bed to have
a lively, safe, well tempered heat, which may be in a week or ten days after building,
proceed to mould it. Earth the middle of each light, laying the mould so as to form a
little hill, from six to ten inches in height, according as seed is to be sown, or plants
from the seed-bed inserted. Then earth over the intervals between the hills and the
sides of the frame only, from two to four inches, as a temporary measure, until the heat
is ascertained to be within safe limit. After the whole bed has been some time covered,
examine the mould : if no traces of a burning effect appear, discoverable by the mould
turning of a whitish color and caking, it will be fit to receive the plants. But if the
earth appears burnt, such part should be replaced by fresh, and vacuities made to give
vent to the steam, by drawing away part of the hills from the centre. When the bed is
in fit order, level the mould to six inches deep, to receive seeds ; but to receive plants
in pots, the hills of earth should be kept ten inches deep or more. If there be any
motive for haste while an excess of heat is to be suspected, the danger from burning
may be obviated by leaving vacancies in the top mould ; by placing patches of fresh cow-
dung or decayed bark to receive the pots of seeds or plants ; and by boring holes in the
bed with a round pole sharpened at the end, which holes should be filled up with hay
or dung when the heat is sufficiently reduced. Some persons place a layer of turf with
the sward downwards between the dung and the mould : but this, if ever expedient, is
only in late forcing ; for in winter the full effect of a sweet well tempered heat is wanted,
much of which, by being confined at top, may be forced out at the sides."
3204. M'Phail, in moulding common hot-beds, also raises hills in the centre of each light in the usual
way. {Gard. TRemein. p. 51.)
3205. Nicol gathers up from the surface of the beds a sufficient quantity of earth to raise hills whereon
to plant ; one exactly in the middle of each light, about a foot broad at top, and to within six inches of
the glass. If the frames be of a proper depth, thev should be twelve or fifteen inches high above the turf.
(Kal. 365.)
3206. Mills puts under the centre of each light one solid foot of earth, the top of which is then within
nine inches of the glass, and the top of the plants, when planted in it, will be within three inches of the
glass.
Book I. CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER. 573
3207. Planting out. Abercrombie, when the temperature is ascertained to be right,
brings the plants in their pots ; turns over the hills of mould, forming them again pro-
perly, and then proceeds to planting. " Turn those in pots clean out, one pot at a time,
with the ball of earth whole about the roots ; and thus insert one patch of three plants
which have grown together, with the ball of earth entire, into the middle of each hill,
earthing them neatly round the stems. Also any not in pots, having been pricked into
the earth of the bed, if required for planting, may be taken up with a small ball of earth,
and planted similarly. With water warmed to the air of the bed, give a very light water-
ing about the roots, and shut down the glasses for the present, or till next morning.
Shade the plants a little from the mid-day sun a few days, till they have taken root in
the hills, and cover the glasses every evening with large mats, which should be taken off
in the morning."
3208. Nicol, before planting, if the beds have settled anywise unequally, rectifies and sets level the
frames, by placing boards, slates, or bricks, under the low corners, so as to make them correct. He
then makes up the outsides of the bed with dung, a few inches higher than the bottoms of the frame ;
over which he lays some dry litter, or fern fronds, and planks at top to walk on. He then takes the pots
of plants, each of which is supposed to have got two or three rough leaves, and making a hole in
each full large enough to receive the balls, turns them out of the pots as entire as possible, placing them
level with the surface of the hill, fitting the earth round their sides, and settling all with a little water.
In the case of planting older plants than the above, at a farther advanced period of the season, or such
as have quite filled their pots with roots, the balls may be reduced a little, and the fibres should be singled
out, if anywise matted. But the above plants are supposed to have barely filled the pots with roots, and
then the balls should be kept entire, that they may not receive a check in the transplanting.
3209. Temperature for fruiting plants. Abercrombie's minimum is fifty-five degrees,
and maximum in the day-time sixty-five degrees, the same as for the seed-bed.
3210. M'Phail says, " It appears, that during the winter and spring months, the medium heat of the
air in the frames should be seventy-five degrees, and the medium heat of the mould eighty degrees. But
when the sun shines, the heat of the air in the frames is often raised to a much higher degree ;
so that reckoning this heat, the medium for that of the air of the frames may be eighty degrees."
(Gard. Renicm.^.59.) , '. .
3211. NicoFs medium heat for cucumbers is sixty degrees ; in sunshine he admits as much air as will
keep down the thermometer to sixty-five. {Kalend. p. 366.)
3212. Mills, in the fruiting-frames, wishes " to have at all times from seventy to eighty degrees of heat,
which I regularly keep up by applving linings of hot dung, prepared one month previously, in the same
manner as that for the beds. For the first month I cover the glass with a single mat only ; and as the
nights become cold, I increase the covering, using hay, which I put on the glass, and cover that with a
single mat. I regulate the heat at night by the warmth of the glass under the hay, for when the glass is
warm, which should be in two hours after covering up, a little air is required. When the glass and hay
covering are warm, which is easily known by putting the hand under the hay on the glass light, the
internal heat of the bed will be about seventy-eight degrees, in which degree of heat, the cucumbers
shown to the society have grown in length, in sixteen hours, one inch and a quarter. I give a little water
round the insides of the frame as often as I find them dry, which causes a fine steam to rise, and I think
it better than watering the mould, for if this latter practice is often repeated in winter, when the sun's
power is insufficient to absorb the moisture, and the glasses can be but little open, to allow the damp to
pass off, the earth, in a few weeks, will lose its vigor, and the roots of the plants will perish. Great care
should also be taken, at this season, not to injure the roots by too much heat, which is not less detrimental
than too much moisture; they can only be secured by keeping up a regular warmth, just sufficient to
expel the damp which arises in the night from the fermenting dung."
3213. Linings. The requisite degree of heat Abercrombie is careful to support in
the bed, when declining, " by timely linings of hot fresh dung, which may be applied to
the sides, fifteen or eighteen inches in width, and as high as the dung of the bed.
Generally line the back part first, and the other in a week, or from ten days to a fort-
night after, as may seem necessary by the degree of heat in the bed. Sometimes, if the
heat is fallen abruptly below the minimum degree, it may be proper to line both sides
moderately, at once, to recover the temperature sooner and with better effect : but be
particularly careful never to over-line, which would cause a too violently renewed heat
and steam in the bed. The dung for linings must be fermented, as in first building a
bed."
3214. Nicol, when the heat decreases, cuts away the old dung perpendicularly by the frame, and adds
new linings (generally beginning with the back first), two feet broad, to the height of six inches above the
bottom of the frame. As it will sink considerably in heating, he adds to it in a few days.
3215. Mills applies linings of hot dung prepared a month previously.
3216. Covering. This must be nightly performed till June ; proportioning the warmth
of the cover to the heat of the air in the bed, and that of the external air. Mats are laid
next the glass ; on these a layer of hay, and over this mats, made fast by boards, but
not hanging over the linings, is the usual mode, early in the season. M'Phail says,
" My method of covering up was as follows : in the first place, I laid clean single mats
on the lights, in length and breadth, just or nearly to cover the sashes, taking care not
to suffer any part of the mats to hang over the sashes on or above the linings, for that
would be the means of drawing the steam into the frames in the night-time. On these
mats was spread equally a covering of soft hay, and on the hay was laid another
covering of single mats, upon which were laid two, and sometimes three or four, rows
of boards, to prevent the covering from being blown off by the winds. The mats laid on
next to the glass are merely to keep the seeds and dust which may happen to be in the
hay from getting into the frames among the plants. If the bed be high in covering up,
574 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
steps or short ladders must be used by those whose office it is to cover and uncover ;
and great care must be taken not to break or injure the glass."
3217. Air. Abercrombie directs to "admit air every day, when the weather is mode-
rate, without much wind ; and always more freely in sunny days, than when cloudy and
cold, or frosty. Open the lights behind, only a little at first, sooner or later in the day,
according to the temperature of the season ; increasing the opening, from about half an
inch, to one, two, or three inches, or very little more; (decrease the opening occasionally,
if the weather, in the early part of the season, changes very cold ;) and shut closer in
the same gradual order towards afternoon ; generally shutting close in the evening,
unless, in the early state of the bed, a considerable heat and steam continue. In this
case, you may occasionally leave open about half an inch, hanging the end of a mat
before each opening."
S218. M'Pkail says, " A cucumber-plant delights to grow in a strong heat, and in sweet wholesome air;
but if the air in which it grows be contaminated, unhealthy, or impure, the plant will not continue long
in a healthv flourishing condition. Whatever is disagreeable to the smell becomes in time hurtful to the
cucumber-plant ; therefore, whoever would wish to know if the air in a cucumber-frame be of a healthy
nature for the plants should smell to it." He adds, in giving and taking away the air, do it gradually,
that is, by little and little at a time, which, without doubt, is the best way ; for sudden changes are always
attended with unpleasant consequences. A due proportion and continual supply of fresh air is at all
times necessary, and more or less is required according to the heat of the linings, the temperature of the
weather, and the thickness of the coverings put on at> nights. {Gard. Rem. p. 42.)
3219. Nicol admits air regularly in as large portions as the state of the weather will allow; being careful
to let off rank steam, if it abound, by leaving a tilt (wedge), even in the night.
3220. Mills says, " Mv usual times of giving fresh air to the frames, and permitting the foul to escape,
in the winter months (that is, from the middle of November to the middle of February), is as follows :
between eight and nine in the morning, I raise the lights, and let the confined air pass off", shutting them
again ; about ten I give a little air ; at eleven more ; at one I lower the lights a little, and between three
and fbur I close them entirely. About two hours after the covering of hay has been put on, I give a little
air for the night. Should the weather be changeable, the lights must be raised or lowered more or less,
as circumstances may require ; but some air about the times of the day above mentioned is absolutely
necessary to keep the plants in a free-growing state."
3221. Water. Give necessary waterings, with water warmed to the air of the bed,
mostly in the forenoon of a mild day, in early forcing ; and in a morning or afternoon,
in the advanced season of hot sunny weather. {Abercrombie.')
3222. M'Phail says, "The quantity of water requisite to be given to the plants depends upon the heat of
the bed, the strength and age of the plants, and also on the temperature of the weather. When the
weather is cold, wet, or gloomy, and the air moist, they require less water than when the weather is clear,
and the air more dry. If too much water be given, or if water be given too often, it will hinder the fruit
from setting and smelling kindly ; and if too little water be given, the plants will grow weak, and the
fruit hollow. I seldom watered the plants with water warmer than 85 degrees, nor colder than &> ;
although, in general, I tried bvthe thermometer the warmth of the water I used, yet it is not necessary so
to do. A good way to know if "the water be of a proper temperature is to take a mouthful of it, and when it
feels neither hot nor cold, then it is in a fit state for accelerating the growth of the plants, or for making
them grow fast. I made it a constant rule never to water the plants but with clean sweet water; and if
the water be clean and sweet, I am of opinion it makes little or no difference whether it be pump-water,
spring-water, rain-water, or river- water. However, it is a good quality in water to bear soap, and make a
lather therewith, which rain and river waters readily do ; but the pump and spring waters are found too
hard to do it ; yet this may easilv be remedied in them, by letting them stand a few days in the open air
and sun's rays. With regard to the time of the day in which the watering of the plants ought to be per.
formed, I think it is not material, nor did I ever make anv rule with respect to the time, but give them
water at any hour of the day when I saw thev stood in need of it, and when it best suited my convemency.
Those who have hot-houses may get their water warmed there, and those who have no hot-houses may
get some from the house, or from some other place where water is frequently heated. One gallon of hot
water will properly warm several gallons of cold water. Late in spring and in the summer months the
water may be warmed bv exposing it to the rays of the sun."
3223. Nicol airs his water "bvsome means or other;" waters once in two or three days after planting,
and liberallv from the rose of the watering-pot as the plants advance. The time chosen is the afternoon,
about four or five o'clock, in order not to scorch the plants, which, he says, often happens when, after
morning waterings, the sun's rays suddenly dart on the plants. {Kal. p. 366. 385.)
3224 Mearns, already mentioned (3186.), uses water impregnated with sheep's dung, as does Knight.
Mearns tried this water first " on some cucumber-plants in the pine-stove, which had been planted in
January, but which, in consequence of dull weather, had become weak, and of a pale green color ; he ap-
plied tlie liquid to the roots, and in a few days a great change in the appearance of the plants was pro-
duced; the foliage assumed a hardy green, the shoots acquired an unusual degree of strength, with short
joints, and although the stove had scarcely any air given to it, yet the fruit swelled off" rapidly, and
attained a large size." These plants continued in bearing till May, and were then cut back to within six
inches of the root, when they started again with vigor. " No water was ever given over the leaves, but a
continual supply of the liquid pigeon-dung manure to the roots." (Hort. Tram. iv. 412.)
3225. Earthing. " Observe," says Abercrombie, "in proper time, when the first heat
of the bed is moderated, to begin adding more earth between the hills, as the extending
roots require to be covered, or the runners to be supported with mould ; raising it by
degrees equal with the tops of the hills, all in level order, from eight to ten inches
thick." (Pr. Gard. p. 72.)
3226. Nicol, by the time the plants have sent out runners, and the roots spread quite over the hills, en-
larges them; beginning by stirring up the earth in the other parts of the frame to its full depth with a
hand-fork, or weeding-iron, breaking it fine if anywise caked by the heat. To this, add fresh mould sifted
or finely broken, and in a dry state, so as to raise the surface nearly to the level of the hills ; laying it in
a sloping manner from back to front. Previously, he rectifies the position and level of the frames, and
raises it so that the glass may be eight or nine inches above the mould in the centre. ( Kal. p. 367.)
3227. Training. To force the cucumber into early fruit, Abercrombie directs to " stop
the runners as soon as the plants have made two rough leaves, as the bud that produces
Book I. CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER. .575
the runner is disclosed at the base of the second rough leaf, it may be cut off or picked
out, or, if the runner has already started, it may be pinched off close. This is called
stopping at the first joint, and is necessary to promote a stronger stocky growth, and an
emission cf fruitful laterals ; and from these, other prolific runners will be successively
produced. The vines, without the process of stopping, would generally be both weaker,
and so deficient in fertile runners, that they would sometimes extend two or three
feet without showing fruit. When plants which have been once stopped, have extended
the first runners to three joints without showing fruit, they are to be again stopped for
the purpose of strengthening the plant, and disposing it for bearing. As fertile run-
ners extend, train them out regularly along the surface, fastening them down neatly with
pegs."
3228. M'P//ati stops his plants when they have two joints ; and " when the plants shoot forth again after
the second stopping, they seldom miss to show fruit at every joint, and also a tendril ; and between this
tendril and the showing fruit may clearly be seen the rudiment of another shoot ; and when the leading
shoot has extended itself fairly past the showing fruit, then with the finger and thumb pinch it and the
tendril off just before the showing fruit; so that in pinching off the tendril and the shoot, the showing
fruit is not injured. Thus stopping the leading shoot stops the juices of the plant, and is the means of
enabling the next shoot (the rudiment of which was apparent when the leading shoot was stopped) to push
vigorously, and the fruit thereby also receives benefit. When the plants are come into bearing, if the
vines are suffered to make two joints before they are stopped, at the first of these joints, as I before said,
will be seen showing fruit, a tendril, and the rudiment of a shoot; but at the second joint there is seldom
to be seen either showing fruit or the rudiment of a shoot, but only a tendril and the rudiments of male
blossoms. It is therefore evident, and but reasonable, that the shoot should be stopped at the first of these
joints ; for were the shoot to be let run past the first joint, and stopped before the second, perhaps no shoot
would ever spring forth at the said second joint, but only a cluster of male blossoms or leaves, which would
serve for no good purpose, but would rather exhaust the juices of the plant, which ought to be thrown
into the productive parts of it. If the plants are suffered to bear too many fruit, that will weaken them,
and in such case some of the shoots will lose their leaders, that is, the rudiment of some of the shoots will
not break forth, the numbers of fruit having deprived them of their proper share of the vegetative juices.
The rudiments of some of the shoots may also be injured by accident, which sometimes prevents their
pushing ; but from whatever cause this happens, it matters not ; for by the losing of its leader the shoot
is rendered unfruitful, and therefore should be cut entirely off In the course of the spring and summer
months several shoots break forth here and there from the old ones. When too many break out, cut off
the weakest of them close to the old shoots, and those which remain with regard to stopping, serve nearly
in the same manner as young plants. If the old shoot from which the new one bursts forth, lie close to
the mould, it sometimes sends forth roots from the same joint from which the young shoot proceeded, by
which the young shoot is much invigorated, and the old plant, in some measure, renovated. When this
young plant is fairly formed on the old shoot, it somewhat resembles a young plant formed and struck root
on a strawberry runner ; and if the shoot were to be cut off on each side of the newly formed plant, and no
part of the plants left in the frame but itself, by proper treatment it would soon extend itself all over the
frame. In winter, when the plants are young, and before they come into bearing, it sometimes happens
that they send forth too many shoots : in that case cut the weakest of them off, not suffering them to be-
come crowded and thick of vines, for that would weaken and prevent the plants from bearing so early as
they ought to do. Keep the leaves of the plants always regularly thin. The oldest and worst of them
cut off first, and cut them off close to the shoot on which they grow. This is necessary and right ; for if
any part of the stem of the leaf were to be left, it would soon putrify and rot, and perhaps destroy by damp
the main branch from which it proceeded."
3229. Nicol says, " Cucumber-plants will put out runners or vines, whether the heart-buds be picked
out or not, which is a matter of trivial concern, although much insisted on by some, as being necessary
to their doing so at all. For my own part, I never could discover any difference, and I have repeatedly
made the comparison in the same bed, which otherwise of course could not be fair. When the vines have
grown to the length of four or five joints, and fruit appear on them, they may be stopped at one joint above
the fruit ; but otherwise they may be allowed to run to the length of seven or eight joints, and may then
be stopped, which will generally cause them to push fertile shoots. These should be regularly spread out,
and be trained at the distance of eight or ten inches part."
3230. Upright training. " Cucumber-plants being climbers by means of their ten-
drils, some branchy sticks being placed to any advancing runners, they will ascend and
produce fruit, at a distance from the ground, of a clean growth free from spots, and
well flavored."
3231. Setting the fruit. " The cucumber," Abercrombie observes, " bears male and
female blossoms distinctly on the same plant. The latter only produce the fruit, which
appears first in miniature, close under the base, even before the flower expands. There
is never any in the males ; but these are placed in the vicinity of the females, and are
absolutely necessary, by the dispersion of their farina, to impregnate the female blossom ;
the fruit of which will not otherwise swell to its full size, and the seeds will be abortive.
The early plants under glass, not having the full current of the natural air, nor the as-
sistance of bees and other winged insects to convey the farina, the artificial aid of the
cultivator is necessary to effect the impregnation. At the time of fructification, watch the
plants daily ; and as soon as a female flower and some male blossoms are fully expanded,
proceed to set the fruit the same day, or next morning at furthest. Take off a male
blossom ; detaching it with part of the footstalk. Hold this between the finger and
thumb ; pull away the flower-leaf close to the stamens and anthera or central part, which
apply close to the stigma or bosom of the female flower, twirling it a little about, to dis-
charge thereon some particles of the fertilising powder. Proceed thus to set every fruit,
as the flowers of both sorts open, while of a lively full expansion ; and generally perform
it in the early part of the day ; using a fresh male, if possible, for each impregnation, as
the males are usually more abundant than the female blossoms. In consequence, the
young fruit will soon be observed to swell freely. Cucumbers attain the proper size for
576 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
gathering in about fifteen, eighteen, or twenty days from the time of setting ; and often
in succession, for two or three months or more, in the same bed, by good culture. The
above artificial operation will be found both necessary and effectual in forcing the cucum-
ber, between the decline of autumn and May, while the plants are mostly shut under
glass. In plants more freely exposed to the free air, in the increasing warmth of spring,
and in having the full open air in summer, from June or July till September, the im-
pregnation is effected mostly or wholly by nature. The male flowers, being by some ig-
norantly denominated false blossoms, are often plucked wholly off as useless, under a
notion of strengthening the plant : but this should not be generally done. Where crowded
too thick in clusters, some may be thinned out moderately ; but their agency being abso-
lutely necessary in fertilising the females, they should only be displaced as they begin to
decay, except where they are superabundant."
3232. M'Phail observes, " It is the female blossoms or flowers that bear the fruit ; but if they were not
to be impregnated by the male flowers, they would prove barren and unfruitful. The female blossoms are
easily to be distinguished from the male ones, for the rudiment of the fruit is apparent at the bottom of
the female flowers, and the flowers have no stamina, but have three small-pointed filaments without sum-
mits : whereas the male blossoms have not any rudiment of fruit about them, but in the centre of the
flower are three short stamina, which are inserted in the impalement. When the female or fruit blos-
soms are in full blow, take a male blossom which is in full blow, and holding it in one hand, writh the other
split, and tear off the flower-leaves or petals, taking care not to hurt the stamina or male part. Then hold
the male blossom thus prepared between the finger and thumb of the right hand, and with the left hand
gently lay hold of the female blossom, and holding it between two fingers, put the prepared male blossom
into the centre of the female blossom, and there the farina, pollen, or dust of the anthera, clings or sticks to
the stigma, and thus the impregnation of the fruit is effectuated, and the plants are thereby rendered fruit-
ful, which, being in frames in a climate by art made for them, would otherwise in a great degree be ren-
dered barren and unproductive ; and which I have frequently known to have been the case, even when at
the same time the plants were in a vigorous flourishing state. Generally leave the prepared part of the
male blossom sticking in the centre of the female one, and take a fresh male blossom to every female blos-
som. But if male blossoms run scarce, which seldom or never happens, make one male blossom do for two
or three female ones."
3233. Nicol states, that cucumbers will grow and will arrive at full size without the female flowers
being impregnated ; the seeds, however, will prove abortive. The directions he gives for impregnating
are in substance the same as those of M'Phail. The fruit being set and swelling, some lay fragments of
glass or slate beneath it, in order to keep it clean, and to admit as much air and light as possible to the
under side, so as to cause its approach in greenness to the upper.
3234. Gathering the crop. Cucumbers are used green or unripe, and before they have
attained their full size. They are cut and gathered when four, five, six, or eight inches
long, according to the kinds. To this size they attain in ten days, or a fortnight, in the
best part of the season.
3235. To save seed. " Select some best summer fruit, from good productive plants ;
which permit to continue in full growth till they become yellow. Then cut them from
the vine, and place them upright on end, in the full sun, for two or three weeks ; when
they may be cut open, and the seed being washed out from the pulp, spread it to dry
and harden : then put it up in papers or bags for future sowing. It will remain good
many years: and seed of three or four years' keeping is preferable for early frame
crops."
3236. Cultivation of the cucumber in a Jlued pit. Nicol says, " Those who would
have cucumbers on the table at Christmas, (a thing sometimes attempted,) will find it
more practicable, and less troublesome, if the plants be grown in a flued pit, in the
manner of late melons, than if they grow on a common hot-bed. In this case the
cucumbers should take place of the melons planted in this compartment in July, and
which will, by the middle or end of the month, have ripened off all their fruit of any
consequence.
3237. Sow the seeds of some of the early sorts (those best for early being also best for late,) " in small
pots, about the first of July, and place them in the pit along with the melons, or under a hand-glass on a
slow dung-heat ; where let the plants be nursed, and be prepared for planting about the second or third
week in the month. Observe to sow old seeds, not those saved this season, which would run more to
vines than to fruit. Let the pit be prepared for their reception, by trenching up the bark or dung, and by
adding fresh materials, in so far as to produce a moderate growing heat ; observing the directions given
for preparing the pit for the melons in July, and moulding it (however with proper cucumber earth) all
over, to the depth of a foot or fourteen inches. The plants may be placed closer in planting them out,
than is necessary in a spring hot-bed. They may be planted at the distance of a yard from one another,
and two rows lengthwise in the pit, as they will not grow very vigorously at this late season. They
should be moderately supplied with water once in four or five days, and should always be watered over
the foliage ; the more especially when strong fire-heat becomes necessary, as cucumbers naturally like a
moist rather than a dry heat. The temperature should be kept up to about 64 or 65 degrees in the night,
by the aid of the flues, and by matting, or otherwise covering the pit. Air should be as freely admitted as
the state of the weather will allow ; and so as to keep the mercury down, in sunshine, to about 70 degrees.
The plants will require little other pruning than to stop the vines, as they show fruit, at a joint or two
above it ; for they will not push many superfluous shoots. Observe to pick off all damped leaves as they
appear ; and otherwise carefully attend to them, as above directed, while they continue to flourish, or to
do any good worthy of such attendance."
3238. Cultivation of the cucumber in M'Phail' s brick-bed or frame. " When I used,"
observes M'Phail, "to cultivate cucumbers on a dung -bed, the fruit were sometimes
watery and ill-tasted ; but after I began to cultivate them on a brick-bed, the fruit were
constantly firm and well-flavored ; which is certainly occasioned by the goodness and
wholesomeness of the food with which the plants are fed or nourished." Besides this ob-
jection, M'Phail mentions several others, the principal of which are —
Book I. CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER. 577
The risk of burning the plants at first, as well as on the application of every fresh lining. In a few
days after a cucumber-bed has been planted, the " heat of the dung begins to decline, and perhaps the
weather changes from fine, and becomes cold, wet, and gloomy ; and in that case a lining of fresh dung
to enliven the heat of the bed is undoubtedly required. When this fresh lining is applied, it sets the bed
into a fresh fermentation, and very frequently gives too much bottom heat, and it even often happens that
the heat becomes too great under the plants before a lining is applied ; for the heat of a dung-bed is change-
able, and is raised and lowered by the changes of the weather. There is no necessity for having heat di-
rectly underneath the roots of the plants ; for if the air in the frames be kept up to a proper degree of heat,
that is sufficient. In climates where the cucumber naturally grows, I apprehend there is no heat in the
earth but what is raised in it by the heat of the sun and the circumambient air, which seems to be warmed
by the reflection of the sun upon the earth."
The risk of destroying the plants by impure air, and steam from the bed. " It is not only necessary
that in the frames the air be kept up to a sufficient degree of heat, but it is absolutely necessary that nothing
pernicious or unwholesome be conveyed into, or caused to arise in, the frames among the plants by means
of that heat. If the steam of the linings get in, it will hurt the plants : and if there be any thing which
smells disagreeably in the mould, or underneath the mould in the frames, the heat of the linings will cause
unhealthy vapors to ascend from it, which in time will prove injurious to the plants. So that, although
there may be a degree of heat in the frames strong enough for the growth of the plants, yet, through means
of that heat, something may arise in the frames which will become progressively, if not almost instanta-
neously, destructive of the plants, especially when they are young and tender. Care, therefore, must be
taken that noth ing be introduced into the frames among the plants but what is of a sweet wholesome nature."
The difficulty of keeping up the proper heat in winter.
The great attention and expense attending the formation and general management of dung-beds in
winter.
3239. The chief advantages of M'Phail's frame are stated to be : —
That the coldest place in the bed is exactly in the centre of each pit, from which centre the heat in-
creases on each side to the linings where the heat begins. The plants being planted, he says, in this
centre, or coldest part of the bed, their roots can never be hurt by the heat increasing on each side gra-
dually, being in every respect suitable for their increase and extension. The heat in the centre of each
pit, just where the plants are first planted, seldom rises higher than to about eighty or eighty-five degrees,
nor does it ever rise higher in any part of the pits than about ninety-six or ninety-seven degrees ; nor do I
believe it ever can be raised higher than that, without scorching the plants by top heat or heated air :
whereas, in a bed made of dung, the heat in the centre of the bed, under the mould in which the plants are
planted, frequently rises to above 120 degrees, when, at the same time, the air in the frames can scarcely be
kept up to a proper degree of heat : this frequently happens in cold weather in winter. The scorching
heat of a hot-bed of horse-dung, when too hot for plants, is equal to 130 degrees and more, and hereabout is
probably the heat of blood in fevers.
The dung requires no more working than what is necessary to bring it to and keep it in a proper degree of
heat, and to let some of its more rancid qualities pass off by evaporation ; and as soon as the heat rises in
the linings, it circulates in the flues, and warms every part of the bed ; whereas the dung for making a
common cucumber-bed must be turned and worked, and lie, till, by fermentation, its rank qualities
be evaporated, and its violent heat be somewhat diminished. This, as already noticed, is a very great
advantage.
The linings retain the heat longer than the linings of a dung-bed do, and that because the flues are con-
stantly full of steam ; but a dung-bed having little or no vacuity for the retention of the steam, the steam
of the linings of it is perhaps more immediately evaporated, and consequently the heat of the linings is
sooner exhausted than the heat of the linings of the brick-bed.
In the course of the winter a dung-bed sinks so low, that it becomes difficult sometimes to get a
proper heat raised in the linings ; but my brick-bed being always of the same height, such difficulty can
never happen.
A brick-bed may be built and set to work immediately ; the heat of the linings will dry the lime of
the joints of the bricks. The evaporation in the frames, from the moist lime of the joints of the brick-
work, has no bad effect on the plants ; but when a bed is set to work before it be dry and steady, great
care must be taken not to injure the brick-work in filling up the pits.
All the materials of the brick-bed are clean and sweet; and the flues being made perfectly close, no
tainted or bad-smelling air can get through them into the bed, so that it is of little or no concern whether
the dung of the linings be sweet or otherwise, or whether the linings be made of dung, or of any thing
else, provided there be a sufficient heat kept in them, and no pernicious steam be drawn in among the
plants by the current of air.
3240. The plan of M'Phail's frame has already been given and described. (1551. and
fig. 233.) It is almost needless to repeat that a sheltered dry situation for placing it is
of the first consequence. The bed being built, " when the frame is about to be set upon
it, a layer of mortar is spread all round upon the upper course of brick-work on which the
bottoms of the frames are to rest. Thus the frames are set in mortar on the bricks ;
and the flues are, with a bricklayer's brush, well washed, and rubbed with a thick grout
made of lime and water, which stops every crack or hole, and prevents the steam of the
linings from getting into the frames. This washing of the flues I had done once a-year,
for no crack or hole must ever be suffered to remain unstopped in the flues. I found little
or no trouble in keeping the flues perfectly close, nor is it indeed likely that they should
become troublesome if the bed stands on a sound foundation, for the heat of the dung has
not that powerful effect on the flues, as fire-heat has on the flues of a hot-house ; because
the heat of dung is more steady, and not so violent as the heat of fire ; and besides, the
flues of the cucumber-bed are almost always in a moist state, which is a preventive in
them against cracking or rending. When the bed is first built, the pits are about three
feet in depth below the surface of the flues. These pits I had filled up about a foot high,
some of them with rough chalk, some of them with small stones, and some of them with
brick-bats : this is to let the wet drain off freely from the mould of the beds. After this
filling up with chalk, stones, and broken bricks, there is a vacancy in the pits about two
feet deep below the surface of the flues ; this vacancy I had filled to a level with the
surface of the flues with vegetable or leaf mould ; and in putting it in, it was gently
pressed, to prevent it from sinking too much afterwards."
3241. On the surface of the mould with which the pits were filled, "under the middle of each light, and
Pp
578
PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
which is just in the centre of the mould in each pit, make hills of mould in the same form as is commonly
done on a dung-bed. These hills are to set the plants in, and are to be raised at first nearly close to, or
within a few inches of the glass. Raising the mould at first pretty nigh the glass is necessary, on account
of the sinking of it ; for as the frames are set on bricks, they cannot sink, but mould newly put in is sure
to settle and the measure of settlement will ever depend upon the lightness and texture of the mould with
which the pits are filled. Therefore, these and such like matters must be left to the discretion of those
who are entrusted with the direction and management of the frames. When the bed is thus finished,
and ready for the reception of the plants, if the flues be strewed over with mould, so that their surface be
just covered, to a stranger it is altogether a deception, for in every respect it has the appearance of a
U3"|o eT'he saskes qf the frames " which I used were glazed in lead ; but if any person who rears early cu-
cumbers have lights which are not glazed in lead, but are slate-glazed, the vacancies between the glass had
best be filled up close with putty, to prevent too much air from getting into the frames in the cold days
in winter. The frames under my management were constantly kept in good repair, and painted over once
every year. This method, I am clearlv of opinion, is more profitable than if the frames were neglected for
two or three years, and then have a thorough repair with two or three coats of paint- When frames are
new painted, they should be suffered to lie and sweeten for some time, at least for two or three weeks, or
until the disagreeable smell of the paint be somewhat lessened. Although the frames I used were of a
very good size, yet if they were a little smaller or larger, they would answer the purpose very welL There-
fore those who intend to build a bed after my plan, have no occasion to make new frames merely for the
purpose but they may get the bed built to fit the frames they are already in possession of."
S^lo Linings of dung. " The linings are to be applied to the bed a few days before the plants are ready for
finally planting out, in order that the mould and every thing in the frames may be properly warmed for their
reception The dung of which the linings are to be made may either be cast together in a heap, to bring it to
a heat before it be laid round the bed, or it may be laid round the bed as it is brought from the dung-yard ;
but whichever of these methods be taken, when the linings are making up, the dung should be well shaken,
and laid up lightly, so that the heat of it may come up freely. As it takes some days before the linings are able
to warm the earth in the bed sufficiently for the reception of the plants, the rank steam of new dung-linings
is evaporated, unless the dung came immediately from the stables, which seldom is the case. The linings
are to be made nearly three feet broad in their foundation, and tapered up to about thirty inches at the
top by which they w'ill retain their heat long, and in sinking will keep close to the bed, which is what
should at all times be paid proper attention to. In the winter and spring months the linings should be
trodden upon as little as possible, for treading on them would be the means of stagnating their heat.
But should it at any time, in managing the plants, be found necessary to stand or kneel upon them,
boards should be laid on their tops for that purpose ; which will prevent the weight of a person from
taking that effect on them which it otherwise would do." ■ ..... , ,.
3244 Refreshing the linings. " As the linings sink they are to be raised with fresh dung ; but they should
seldom be raised higher than about the level of the mould in the frames in which the plants grow, espe-
cially when there is a strong heat in them ; for, when there is a great heat in them, if they are kept
higher than the level of the mould, the heat dries the air in the frames too much. Nor should they be
suffered to sink much below the level of the mould in the frames ; for that, on the contrary, would cause
too much moisture in the frames, especially in the winter and spring months. When the heat begins to
be too little, notwithstanding the linings being kept to their proper height, the fresh unexhausted dung
on the top or upper part of them is to be laid aside, and the exhausted dung underneath to be taken away,
and that which was laid aside put in the foundation, and fresh dung laid above it in lieu of that which
was carried away." . .,.„.,, . , ,
3245 Renewing the linings. " Both the side linings may be raised at one time, but both of them should
never be renewed together ; for if both were to be renewed at the same time, it would for a time cool the
frames too much, and when the heat of both came to its full strength, it would probably be too powerful
for the roots of the plants when extended to the flues. I seldom or never renewed the end linings, be-
cause I found the heat of the side ones fully sufficient; for as there are flues or vacuities in every part of
the bed the steam being fluid, circulates in, and warms every part thereof. And for the very same
reason there is no occasion for having a strong heat in both the side linings at one and the same time,
except in very cold weather. In making up and pulling down the linings, care should be taken not to in-
jure the brick-work." _ . ..„ . ,. ,.
3246. The covering the lights in the winter and spring is absolutely necessary ; "for, notwithstanding the
heat of the linings, it would be impossible to keep up a proper degree of heat in the frames for the plants
without coverings. Therefore the covering up in the evenings, and uncovering in the mornings, must
be particularly attended to, and more or less put on according to the heat of the linings and the temper-
ature of the weather." ' - - , j e
3247 After the bed is set to work, heat and sweet moisture are the two principal agents required tor pro-
moting the growth and vigor of the plants ; " therefore, if there be a heat kept in the linings strong
enough to keep the heat in the centre of the pits of mould fluctuating between 80 and 90 degrees, cold
water may be poured on the flues twice or thrice a-week. There is no danger of creating damps or im-
pure air in the frames by watering the flues ; for the water is no sooner poured on them, than it runs
down their sides, and passes clear off through the drains of the bed ; consequently water being poured
upon the flues, gives only a momentary ,check to the heat of the frames; for the flues being at all times
full of hot steam, when the watering is finished, the heat quickly resumes its former vivacity, and raises
a warm vapor in the frames, well adapted for promoting vegetation, and for increasing the growth, and
invigorating the plant in all its parts. The mould round about the sides of the pits close against the inner
sides of the flues, should be kept nearly on a level with the surface of the flues ; and as it is the mould
that joins to the flues which receives the first and greatest heat from the linmgs, it should continually
be kept in a moist state ; for if the mould against the flues be suffered to become dry and husky, air will
be generated in the frames disagreeable to the plants." _' ;
3248. Temperature of M'Phail's frame. M'Phail has, in his Gardener's Remembrancer, as well as in his
Treatise on the Cucumber, given the temperature of one of his beds for every day in the year, ot which the
annexed table shows the extremes for every month. By the heat described in this table, and plenty
of water, the cucumber-plants, the seeds of which
were sown on the 22d day of October, were maintained
in a healthy fruit-bearing state, in the brick-frame,
from the month of January to the beginning of
December. The melon-plants were kept in about
the same degree of heat given for the culture of the
cucumber in the forcing-frames ; and it may be pre-
dicted, that if any person keep melon or cucumber
plants in nearly the same degrees of heat as are set
down in the table, and manage the plants well in
other respects, the way to do which has been clearly
pointed out, they will not fail of having success.
M'Phail adds, that notwithstanding the objections
of some who have not been successful in making
trial of his bed, " it is now generally approved ol, and in practice by numbers of the best gentlemen »
gardeners in the kingdom ; and by various market-gardeners in the neighborhood of London.
Mom.
Noon.
Even.
Jan.
from
58 to 86
from
56 to 86
from
54 to 77
Feb.
from
68 to 88
from
66 to 90
from
58 to 84
Mar.
from
62 to 83
from
65 to 90
from
62 to 85
April
May
from
69 to 84
from
68 to 93
from
64 to 90
from
67 to 79
from
70 to 90
from
66 to 95
June
from
62 to 85
from
80 to 98
from
67 to 90
July
Aug.
from
61 to 79
from
72 to 105
from
69 to 96
from
60 to 78
from
80 to 96
from
70 to 89
Sept.
Oct.
from
69 to SO
from
74 to 100
from
72 to 97
from
64 to 81
from
71 to 101
from
68 to 89
Nov.
from
62 to 82
from
65 to 92
from
61 to 80
Dec.
from
65toSS
from
64 to 77
from
58 to 71
Book I. CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER. J79
In all other respects, the culture of the cucumber or melon, on M'Phall's brick-bed, corresponds with the
culture of these fruits on common dung-beds.
3249. The cultivation of tlie cucumber m Wesfs frame (fig. 230.), differs from the
common mode ; but it being attended with less risk, in our opinion, this frame or pit
is superior to M'Phail's, as requiring much less dung, presenting a much more neat
and orderly appearance, and giving a greater command of temperature.
3250. Cultivation of the cucumber in a common pit without flues. Some form a narrow
dung-bed along the middle of such a pit, leaving room for adding a lining on each side
when the heat declines. This method succeeds very well late in the season ; but at an
early period the sinking of the bed from the glass leaves the plants at a great distance from
the light.
3251. Cultivation of the cucumber in stoves. " Cucumber-plants," M'Phail observes,
" will grow in a hot-house where the pine-apple is cultivated ; but they will not be very
long-lived there, for that is not a healthy climate for them." In August, sow the seeds
in boxes filled with vegetable or other light earth, and place them on shelves in the back
side of the hot-house, where the sun may not be interrupted from shining on them in the
short days. They may, perhaps, produce a few fruit in the month of December or
January. (Gard. Rem. p. 301.)
3252. Abercrombie says, " Some gardeners, ambitious of early fruit, try a sowing in the stove under the
disadvantages of December. For fruiting this plant in the house, narrow boxes, three feet long, and
full twenty inches deep, may be found more commodious than pots. The boxes may stand upon the crib-
trellising over the flues, or be suspended near the back wall eighteen inches from the upper tier of lights,
so as not to shade the regular house-plants : this is the best situation for a very early crop. The plants
may be originated in small pots, plunged into the bark-bed, in order to be transplanted with a ball of
earth into the boxes. Those who aim to have fruit at Christmas, introduce seedlings about the middle of
August. The chief deviation from the course of the hot-bed is, that the plants must be trained in the
house upright ; for which purpose form a light temporary trellis of laths. Give water every other dav
at least." (Pract. Gard. p. 618.) *
3253. Alton's method of raising cucumber-plants in August, with a view to their being fruited in the stove
through the winter, has been already given. (3174.) We now subjoin the remainder of that excellent paper.
3254. The plants being raised on a well-prepared one-light hot-bed ; when the cotyledons or seed-
leaves became nearly of full growth, the plants were potted out two into each pot, known to gardeners
about London by the name of upright thirty^twos. When these pots became filled with roots, the plants
were again shifted into larger ones, called siiteens, and removed from the seed-bed into a three-light
frame, with a sufficient bottom-heat to allow a considerable portion of air being given day and night
both in the front and back of the frame. About the middle of September, the plants having again filled
their pots with roots, and become stocky, were taken from the frame to the stove, and after a few days
received the last shifting into larger pots of the following dimensions : — at the top fourteen inches over;
the bottom ten inches across, and twelve inches deep, all inside measure ; each pot at equal distances
apart, having three side drain-holes near the bottom, and a larger one in the centre of the bottom, and
containing about three pecks of solid earth.
3255. The plants were fruited in a pinery. On the front edge of the back flue of this stove, a fascia-
boarding, six inches deep, was affixed, the whole length of the building, forming all along a trough or
enclosure for a reserve of compost after the exhaustion of the mould in the pots had taken place. The
pots were now placed in regular order upon the mould-trough over the flue, at three feet apart, and re-
mained in this station for good, for succession. A setting of the second sowing was placed upon the end
flues of the house ; underneath each pot was set an upright circular garden-pan, six inches deep, and
fourteen inches diameter, which being filled with earth, the pots were plunged therein about two inches
deep, and the drain-holes being sufficiently covered with mould, served as outlets to the roots.
3256. Temperature. The fire-heat of the stove was kept day and night at sixty to sixty-five degrees
Fahrenheit's thermometer, varying only a few degrees when the sudden influence of sun or steam pro-
duced an additional glow of climate. The plants being now established and vigorous, required stopping
for laterals and fruit ; and these second and third lateral shoots in their turn were stopped also, and the
blossoms from time to time set, as usual, for succession of supply.
3257. Waterings were necessary only when the surface of the earth was evidently dry, and light
sprinklings of soft water, tempered in the stove, were occasionally given over the leaves of the plants and
path with good effect.
3258. Steam from a well regulated flue was considered always favorable to the cultivation, but applied
sparingly on account of its scalding effect upon the leaves when the vapor proved over-heated.
3259. Diseases and Insects. For the mildew, flower cf brimstone, colored leaf-green by a little soot, has
been applied with the best success in all stages of the disease, and copious fumigations of tobacco were
used for the destruction of the several species of the aphis tribe.
3260. Result. Under this simple practice, winter cucumbers have been produced abundantly in the
months of October, November, December, and part of January, in all the royal gardens of His Majesty
during a series of years.
3261. Cultivation of the cucumber in Weeks' s patent frame. (1553.) We know only of
two instances in which this ingenious invention has been tried, both of winch are men-
tioned at the end of Weeks's Forcer's Assistant. The chief objection to the plan is, that the
bed or stratum of earth in which the plants are grown being but of moderate depth, and
surrounded by air above and below, is extremely difficult to retain at an equable
moisture.
3262. Growing the cucumber under hand-glasses. The following method is given by
M'Phail as that generally practised : " The seeds are sown some time about the middle
of April in a cucumber or melon bed, and when they come up, they are potted out into
small pots, two or three plants in each pot, and are kept properly watered, and stopped
at the first or second joint. About the middle of May, a warm situation where the
mould is very rich is pitched on, and a trench is dug out about two feet deep, three feet
broad, and the length is proportioned according to the number of lights it is intended
for. This trench is filled with good warm dung, and when the dung is come to its full
Pp 2
580 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
leat, it is covered over with eight, ten, or twelve inches deep of rich mould. The
glasses are then set upon it about three feet distant from each other, and when the
mould gets warm under them, the plants are turned out of the pots with their balls
whole, and plunged in the mould under the glasses, and a little water given them to
settle the mould about their roots, the glasses set over them, and after they have made
roots, and begin to grow, in fine days they are raised a little on one side to let the plants
have the free air ; and as the weather gets warmer and warmer, air is given more
plentifully, to harden the plants, so that they may be able to bear the open air, and run
from under the glasses. When the plants begin to fill the glasses, they are trained out
horizontally, and the glasses are set upon bricks or such like, to bear them from the
plants. After this the plants require nothing more but to be supplied with water when
the summer showers are not sufficient, and to stop them when they run too thin of
branches, and thin them of leaves or branches when they are likely to become over-
crowded. In warm summers and in warm situations, by this mode of management, the
plants will bear plentifully for about two months, provided they be not attacked by insects
or weakened by diseases."
3263. Abercrombie describes a practice somewhat different, but with his usual attention to detail and
order. He says — To have a general summer crop, to fruit in hot-bed ridges under hand-glasses, sow
some seed of the long prickly kind in a hot-bed, under a frame or hand-glass, or in any cucumber hot-bed
in cultivation, about the middle of March, or thence till the middle of April. When the plants have been
up three, four, or five davs, prick some in the same or another hot-bed, three or four inches asunder. A
portion may be put in small pots, three plants in each, and plunged in the bed. Give water, and shade
from the sun, till they take root; and manage as for the frame-crop. In three or four weeks, when
advanced in the first rough leaves, about two inches broad, and stopped at the first joint, as directed in
the early crop, the plants should be ridged-out, that is, transplanted into hot-bed ridges, under hand-
glasses, to remain for fruiting. The period for this may fluctuate from the middle of April to the begin-
ning of May.
3264. Having a sufficient quantity of prepared dung, make a hot-bed on the level ground, three feet
and a half or four feet wide, and two and a half high, the length as required, according to the number of
hand-glasses intended. Earth it at top, six or eight inches thick, and place the hand-glasses along the
middle, at three feet and a half distance. Sometimes the bed is made in a moderate trench, twelve or
fifteen inches deep, in some good soil in the kitchen-garden, in order to have the excavated earth of the
trench ready at hand for moulding the bed. When the earth under the glasses is warm, proceed to put
in the plants, removing them from the nursery-bed, with as much earth as will adhere about the roots. If
you have any plants in small pots, turn them out with the balls entire, and plant three plants under each
glass. Give a light watering ; put down the glasses ; and shade the plants from the sun, till they have
taken root ; after which, let them enjoy the sun and light fully, only covering the glasses and bed every
night with mats till June, or commencement of warm weather. Admit air every mild day, by propping up
the southward side of the glasses one or two inches ; moderate waterings will be necessary twice a week or
oftener.
3265. As the plants push runners of considerable length, train them regularly. When extended to the
limits of the glasses, and when the weather is settled warm, about the beginning or middle of June, they
should be raised upon three props, two or three inches high, and the runners trained out in regular order ;
but cover them in cold nights with mats, for the first week or two. Continue the glasses, and circum-
spectly water in dry weather, as may be necessary; the plants will produce fruit in June, July, August,
&c. in plentiful succession.
3266. In default of plants raised in a previous nursery-bed for transplanting, sow seed under the hand-
glasses in April or in May, inserting several seeds in the central part under each glass. When the plants
have been up a few days or a week, thin them to three or four of the strongest in each patch, managing
them afterwards as the others. They will come into bearing towards the end of June or July, and thence
till September. -
3267. Should there be a scarcity of dung to make a regular bed, in the last week of April, or in May,
you may dig circular holes two feet wide, a spade deep, and four or five feet asunder ; fill them with hot-
dung, trodden down moderately firm, and earthed over six inches. In these put either plants or seed ;
and place on the glasses : the plants will produce fruit in June or July till September.
3268. In default of hand-glasses : make a hot-bed, or holes of dung, as above, in May : put in plants or
seed, and defend with oiled-paper frames to remain constantly, day and night, till settled warm weather
in June or July. Give the additional protection of mats over the paper frame in cold nights and bad
weather.
3269. In the culture of all the crops, give proper supplies of water in dry warm weather, two or
three times a week, or every day in the hottest season of June, July, and August. In the hot-bed ridges
made above ground in April or May, if in three or four weeks or more after making the heat be much
declined, and the nights, or general season, remain cold, let a moderate fining of hot-dung be applied to
the sides ; which will both throw in a reviving heat, and widen the bed for the roots and runners of the
plants to extend. (Abercrombie.) I
3270. Insects and diseases. The thrips sometimes attacks early cucumbers, and is to be
destroyed by fumigation. The red spider rarely makes its appearance ; when it does,
water must have been improperly withheld. Some soils produce canker in the shoots,
especially where they branch from the main stem. When this is the case, the only
resource is to renew the soil and the plants.
Sect. VII. Of the Culture of the Melon.
* 3271. The melon requires the aid of artificial heat the greater part of the year, and
even in the warmest months it cannot be brought to perfection without the protection of
glass. Its culture is an object of emulation among gardeners ; and the fruit of the best
sorts have a peculiarly rich flavor, thought by some to bear some resemblance to that
of the pine. Ripe fruit, Abercrombie observes, " may be had by forcing at any season ;
but the main crops raised for the general demand, are seldom cut, at the earliest, before
May, and the last succession mostly ceases to yield fruit after October." To ripen the
Book I.
CULTURE OF THE MELON.
581
best, largest, fine kinds, M'Phail observes, " as great an atmospherical heat, and a bottor
heat to its roots also, is required as is sufficient to ripen the pine-apple in this country ;
but as the melon is produced from an annual plant, the seeds of which must be sown
every year, it requires a different mode of culture. Different methods of treatment and
various kinds of earths and of manures have been recommended, and used successfully
in rearing of melons. The great thing after planting is to give them plenty of atmo-
spherical heat, and a sufficiency of external air and water. Those methods which are most
simple and the least expensive, and best calculated to assist in making a suitable climate
for the melon-plant to grow in and ripen its fruit well, should be preferred."
3272. Soil. Abercrombie says, " The melon will succeed in any unexhausted loam,
rich in vegetable rudiments, with a mixture of sand, but not too light. The following
is a good compost : two thirds of top-spit earth from a sheep common, adding sharp
sand, if the earth contains little or none, till half is sand ; one sixth of vegetable mould ;
and one sixth of well consumed horse-dung. Or, if the earth is not obtained from a
pasture, rotted sheep-dung may be substituted for the last. The ingredients should have
been incorporated and pulverised by long previous exposure and turning over. The
compost should be dried under shelter before it is used, and warmed in the frame for
potting."
3273. M'Phail says, " Melons will grow and produce fruit of a good flavor, if they be planted in any
kind of earth not of too light a texture, whether it be taken from a compartment of the kitchen-
garden or from a corn-field mixed well with good rotten dung ; but earth of a loamy nature is the best,
because it retains moisture longer than light earth. Earth dug from the surface of a common, where
sheep and cattle have long been pastured, is excellent for the melon. It should be broken well, and lie
a few months before it be used ; and if it be exposed to a winter's frost, it will do it good. This sort of
earth, if it be taken from the surface of the common, will require no manure the first year of using. I
would here mention, that unless the earth which I used for the melon-plants was very strong, I made it
a practice, when the melon-beds were wholly earthed up, to tread the surface all over, which makes the
earth retain its moisture longer than if it were left loose."
3274. Nicol says, " Soil for melons may be thus composed : one half strong brown loam from apasture ;
a quarter light sandy earth ; an eighth part vegetable mould of decayed tree-leaves ; and an eighth part
rotten stable-yard dung. The mould for melons should be well incorporated] should be exposed to the
frost, and be frequently turned over to meliorate."
3275. Sorts. The following list is given by Abercrombie : —
Netted cantaleupe, large round
Early small black rock cantaleupe
Carbunoted rock cantaleupe, cheese-
shaped
Green cantaleupe (oblong rock)
Orange cantaleupe
Early golden cantaleupe
Scarlet cantaleupe
Silver cantaleupe
Small romana, oval
Larger netted romana, oval
Polignac
Musk, or oblong ribbed, netted.rinded
Oblong, smooth-rinded
Round, smooth, green-rinded
Round white-rinded
Green-fleshed
Water-melon, a very large roundish
green fruit.
3276. Nicol enumerates the following, in the order in which they ripen : —
The early golden cantaleupe
The orange cantaleupe
The netted cantaleupe
The silver cantaleupe
The black rock cantaleupe
The carbuncled rock
Lee's rock cantaleupe
Lee's romana
Large netted romana
Fair's romana.
3277. Estimate of sorts. " The cantaleupes are in high estimation for their general
superior flavor, although not uniformly such great bearers as some others in the list ; they
are besides admired for their handsome and curious shapes, some of them growing very
large. The netted cantaleupe is a good bearer; the fruit above the middle size, round,
heavy, full of juice, and high flavored. The early small black rock cantaleupe is a good
bearer : but there is a large black rock which holds an inferior rank, both for bearing
and the flavor of the fruit. Of the carbuncled rock there are two sorts : the smaller is
by far the best. The green cantaleupe has a dark green rind, with a pale pulp, grows
rather larger than the early black rock, and vies with it in flavor. The orange canta-
leupe is an excellent early variety, a great bearer ; the fruit under the middle size, but
juicy, and of the most generous flavor. The early golden, and the prolific, set speedily,
and soon ripen ; the fruit middle-sized, the flavor not so elevated as might be expected
from a cantaleupe. The silver cantaleupe bears freely ; the fruit middle-sized, and for
flavor ranking with the finest. The small romana is one of the most plentiful bearers,
either for an early or main crop ; the fruit not abundantly juicy, but good-flavored. The
larger netted romana bears more freely than large sorts in general; the fruit is sub-
stantial and heavy, a single melon sometimes weighing ten pounds, not so juicy as the
best cantaleupes, but the flavor high and grateful. The polignac is also a rich-flavored
fruit. The old oblong-ribbed is generally a good bearer, and the fruit agreeably flavored.
The other kinds also will ripen here in good perfection, except the water-melon, which
does not always ripen freely with a good full flavor. The principal culture, however,
the cantaleupes, romanas, and polignac, are indisputably preferable : any of the others
may be adopted in secondary crops, or for variety."
3278. M'Phail says, " Several sorts of melons are not worth propagating, that is, in the estimation of
some persons ; but there are some kinds of them, such as the early cantaleupes and the rock cantaleupes,
which, when well ripened, are delicious in flavor, and very wholesome in quality. Of the varieties, there
are those called the rock cantaleupe, the early small black, large black, the orange, the golden, the silver,
the green, the carbuncled, the netted, the Roman, the musk, and the scarlet cantaleupes, and likewise
the oblong-ribbed, the smooth-rind, the round white, the green- fleshed, the water-melon* &c."
Pp 3
582 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
3279. Time of beghinmg to force. From the time of sowing, ripe fruit may be cut
m about fifteen weeks, as an average period : when many short and wintry days fall in
the course, it may last eighteen weeks ; but when the forcing is not commenced till the
days are nearly twelve hours long, and continually lengthening, ripe fruit is sometimes
cut in ten weeks. The period also depends upon the sort. Little time is gained by
beginning excessively early. The early and main crops are commonly originated from
the middle of January to the first week of February ; the latter or succession crops, at
the beginning of March ; and late crops intended to fruit at the end of summer, in the
middle of April.
3280. M'Pfiail and Nicol sow in January. The latter says, " I formerly cut melons, for three years
successively, on the 15th, 12th, and 10th of May, and never sowed before the last week of January, or first
of February. In 178S, when at Rainham Hall, in Norfolk, I sowed melons on the 12th March, and cut
ripe fruit on the feOth May. The kind was the early golden cantaleupe. This shows how little is to be
gained, or rather, how much may be lost, by early forcing."
3281. Forming the seed-bed. The plants maybe originated in a cucumber-bed, and
this is the general practice ; but Abercrombie prefers a separate bed, built a slight degree
higher than that for the cucumber, at the same season, and adapted to a one or two light
frame, according to the quantity to be raised. Nicol raises the melon almost exactly in
the same way as the cucumber, and there is very little difference in his subsequent culture
of these plants.
3282. Choice of seed. " Seed under the age of two years is apt to run too much to
vine, and show only male flowers ; but new seed may be mellowed by being carried in
the pocket a fortnight or more, till the heat of the body has dried and hardened it. Seed,
twenty years old, has been known to grow and make fruitful plants ; but seed, which
has been kept three or four years, is quite old enough, and less likely to fail than
older."
3283. JSPPhail says, " It is best not to sow melon-seed till it be two or three years old. It cannot be
too old if it be sound and grow well. Young seed is apt to run too much to vine, and to show more male
than female blossoms."
3284. Nicol says, " I have sown melon-seeds twenty years old, from which I have raised very healthy
and fruitful plants." [Kal. p. 396.)
3285. Miller and Nicol say, young melon-seeds may be worn in the pocket, near the body, for several
months previous to sowing, which has the effect of fully maturing them. " If seeds of the last season,"
Nicol observes, " be sown without taking this precaution, or something similar, the plants will not be
fruitful ; but will run much to vines, and show chiefly male blossoms."
3286. Soiling. Abercrombie says, a Having moulded the bed, and proved the heat,
sow in pans three inches, or pots four inches, deep, rather than in the earth of the bed.
Sow a second portion in five or seven days, to provide against failure. Do not at once
plunge the pots to the rims." (Pr. G. p. 108.)
3287. Treatment till removed to the fruiting-pit. " As soon as the plants appear, give
air cautiously ; guarding the aperture with matting at night, and on frosty or gloomy
days. At favorable opportunities, wipe the condensed steam from the glasses. When
the seed-leaves are about half an inch broad, prick the plants into small pots five inches
in diameter, three in each pot, giving a little aired water just to the roots ; then plunge
the pots into the earth of the hot-bed partially, or to the rims, according to the heat.
Admit fresh air, every day in moderate weather, at the upper end of the lights, raised an
inch or two, according to the temperature of the external air ; more freely when sunny
than cloudy ; shutting closer, or quite close, as the afternoon advances towards evening,
or sooner, if the weather changes cuttingly cold ; and cover the glasses every night with
mats, and uncover in the morning, as soon as the sun is high enough to reach the frames.
Give occasionally a very light watering, when the earth appears dry. As the plants
advance into the first rough leaves, the first runner-bud in the centre should be stopped,
by cutting or pinching the top off, close to the first or second joint ; an operation which
strengthens the plants, and promotes the lateral issue of fruitful runners. Be careful to
support a regular tenor of heat in the bed, by laying, first, an outward casing of straw-
litter round the sides, to defend it from the weather ; afterwards, if the heat declines,
remove the above casing ; and apply a moderate lining of hot dung to one or more of
the sides. In matting at night, be careful not to drive the rank stem of the linings into
the beds, by letting the ends of the mats hang down."
3288. Fruiting-bed. Form it as directed for the cucumber-bed, but six inches deeper ;
M'Phail says, " four feet high, and after it has stood about a week, tread it down and
make it level, and set the frames upon it."
3289. Moulding the bed. Abercrombie directs to " mould it by degrees to eight, ten,
or twelve inches' depth ; first laying the compost in little hills of that thickness, one under
each light, with the intervals earthed only two or three inches, for the present, till the
general heat is moderated." M'Phail lays in under each light a small hill of earth about
one foot high.
3290. Planting. When the earth of the hills is warmed by the heat of the bed, and
the plants have leaves two or three inches broad, or have begun to push lateral runners,
Book I. CULTURE OF THE MELON. 583
turn them out of the pots, " with the ball of earth entire : set a ball containing one
plant, in the middle of each hill, inserted clean over the ball ; or set at most two plants
under the centre of a large light. After planting, give a gentle watering over the hills
and round the roots, avoiding to wet the shanks of the plants : shut down the glasses
close, till the heat and steam arise ; then give air moderately. Extend a slight shade
over the glasses in the middle part of warm summer days, if the plants shrink or flag
their leaves, before fully rooted in the hills ; which they will be in two, three, or four
days after planting."
3291. Temperature. The melon requires a minimum heat of about 65° from the
time of germination till that of fructification, and a heat of about 75° to fruit in.
(Abercro?nbie. )
3292. M'Phail, as appears from the tables in his Gardener's Remembrancer, kept his melon and cucum-
ber frames at the same temperature ; stating, that if any person keep melons or cucumber-plants in the
same degrees of heat, they will not fail of success. (3248.)
3293. Nicol's medium heat for melons is 70°.
3294. Heat from linings of dung. The proper temperature must be kept up by repeated linings, at least
till the middle of July. After that, sun-heat may suffice to ripen the crop. Till this season, the greatest
care must be taken not to burn or over-heat the plants. M'Phail says, " Examine daily with your hand
the heat of the bed, pushing your fingers into the dung immediately under the hills of earth in which the
plants grow; and if you find the heat likely to be too powerful, pour cold water all round the bottom of
the hills of earth, to lower the heat of the bed. Remember this must be daily attended to till the heat
of the bed be so declined in the middle, that the roots of the plants be in no danger of being hurt by
the heat of the dung under them. In case this necessary precaution has been neglected till the heat
immediately under the stems of the plants has become too hot, pour plenty of water, 80° warm, round
about on the sides of the hills in which the plants grow, and among the stems of the plants, which will
bring the earth and dung immediately under the plants to the same degree of heat as the water which
is poured into it. When the heat in the middle of the bed becomes so cool, that there is no fear of its
being too great for the roots of the plants, watering that part of the bed to keep the burning heat down,
of course, must cease, and as the roots of the plants extend, earth may be added to the hills. As soon
as the heat of the bed declines, linings must be applied to it, which will set it into a fresh fermentation,
and then the surface upon the bed must be examined occasionally, by pushing the hand into it in
different parts, and when a burning heat is felt, pour in some water as before directed. In this way you
should persevere, still keeping a strong heat in the linings. Remember that the surface of the bed all
round about the hills should be left uncovered with earth, and the dung should be loosened occasionally,
to let the heat rise freely to nourish the plants. Melons will do without heat in the linings in July ;
but I found by experience, that thev do better by keeping a heat in the linings all the summer. If a
heat be kept on constantly in the linings, and the plants watered sufficiently, they will continue to pro-
duce fruit till the middle of October."
3295. Air. As long as weak steam is perceived to rise from the bed, leave an aper-
ture, even at night, for it to escape ; guarding against the influx of cold air by a curtain
of matting. Admit fresh air to the plants by tilting the glasses more or less at the most
favorable hours in a mild dry day. After the bed has come to a sweet heat, shut down
close at night. As the fruit enlarges, it becomes more necessary to seize every proper
opportunity of admitting air ; raising the lights from one to four inches, according to the
season, the heat of the bed, and temperature of the external air ; shutting close, if that
should turn cold, and always timely towards evening. As confirmed summer approaches,
admit air still more freely.
3296. Nicol says, " Air should be freely admitted, though not in such quantity as for the cucumbers,
which do not require so high a temperature as melons do. In sunshine, however, the mercury in the
thermometer should be kept down, by the admission of air, to about 80° or 75°."
3297. M'Phail says, " Look into your melons in the morning, and if there is a dew on them standing
like little beads round the edges of the young leaves, it is a good sign ; but if there is no dew on them, in
the form I have described, they are not in a very prosperous condition. The air in the frames is not
sweet: they either want water, or sprinklings of water, or else the heat of the air in the frames is too
great in the night. In hot weather, melons are better to have air left at them all night, and in very warm
weather to take the glasses entirely off in the evening, and put them on again in the morning : by this
means the plants will get a refreshment from the dew in the night."
3298. Water. After the plants are placed on the hills, give opportunely gentle wa-
terings, increasing them as the season and the growth of the plants advance. " Water
circumspectly and scantily while the fruit is setting or young in growth, as too much
moisture would make it decay. Take a warm morning for watering, before the middle
of May ; in summer, the afternoon, or evening. Use soft water warmed to the air of
the frame ; and let as little as possible fall on the setting or new-set young fruit; nor
much near the main head of the plants, for fear of rotting that part. Shut down the
lights after watering, for a short time ; and if in the morning, and a strong sun,
spread a mat over, to prevent the sun from injuring the plants by acting on the water
lodged on the spray and leaves. As a strong steam will now arise, remove the mats in
an hour or two, and raise the glasses at the top, to give vent to the steam and admit air
to the plants. As the fruit becomes nearly ripe, lessen the quantity of water given,
barely keeping the plant from flagging ; and withhold water when the fruit begins to
turn color."
3299. Nicol says, water once in four or five days in the afternoon, watering over the foliage. Repeat
them oftener as the season and the growth of the plants and fruit advance, in order to swell it oft' the
better. (Kal. p. 387.)
3300. M'Phail says, " If the weather is warm and dry, the melons will probably sometimes require
water twice a- week ; if the weather is wet and cloudy, they will not require it so often." (G. Rem.
Pp 4
584 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
p. 300.) It is probable considerable advantage would be obtained by the use of liquid pigeons' dung ma-
nure, as in the case of the cucumber. (See 3224.)
3301. Knight, rinding that the leaves of melons sustained great injury from the weight of the water
falling from the watering-pot, pours the water on the tiles which cover the surface of the bed.
3302. Earthing. Perform this operation as directed for the cucumber, after the heat
of the dung has become moderate, earthing up by degrees the intervals between the hills,
till the depth of the earth becomes equal. Eight or ten inches' depth of earth, M'Phail
states to be enough for the roots of the plants to run in, provided the bed, or fermenting
mass beneath, be made of leaves of trees, or of dung well prepared ; for if the bed under
the earth be in a good state, the roots will grow into it, and draw from thence consider-
able nourishment to the plants. The roots of the melon do not naturally run deep ;
they extend horizontally, not far from the surface, especially in forcing-frames, where
the moist warm air is more confined than in the open atmosphere. In early forcing,
leave unfilled up with earth a space of about seven or eight inches wide against the in-
side of the frames, immediately adjoining the hot linings. " By this method the heat
of the linings does more powerfully warm the air in the frames than if the earth was made
level home to the sides of the boards of the frames to which the linings adjoin. But if
melons be not planted earlier than the month of May, this precaution need not be at-
tended to, unless the weather prove uncommonly cold, and but little sunshine." (G. Rem.
p. 63.) . .
3303. Training. As the plants advance into the first runners, three or four joints in
length, if no fruit be shown, stop them at the third joint, in order that they may produce
fruitful laterals ; and as the runners extend, train them over the surface of the bed with neat
pegs. Many of these runners, as the plant proceeds, will show embryo fruit at the
joints ; but a great many barren ones are occasionally produced, and hence it becomes
necessary to regulate them. Abercrombie says, " Cut out the superfluous, unfruitful,
or evidently useless shoots, especially the very weak and the most luxuriant; for the
middle-sized are the most fertile."
3304. Nicol says, melons should be kept moderately thin of vines, though not so thin as cucumbers,
(the foliage beini; smaller,) which should never be much lopped at a time, as they are also apt to bleed.
All bruised, damp, or decayed leaves should be carefully picked off as they appear, and the plants
should lie cleaned from weeds, and other rubbish that may be conveyed into the frames by the wind, or
otherwise. „ . „, ..
3305 M'Phail directs to "cut out of the melon-frames all superfluous or decaying shoots. Stop the
shoots a joint or two before the fruit, and ako cut off the ends of the long running shoots immediately
before a showing fruit, if there is a leading shoot coming out by the side of it; for you ought to remem-
ber always in pruning melons, that a fruit will not swell well except there be a growing shoot before
it • and this shoot, which is called a leader, because it leads or draws the sap from the roots to and past
the fruit, should be stopped before a joint that will, if the plant is in good health, sprout out again.
Do not let your plants get too full of leaves ; and cut off the oldest and worst leaves first. This ought
to be done,* at least once or twice a-week ; bv which method they will be nearly always in one medium
state of thinness, and the plants and fruit will derive advantages which they would be deprived of
were thev to be suffered to become over-crowded with leaves and shoots, and then a great many cut
out at one time. If melons are of a large kind, no more than one or two fruit should be left on a plant
to swell off at one time ; if smaller, three or four fruit may be left." (G. Rem. p. 278.)
3306 Knight, in an ingenious and philosophical paper on the culture of the melon, states, that his
crops of melons failed, because watering over the foliage, pruning, weeding, &c. had removed
the leaves on the extended branches, from their proper position, and these leaves being heavy, broad,
slender, and feeble, on long foot-stalks, were never able to regain it. " In consequence a large portion
of that foliage which preceded, or was formed at the same period with the blossoms, and which nature
intended to generate sap to feed the fruit, became diseased and sickly, and consequently out of office,
before the fruit acquired maturity." To remedy this defect, the plants were placed at greater distances
from each other, viz. one plant of the salonica variety, to each light of six feet long by four feet wide. The
earth was covered with tiles, and the branches trained in all directions, and hooked down over them with
pegs They were thus secured from being disturbed from their first position ; the leaves were held erect,
and at an equal distance from the glass, and enabled, if slightly moved from their proper position, to re-
gain it. " I, however, still found that the leaves sustained great injury from the weight of the water fall-
ing from the watering-pot ; and I therefore ordered the water to be poured from a vessel of a proper con-
struction, upon the brick tiles, between the leaves, without at all touching them ; and thus managed,
I had the pleasure to see that the foliage remained erect and healthy. The fruit also grew with very ex-
traordinary rapidity, ripened in an unusually short time, and acquired a degree of perfection, which I had
never previously seen. As soon as a sufficient quantity of fruit (between twenty and thirty pounds) on
each plant is set, I would recommend the further production of foliage to be prevented, by pinching oft
the lateral shoots as soon as produced, wherever more foliage cannot be exposed to the light. Nopart ot
the full-grown leaves should ever be destroyed before the fruit is gathered, unless they injure each other,
bv being too much crowded together : for each leaf, when full grown, however distant from the fruit, and
growing on a distinct branch of the plant, still contributes to its support ; and hence it arises that when a
plant has as great a number of growing fruit upon part of its branches, as it is capable of feeding, the
blossoms upon other branches, which extend in an opposite direction, prove abortive." (Hort. Irans. vol. i.)
In another paper {Hort. Trans, v. 238.) we find this ingenious horticulturist describing his mode ot grow-
ing melons in large pots, and training the shoots on a trellis, fifteen inches under the glass. A mode evi-
dently less certain of success, and more expensive than the common mode : but it is good to try every thing.
3307. Setting. As the fruit-bearers come into blossom, you may assist the setting of
the fruit, by impregnating some of the female blossoms with the male flowers, as de-
scribed for "the cucumber. The melon, however, will also set naturally, and produce
fertile seeds, if the time of fructification fall at a season when the glasses can be left almost
constantly open. (Aber.) Nicol says, he has proved experimentally, that melons not
impregnated will not swell off so fair and handsome as impregnated ones, and, therefore,
considers it more necessary to attend to this operation in melons than in cucumbers.
Book I. CULTURE OF THE MELON. 585
" Therefore, let nature be assisted in this work, considering that she is more under re-
straint here, than if the plants grew in the open air, where the wind, insects, and other
casualties, might help." (Kal. p. 384.)
3308. Care of the fruit. As the fruit increases to the size of a walnut, place a flat tile
or slate under each, to protect it from the damp of the earth ; the slab thus interposed
will also assist the fruit to ripen, by reflecting the rays of the sun. (Abercrombie.)
3309. M'Phail says, " The fruit should lie upon dry tiles, stones, or slates, and no leaves or shoots
ought to be suffered to lie upon it. When the fruit is young, it is better to have a gentle shade of leaves ;
but when it is full swelled, it should be entirely exposed to the sun."
3310. Nicol advises placing the fruit on bits of slate or glass some time before it begins to ripen, as the
flavor might else be tainted ; but by no means slate or moss the whole surface of the bed, lest you encourage
the red spider. " Think on the reflection of the sun upon the slates or tiles, in hot weather particularly,
and of his additional force in shining through glass ! It is more consonant to the nature of the plants that
they be trained on the earth. By mossing the surface, the indolent may find a pretext, as it, no doubt, in
some measure, lessens the labor of watering. But it is wrong to do so, in so far as it harbors and encou-
rages the breeding of various insects ; and, as the fruit approach to maturity, taints it by unpleasant
effluvia."
3311. Time of maturation. The interval between the setting of the fruit and perfect
maturity is generally from thirty to forty days ; but the plants in the same bed, and
the vines on the same plant, often show some difference in the time of reaching maturity.
(AbercromMe.)
3312. Cutting the fruit. " Ripe melons are distinguished by their full size ; sometimes
by turning yellowish, more constantly by imparting an agreeable odor ; often by the
base of the foot-stalk, close to the fruit, cracking in a little circle. On these indications
of maturity, the fruit should be cut, before too mellow or dead ripe, that it may eat with
a lively sharp flavor. The morning is the time for cutting."
3313. Nicol observes that " melons, if allowed to remain on the plant till they be of a deep yellow color,
lose much of their flavor. They should, therefore, be cut as soon as they begin to change to a greenish -
yellow, or rather, as soon as they begin to smell ripe. They may lie in the frame for a day or two, if not
immediately wanted, where they will acquire sufficient color. But if they are let remain many days in the
frame, they will become as insipid as if they had been left too long on the plant."
3314. Saving seed. The ordinary mode is to request the seeds of particularly fine
fruits, of approved sorts, to be returned from table. The best way, however, is to pick
some best ripe fruit, take out the seed, clean it from the pulp, and let it be well dried
and hardened ; and then put it up in papers. {Abercrombie. ) Nicol says, wash it very
clean, skimming off the light seeds, as those only that sink in water will grow. (ITal.
p. 396.) Great care must be taken that the sorts, from which seeds are saved, are
genuine and distinct. When different sorts are planted in the same frame, this cannot
be the case.
3315. Second crop from the same plants. " When the fruit of the first crop is off*, a
second crop may be obtained from the stools ; which often proves more productive than
the first. If the first crop is taken before the middle of June, the second will come in
at a very good time. For this purpose, as soon as the fruit is cut, prune the plant.
Shorten the vigorous healthy runners at a promising joint, to force out new laterals ;
cutting about two inches above the joint. At the same time take off all decayed or
sickly vines, and all dead leaves. Stir the surface of the mould ; and renew it partially,
by three inches depth of fresh compost. Water the plant copiously ; shutting down the
glasses for the night. Shade in the middle of hot days ; and give but little air until the
plant has made new radicles and shoots. Afterwards repeat the course of culture above
described, from the stage when the first runners are sent out till fruit is cut."
3316. Nicol says, " When all the fruit of this crop are cut, suppose in three or four weeks, the plants
may be pruned for the production of a second crop, equal, and perhaps superior to the first. They should
be cut pretty much in, in order to cause them to push plenty of new vines, which will be very fruitful ;
observing to cut always at a joint of some promise, and to thin out all decayed or unhealthy vines, dead
leaves, &c. Observe, also, to cut at an inch or two above the joint you expect to push, and then to bruise
the end of the stem so lopped with the thumb and finger ; which will, in a great measure, prevent it from
bleeding. The plants should be shaded from the mid-day sun, for a week or ten days ; exposing them to
his full rays by degrees. Now, also, let the mould in the frame be well watered, in order to put the roots
in a state of active vegetation ; point over the surface, with a small stick, or little wedge ; and cover the
whole with about two inches of fresh mould. This will greatly encourage the plants, and cause them to
make new fibres near the surface. At this period air need not be admitted very freely, especially while
the glasses are covered ; but, rather, as it were, endeavor to force the plants into new life. After they
begin to shoot, water, admit air, prune, train, and otherwise manage the plants as before directed. If the
season be fine they may yield you a third crop, by a repetition of the above rules, coming in in September,
which might be very gratifying. I once had fifty-two full-sized fruit produced in a three-light frame, a
second crop, and two dozen a third, off the same plants, the early golden cantaleupe. Of the first crop
(twenty-six fruit) two were cut the 10th of May. Thus, a three-light box produced, in one season, 102
full-matured melons."
3317. M'Phail says, " If you intend to have melons as long as there is a sufficiency of sun to ripen them
tolerably well, you had best put linings of warm dung to some of your beds. These, if applied in time
and kept on, will cast a fresh heat into the beds, and with other necessary assistance, the plants will grow-
as long as you want them."
3318. Late crop on old hot-beds. To ripen melons, not earlier than the month of
August, M'Phail " generally made beds of dung which had first been used for linings
to the early cucumber and melon beds. For this purpose, tliis kind of dung is better than
586 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
new dung, because it does not heat violently, and for a considerable time keeps its heat.
Leaves of trees make very good melon-beds, but they do not produce heat enough alone
for linings ; but of whatever materials melon-beds be made, the air in the frames among
the plants should be kept sweet and strong, otherwise the plants will not grow freely.
It may be known whether the air be sweet or whether it be not, by putting the head in
under the lights, and smelling it. But it frequently happens to be difficult to bring
dung-beds into a requisite state of kindliness for these delicate plants, for if the dung by
any means get and retain too much water before its noxious vapors pass off by evaporation,
it will stagnate and become sour, and, until these pernicious qualities be removed, which
requires time and patience, the plants will not grow kindly ; and besides this, although
corrupted stinking air hinders the growth of plants of the melon kind, it greatly promotes
the health and forwards the breeding of different kinds of insects, which feed upon and
otherways hurt fruits, and plants, and esculent vegetables of various kinds."
3319. Culture of melons in a dung-pit. " A glazed pit to receive either stable-dung,
leaves, or tanners' bark, is calculated to ripen superior fine fruit. The well of the pit
may be formed either by a nine-inch wall, or by strong planking ; a yard in depth, from
six to eight feet wide, and in length from ten to twenty feet, or more, as required.
A low glass case is to be fitted to it, adapted to the growth of the melon. Having
raised the plants in a small seed-bed as for the frame crop, ridge them out into the pit in
the usual manner. Give the proper subsequent culture ; and when the strength of the
fermenting mass begins to decline, add linings outside the pit, if enclosed by boards ;
but if enclosed by a nine-inch wall, cut away as much of the dung and earth within, and
throw it out, as will admit a lining of well tempered dung." (Abercrombie.)
3320. Culture of melons in*a fined pit. One such as that proper for the nursing-pinery is
here understood; and the plants being raised in the usual way, and the bed, whether filled
with dung, tan, or leaves, or a mixture of these, being moulded, plant about the end of July.
Nicol prefers for such late crops " the early golden cantaleupe, the orange cantaleupe, and
the netted cantaleupe, planting a part of the pit with each. A very mild bottom heat is
sufficient for the purpose here in view ; and if the pit have been occupied in the forcing of
asparagus, French beans, or strawberries, on a bark, or bark and dung, or on a bark and leaf
heat, it will require no other preparation than to be stirred up, and have a little fresh
materials added ; keeping the fresh bark, dung, or leaves well down, and finishing the bed
with some of the smallest and best reduced. When it has settled a few days, let it be
moulded all over to the thickness of twelve or fifteen inches ; previously laying on a little
more of the above small materials, in order to keep the plants well up to the glass, as the
bed will fall considerably in the settling. It should be formed, and the mould should be
laid on, in a sloping manner, from back to front, so as in some measure to correspond
with the glasses. All being ready for the plants, they may either be planted in a row in
the middle of the pit, at two feet apart, or may be planted in two rows at four feet apart;
or, if they have been planted, in nursing, three in a pot, plant in the centre of each light,
as directed for the common hot-bed in March. Let them have a little water, and be
shaded from the sun for a few days ; exposing them to his rays by degrees. The future
management of the plants differs in nothing from that of melons in a hot-bed, till Sep-
tember, when it will be proper to apply fire-heat. About the beginning of September,
it will be proper to apply fire-heat, in order to further the progress of the late fruit,
and to dry off damps. Let the fires be made very moderate at first, however, and
increase their strength, as the season becomes more cold and wet. Keep the mercury
up to about 70° in the night; and in the day, by the admission of air, keep it down to
about SO1 or 75°. Very little water will now suffice for the plants, as their roots will
be fully established, and be spread over the whole bed ; the heat of which will also now
have subsided. They should only, therefore, have a little water once in eight or ten days;
and, as the fruit begin to ripen off, entirely withhold it. Keep the plants moderately thin
of vines and foliage ; be careful to pick off all damped leaves as they appear ; and fully
expose the fruit to the sun as it ripens, in the manner directed for melons in the hot-bed.
In this manner, I have often had melons in October and November, fully swelled, and in
good, but not of course in high perfection, for want of sun to give them flavor. Any who
have a pit of this kind, however, for the forcing of early vegetables, strawberries, flowers,
&c. cannot, perhaps, occupy it to a better purpose in the latter part of the season ; as the
trouble is but little, and the expense not worth mentioning." (A?//.)
3321. Culture of melons in M'PhaWs brick-bed. The inventor of this pit says, "For
the purpose of raising melons early, for many years I cultivated them on a brick-bed, on
the same construction as that which I invented for rearing early cucumbers, excepting
only that through the pit of each three-light box I carried no cross flues. In each three-
light division I made the pit about three feet six inches wide, and ten feet long, and three
feet deep below the surface of the flues. When this bed was first set to work, I had the
pits filled level with the surface of the flues with well fermented dung, or with the dung
of old linings from the cucumber-beds. On the surface of the dung in the pits, I had
Book I. CULTURE OF THE MELON. 587
laid about ten inches thick of good earth, in a ridge of about twenty inches wide, from
one end of the pit to the other. When this was done, I made a lining round the bed, and
as soon as the earth became warm, I set the plants into the ridge of earth, and gave them
a little water, and kept a strong heat in the frames, and filled up the pit gradually as the
roots and plants extended themselves. The dung or leaves of trees in the pit require not
to be changed every year, neither need the earth for the plants be removed entirely everv
season, for by experience I found it to do very well by digging and mixing with it some
fresh earth and manure in winter, and exposing it to the rains, the frost, and the snow.
In forcing melons early, the surface of the cross flues, as well as of the surrounding or
outside ones, should be kept bare of mould till the days in spring get long, which will let
the heat of the linings arise freely through the covers of the flues to warm the air among
the plants. After the cross flues are covered with earth, those which surround each frame
may be left uncovered till the month of Mayor June." (<?. Rem. p. 64.) The culture in
the brick-bed is in other respects the same as that already given for melons in frames, and
cucumbers in brick-beds. (3238.)
3322. Culture under hand-glasses. A succession, or late crop, to fruit in August and
September, may be raised on hot-bed ridges under hand-glasses.
3323. Sow in a hot-bed, from the middle of March to the middle of April. When the plants have been
up a few days, while in the seed leaves, prick some into small pots, two plants in each : water, and plunge
them into the hot-bed ; managing, as directed for the young frame-plants, till the rough leaves are
from two to four inches long, and ready to shoot into runners. From the middle of March to the third
week of May, when the plants are a month or five weeks old, they will be fit to ridge out under hand-
glasses.
3324. Forming the bed. With well prepared stable-dung, or, with a mixture of fermented tree-leaves,
build the hot-bed four feet wide, and two feet and a half thick, the length according to the number of
glasses intended, allotting the space of four feet to each. In a week or ten days, or when the dung, or
dung and leaves, is brought to a sweet well tempered heat, mould the bed ten or twelve inches thick ;
then place the glasses along the middle, and keep them close till the bed has warmed the earth.
3325. Planting. The same, or next day, insert the plants : turn them out from the pots with the ball of
earth entire ; and, allotting plants for each glass, insert the ball into the earth clean down over the top
cosing the mould about the stems. Give a little water, and place the glasses over close.
3326. Routine culture. From about nine in the morning till three in the afternoon, of the first two or
three days, shade the plants till they have taken root ; when admit the sun more freely ; yet only by de-
grees from day to day, till they can bear it fully without flagging much. Give air daily, in temperate
weather, by tilting the edge of the glasses, on the south side, an inch or two : but in the present stage of
the plants, shut close at night. Cover with mats till morning; constantly keeping the glasses over- Give
occasional moderate waterings, with aired water. Cover in the day-time with mats, in bad weather, or
heavy or cold rains ; and continue the night-covering till confirmed summer in July. Meanwhile, attend
to the heat of the bed : if this be declined, so that the minimum temperature be not 65* at night, with the
aid of matting, line the sides with hot dung, covered with a layer of mould. The revived heat from the
lining will forward the plants in fruiting ; while the earth at top, will enlarge the surface for the runners,
and the bed for the roots. When the runners have extended considerably, and filled the glasses, they
must be trained out. Accordingly, at the beginning of June, in favorable settled warm weather, train out
the runners ; cutting away dwindling and useless crowding shoots : then the glasses must be raised ail
round, two or three inches, upon props, to remain day and night. Cover with mats in cold nights and bad
weather ; having, to support the mats, first arched the bed over with rods or hoop-bands. Apply moderate
waterings, as necessary, in the morning or afternoon. Oiled-paper frames, formed either archwise, or with
two sloping sides, about two feet or two and a half high, and of the width of the bed, are very serviceable
in this stage. Some persons use them from the first, under a deficiency of hand-glasses. But the proper
time for recourse to them is when the plants have been forwarded in hand-glasses, till the runners require
training out beyond the limits of the glasses, some time in June : then removing the glasses, substitute
the oiled frames. As these paper screens will entirely cover the bed and plants, over which they are to
remain the rest of the season, they will afford protection from heavy rains or tempests, as well as from
nocturnal cold, and also screen the plants from the excessive heat of the sun, while, being pellucid, they
admit its influence of light and warmth effectually. Give proper admission of free air below, and occa-
sional watering. With respect, however, to the crop, for which no oiled-paper frames have been-provided,
continue the hand-glasses constantly on the bed, over the main head and stem of the plants, throughout
the season, to defend those capital parts from casual injuries by the weather. Throughout June, and
thence to the decline of summer, be careful, if much rain, or other unfavorable weather, or cold nights
occur, to shelter the beds occasionally with an awning of mats or canvass ; particularly when the plants are
in blossom. Likewise, turn in some of the best full-set exterior fruit under the glasses ; or some spare
glasses might be put over the outside melons, to forward them without check to maturity.
3327. Crop. Some will be ready to cut in July, others in August the more general time, and in Sep-
tember ; they being generally, after setting, from thirty to forty days in ripening. The crop coming in at
the decline.of summer will not ripen well, unless guarded from cold at nights, and assisted by linings. The
pomes that do not ripen may be used as substitutes for mangoes.
3328. Culture on ivide ridges. The fruiting-bed may be made six, seven, or eight feet
wide, for the plants to have an ample surface for their extending runners ; defended
either with a regular frame and glasses of proportionate dimensions, or with a case formed
of inch-and-half boarding, ranged connectedly along both sides of the bed, without any
internal cross divisions other than top cross Ijars, to stay the sides, and support the
glasses. ( Abercrombie. )
3329. Culture on sloping banks. Williams, of Pilmaston, has for several years been
trying to give increased hardiness to the melon, by growing it in the open air. He does
not state what varieties he grows, but his bed (jig. 463.) is placed on the open ground (a,
a), and is formed of a row of wooden posts, three feet six inches high, to the south
face of which boards are nailed (b). The surface of the bed is an inclined plane, fronting
the south; covered with slates laid upon the mould, and not overlapping. There is
another row of posts (d, d), two feet six inches high, to which boards are nailed on
588
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
the north face, forming a space (e, e) three feet wide, extending the whole length of
the bed on its north side, and
this is filled with mowings of
grass, weeds, fallen leaves,
haulm, and other refuse of
the garden. The melon-plants
(f) grow on the inclined plane,
beneath which is old spent
tanners' bark trodden hard (g),
and over it nine inches of me-
lon soil. The plants are placed
on this bed in May, under
hand-glasses ; the shoots, as
they advance, are pegged down ;
fruit is cut in August, and from that time till the plants are killed by frost in October.
{Hort. Trans, v. 346.)
3S30. Insects and diseases. To prevent melon-plants from being infested with insects,
or injured by disease of any kind, no better method can be adopted than to keep the
plants constantly in a healthy, vigorous, growing state ; for this purpose, M'Phail ob-
serves, " they must be constantly attended to, giving them plenty of heat and water. In
warm weather, in the spring and in summer, they should be watered occasionally all
over their fruit and leaves, till the earth in which they grow be thoroughly moistened,
and a stronger heat than usual kept in the frames about the plants for a few hours ; also
the lights should be shut down every afternoon, with a good strong heat among the
plants. If there be sufficient moisture in the earth, the greatest sun-heat in the afternoon
will not hurt the plants, but it might scorch the sides of large fruit exposed to the sun-
beams operating upon the glass, which should be guarded against. The frames and
lights should be kept clean, and painted over once every other year.
3331. Mildew and canker. " Melon-plants are subject to be infected and hurt by the mildew and by
the canker. These diseases come upon them because they are not in a good climate, they have not a
sufficiency of heat, or the dung and earth of the bed is in a stagnated state. Melon-plants are liable
to be greatly injured by the red spider, which increaseth surprisingly in hot dry weather. As I said
before, nothing will prevent plants from the inroads of disease and insects but heat, sweet air, and a
sufficiency of water, which sweetens the atmosphere, and makes it healthy for vegetables as well as for
animals. And nothing will eradicate disease and insects from melon-plants but good management, strong
heat, and plenty of water given all over them. Diseased plants, or plants much infested with insects, cannot
produce good healthy fruit. The mildew is a most pernicious disease to all sorts of plants. On melons it
generally makes its first appearance on the oldest leaves, and on the extremities of the young shoots.
The cause of it, I apprehend, is unhealthy nourishment comprehended in the elements, or their not har-
monising in the promotion of the growth of the plant ; for by practitioners it may be observed, that
when a dung hot-bed gets into a stagnated sour state, the plants do not grow kindly, the air in the frames
is saturated with unhealthy particles, and so also must be the juices drawn into the plants by their roots.
These must breed diseases, if preventive means be not applied. It cannot be reasonably supposed that
plants of a delicate nature will continue in a healthy state, growing upon a heap of stinking dung, and in
confined air."
3332. Red spider. " When melon-plants have become diseased, or much infested with the red spider,
they should either be destroyed or effectual means used to cure them. To destroy the plants is easy; to
cure them, let the following methods be put in practice : get plenty of horse-dung thrown up in a large
heap, turn it over once or twice, shaking and mixing it well, and let it lie till its rankness be somewhat
evaporated, and if there be linings at the beds, take them entirely away ; examine the dung of the beds,
and if it be wet and has a bad smell, take a sharp-pointed stake, and make holes all round in the sides
of the beds into their centre, in such a slanting way that the water may easily run out of them ; then
make a strong lining of the prepared dung all round the beds, and by occasional augmentations keep up
the linings nearly to a level with the surface of the earth in which the plants grow. As soon as the
linings have cast a strong heat into the beds, scatter some flour of sulphur all over the plants, and keep as
strong a heat in the frame as the plants can bear ; a heat of 120 degrees will not destroy them, if the steam
of the linings be prevented from getting in among the plants. Water the plants all over their leaves about
once a-week with clean water 100 degrees warm, and if the sun shine, keep the lights close shut down all
dav, and cover them up in the evening, leaving a little air all night at each light, to prevent a stagnation
of 'air among the plants. Continue this process till the mildew and the insects disappear, and the plants
appear to grow freely, and afterwards manage them in the usual way, taking care to keep up a good
strong heat in the linings. This method sets the old stagnated bed in a fermentation, which makes the
moisture run out of it, and dries it so, that water given to the plants has free liberty to pass off. If the
linings do not heat the air in the frames sufficiently, let some of the earth in the inside all round the sides
of the boards be removed, to let the heat from the linings rise freely in the frame."
Sect. VIII. Forcing the Strawberry in Hot-houses, Pits, and Hot-beds.
3333. The strawberry is forced in every description of forcing-house, and also in the
pinery, though the heat of the latter often prevents the setting of the blossoms. Where
they are forced in large quantities, it is a good method to apply a pit to their sole culti-
vation. M'Phail says, " They will occasionally do well in a hot-house for growing the
pine ; but a heat sufficient to force peaches and nectarines is more natural, and likely to
secure the obtaining of good crops of fine fruit. A good way of forcing the strawberry,"
he adds, " is to bring them forward in a gentle heat in melon-frames, till the fruit be
nearly about half swelled, and then to give them a stronger heat to ripen them." (Gr.
Menu 29. ) Nicol thinks u the climate of the cherry-house most suitable to the nature
Book I. FORCING THE STRAWBERRY IN HOT-HOUSES, &c. 589
of strawberries ; they will do well in a hot-bed ; but the best method is to force them in
flued pits, such as that for nursing pines."
3334. Soil. All agree that strawberries to be forced in pots require a strong and a very
rich loamy earth.
3335. Choice of sorts. Abercrombie and Nicol recommend the alpine and scarlet
Virginia; to which Nicol adds the wood strawberry. Morgan (Hurt. Trans, vol. ii.
p. 376.) begins with the alpines; next he takes the Bath scarlets and common scarlets;
and after these the pines.
3336. Potting and preparation of the plants. Abercrombie says, the plants selected
should be two years old, having attained a full bearing state. It conduces to the per-
fection of the fruit, to put as many plants as are intended to be forced into pots, that
they may be previously nursed for a longer or shorter time, according to the age of the
stool.
3337. New runners of the present summer may be potted in July and August and nursed in pots for
two seasons, having the blossoms pinched off in the second. This course of preparation is attended with
most trouble : but the crop repays it. Three offsets may be planted in one large pot.
3338. Runners made last year may be potted in April, and then plunged in the earth, to be nursed
throughout the growing season with a view to forcing, having such blossoms as appear pinched off, while
the roots are carefully watered.
3339. Stools of two years' standing, which have borne one crop, may be put into pots in August, Septem-
ber or October. They may also be put into pots during any mild interval from the beginning of Novem-
ber, till the end of the year ; but they will not be so strong and well rooted. The method of potting established
bearers is this. The pots should be twenty-fours or thirty-twos ; provide at the same time some fresh
and good rich loam. Put some of the earth, well broken with the spade, and free from grubs or hurtful
worms, into each pot, to the depth of three or four inches. Then take up the plants, with a ball of earth
to the root of* each ; pare the ball with a knife till it be pretty round ; and having cleared the stem of the
plant from any withered or rotten leaves, place it in the pot, which fill up to the surface of the ball with
the prepared earth. Water the plants as they are potted, and remove them to a warm situation. On the
approach of winter, all the potted plants, whether established bearers or runners, should be placed under
a frame, or other sufficient shelter, till the hot-bed or forcing-house is ready to receive them.
3340. M'Phail says, " Strawberry-plants intended for forcing should be planted in pots eight or ten
months before they be set into the forcing-house ; or strong plants may be taken up with balls of earth
about their roots, and be potted and set into the forcing-house immediately."
3341. Nicol says, " Some force old roots or stools, and others the runners only. Those who force the
old roots generally lift and pot them about October or November ; lifting a bulk from the bed or row,
nearly sufficient to fill a nine or ten inch pot, of plants three or more years old. Others plant runners of
the former year in April, three or four in a large pot, or two in a middle-sized one, and plunge them in
the earth all summer, giving them occasional waterings, and taking proper care of them. These succeed
better than old roots, treated as above. But when I was in the practice of forcing strawberries, I used
to prepare my plants in the following manner : In July or August, I planted runners of that season, three
in a nine or ten inch pot, watered them, and placed them in the shade for a few days ; then plunged
them to the brim, in a freely exposed situation. In October, their leaves were dressed oft', and the plants
trimmed ; and before winter, they were covered with a little dry litter, in order to preserve the pots from
the effects of frost. The following spring, any flowers that made their appearance were pinched off; and
throughout the summer, the plants were occasionally refreshed with water, and kept clear from weeds.
In autumn, the leaves were again dressed off as before ; and when taken up for forcing, the pots were
dressed, and fresh earthed at top, previous to being placed in the forcing-house. This method of pre-
paring the plants is no doubt more troublesome than either of the above-mentioned ; but the plants, by
being completely established, and of a proper age, produce better crops. I have tried all the three ways
repeatedly, and prefer the last."
3342. Morgan raises his alpines from seed, sowing in January in frames or boxes, to be placed in a gentle
heat ; he hardens them after they come up by removal to a cooler situation ; pots in May in pots six inches
diameter and six inches deep. In October they are in flower, when he puts them under shelter, and in
the latter end of November he places them in the forcing-house or pinery, where they bear fruit through
the winter. The scarlets he pots, three plants in a pot, of the same size as those used for the alpines in
May, or early in June, taking the runners of the previous year ; he picks off the blossoms as they appear,
and keeps them in a shady place till January, when he places them in the forcing-house on shelves eighteen
inches from the glass, each pot in a pan. The pine-strawberries he pots in the same manner, and takes
them into the forcing-house in February or March.
3343. Time of beginning to force. If the fruit be wanted very early, the plants are
put in hot-beds, or pits, in October ; but the crops from strawberries so forced, Nicol
thinks hardly worth the trouble. Abercrombie says, " Begin to force strawberries about
nine weeks before you want to gather fruit. Plants excited before the first of January
seldom repay the trouble ; and in proportion as the time of beginning to force approaches
the vernal equinox, the returns are more abundant. To have a succession, reserve sets
of potted plants for removal into a house, or frame, every three weeks, till the middle of
March." He adds, " Strawberries taken into the house in March, fruit in higher per-
fection than those forced earlier."
3344. M'Phail and Nicol begin in January. ' The latter observes, " Those who force strawberries to a con-
siderable extent, perhaps a thousand pots, bring them in, in different successions, perhaps a hundred or
two at a time ; this is, in places where there are several forcing-houses." {Kal. p. 330.) M'Phail says,
" When the weather begins to get cold in September, strawberries of the alpine kind in pots may be set
in a forcing-house or brick frame ; and if they be in good health, they will produce fruit for a considerable
time. They require only a gentle heat of from 50 to 60 degrees ; give them water occasionally, but as
there is constantly blossom and fruit on them, they need not be watered all over broad-cast. Give them
great plenty of air : they only require protection from heavy rains and cold weather."
3345. Morgan, as we have noticed above (3342.), begins to force alpines in November, the scarlets in
January, and the pines in February and March. Thus ensuring, as he says, a successional supply of fruit
from October till June.
3346. Temperature. Abercrombie says, begin at 40°, and raise the heat as in the cherry-house. When
a pit is employed, Nicol directs the pots to be plunged in a mild bark-heat ; and the temperature, by the
aid of the flues, to be kept at 50°, and 55° or 66° in sunshine. Such treatment will make the plants thrive,
and the fruit set freely. Morgan prefers beginning with the heat of a frame on dung, or a pit, and the
590 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
moves to the peach-house ; and, after the fruit is set, removes his plants to ripen in the vinery or stove.
Scarlets, he finds, bear more heat than the other sorts.
3347. Air and water. The former is to be freely admitted in good weather ; and the
latter plentifully supplied at all times, until the fruit begins to ripen off. Then it is to
be withheld, lest the flavor become insipid. Morgan prefers supplying it from pans, in
order not to rot the hearts of the plants. He gives as little water as possible when the
plants are nearly ripe, this being essential in order to have good-flavored fruit.
3348. Treatment after gathering the fruit. The strawberry, it is generally considered,
will not force the year after like fruit-trees ; but must be rested by plunging in the open
around for one or two years, pinching off all blossoms as they appear. Williams states,
that " the scarlet strawberry, after affording a crop of fruit in the hot-house early in the
spring, if carefully removed out of the pots or boxes, and placed in the open ground, will
yield another crop of fruit in September. The second crop is very abundant, the warm
rains of July and August proving highly favorable to the growth of the fruit ; and, as there
is no other strawberry to be had at this season of the year, except the alpine, the addi-
tion of the scarlet makes a pleasing variety in the dessert." (Hort. Tr. vol. ii. p. 93.)
Morgan observes, without limiting his observation to any one sort, that " after the fruit
has been gathered from the plants, the pots should be plunged into a shady border, giving
them a good watering, and at the same time cutting off the leaves : when thus treated,
they will, in the year following, produce as good crops in forcing as fresh-potted plants ;
if not wanted for this purpose, they may be turned out into the natural ground, and will
then bear a crop in the autumn of the same year, as described by Williams above."
Sect. IX. Forcing Asparagus in Pits and Hot-beds.
3349. Asparagus is forced with equal, or with greater success, and with less trouble
in flued pits than in dung hot-beds. M'Phail recommends his brick-bed for this purpose.
The roots, Nicol states, may either be forced on bark, or on dung, or on dung and bark.
But old half-rotten bark, in which there is not much heat, is to be preferred.^ Next to
this he uses well fermented dung underneath, and old bark to the thickness of a foot or
fifteen inches at top. " If dung alone, or a mixture of dung and leaves be used, it
should be carefully fermented, and should be in a state past heating violently before it
is put into the pit. In this case, observe to finish the bed with the smallest and driest
part of the materials." Ross {Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 361.), instead of a warm stratum
of dung or tan, places his roots on a cold bed of the latter, on which nursing-pines or
melons have been grown, but which has ceased to ferment. He then applies warm
linings to the sides, and thus produces the requisite degree of heat. Sabine, having
seen in Ross's pits, in January, 1817, some of the strongest asparagus he ever noticed at
that season, concludes, " that the weak and drawn state of forced asparagus is occasioned
by the action of the dung immediately on its root." He therefore greatly prefers Ross's
mode.
3350. Choice of jilants. M'Phail says, take roots of any age that bear fine grass.
Nicol says they should not be under four years old, nor above eight. Abercrombie takes
plants of two or three years' standing.
3351. Planting. M'Phail says, " Lay on the surface of the bark-bed from six
to eight inches of vegetable mould, or any other sort of light earth that the heat may easily
ascend through, and of such a texture as does not retain water. Take up plants, no
matter what age they are, which produce fine asparagus, trim their roots, and place them
in rows on the beds ; when one row is laid, strew a little fine mould among the roots,
then proceed in the same way with one row after another, keeping them on a level, as the
surface of the bed at first lay, till you have finished planting them ; then lay among the
buds and roots some fine vegetable, or other light rich mould, working it in among them
with your fingers, and cover the buds over about one inch thick, and above that lay three
inches in depth of vegetable mould not very rotten, but such as the water will run quickly
through. If you have not got vegetable mould of this description, old tan, not very fine,
will answer the purpose equally well. If there is a strong heat in the bed, to the glasses
remain off till it begin to decline. " Nicol directs, that the roots in the beds in the open
air, which are to be taken up and forced, should be kept covered with litter, so as to be
easy to come at in time of frost.
3352. Time of beginning to force. Abercrombie says, if in mid-winter, begin six
weeks before you propose to have a crop ; when the days are longer, five weeks, or but a
calendar month before. Nicol says, those who wish to have the asparagus on the table
at Christmas, should prepare for forcing it in November, to have a continual succession.
3353. Temperature. The temperature at night should never be under 50°. In the
day-time keep the maximum heat down to 62°. " If by the heat of the bark or^dung,
and the use of mats or canvass covers at night, the thermometer stand as high as 50°, fire-
heat will be unnecessary ; but otherwise recourse must be had to the flues. A very
moderate degree of fire-heat, however, will be sufficient ; and a small fire made in the
Book I. FORCING ASPARAGUS IN PITS AND HOT-BEDS. 591
evening will generally answer the purpose. Sometimes, in dull hazy weather, a fire
may be necessary in the morning, in order to enable you to admit air more freely, and
to dry off damp." (Abercrombie and Nicol.)
3354. Air must be freely admitted every day in some cases to allow any steam to pass
off; and for the sake of the color and flavor of the plants. As the buds begin to appear,
as large portions of air must be daily admitted as the weather will permit.
3355. Water. When the asparagus-bed has, after planting, stood two or three days,
and when the heat will have begun to warm the root, give the plants a sufficient wa-
tering. Pour it out of a pot with a rose on it, to imitate a shower of rain ; let the bed
have enough to moisten the mould well, and to wash it in among the roots. Repeat such
waterings now and then. Nicol says, the roots must have moderate supplies of water :
once in three or four days, if the heat be not violent ; and if otherwise, oftener.
3356. Gathering. " By the time the buds have come up three inches above the surface,
they are fit to gather for use, as they will then be six or seven inches in length. In ga-
thering them, draw aside a little of the mould, slip down the finger and thumb, and twist
them off from the crown. This is a better method than to cut them; at least it is less
dangerous to the rising buds, which come up in thick succession, and might be wounded
by the knife, if cutting were practised."
3357. Forced roots. The roots, after they have furnished a crop, are considered use-
less for future culture, because no leaves having been allowed to develope themselves, of
course no buds could be formed for the succeeding year.
3358. Successional supplies. If the pit in which asparagus is forced, be twenty-five or
thirty feet long, it will be enough, for the supply of an ordinary family, to fill one half
at a time. If the second half be planted when the grass in the first half is fit for use,
and so on, a constant succession may be kept up in the same pit for any length of time
required. In order, however, to forward or protract the growth of the one part or of the
other, the pit may be divided in a temporary way, by fitting a board neatly under the
middle rafter. By this means, one half may be kept cooler or hotter than the other, by
matting or not matting, or by the admission of more or less air, &c. " In filling the
first end of the pit a second time, if bark be used, it will not be necessary to add fresh
materials ; as trenching over the bed will be found to answer the purpose, even a third
time. And in using dung, the stirring up of the old, and adding as much new as will
raise the bed to a proper height, finishing with the smallest and best fermented part, will
generally be sufficient for a second filling. For a third filling, one half new dung may
be necessary, which, however, should be moderately fermented, and be kept well down."
3359. Forcing asparagus in hot-beds. Asparagus may be brought to perfection in
hot-beds at any time from November till it comes in the natural ground. When it
is intended to have a constant supply from hot-beds, M'Phail recommends one to be
made every fortnight, and Abercrombie once a month, from November till April. This
must, of course, be arranged according to the size of the hot-beds and number of the
family.
3360. Forming the hot-bed. M'Phail says, u Get a quantity of good dung well pre-
pared, by putting it together in a heap to ferment, that the rancidity of it may be evapo-
rated, by turning and mixing it several times when there is a strong heat in it ; make it
up into a bed about three feet high, and four or five inches larger all round than the size
of the frames, which are to be set upon it. When it is made, set the boxes and glasses
on, and let it heat and stand till it is sweet, which may be known by the smell of it ;
then tread it level, and loosen up the surface again, that the heat may have free liberty to
arise." In this stage, Nicol covers the whole with " rolls or squares of turf, cut so as
again to join exactly ; which lay green side down, and beat them well with the back of the
spade, that the whole may be close and compact, in order as much as possible to exclude
steam." To this practice M'Phail objects, as preventing the water from sinking freely
into the bed ; and if there be a sufficient heat in it for winter forcing, unless it receive
water, it must become dry and husky. The method, he says, is an old one practised
fifty years ago, and now exploded by every good gardener. Instead of turf, therefore,
M'Phail and Abercrombie, after setting on the frame, direct, with the bed from five to
eight inches thick, to use any sort of light earth. Nicol says, " I have often used old
bark reduced to a fine mould, without any mixture of earth, and have sometimes
mixed it with fine sandy earth, with little difference in the success ; only I have ob-
served, that when the roots were placed in bark entirely, the buds would come a few
days earlier."
3361. Planting. Proceed as directed for planting on a bark-bed. Abercrombie says,
" Provide from five to nine hundred (he elsewhere says six hundred) roots for a hot-bed
under a three-light garden-frame. Having prepared the roots, mark out on the sur-
face of the mould the width of the frame; then, beginning at one end, raise a small
ridge of earth crosswise, and proceed to planting ; placing the first course of roots nearly
upright, close against the said ridge, and with the crowns in contact, either upon the sur-
592 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
face of the level earth, or with only the lower ends of the roots a little inserted : place
more against these in the same manner, as close together as possible, and extending to
the width of the frame : add successive ranges, as close as they can be set, with the
crowns of an equal height." Where the bed is completely planted, the crowns are to be
earthed over regularly. Some, as Abercrombie, cover with two inches of light earth,
adding, when the buds appear, three or four inches of additional earthing ; others, as
Nicol and M'Phail, cover at once with four or five inches, adding no more afterwards.
The planting completed, the next thing is to put on the lights, which are to be kept close
shut down till the heat begin to rise in the frame ; which will generally happen the se-
cond or third day, when air is to be admitted, in order to pass oft' the steam, and dry the
surface of the mould. Air must be given every good day till the buds begin to appear
above ground ; and then more freely admitted to give color and flavor.
3362. Produce in hot-beds. Nicol says, " An ordinary-sized three-light frame, com-
pletely filled with roots, and properly managed, will only yield a dish every day for about
three weeks."
3363. Successional supplies frojn hot-beds. On the above estimate, if a constant suc-
cession of asparagus be required, it will be necessary to make up a bed every eighteen
or twenty days till the middle or end of March. Each successive bed may be made a
little lighter; and less trouble will be required as the season advances. (Kal. 347.)
3364. Forcing the roots as they stand in the open ground. Stir the surface of any bed
or beds in full bearing in the general plantation ; then, having raked it fine as in the
usual spring dressing, cover three inches with the siftings of old tan, and on that lay a
layer of fermenting dung, as in forcing rhubarb or sea-kale. This mode has been but
seldom practised ; but we consider it likely to succeed to a certain extent.
3365. Melross " finds, that asparagus may be forced in a vinery, by planting the roots in the border,
behind the flue, where no vine roots are." (Caled. Hort. Mem. iii. 164.)
3366. Sea-kale and rhubarb may be, and sometimes are, forced in the same manner as
asparagus ; but the most general mode is to excite them where they stand in the open
garden, by the application of warm dung, with or without earth in pots, or other covers.
(See the Horticultural Catalogue.)
Sect. X. Forcing Kidneybeans.
3367. The fcidneybean may be successfidly forced in pits, hot-houses or forcing-houses,
and hot-beds. The more general mode is to force in the pine -stoves; the same heat
which suits the pine-apple, suiting the kidneybean, which is a native of India. Nicol
prefers a flued pit, such as that used for nursing pines : and Abercrombie says,
" Where there are no hot-houses, or where kidneybeans are to be raised in quantities for
the market, the most economical and successful mode will be found a flued pit, prepared
as directed for asparagus, but with a stronger bottom heat."
3368. Soil. All agree in recommending light vegetable earth.
3369. Sorts. Abercrombie recommends the early speckled, early negro, and dun-
colored dwarfs. Nicol says the speckled dwarf is the best sort.
3370. Sowing. Sow in flat boxes or pans of fine light earth thickly, and cover to
the depth of an inch. Let them be placed in a stove or hot-bed, and have moderate
supplies of water, and they will be fit to plant when about three inches in height.
Plant them in rows across the bed of the pit fifteen inches apart, and three inches distant
in the line.
3371. Culture. Water after planting, and afterwards, as required; give abundance of
air every fine day, and earth up the plants as they advance in growth in order to give
them strength.
3372. Time of beginning to force. M'Phail says, "If you wish to endeavor to have
kidneybeans green all the year, you should plant the seeds, and begin to force in
August." Abercrombie observes, " Some forcers, quite in opposition to the season,
raise kidneybeans in August, and thence till the 21st December, which day may be
regarded as the boundary between late and early forcing.'1
3373. Temperature. The heat by fire in the night need not exceed 50°, according to
Nicol ; but Abercrombie recommends 60° for a minimum, and 75° for a maximum.
3374. Successional supplies are to be obtained by sowing every month or six weeks, for
which purpose the pits may be divided by temporary partitions, as recommended under
Forcing Asparagus. (Sect. IX.)
3375. Forcing in hot-houses. " The most early fruit in perfection," says Abercrombie,
" is obtained by culture in a stove, sowing from midwinter till the end of March."
Sow in pots, or oblong boxes, containing a mixture of light fresh earth and vegetable
mould, depositing the seeds either in a triangular or quincunx order, and full an inch
deep. If the plants are to fruit where sown, the cradles should be ten inches deep ; but,
if they are to be transplanted, which admits a greater number in the same space, the seed-
pots or boxes may be shallow. Do not fill the cradles with mould at first, to allow of
Book I. FORCING POTATOES. 593
gradually earthing up. When the heans have germinated, sprinkle the earth with
water ; after the plants have risen, give moderate waterings every other day — the last
crops may want water every day. Sprinkle also the leaves with water warmed by stand-
ing in the house. Those raised in shallow pans should be transplanted for fruiting when
two or three inches high. It is sometimes proper to stop luxuriant runners. These in-
cidental crops may stand in rows, on the flues, or on shelves ; but take care they do not shade
the pines and other principal plants. For succession, sow every fortnight or three weeks.
3S76. Forcing in a peach or cherry house, Nicol observes, " French beans may be
successfully planted out in the borders of an early cherry-house or peach-house, so as
that they may not be overmuch shaded by the trees ; but they seldom do much good in a
vinery, where they are shaded by the whole foliage of the vines."
3377. Forcing in a common hot-bed. " Under the deficiency of a house, you may
have recourse to a hot-bed and frame ; but the culture will be attended with more
trouble, the course will be longer, and the fruit is rarely so fine and plentiful ; nor
without fire-heat can the difficulties of late or very early forcing be so well contended
with. From the middle of February to the beginning of April is the most successful
period for forcing the kidneybean in a hot-bed. The early white dwarf, from its low
growth, is to be sown in preference to the kinds recommended for a stove, unless it be
intended to fruit the plants in a deeper frame than ordinary. The early yellow and
early black are next, as not growing very high. The temperature for the kidneybean
is 60° for the minimum, and 75° for the maximum of the fruiting-bed. In forcing
soon in the spring, raise the plants on a smaller bed, earthed over with light rich com-
post six inches deep. Sow the beans thickly, covering them to the depth of an inch.
The second hot-bed should be earthed over to the depth of eight or nine inches.
Into this transplant the seedlings as soon as they are two or three inches high ; setting
them in cross rows twelve or fifteen inches asunder, by four or three inches in a line. Or
when the season is so far advanced, that one bed with the help of linings will bring the
plants well into fruit, you may sow at once, at the full distance, in a similar hot-bed, to
continue for podding. Cover the glasses every night with garden-mats ; also partially
in severe weather. Admit fresh air moderately every mild day, and give occasional
gentle waterings. The plants raised in February will come into bearing in April and
May, making moderate returns : a new crop every three weeks will keep up the suc-
cession : those sown at the beginning of April will last till the middle or end of June ;
when they will be succeeded by the early half-sheltered crops in the open garden."
3378. Crop raised under glass to fruit in the open garden. " At the end of March, you may sow a small
portion under glass, for transplanting into the open garden in the first or second week of May. It is not
so well to sow in patches on the surface of the ground, as in small pots, because the plants can be turned
out from the latter with less check to their growth when transplanted. Sow three beans in each pot.
When the seedlings are two or three inches high, harden them by degrees to the full air ; and plant them
on a good open border as soon in May as the season will suit. They will yield fruit about a fortnight
sooner than the earliest raised under exposure to the weather."
3379. Crop raised on slight heat. " A crop to fruit early in the open garden may be accelerated with
more certainty by plunging the pots containing the seed-beans into a gentle hot-bed ; or some sown in
shallow pans or boxes may be set on the shelves of a stove. Just at the opening of April will be early
enough to begin ; as the plants will otherwise get too forward for the weather, to proceed well without a
continuance of artificial heat. Having nursed them to the proper stage, plant out under a south fence,
either three inches apart, if in a single line, and eighteen inches by three, if in two lines; or it may be
better to set the plants in patches of nine or seven, to receive the temporary shelter of a hand-glassjest
the transition from a hot-bed, all at once, to the fluctuating air of spring be too violent." {Abercrombie.)
3380. Insects. Nicol observes, that " the thrips often attacks French beans in the
> hot-house; and, therefore, the plants should be fumigated with tobacco, which destroys
that insect."
Sect. XI. Forcing Potatoes.
3381. The potatoe is forced in a great variety of ways ; but, " for a fair crop of tubers,
which shall be somewhat dry and flowery, and of the size of hens' eggs ; plant sets of the
ash-leaved variety in single pots, filled one third part with light earth, in January. Place
them in a hot-house or hot-bed, earth them up as they appear, and about the middle or
end of February transplant them with their balls entire into a pit prepared as for
asparagus. Distance from plant to plant one foot each way. Give water occasionally,
and admit as much air as possible at all times. Potatoes so managed will produce a
crop the end of March or beginning of April." (jibei-crombie.)
3382. Forcing potatoes in hot-beds. Abercrombie says, " A young crop is easily
obtained soon in spring, by planting the early dwarf, or the sort called mules, on a slight
hot-bed. Put in the sets pretty thickly, at six or eight inches square distance, as the
potatoes are not to grow large. If planted successively in January and February, they
will produce young crops for use in April and May, to be taken up in small portions as
wanted for present eating. During the growth of the plants, open the lights fully in the
middle of fine dry days ; but mat at night to guard against frost. Water attentively as
the mould and weather may require."
Q q
594 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
3383. Nicol says, " Plant some of the early sorts of potatoes thickly, on slight hot-beds, in February, to
be covered with a frame and lights ; or to be hooped over, and be covered with mats or canvass at
night, and in bad weather, which is a very good method of obtaining early potatoes, as they are not so
much drawn, as if kept close under glass. A moderate dung-heat is sufficient for the purpose ; and the
plants, after they have come up, should be exposed from morning till night in good weather, but should
be carefully covered at night for fear of frost. Even in using frames and lights, they should be fully ex-
posed in good weather, and should not be kept so closely shut up as is commonly done ; by which they are
drawn entirely to tops, and do little good at root. In either case they should have moderate and regular
supplies of water."
3384. Hogg, a market-gardener, describes " a method of growing early forced potatoes," by using an
old cucumber or melon bed, in which the dung has long lost all its heat. The sets of a very early sort, a
variety of Foxe's yellow seedling, known by the name of this grower, are cut a fortnight before they are
planted, to prevent their damping, or being injured by worms. The bed is prepared by removing all the
earth from the top of the dung, and covering it about one inch deep with fresh mould, on which the sets
are planted, in rows six inches apart, and the same distance from each other in the rows ; they are then
covered four inches deep with mould, and the frames and glasses are placed upon the bed, which must be
carefully protected from frost. The covering best adapted for this purpose, is the second crop of short hay,
called rowen, in the neighborhood of London. At the end of the fifth day, the outsides of the old
dung should be cut away, from near the edge of the frame to the bottom of the bed, in a slanting direction
inwards, of about fifteen inches from the perpendicular ; strong linings of hot dung must be applied to the
space so made, and renewed, if necessary, at the end of three weeks. Air must be given to the plants,
by sliding down the lights at noon every day that the weather will permit, and water in the mornings,
leaving about one inch of the light open for the admission of air after watering. The potatoes will be fit
for use in about seven weeks from the first planting of the sets, and the average crop to each light, if well
managed, is usually about five pounds." (Hort. Tr. vol. ii. p. 144.)
3385. Knight's mode of forcing potatoes in hot-beds is as follows : " The varieties of potatoes, which
are well calculated for early forcing, begin to vegetate before Christmas ; and it is of consequence to pre-
serve the germs and roots first emitted from injury, where a crop of good potatoes is required before the
end of May. I therefore plant my potatoes in pots of about six inches diameter in January (a single
potatoe in each), and the pots are then placed in the ground, and covered with litter, to protect them
from frost ; and in this situation they remain till the hot-bed is ready to receive them. In the mean time,
the roots extend themselves through the mould within the pots, and the germs reach its surface ; whilst
the excitability of the plants is not all expended on account of the low temperature in which they vegetate :
and, therefore, when plunged into the hot-bed, they instantly shoot with excessive rapidity, and in a few
days begin to generate tubers. One stem alone should be suffered to grow in each pot ; for where more
remain, the tubers are smaller, and the crop is not increased in weight. When the plants grow in small
pots, the gardener will have apparently the advantage of being able to take out the largest potatoes by
inverting the pots, without materially injuring the fibrous roots ; but this practice will rarely be found
eligible, because the plants, having the range of their roots confined to the limits of the pot, soon
occupy the whole of their pasture, and therefore do not produce their tubers in succession as they will
under common circumstances. The lights should be drawn off during the day, when the spring is far
enough advanced to permit this to be done without injury to the plants ; and early in May the pots may
be taken out of the hot-bed, which may be employed for other purposes ; and as it must necessarily have
been kept very dry during the latter period of the growth of the potatoes, it will generally afford a strong
heat on being well watered. I confine my plants (which are naturally of a very dwarfish growth) to
small pots, because under this mode of culture the tubers acquire maturity sooner, and are better ; but
the crop is not so heavy as when their fibrous roots are permitted to extend more widely ; and therefore,
where a larger, but rather later crop, is required, the best plan is to put the tubers to vegetate in small
pots, and from these to remove them, with their roots and germs uninjured, to the hot-bed. I tried the
effect of placing a few tubers (half a dozen only) on the floor of my cellar, disposing them just in contact
with each other ; and as soon as the germs were about four inches long, a hot-bed was made ready to re-
ceive them. This experiment succeeded perfectly ; and as it is not attended with so much expense and
trouble as either of the preceding methods, it will be found, in many cases, the most eligible. All that
appears necessary to obtain an early crop, is to advance the growth of the plant, as much as convenient,
under low temperature, so as to avoid all unnecessary expenditure of its excitability ; and subsequently,
to preserve its germs and roots as much as possible uninjured in transplantation."
3386. Forcing potatoes in pots or boxes. This is sometimes attempted in stoves. One
set is placed near the bottom of a large pot, and gradually earthed up. When nearly-
full grown, it is taken to the cherry or peach house for the sake of more air. Another
mode of planting in pans or boxes is thus described by Abercrombie : " Plant potatoes
of the growth of the season before the last ; that is, the produce of 1816 to be planted in
December 1817, or January 1818. Potatoes so kept will appear surrounded by a brood of
new potatoes in contact with the seed or parent potatoe. The leaf-buds are removed,
and the potatoes planted in a circle and in layers, in earthen pans or wooden boxes, with
alternations of fine loose earth. Such pans or boxes may be put into sheds, or on shelves
in the kitchen, &c. By this treatment, no leaves will emerge above the soil, and young
potatoes may be reared at. any required period." A similar mode is described by
A. Sherbrook, Esq. (Hort. Tr. vol. i. 225.) The boxes, containing alternate layers of
light earth and potatoes of the preceding year, are placed in a dry covered place, free
from frost ; they receive no water, and produce " good, fine, young potatoes in Decem-
ber. " For a succession, the process is to be repeated
3387. Incidental forcing of potatoes. " Small, young, spring potatoes are likewise ob-
tained from some of the winter store of old potatoes, as they lie in the house ; especially
where these have been mixed with sand, and permitted to shoot as they lie, when they
produce a few small button potatoes in spring ; some of which are occasionally brought
to market, but are only proper for immediate use."
3388. Ashworth adopts thefollowing method: " In the beginning of April, a quantity of large potatoes are
selected, and laid up in a dry, airy room ; they are turned over four or five times during the summer,
and all shoots which they make, are taken off as they appear. These are used for the seed, and are planted
in sucoession from the beginning of September to the end of December, in boxes, in the following man-
ner. In the bottom of each box, a layer of light vegetable mould, four inches deep, is placed, on which
the potatoes are laid, two inches apart, and these are covered with another layer of the same mould, and
of the same depth. On the surface of this second layer, potatoes are again laid, and then covered as
before i this is repeated until the box is full. The boxes may be kept in any of the ftre-houses, or in a
Book I. FORCING PEAS. 595
warm back 6hed, and in three months from the time of planting, young potatoes fit for use will be formed.
It is to be observed, that the young potatoes thus obtained are much inferior in quality to those prol
duced by vegetating plants ; but as it is scarcely possible to bring forward potatoes in beds so soon, this
plan is useful, when considered as a means of obtaining a luxury at so early a season." (Hort. Tr vol iii
p. 122 )
3389. Moffat {Hort. Trans, vol. iii. p. 123.) thus grows early potatoes : — " A compost, consisting of
equal quantities of loam, sand, and coal ashes, with an addition of lime in powder, equal to about one fifth
of the whole, was formed into a bed, four feet wide, and four inches deep, on the floor of a dark fruit-
room. Upon this bed, early in September, large potatoes, of the preceding year's growth, were laid, three
inches apart every way, with their best eyes downwards : these produced young potatoes, which became fit
for use about Christmas."
3390. Forwarding to raise a crop in the open garden. For this purpose some spread a
layer of sets, on hot dung, or in boxes placed in any warm situation, whether in the
light or the dark. After they have sprung three or four inches, they are to be trans-
planted in the open ground, which should not be sooner than May, unless they have some
protection at nights, such as fronds of fern, spruce fir branches, &c. But the best
method is to plant the sets one in each pot, as directed for forcing in a pit, and to plant
out with the balls entire.
3391. Substitutes for forcing potatoes. Dr. Noehden describes Ashworth's mode (3388.),
by leaves and layers of earth, at length, and subjoins a method of preserving young potatoes
as such, for winter use, which we subjoin, as it may possibly lead some ingenious horti-
culturist to make experiments on the subject.
3392. By young potatoes, " I take for granted, are generally understood those tubers, which have not
attained their full age and growth. In this stage, the substance is generally finer grained, and more co-
hesive, than when they are farther advanced : they are what is called waxy, and differ, in taste, from
those which are full grown. If they could be preserved in this state, through the winter, for the use of
the table, it would doubtless be an acquisition : and something of this kind I have seen attempted. When
the general crop of potatoes was gathered, at the usual period of their harvest, in autumn, the smali tubers,
which are frequently disregarded and left to their chance, were picked out and collected. They were de-
posited in a box, between layers of sand, and thus kept till the month of December. At this time, the
box being opened, they were found in perfect preservation, and fit to be dressed for the table. To give
them all the appearance of young potatoes, in a side dish, the tender skin on them was to be preserved :
for peeling them would have destroyed that effect. It was recommended, for that purpose, when they
were to be used, previously to soak them, for a certain number of hours, in water, and then to toss or
shake them in a piece of rough flannel or baize, between two persons, backwards and forwards, and rub
them between the hands ; by which operation, the coarse outer covering is loosened, and the skin
remains clean and delicate, so as to exhibit all the exterior of young growing potatoes. Upon trying them
on the table, I found, that some had really the fine waxy taste of young potatoes ; but that others, and
perhaps the greater part, though resembling the former in size and looks, had entirely the grain, and
flavor of the old potatoes. That difference is undoubtedly to be ascribed to the different state of maturity
at which the one and the other had arrived. The mealy ones, though equally diminutive with the others'
had, in fact, reached their full age, and possessed, accordingly, the qualities which that age would give'
Those of a waxy texture were, unquestionably, much younger, and had not come to maturity, when they
were taken from the ground. They were in that condition which, by the taste, determines the name of
young potatoes. If this be so (and every probability seems to attend the reasoning), it may be concluded,
that it is feasible to preserve young potatoes, in the manner described, if they be gathered young : but to
distinguish those which are so, in the common harvest, in autumn, from those which only appear so
would be difficult. The idea, therefore, presents itself, of planting potatoes expressly for that use ; which
must be done at a later period than this vegetable is usually planted ; let us say two months later, in
June, instead of April. When the general crop is matured, and' gathered in October, those will be still in
their young state ; their grain will be still fine, and their texture close : and if thus taken up, and pre-
served, according to the method suggested, it can hardly be presumed, that when brought to the table, in
winter, they will be different in quality from what thev were when they were reaped : they will in
every respect, be young potatoes, probably not much inferior, if at all, to those raised on a hot-bed. For
it does not appear, that this mode of keeping them has any effect in promoting their maturity, at least
not to any perceptible degree. The sand employed should be of as barren a nature as may be, and if
possible, contain little or nothing of the vegetative stimulus. When the tubers are taken out of the
ground, previous to their maturity, they will not readily sprout, or emit roots, which circumstance is a
security for the success of the method in question." (Hort. Trans, vol. iii. p. 48.)
Sect. XII. Forcing Peas.
3393. Peas are not easily forced. Nicol, however, states, " that they are often raised
in forcing-houses, and are brought to perfection very early."
3394. The best sort of pea to force, is the genuine early frame.
3395. The temperature may be progressive, " beginning at 40° or 50" and risino- to
52° or 66°, from the origin of the plant to the state of flowering, and after flowering in-
creased from 55° to 70° ; or, in a regular heat between the latter limits. For hot-beds,
the standard temperature may be 50° — 55° for the nursery-bed; and 55° — 65° for
fruiting."
3396. For forcing peas in a pit, sow as directed for French beans in pots or boxes ;
and transplant them, when an inch and a half or two inches high, into the pit, at nearly
the same distances as those recommended for the kidneybean.
3397. Forcing in a peach or cherry house. For the earliest crop, some of the true
early frame sort may be sown in October in the borders of a cherry-house, peach-house,
or vinery, intended to be forced from the beginning of the year. By the time the forcing
commences, they will be fit for transplanting, which is to be done in the same borders,
either in a single row, or in more rows, according to the room. The distance between
the rows may be fifteen or eighteen inches ; and two inches in the line. " In forcing
peas," Nicol observes, « they should always be transplanted. They become more pro-
Qq 2
596 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
lific, and run less to straw by that management, than when they are sown where they
are to remain. Indeed, it would be very well worth while to transplant the earliest crops
in the open ground." {Kal. p. 29.)
3398. Beans may be forced in a similar manner, though this is seldom attempted.
Sect. XIII. Forcing Salads, Pot-herbs, #c.
3399. Salads, pot-herbs, and various other culinary plants, are) or may be forced ; but
the practice in Britain seldom extends beyond pot-herbs and salads ; though some have
forwarded cabbages, cauliflowers, turnips, carrots, &c, in this way, as is occasionally
done in Russia and the north of Germany.
3400. Cauliflower, lettuce, radish, carrot, and onion, M'Phail observes, may be planted
or sown in February, " on gentle hot-beds of dung or leaves, to bring them in before
those in the open ground. They should have glass frames set over them in cold, frosty,
or rainy nights ; which may be taken off in fine days, or a great deal of air given to
them." Nicol says, " The early horn carrot may be sown in January on a slight hot-bed,
or on a border, close by the parapet in front of a pinery, early grape-house, or peach-
house. The seeds should be sown in fine light earth, in either case, and should not be
covered more than to the depth of a quarter of an inch. If sown on a hot-bed, the seeds
may be defended by a frame and lights, or by hoops and mats, from bad weather, and
should be covered always at night. If sown on a border in front of a forcing-house
of any kind, they may be covered with hand-glasses. When the plants come up in
either situation, they should have plenty of free air, as they do no good if they be drawn ;
they also should have moderate supplies of water. A thin sprinkling of radish or lettuce
may be thrown in along with the carrot."
3401. Pot-herbs, such as mint, marjoram, chervil, &c, are planted or sown in pots or
boxes, and placed in any house, pit, or frame, in a state of forcing, near the glass, and
where they will receive abundance of air in fine weather. They require little or no far-
ther attention, but occasional watering. They may also be planted in rows in hot-beds
or pits.
3402. Small salading, such as cresses, mustard, rape, chiccory, &c, to be cropped
when young, may be treated as pot-herbs ; the three first will thrive at a greater distance
from the light, and may be sown as practised by the market-gardeners on the floors or
borders of cherry and peach houses.
3403. Radish. Abercrombie says, " To obtain the earliest spring radishes, sow on a
hot-bed of dung or leaves some early dwarf short-tops in December, January, or the be-
ginning of February. Having made a hot-bed two feet, or two and a half high, in dung,
place on the frame. Earth the bed at top six inches deep ; sow on the surface, covering
the seed with fine mould, about half an inch thick ; and put on the glasses. When the
plants have come up, admit air every day, in mild or tolerably good weather, by tilting
the upper end of the lights, or sometimes the front, one, two, or three inches, that the
radishes may not draw up weak and long-shanked. If they have risen very thick, thin
them in young growth, moderately at first, to about one or two inches apart. Be care-
ful to cover the glasses at night with garden-mats or straw-litter. Give gentle waterings
about noon on sunny days. If the heat of the bed declines much, apply a moderate
lining of warm dung, or stable-litter, to the sides ; which, by gently renewing the heat,
will forward the radishes for drawing in February and March. Remember, as they
advance in growth, to give more copious admissions of air daily ; either by tilting the
lights in front several inches, or, in fine mild days, by drawing the glasses mostly off ;
but be careful to draw them on again in proper time. Small turnip-radishes, of the
white and red kinds, may be forced in the same manner. For raising early radishes on
ground not accommodated with frames, a hot-bed, made in February, may be arched
over with hoop-bends, or pliant rods, which should be covered with mats constantly at
night ; and during the day in very cold weather. In moderate days, turn up the mats
at the warmest side ; and on a fine mild day, take them wholly off." Any sort of radish-
seed may be sown occasionally for salad-herbs, to be taken while in the seed-leaves, to
mix with cresses and mustard. Sow about once a-week in spring, summer, or any
season when radish-salad is required, managing it as other small salad-herbs."
Sect. XIV. Culture of tlie Mushroom.
3404. The edible mushroom (Agaricus campestris, L.) has long been held in esteem in this
country. Its peculiar habits, and the method of propagating it, are so unlike those of any
other culinary vegetable, that gardeners, till lately, seem not to have generalised on its
culture. For a long period back, it seems never to have been produced in any other way
than on ridges of warm dung ; no one appearing to advert to the circumstance of its being
indigenous, and that it may be grown in the open ground in the warmer months.
3405. The cidtivation of mushrooms, Nicol observes, " is a process in gardening, per-
haps the most singular and curious of any. In the culture of any other vegetable, we
Book I. CULTURE OF THE MUSHROOM. 597
either sow or plant something material, — a seed, slip, or root, which we both see and
handle ; but in the culture of the mushroom, we neither sow nor plant any thing visible,
at least to the naked eye. Yet it is certain, that mushrooms are produced by seeds,
which naturally vegetate in the fields at certain seasons, and which may be made to
vegetate artificially at any season, by a certain process, and by a composition, in which
the dungs of certain animals form the chief ingredient. The droppings of horses are
found to produce mushrooms more plentifully, and with greater certainty, than the dungs
of other animals. Hence it would appear, that their stomachs have less power to hurt
or to destroy the vegetative quality of these seeds, which being collected along with their
food, must pass through their intestines, than the stomachs of other animals ; or, that
the dung of horses is a better nidus for the seeds than other dungs. The food of horses,
consisting mostly of corn and hay, may, no doubt, be more replete with the seeds of
mushrooms than that of cows and other stock, which consists chiefly of ^reen vegetables ;
but even the droppings of horses while at grass, or on tares, produce few or no mush-
rooms, as more particularly noticed below. This fact would seem to prove, either that
the seeds are collected in greater numbers, and are better preserved by hay or the straw
and chaff of oats, than by green food ; or, that green food may have the effect of de-
stroying them by its moistness in the stomach, or after having passed through it. It may
be further observed, that animal matter seems necessary to the vegetation of the seeds, or
the spawn of mushrooms. Hence we find them produced plentifully in old pastures,
and in cattle-sheds, whether these be frequented by horses, cows, or sheep, or by all of
them ; but the eatable kinds are never found in woods or fields from which cattle are com-
pletely excluded, though the herbage be ever so old. From the stubs of cut or decayed
trees, and about such as have fallen and are rotten, many species of fungi spring ; most
of which are nauseous, poisonous, or unwholesome. The seeds, too, may lie concealed
and dormant in various other matter, till put into a state of active vegetation by a proper
temperature, and a proper degree of moisture."
3406. What spaivn is. Spawn is a white fibrous substance, running like broken
threads, in such dry reduced dung, or other nidus, as is fitted to nourish it. These
threads produce, when planted, tubercles in the manner of potatoes. The true sort has
exactly the smell of a mushroom. Spawn, when once procured, may be extended or
propagated as spawn, without producing mushrooms. (Nettl ; Abercrombie.)
3407. Producing spawn. This vegetable may be produced by first making lumps, or
what are sometimes called cakes of spawn, and afterwards placing them on a slight dung
hot-bed, where the spawn vegetates into complete mushrooms ; in which process of
making the spawn (as it is termed) different ingredients are used, but chiefly the dung
of horses, as said above. This has so far become a branch of trade, as that mushroom-
spawn may be had of most of the nursery and seedsmen about all the great towns in the
kingdom.
3408. Originating mushrooms without planting spawn. Nicol says, " I have formerly
been in the practice of producing mushrooms, however, most successfully, without using
spawn, and by a very simple process : I might rather say, without transplanting spawn
in the common way, but by making the bed a whole mass of spawn at once, and never
disturbing it till done bearing. Beds that are built in the common way, and spawned,
seldom produce long ; perhaps only a few weeks or months. I have had them continue to
yield large crops the year round, and sometimes for two years. But mushroom-beds, in
whatever way made, are subject to many misfortunes ; and the spawn is of a nature so
delicate, that it is quickly destroyed either by too much wet or drought. By making up
a bed in the ordinary way, that is, of stable-dung, moderately fermented, to the thickness
of about a yard ; spawning it over when the strong heat has subsided, and then covering
it with light earth, mushrooms may be obtained sooner than by the process I shall
recommend. But if this process be more slow, it has the advantage of being more sure ;
and the time of reaping may be reckoned upon with equal certainty. The difference of
time, from first proceeding to make the beds to gathering mushrooms, will generally be
three or four weeks. By the first method, you may reap in six or eight weeks ; and by
the latter, in ten or twelve."
3409. Proceed thus : " After having laid a floor, as hinted at above, of ashes, stone-chips, gravel, or
brick-bats, so as to keep the bed quite dry, and free from under-damp, lay a course of horse-droppings six
inches thick. These should be new from the stable, and must not be broke ; and the drier the better.
They may be collected every day, until the whole floor or sole be covered to the above thickness; but
they must not be allowed to ferment or heat. In the whole process of making up, the bed should be as
much exposed to the air as possible ; and it should be carefully defended from wet, if out of doors.
When this course is quite dry, and judged to be past a state of fermentation, cover it to the thickness of
two inches with light dry earth ; if sandy, so much the better. It is immaterial whether it be rich or
not ; the only use of earth here being for the spawn to run and mass in. Now lay another course of
droppings, and earth them over as above, when past a state of fermentation ; then a third course, which
in like manner earth over. This finishes the bed, which will be a very strong and productive one, if
properly managed afterwards. Observe, that in forming the bed it should be a little rounded, in order
that the centre may not be more wet or moist than the sides. This may be done in forming the sole or
floor at first, and the bed would then be of equal strength in all parts. If it be made up against a wall
in a cellar, stable, or shed, it may have a slope of a few inches from the back to the front, less or more,
Qq 3
598 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
according to its breadth. I have sometimes been contented with two courses, as above, instead of three ;
and, often, when materials are scarce, have made them up slighter, thus : three four-inch courses of
droppings, with one inch of earth between each, and a two-inch covering at top. Such a bed as this I
have had produce for ten or twelve months together ; but very much depends on the state of the
materials, and on the care taken in making it up ; also on the after-management The droppings of hard-
fed horses only are useful Those of horses on green food will, of themselves, produce few or no mush-
rooms. This I have proved in more than one instance, much to my disappointment. And I have,
moreover, found, that the richer the keep of the horses, the more productive are their droppings. I
have made up beds from farm-horses, fed partly on hard, and partly on green food ; and from carriage
or saddle horses, fed entirely on corn and hay; treated them in the same way in every respect ; and
have found, not once, but always, those made from the latter most productive. Droppings from corn-fed
horses may be procured at the public stables in towns, or at inns in the country, any time in the year ;
and if the supply be plentiful, a bed of considerable dimensions may be made and finished within five or
six weeks. In as many more weeks, if in a stable, or dry cellar, or a flued shed, it will begin to produce,
and often sooner; but if the situation of the bed be cold, it will sometimes be two or three months of
producing mushrooms."
3410. WJiere indigenous spawn may be collected. September is the month in which the
mushroom comes to perfection in the open air ; and this is the time to look for it in
its native habitats. Downs and upland pastures are the primitive situations, whence
the seeds seem to be carried by horses and cattle, to what are called secondary situations.
Thus " it is found in strength and purity, in the path of a bark-mill worked by a horse,
in any other horse-mill track under shelter, in covered rides for horses, in dry half-rotted
dung-heaps, and in hot-beds. It is found in a less degree in various other situations."
(Abercrombie.)
3411. yPPhail says, " The best of mushrcom-spawn is frequently to be found in dunghills which have,
lain a long time without turning, and which had been formed of horse-dung, scrapings of roads, and
turf cut up about the sides of roads and commons. The heat of the summer months having dried the
dunghill, when rain comes about the latter end of August or in September, mushrooms of a good quality
may often be seen beginning to form themselves on the surface, like large peas. When these are ob-
served, it is time to take out the spawn, which is generally in hard dry lumps of dung, the spawn having
the appearance of whitish coarse pieces of thread."
3412. To preserve indigenous spawn. "Having found cakes of dung which contain
the desired spawn, take them up as entire as possible, with the earth adhering, and lay
them carefully in a basket or any other conveyance. These are to be stored till used
as below, in a dry covered place ; and if they were found in a damp state, should be
dried in hollow piles, before they are laid together in a mass. The dry spawn may be
preserved three or four years. To preserve alike from perishing, and from running
before it is planted, a dry shed furnished with a current of air, is indispensable."
3413. Procuring spawn artificially. Wales thus procures spawn : " For this purpose,
the month of March is the fittest time, the cattle not being then upon grass, but chiefly
upon dry food of one sort or other. Take two barrow-loads of cow-dung, one load of
sheep and one of horse dung ; dry them well ; then break them quite small, so as they
may go easily through a coarse garden-sieve. When well mixed together, lay them up
in a round heap, finishing at top in a point. It is to be understood, that the operation
is to be conducted in a dry shed. Observe to tread the heap as it is put up, which will
greatly save it from heating too much. If a stick were thrust into the heap as a proof,
and when taken out, if it feels very slightly warm in the hand, the heat is doing
well ; for, in the whole mode of raising mushrooms, it should be particularly observed
to take great care of the heat, as the mushrooms are impatient of either too much heat
or cold : the best adapted, and most productive heat I have ever found, was from
55 to 60 degrees of Fahrenheit, and the nearer the beds are kept to this heat, the
greater will be the success. The heap is to be covered with horse-litter, in a state of
fermentation, to the thickness of four inches all over. If the shed be warm when the
heap is put up, I would recommend old bass-mats rather than dung, as the least over-
heat would spoil the heap. In this state let it lie for one month ; then throw the litter
a little aside, thrust the hand into the heart of the heap, and take out a handful. If the
spawn has begun to run, you will observe numerous small white fibres or threads
through the dung. If not begun to run, let another covering be put on above the old
one of the same thickness as the first ; and after a month more, you will undoubtedly
find the heap to abound with spawn. I have had it running in three weeks, and some-
times it has required ten weeks, much depending on the state of the dung. The spawn
thus procured is of the very best quality, far exceeding what is got in fields or in old
hot-beds. I write from experience, and have not borrowed this mode of procuring
spawn from any one. The spawn in this state is not fit for keeping long ; and I shall
next give directions how to form spawn-bricks, when as many can be made at one time,
as will serve for the season, or even for a number of years if required, provided the
spawn be kept dry." {Mem. Caled. Hort. Soc.)
3414. Preserving artificial spawn by forming spaicn-bricks. The author last quoted says,
" Take of horse-dung without litter, three barrow-loads ; two barrow-loads of the mould
of rotten tree-leaves ; two barrow-loads of cow-dung ; one barrow-load of old tan-bark,
such as is thrown out of the pine-pit ; with one barrow-load of sheep's dung ; mix all
these well together, till the mixture seem to be one compost, and to be as fine and soft as
Book I. CULTURE OF THE MUSHROOM. 599
common mortar, or as the clay used in grafting, as otherwise it would not come easily
out of the mould. Then take a small frame, such as brick-makers use for moulding
their bricks, — the size six inches long, four broad, and three deep. A portion of the
mixture should then be forced into the mould or frame, and the sides of the mould being
a little wetted beforehand, the spawn-brick will easily come out without breaking. After
the bricks have stood two hours or so, take a blunt or rounded dibble, and make three
holes in the middle of each brick, an inch from each other, and about half through the
brick ; these holes are for receiving the spawn. I find it is the best way to lay the bricks
as they are made upon boards, that they may be carried out of doors in a good day to
dry. The bricks should be rendered perfectly dry, as the least damp would spoil the
spawn. They will often seem dry on the outside, while they continue wet in the
inside. The best way to prove them, is to break a brick, and observe how dry it is in the
inside. It is to be observed, that great care must be taken in the turning them upon the
boards, for fear of breaking, they being very apt to go to pieces, till nearly fit for re-
ceiving spawn. When fit, they are firm, and quite dry on the outside : this happens in
the course of three weeks, if the weather be dry and the bricks be rightly attended to.
Now, take fresh horse-litter, which has been laid up in a heap to sweeten as when for
hot-beds ; lay a bottom course of this six inches thick, whereon to lay the bricks. The
horse-litter which is to be prepared for covering the spawn-bricks ought to be rank, be-
cause the drier and sweeter the heat, the spawn will work the freer ; and, as I stated
before, if the weather be warm, the less covering will serve ; also, if there be any heat in
the old covering at the expiration of three weeks, add no more new covering, as the old
will perfectly serve the end. Every hole in the bricks must next be filled quite close
up with the spawn ; and as the bricks are laid one upon another, the upper side of the
brick when laid, must also be covered with spawn : at the same time observing, as the
bricks are laid, to keep them as open between one another as possible, so as to let the
heat and steam of the dung go through all parts of the heap. The heap is to be ter-
minated at top by a single brick. When all are thus laid, place round the sides and top
six inches of the hot dung, which will soon raise a fine moderate heat ; observing, that
all this must be done in a shed, or where rain cannot enter to cool the dung. After
two weeks, add three inches thick of additional fresh dung upon the old ; this will renew
the heat, and make it work forcibly for the space of two weeks more, when the litter
may be taken off, and cleared all out from the spawn-bricks. Before the cover is taken
off, it will be proper to lay a little of it aside, and take out a few of the bricks, to see
whether the spawn has run all through each brick or not ; if not, replace the bricks
again, and the cover, and let them remain for ten days longer, when they will be found
to be every one, as it were, a solid mass of spawn. They may be allowed to stand and
dry for a few days in the heap : they are then to be laid up in some dry place till wanted
for use, where they will keep good for many years."
3415. Propagation of mushroom-spawn. M'Phail offers two modes, as follows: "About
the beginning of the month of May collect a heap of nearly equal quantities of cow,
horse, and sheep dung ; add to it some rotten fern-leaves, or rotten dry dung, somewhat
resembling spawn, from the linings of hot-beds ; mix the whole well together, in the
way a bricklayer's laborer makes mortar ; spread it on a floor in a cool dry shed, where
it cannot dry too hastily, making it about five or six inches thick ; beat or tread it firm ;
and as soon as it is in a fit condition, cut it with a sharp spade into pieces in the form
of bricks ; set the pieces to dry till they can be conveniently handled ; then with a knife
make a hole in the middle of each, and put a little piece of good mushroom-spawn
into each hole, closing it up with a bit of that which was taken out ; then pile the im-
pregnated pieces up in a heap in a hollow manner, so that the air may pass through the
heap freely among the pieces, to dry them gradually ; and if the shed be light, cover the
heap with mats, or any other light covering to keep it dark. When the spawn has ex-
tended itself through every part of the prepared pieces of the mixture, lay them out se-
parately, that they may be perfectly dried, which will prevent mushrooms from growing
out of them ; which, if suffered, would exhaust the spawn so, that it would be much
weakened. In a dry state, the spawn, thus propagated, may lie till it be wanted in the
autumn or following spring. If such pieces of spawn be continued in a dry state, the
spawn will remain good for a long time."
3416. Another way, similar to the preceding, to make mushroom-spawn, is as follows : "Some time in the
month of May or June, collect about two cart-loads of dung from the fields, or take it from the stables ;
separate it entirely from the straw ; add to it six barrows of fresh loam, two barrows of soil scraped from
the road, and one barrow of coal-ashes sifted fine : mix these well together ; then spread the mixture on
the floor of a dry shed, give it a gentle watering, and spread over it a quantity of spawn from an old
mushroom-bed ; after this, tread it as firm as possible, and continue to do so two or three times a-week.
In this situation let it remain till it is turned into a solid mass of spawn, which generally is about the end
of August ; then cut it into lumps, and lay them up edgewise to dry."
3417. Abercrombie says, " Pieces of it may be laid along the ridge of a cucumber-bed raised in spring.
Plant them about a foot apart. In about two months, the surface of the spawn will assume a mouldy
appearance ; it is then to be taken up with the earth adhering thereto, broken into pieces, and laid upon
the shelf of a dry shed."
Qq 4
600 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
3418. Oldacrc's mode, of propagation is as follows : " Take any quantity of fresh horse-droppings mixed
with short litter (as recommended for the beds), add one third of cows' dung, and a small portion of
earth 10 cement it together ; mash the whole into a thin compost, and then spread it on the floor of an
open shed, and let it remain till it becomes firm enough to be formed into flat, square bricks, which being
done, set them on edge, and frequently turn them until half dry ; then, with a dibble make one or two
holes in each brick, and insert in each hole a piece of good old spawn, the size of a common walnut ; the
bricks should then remain until they are dry. This being completed, level the surface of a piece of ground
three feet wide, and of length sufficient to receive the bricks, on which lay a bottom of dry horse-dung
six inches high ; then form a pile, by placing the bricks in rows one upon another (the spawn-side upper-
most) till the pile is three feet high ; next cover it with a small portion of warm horse-dung, sufficient in
quantity to diffuse a gentle glow through the whole. When the spawn has spread itself through every
part of the bricks, the process is ended, and they must be laid up in any dry place for use. Mushroom-
spawn, made according to this receipt, will preserve its vegetative power many years, if well dried before
it is laid up ; if moist, it will grow, and soon exhaust itself."
3419. Neill mentions an original method of propagating spawn, practised by Hay, in Scotland.
" A quantity of cow-droppings is to be gathered from the pastures ; some rotten wood, or spray from the
bottom of a hedge, is to be collected, with a little strong loam. These are mixed, and formed into a moist
ductile sort of mortar or paste, of such consistence that it can be cut into pieces like bricks. When these
are so far dried that they can conveniently be lifted, a row is laid in some dry place under cover, perhaps
in a shade at the back of a hot-house ; a little spawn is placed upon the layer ; then another layer of the
spawn-bricks, and so on. In a few weeks the whole mass is penetrated by the spawn. The spawn-bricks
may then be laid aside for use; they will keep many months; and the drier they are kept the more
certainly do they afford a crop of mushrooms when placed in favorable circumstances for doing so."
3420. Roger's mode of preparing spawn is as follows : — I collect pure cow-dung, not fresh, but such
as I happen to find in the park, the fields, or the farm-yard ; with this I mix the scrapings of roads, in the
proportion of one half to one, adding to it about one third or a fourth of vegetable mould, obtained from
leaves or decayed stacks. These ingredients being well worked up together, the compost is formed into
bricks about nine inches long, three and a half broad, and two thick. The bricks are exposed to the air
and sun, and suffered to attain such a degree of solidity, as to bear a considerable pressure, but not to dry
hard. They are then removed to a shed for the puqjose of being laid up in strata. Three or four rows are
first placed on the ground with interstices of about one inch in width between the rows and the bricks ;
into these interstices, or spaces, loose spawn, such as is found in the litter of old mushroom-beds, is scat-
tered ; and over the whole surface of the layer such spawn y litter is likewise spread. Should there be no
old mushroom-beds at hand to furnish the scatterings, some spawn-bricks must be broken to pieces in
order to supply them. The first layer having been thus treated, another is put upon it, and likewise in-
terspersed and covered with spawn and litter from old beds. A third and fourth stratum may be laid on,
or more, and regulated in the same manner. The whole pile being completed according to the quantity
that is required, it is covered over with hot stable-dung and litter ; and in two, three, or more weeks, ac-
cording to the state of the weather, the bricks are filled with spawn, and may be laid by for use. I will
not hazard an opinion, whether the cow-dung itself contains the elements of spawn, or only acts the part
of a matrix, or receptacle ; but this I can state, that mu?hroom-spawn is generated in other dung besides
horse-dung; for I once found it plentifully in pigeon's dung. As I have used this preparation of spawn
for a length of time, the essence of cow-dung must entirely preponderate in my composition ; though the
origin of the spawn should at first have been derived from horse-dung. I may add, that, when managed
in the manner I have described, it yields spawn as productive as any that can be obtained. I was formerly
taught to believe that it was essential to mix a portion of horse-dung in the bricks, but my experience
has since convinced me, that cow-dung alone answers the purpose. The spawn is generated in it plenti-
fully, and of good quality.
3421. Care of the bricks. It is of importance that the bricks alluded to should not be left in a situation
which would cause the spawn to work, an effect which would be produced by moisture, combined with
warmth. Therefore, when the spawn is bred, the bricks must be laid in a dry place to prevent the process
of germination. The spawn must not be suffered to advance towards the rudiments of the mushroom,
which consist in little threads or fibres, for in this state it ceases to be useful in spawning a bed. As soon
as those rudiments are formed, they must be left undisturbed, or they perish. They will grow into a
mushroom on the spot where they are developed ; but when removed or torn up, they are destroyed. A
piece of spawn which appears in filaments or fibres is no longer applicable to a mushroom-bed ; it may
produce a mushroom in itself, but can serve no other purpose. The spawn that is to be inserted in a bed,
and to receive its developement there, must not be gone so far, but should only have the appearance of
indistinct white mould. [Hort. Trans. voL iv. 472.)
3422. The importance of keeping spa urn dry is attested by Miller, who found, that
spawn which had lain for four months near the furnace of a stove, yielded a crop in less
time, and in greater profusion, than any other.
3423. The methods of rearing mushrooms are still more various than those of propa-
gating the spawn. They are most commonly grown in ridges in the open air, covered
with litter and mats ; and next in frequency in ridges of the same sort under cover, as
in the open sheds of hot-houses. They are also grown in close sheds behind hot-
houses ; in flued sheds built on purpose, or mushroom-houses ; on shelves in flued mush-
room-houses ; in pots, boxes, hampers, baskets, placed in any warm situation ; in
cucumber or melon beds ; in old hot-beds of any sort ; in pits with glass frames ; and
in dark frames or pits.
3424. Ridges in the open air. M'Phail says, " Some think that mushrooms do better
in the open air than in covered sheds, which I have frequently experienced to be the
case. In sheds, mushroom-beds are apt to become too dry ; in the open ground, the
humidity of the air, and a little wet sinking through the covering, keeps them in a damp
state." (G. Rem. p. 110.)
3425. Preparing the dung. Provide good horse- dung, purged of its fiery heat by the
usual preparation ; with which some old linings from a melon-bed may be mixed, if it is
not winter. (Abercrombie.) M'Phail says, " Take two cart-loads of fresh stable-dung,
to which add an equal quantity of old dry linings from melon or cucumber beds, mixing
them well together in a heap ; and after letting it lie about a fortnight, it will be in a fit
state to make into beds. To make a mushroom-bed of new dung, let the same be well
prepared, by laying it together in a heap to ferment, and by turning and mixing it
well, shaking the outside of the heap, which is cold, and the inside, which is hot, to-
Book I. CULTURE OF THE MUSHROOM. 601
gether. so that every part of it may be equally fermented, and deprived of its noxious
quality."
3426. Forming the bed. Abercrombie says, " Mark out the ground-line of a bed
four feet wide at bottom, the length to be governed by the quantity to be raised; from
this, work with an inward slope, so as to terminate with a narrow roof-shaped ridge
along the centre, three feet or more in height. In building the bed, shake and mix
the dung well together : beat it down with the fork, but do not tread it : leave it to set-
tle, and to expend the first heat in vapor. When the dung is in a fit state to make into
a bed, which it will be in about three weeks or a month after it has been put together to
ferment, let the bottom for it be marked out about seven feet wide, and as long as you
choose to make it ; let the foundation on which it is made be dry, and let it be worked
up in a sloping manner, so as to terminate with a narrow roof-shaped ridge along the
centre, about four feet or more in height. In making the bed, shake and mix the dung
well together; beat it down well with the fork; and if the dung be long and dryish,
tread it down as you proceed." (M'Phail.)
3427. Moulding the bed. " Having proved by trial-sticks left some days in the bed,
that the heat is become moderate, you may cover two thirds of the sloping bank with
mould two inches thick, leaving the top of the ridge open for the steam to evaporate
as it gradually rises. When the exhalation is finished, the top may also be earthed
over ;" or, earth round the bed four inches high, forming a ledge of mould two inches
thick.
3428. Planting the spawn. " Divide the large cakes of spawn into small lumps.
These may be planted in rows six or eight inches asunder. Place the lumps of spawn
about six inches apart in the same row, inserting them through the mould close down to
the surface of the dung : or, the dry spawn may be broken or scattered over the bed ;
being covered with earth to the depth specified above." (Abercrombie.)
3429. M'Phail directs, " When the bed has been some time made, and the heat sufficiently declined,
the spawn may be put into it ; but, for fear of the heat being too great in the upper part of it, it had best
be at first spawned only half-way up all round. Take the spawn in small pieces, and stick it into the sides
of the bed, in rows about three or four inches, piece from piece, so that the spawn and earth about to be
laid on, may meet. When the bed is spawned as high up as it is thought the heat of the bed will not in-
jure it, take good, strong, rich earth, of a loamy quality, and cover the spawned part of the bed with it,
about two inches thick, beginning to lay it at the bottom of the bed, beating it firm with the spade. The
earth should be in a pliable state ; not wet, nor over dry."
3430. Covering the ridges. " The inconvenience of a bed exposed to the weather,
is, that it is sometimes necessary to cover it from wet, where there is danger of thus ex-
citing a fermentation. When the bed is even under a shed, it is necessary to apply a co-
vering from three to twelve inches thick, as the strength of the dung declines, or as the
bed may be exposed, at the sides, to rain, snow, or frost. The covering may be either
clean straw and long dry stable-litter, or sweet hay and matting ; the latter is to be pre-
ferred. Lay it thin at first, and increase it as circumstances demand."
3431. Ridges in open sheds are formed and planted exactly in the same manner.
3432. In rearing in close sheds behind hot-houses, where the temperature approaches to
50 or 55 degrees in the winter months, from the heat arising from the hot-house furnaces,
the ridge mode above may be adopted, or a flat bed similarly composed and planted.'
3433. Infiued sheds, or mushroom-houses on the common plan, the method of forming
the dung-bed, earthing, and planting is the same as in the three last modes : sometimes,
however, the beds are formed in a walled pit, and flat, or sloping, on the surface, like a
cucumber-bed.
3434. German mode of cultivating the mushroom. The culture of mushrooms on
shelves, in flued sheds or houses, is a German practice, introduced to this country by
Oldacre. The plan of Oldacre's house has been already given (figs. 279. to 281.)
M'Phail describes a similar one, " as a good method of propagation." (Gard. Rem.
p. 108.) To either houses the following directions will apply : —
34.35. Compost for the beds. Collect a quantity of fresh horse-dung, that has neither been exposed to
wet nor fermentation, clearing it of the long straw, so as to leave one fourth, in quantity, of the shortest
litter, when incorporated with the horse-droppings ; then add a fourth part of tolerable dry turf-mould, or
rather maiden earth, and mix it well with the dung before mentioned : the advantage derived from the
mould or maiden earth is the union of the whole into one compact solid substance, so congenial to the
growth of mushrooms. If dung from the rides of a livery-stable, or the round of a horse-mill, can be
procured, and mixed with a fourth part of short litter, and added to as many fresh horse-droppings as will
cause a gentle warmth, when made into beds, it will be found superior, for the production of mushrooms,
to horse-dung that is gathered from the stables.
3436. The method of making the beds. Form the beds on the shelves and ground-floor by placing a
layer about three inches thick of the prepared mixture. Then, with a flat mallet, beat it as close together
as possible, next add another layer of the compost, repeating the same process as before, and so on until
the beds are formed into a solid body, seven inches thick, making the surface of the beds as smooth and as
even as possible. The reducing the beds into a very solid body is a most essential point ; for, without it,
you cannot expect success : and the thickness of them must also be particularly attended to ; for, where
there is a much greater body, the beds will be subjected to a strong fermentation, and will be prevented,
by evaporation, from retaining that consistency in the dung, which is absolutely necessary for the produc-
tion of a good and plentiful, crop. On the contrary, if a much less quantity be laid together, the heat and
fermentation will be insufficient to prepare the beds for the nourishment of the spawn ; but the assistance
602 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
of both, to the extent prescribed, cements the materials together, which, in addition to beating, increases
greatly their solidity. The proper Ivegetation of the spawn, and the consequent crop of mushrooms, de-
pend entirely upon a moderate genial heat and fermentation, neither too strong nor too slight. As soon
as the degree of heat in the beds is a little more than that of milk from the cow, (say from eighty to ninety
degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer,) beat the beds a second time, to render them more solid, if possible ;
then make holes with a dibble, three inches in diameter, and nine inches asunder, through the compost in
every part of the beds : these holes will be a means of cooling the beds, and preventing that excess of heat
from taking place, which would produce rottenness, and render them unproductive. If the beds do not
attain the heat required, in four or five days after they are put together, (which you will know by plunging
a thermometer into one of the holes,) add another layer of the compost, two inches thick, which will pro-
bably increase the heat sufficiently ; if not, a part of the bed should be taken away, and the remainder ■
mixed with fresh horse-droppings, and wrought together in the same way as before, in order to pro-
duce the proper degree of heat. Beds made after this manner readily generate natural spawn in summer,
and frequently in the winter months.
3437. Of spawning the beds. In three or four days after the holes have been made, by observing the
thermometer, it will be found that you have the desired degree of heat, and the inside of the holes will also
have become dry ; the beds are then in a good state for spawning, which should be done while the heat is
on the decline. If this operation be deferred until the heat is quite exhausted, the crop will be late, and
less plentiful. Fill every hole full of spawn, which must be well beaten into them, and then make the
surface of the beds solid and level ; it is of no consequence whether the spawn put into the holes be in one
lump or in several small pieces, it is only necessary that the holes should be well filled. About a fortnight
after the spawn has been introduced, examine the holes, and if the spawn has suffered any damage from
over-heat, or too much moisture, in the beds, introduce fresh spawn in the same way as before. On the
contrary, if the spawn be found good, and vegetating freely into the compost, such beds (if required for
immediate production,) may be covered with mould agreeable to the rules hereafter laid down ; and the
beds intended for succession should remain unearthed, in the summer, three weeks or a month before you
wish them to produce, and in the winter a month or five weeks. If the spawn be introduced in hot wea-
ther, air must be admitted as freely as possible into the shed, till the spawn has spread itself through the
beds ; for if the place be kept too close, the beds will become soft and spongy, and then the crop will nei-
ther be abundant, nor of good quality.
3438. Of earthing the beds. Such beds as are intended to be put into work, must be covered with a
coat of rich maiden earth, wherein its turf is well reduced. Then spread it regularly over the surface of
each bed, two inches thick ; and beat it as solid and level as possible. The earth used should be neither
too dry, nor yet wet, but so as to become compact together, and take, when beaten, a smooth face. If too
moist, it will chill the beds, and injure the spawn. On the contrary, if too dry, it will remain loose, and in
a state by no means favorable to the growth of the mushrooms : but when solid, it produces not only finer
mushrooms, but in greater quantities, as the earth from soils of lighter texture invariably grows them
weaker, and of inferior quality, and such beds cease bearing much earlier.
3439. Of the subsequent treatment. From the time of covering with earth, the room or shed should be
kept at fifty to fifty-five degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer, and the light must be excluded. If the heat
be suffered to exceed, to any considerable degree, it will cause the beds to ferment a second time, and
weaken, if not totally destroy, the spawn ; but should a much lower degree of temperature than the one
prescribed be permitted to prevail, the mushrooms will advance slowly in their growth ; and if watered in
that state, numbers of the small ones will be prevented from attaining perfection. In watering them, ex-
treme caution is necessary, as well in the mode of application, as in the temperature of the water, which
should be nearly as warm as new milk, and very lightly sprinkled with a syringe, or a small watering-pot ;
otherwise the mushrooms are sure to sustain damage. If cold water be used, and given plentifully at one
time, it will not oniv destroy the existing crop, but the spawn also, and render the beds so treated of no
further utility. If the beds have been suffered to become very dry, it is better to give them several light
waterings than one heavy supply. In gathering the mushrooms, great care should be taken not to disturb
the small ones that invariably, with good management, surround the stems of those which are more early
matured. The best method is to twist them up, very gently, in all instances where you can. But where
you are obliged to cut them, great care should be taken to divest the beds of the stems of those that are
cut, as they would rot, to the great injury of those that surround them. If the preceding directions are
properly attended to, in the management of the beds, they will continue to bear several months, and a
constant supply may be kept by earthing one bed or more, every two or three months, according to the
quantity of mushrooms required at one season. When the beds are in full bearing, if the mushrooms
become long in their stems, and weak, it is certain the temperature of the building is too high ; conse-
quently, air must be admitted in proportion to the heat.
3440. Of renovating the old beds. As your beds begin to decline in bearing, and produce but few mush-
rooms, take off the earth clean from the dung, and if you find the latter decayed, destroy the beds and re-
place them by new ones, being careful to select any good spawn that may present itself; but if, on taking
away the earth, you find the beds dry, solid, and full of good spawn, add a layer of fresh compost, as be-
fore "recommended, three or four inches thick, mixing it a little with the old, and beat it as before. By ad-
hering to this mode of renovating the old beds, a continual supply may be kept up. [Oldacre, in Sort.
Trans, vol. ii.)
3441. Estimate of the meiits of the German mode of cultivating inushrooms. Neill ob-
serves, " In what particulars the advantage of Oldacre's plan over former modes chiefly
consists, does not very clearly appear. Beds made up in the usual way are much less
compact, and are more damp ; compactness and dryness may therefore be considered as
important." (Ed. Encyc. art. Hort.) Rogers remarks that " the quantity of mush-
rooms depends upon the manner in which they are nourished : if they are meagerly fed,
their flavor and substance will be poor in proportion. Hence artificial mushrooms are,
generally, richer and higher flavored than those which grow naturally ; and again,
among the artificial produce, those will surpass which are reared on large and deep
beds." It is a fact, that in Covent Garden market, mushrooms grown on ridges are
greatly preferred to those grown on shelves, or in boxes, in the German manner :
they are considered heavier and more juicy. (Hort. Trans, iv. 475.)
3442. Growing mushrooms, in pots, boxes, fyc. with dung, by Wales. " Having given an
account how to procure the spawn, which is the principal point, I shall next proceed to
state how mushrooms are to be raised from the spawn with dung. I raise the mushrooms
in boxes, hampers, or, in short, in any thing which will hold the dung and the soil toge-
ther. These boxes or vessels are placed in the back sheds of the hot-houses, or in any
house whatever, where no damp nor frost can enter. There should be several boxes, a
part only being filled at a time, so as to keep a rotation of them, and have mushroom*
Book I. CULTURE OF THE MUSHROOM. 603
at all times ready for the table. I shall suppose three boxes to be filled at one time.
Each box may be three feet long, one and a half broad, and seven inches in depth. Let
each box be half filled with horse-dung from the stables (the fresher the better, and if
wet, to be dried for three or four days before it be put in the boxes) ; the dung is to be
well beat down in the boxes. After the second or third day, if any heat has arisen
amongst the dung, it is then a fit time to spawn : break each spawn-brick into three
parts as equal as possible ; then lay the pieces, about four inches apart, upon the surface
of the dung in the box ; here they are to lie for six days, when it will probably be found,
that the side of the spawn next to the dung has begun to run in the dung below ; then
add one and a half inch of more fresh dung upon the top of the spawn in the box, and
beat it down as formerly. In the course of a fortnight, the box will be ready to receive
the mould on the top ; this mould must be two and a half inches deep, well beat
down with the back of a spade, and the surface made quite even. But before the box
be earthed over, it will be proper to take up a little of the dung, as far down as near the
bottom of the box, to see if the spawn has run through the dung ; if not, let the box
stand unearthed for some days longer, for, were it to be earthed before the spawn had
run through the dung, there would be put a poor crop. In the space of five or six weeks
the mushrooms will begin to come up ; if then the mould seems dry, give a gentle wa-
tering, the water being slightly heated in any warm place before applied. This water-
ing will make the mushrooms start freely, and of a large size. I cut three myself, which
weighed 18^ oz. from a box treated as above. The boxes will continue to produce for
six weeks, and I have had them productive sometimes for two months, if duly attended to,
by giving a little water when dry, for they need neither light nor free air. I have had
thirty-two pretty well-sized mushrooms in one cluster. If cut as button-mushrooms,
each box will yield from six to twelve Scots pints (24 to 48 Eng. pints), according to
the season and other circumstances. The plan now described, I prefer for yielding
numbers of mushrooms, and where a great many are required ; but when reared without
dung, they are best flavored. They are not then to be distinguished from those which
grow naturally in the fields, but comparatively few are in this way produced. I have
lately found it very useful to add to every three barrow-loads of horse-dung, one of per-
fectly dry cow-dung, beat down to powder as it were, and well mixed among the horse-
dung, after the horse-dung has lain under cover for four or five days to dry. The reason
I tried the cow-dung dry was, that I still found the horse-dung to have a strong damp,
after having lain in the boxes for some time ; but the cow-dung, when beat down to
powder, has the effect to dry up this damp, and also to make the horse-dung lie in the
box more compactly ; and the more it is pressed down, the finer the spawn will run
amongst it." [Wales, in Caled. Hort. Mem.)
3443. Growing mushrooms, in pots, boxes, §c. without dung. " Take a little straw, and
lay it carefully in the bottom of the mushroom-box, about an inch thick, or rather
more. Then take some of the spawn-bricks, and break them down, each brick into
about ten pieces, and lay the fragments upon the straw, as close to each other as they
will lie. Cover them up with mould, three and a half inches deep, and well pressed
down. When the surface appears dry, give a little tepid water, as directed for the last
way of raising them ; but this method needs about double the quantity of water that the
former does, owing to having no moisture in the bottom, while the other has the
dung. The mushrooms will begin to start in a month or five weeks, sometimes sooner,
sometimes later, according to the heat of the place where the boxes are situated. They
do not rise so thick nor of so large a size, nor do they continue to be produced so long,
as in the other plan with dung." [Wales.)
3444. Compost or mould for growing viushrooms in boxes. " Take a quantity of horse-
dung from the stable-yard fresh, and for every layer of dung, six inches in depth, lay
three inches of fine earth from any light soil ; these alternate layers may be repeated till
there be as much as will probably be wanted for the course of a year. After this mix-
ture has lain about six months or so, the dung will be sufficiently rotten : it should then
be well broken with a spade, and passed through a garden-sieve. Two inches of this
compost laid upon the top of the box, and well pressed down with the back of a
spade, will be found to answer. It is to be understood, that the same compost, made of
the dung and earth, is used for going on the top of the beds formed with dung,
as well as on those without it, observing to have it sifted fine, and well dried, for
if it be damp, the spawn would not run freely amongst it." [Oldacre, in Horticultural
Transactions.)
3445. Culture of the mushroom in melon-beds. The following mode has been prac-
tised by the Rev. W. Williamson, for several years, with great success. He considers
it more economical and generally practicable than the plan of Oldacre. a Having made
my melon-bed in the usual manner, when the burning heat is over, and the bed is ready
to be earthed to a sufficient thickness, I place spawn on the sides of the hills, and also on
the surface of the bed, and then cover the whole with mould, 3s usual, managing the
604 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Tart III.
melons exactly in the same manner as if the spawn were not there, not omitting even to
tread it, as I find that a compact loam is more congenial to the growth of the mushroom,
than the light rich compost of the cucumber-bed. The heat will soon cause the spawn to
run, and extend itself through the dung, to the surface of the ground. In September or
October following, when the melon-bine is decaying, the bed is carefully cleaned, the
glasses are put on, and kept close; and when the mould becomes dry, it must be fre-
quently watered, but not immoderately, as too much wet would destroy the spawn ; ad-
vantage should also be taken of every gentle shower, for the same purpose. The moisture
coming up on the dry earth produces a moderate heat, which soon causes the mushrooms
to appear in every part of the bed, in such abundance as even to prevent each other's
growth. I have frequently, at one time, gathered two bushels from a frame ten feet by
six, and have produced individual mushrooms of nearly two pounds' weight. The mould
being kept warm by the glasses, and properly watered, the mushrooms will continue to
spring till the frost of winter prevents their further growth. I then leave the bed, frame,
&c. just as they are, and early in spring, as soon as the frost may be supposed to be over,
I take off the frame and glasses, and cover the bed lightly with straw ; when the warm
enlivening showers of spring cause the mushrooms to be again produced in every part,
till the drought of summer renders it difficult to keep the bed sufficiently moist for their
growth. Sometimes I suffer the bed to remain, in order to produce a crop in the second
autumn, but more generally take the bed to pieces, for the sake of the dung, and also
for the purpose of procuring and drying the spawn, against the return of spring. When
I first thought of raising mushrooms in the manner above described, I was apprehensive,
lest the spawn, by running among the roots of the melons, might injure their growth.
I therefore planted it in one light only, but the result convinced me that it did no injury,
as, on the only plant in that light I grew a melon, of the black rock kind, weighing
eight and three quarters pounds, for the first crop, and another six and a half pounds for
the second crop ; both of which ripened well. Since that time I have always placed the
spawn over the wThole of the bed, and have never failed to produce a good crop of both
melons and mushrooms. Should it be thought advisable to have a supply of mushrooms
during the depth of winter, I am confident (though I have not tried the experiment,)
that they might be obtained, at a trifling expense, by lining the bed with hot dung, and
using other precautions to keep out the cold air." [Hort. Trans, v. iii.)
3446. Oldacre, at the end of his paper on growing mushrooms on shelves, &c. says, " They may be grow*,
also plentifully, in hot-bed frames, by the same process as is recommended for the sheds. In this latter
practice, as soon as the beds are earthed, they should be covered with hay or litter under the lights, until
they are in full bearing, then remove the covering to the outside of the lights, to exclude the sun and air
as much as possible. In cold weather, if they advance slowly in their growth, the frames may be covered
with hot dung, which will greatly encourage them. It must be recollected, that when these beds are
made in hot weather, air must be admitted as freely as possible into the frames, during the time of
spawning, as directed for the management of this part of the process, in cellars or sheds."
3447. In old hot-beds. A good crop of mushrooms is sometimes obtained without
making a bed on purpose, by introducing lumps of spawn along the margin of late
cucumber-ridges, just into the top of the mould. This may be done from March to
May. (Abercrombie.)
3448. In pits. Jeeves has adopted this practice, and thus describes it. " To make
my bed, the dung was placed in the bottom of the pit, and rammed tightly down, to
about the thickness of eighteen inches ; the dung itself producing sufficient heat to set
the spawn running, after it had been introduced in the usual manner. The bed was
made up last September, and came into bearing in six weeks ; it has continued to pro-
duce regularly to the present time, and requires no more heat than is collected by the
effect of the sun on the air within the house, except on frosty nights, when a little fire
is put into the flue. The mushrooms come up uniformly over every part of the bed,
which is covered very slightly with straw, (not sufficient to exclude the light,) for the
purpose of preserving moisture on the surface."
3449. In dark frames. Nicol says, " If you have no mushroom-house, and yet are
anxious to have mushrooms in winter, a cover or frame, capable of defending the bed
from rain, snow, or frost, may be made at a small expense, thus : first, make a frame
of inch-and-half deal, nine or ten inches deep, six feet wide, and of any convenient
length, from ten to twenty feet. Then fit a roof to it, three feet in the pitch, made of
thin boards, imbricated, which lay over with two or three coats of pitch or paint.
The roof part to be fixed down to the wooden frame by hooks and eyes, or by bolts, so
as that it may be removed at pleasure, and to have two moveable boards on each side, of
about a foot square, to slip for the admission of air. This sort of frame being placed in a
dry warm situation, and being insulated by a drain or trench, would completely defend
the bed from wet ; and by being covered, in severe weather, with straw or mats, from
frost. If the ground be not perfectly dry, a sole or floor must be formed of ashes,
gravel, or stone-chips, for the bed ; a thing necessary in any situation which is the least
damp, either within or out of doors."
Book I. CULTURE OF THE MUSHROOM. 605
3450. In a cellar. " Mushrooms may likewise be produced in a cellar, or any other
vaulted place, with equal success, and not unfrequently to greater advantage as to crop,
than in a shed, or other building, that is level with the surface of the earth. The same
rules of management are to be observed as directed for the shed. The peculiar advan-
tage of a cellar is, that no fire is necessary, and less water, the application of which so
frequently proves injurious, is wanted."
3451. On hollow ridges. Hogan says he has devised an easy mode of growing
mushrooms under shelter, and tried it one season with great success. « The exterior
form of my bed resembles the old ones as built against a wall ; but instead of building it
solid, it is hollow ; strong stakes are inclined against the wall, at an angle of about 65°,
on which are placed hurdles to support the bed. By this means a cavity is formed under
the stakes, between them and the wall and floor, for the purpose of receiving dung,
which being readily changed, an opportunity is thus afforded of keeping up a permanent
moist heat in the bed, the absence of which, together with an insufficient depth of mould
for the spawn to run in, is the great defect of all other modes of raising mushrooms with
which I am acquainted. On this structure fourteen inches of rotten dung and four
inches of loamy earth were laid, and beat firm, and the spawning and other processes and
results were the same as usual." (Hort. Trans, v. 305.) We fear two things from this
mode — occasional overheating and overdrying, either of which are as ruinous to the
mushroom, as they are to cape-heaths in pots.
3452. The following details of culture are common to each of tlie above modes of rearing
the mushroom : —
3453. Season for commencement. Mushroom-beds or boxes may be formed and planted at any time of
the year : but the month of September is the most natural season ; and the time next to be recommended
is early in spring. In June, July, and August, the weather is rather too warm ; and in the depth of
winter, it is not equally easy to excite and cherish the spawn. (Abercrombie.) Nicol makes up a bed in
March to last till September, and another at that time to last through the winter, till the bed to be again
made in March comes into bearing. He adds, however, that there is no rule for making up these beds, as
it maybe clone at any day of the year with nearly equal propriety. {Kalendar, p. 50.)
3454 Time of growth. In autumn and spring, common ridges will often begin to produce plentifully in
four, five, or six weeks. In summer or winter they are much longer before they become productive.
{Abercrombie.) In Wales's method of growing in boxes, they come up in five weeks. Abercrombie says,
mushroom-beds have been known to lie dormant for five or six months, and yet afterwards produce
abundant crops. Where a bed is cold, Nicol observes, it will be sometimes two or three months of pro-
ducing mushrooms.
3455 Symptojns of progress. Nicol says, when you would know whether the spawn has begun to run,
thrust your hand a few inches deep into different parts of the bed, and examine what you bring up. If it
smells exactly of mushrooms, and has the appearance of bits of thread, then the spawn is in action.
" But generally you will be forewarned of the spawn's running, by a previous crop of spurious fungi,
which rise more or less abundantly, according to the fineness or grossness of the materials of which the
bed is composed. These fungi generally are either what are called pipes or balls ; and sometimes a kind
of mushroom, of a very bad sort, thin, flat, with white or pale yellow gills. They have all, however, a
nauseous, sickly smell, and may readily be distinguished from the true mushroom, which is thick,
hemispherical, with brown or reddish, gills." .
3456 Duration of a crop. Six months is the ordinary duration of a common bed or ridge, made in the
open air or in a flued shed. Oldacre says, his beds will continue to produce for several months. To have
a succession, he earths a bed every two or three months. Wales's boxes (3442.) continue to produce
for six weeks, and sometimes two months.
3457. Temperature. Nicol says, if the bed be placed in a flued shed, the temperature
in winter should be kept steadily to about 55 degrees. This is also Oldacre's
temperature.
3458. Wales says, " I have ever found the best adapted and most productive heat to
be from 55 to 65 degrees, and the nearer the beds are kept to this heat the greater will
be the success."
3459. Air is essentially necessary to the flavor of mushrooms. Oldacre says, air
must be admitted in proportion to the heat, otherwise the mushrooms become long in
their stems, and weak. The same tiling takes place in ridges when the coverings are
too thick.
3460. Water. Abercrombie and Nicol agree in recommending no water to be given till
the spawn begins to run.
3461. Abercrombie says, " In autumn, the bed will want no water until the first crop is gathered. Then
a sprinkling will help to excite a fresh vegetation. In spring, should a drying air long prevail, it may be
necessary to moisten the bed a little. In summer, the bed maybe now and then exposed to gentle
showers, or otherwise watered according to the dryness and heat of the season. In order to give water,
without wetting the bed excessively or unequally, scatter a thin layer of short hay over the ridge ; and let
a small quantity of water be gently distributed, to all parts alike, from a rose-pan. Leave it to filter
through the hay, and cover the bed up with litter. In winter, the substitute for watering must be some
warm mulch from a dung-heap, laid over the dry litter ; the moisture evaporating from this will promote
the growth of the mushrooms. Excessive moisture is not only apt to destroy the spawn, but it debases
the flower of such fungi as can be produced under it. It is also supposed to render the salutary sorts less
so, and to make the unwholesome kinds more acrimonious."
3462. Nicol says, " When the spawn is fully formed, give the bed two or three hearty waterings, in
order to set it a growing ; for, otherwise, it will lie dormant, and show no symptom of vegetation. Give
just as much water (but by no means at once) as will fairly reach to the bottom of all the materials, and
afterwards keep the bed in a state neither wet nor dry, but rather inclining to the latter, this being the
safe side to err on, as it is more easy to make it damp than to dry it. When a bed has been, as it were,
tired of producing, I have sometimes desisted from watering for several months; then by examination 1
have found a new net of spawn formed all over the surface, the threads being deep-rooted, even to the
606 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
bottom. By a hearty watering, as above, a most plentiful and lasting supply has been obtained. The
idea of treating my beds so, arose by observation of the manner in which field-mushrooms are often pro-
duced. We frequently see the crop suddenly disappear, and as suddenly appear again, according to the
state of the weather, with respect to wet or drought ; and that too, in the same field."
3463. Oldacre waters with extreme caution, using water nearly as warm as new milk, sprinkling very
lightly with a syringe, or a small watering-pot. Cold water destroys the bed and the spawn, and thus
renders the whole useless.
3464. Some old authors advise to take a few full-grown mushrooms, and breaking them down in the
watering-pot, to water the beds with the infusion. This, Neill observes, is plainly nothing else than
sowing mushroom-seed.
3465. Light. Abercrombie, Nicol, and most gardeners and authors, consider light as
quite unnecessary for the production of the mushroom. It is very probable, however, that
it contributes in some way to their perfection, since in their natural situation, they enjoy
a considerable portion of it. Our opinion is, that it should not be entirely excluded from
mushroom-houses or beds on whatever plan they may be constructed. See an interest-
ing proof of value of light in Chaptal's Agr. app. a Chimie, vol. i. p. 180.
3466. Gathering the crop. When the bed is in full production, and the season fine,
mushrooms may be gathered two or three times a-week. Turn off the straw covering,
and return it carefully at each gathering. (Abercrombie.) " In gathering mushrooms,"
Nicol observes, " they should always be cut, and never be pulled ; as by pulling, many
young ones might be destroyed. There are always a number of these forming or clus-
tering about the roots of the old ones, which should not be disturbed. If the spawn be
deeply situated in these beds, mushrooms will often form and come to full maturity, en-
tirely under ground. They may easily be recognised, however, as they are generally
large, and push up small hills above their heads. They ought to be uncovered with care,
that the spawn about them may be as little disturbed as possible." Oldacre says, in ga-
thering mushrooms, avoid disturbing the small ones, that invariably, with good manage-
ment, surround the stems of those which are more early matured. Twist them up very
gently in all instances where you can ; and when obliged to cut them, take care to divest
the beds of those that are cut, as they would rot and injure those around them.
3467. Poisonous mushrooms. For the characters of the true mushroom (Agaricus
campestris), and the other species and varieties, edible and deleterious, see the follow-
ing chapter. Their duration is too fugitive to admit of their being much injured by
insects.
Chap. VIII.
Horticultural Catalogue. — Hardy Herbaceous Culinary Vegetables.
3468. The various plants and trees groivn in the different departments of hortiadture
shall now be more particularly enumerated and characterised, and some account given
of their history, use, and culture. We shall commence with the hardy herbaceous ve-
getables ; and the most suitable arrangement for this class of plants seems to be, that
arising from a combined view of their habits, culture, and uses, in domestic economy.
Though no such arrangement can be absolutely perfect, from the circumstance of some
of the plants being used for different purposes, yet, by bringing together such as present
most points of union, something better than a mere alphabetical catalogue is formed, of
which the following is the outline : —
3469. The cabbage tribe ; comprehending the white and red cabbage, cabbage-colewort,
Savoy, Brussels sprouts, borecoles or winter greens, cauliflowers, and broccolis.
3470. Leguminous plants ; comprehending the pea, bean, and kidneybean.
3471. Esculent roots ; comprehending the potatoe, Jerusalem artichoke, turnip, carrot,
parsnep, red beet, skirret, scorzonera, salsify, and radish.
3472. Spinaceous plants ; comprehending the garden-spinage, white beet, orache, wild
spinage, New Zealand spinage, sorrel, and herb-patience.
3473. Alliaceous jilants ; comprehending the onion, leek, chives, garlic, shallot, and
rocambole.
3474. Asparaginous plants; comprehending asparagus, sea-kale, artichoke, cardoon,
rampion, alisanders, hop, bladder-campion, cotton thistle, and milk-thistle.
3475. Acetarious playits or salads ; comprehending small salads, lettuce, endive, suc-
cory, dandelion, celery, mustard, rape, corn-salad, garden-cress, American cress, winter
cress, water-cress, brook-lime, scurvy-grass, garden-rocket, burnet, buckshorn plantain,
ox-eye daisy, and some of those included in other sections, as the sorrel, tarragon, Indian
cress, &c.
3476. Pot-herbs and garnishings ; comprehending parsley, purslane, tarragon, fennel,
dill, chervil, horse-radish, Indian cress, marigold, borage, and some others included in
other sections.
Book I. THE CABBAGE TRIBE. 607
3477. Sweet kerbs; comprehending thyme, sage, clary, mint, balm, marjoram, savory,
basil, rosemary, lavender, tansy, costmary, and some of those in the preceding section.
3478. Plants used in tarts, confectionary, and domestic medicine ; comprehending rhu-
barb, gourd, angelica, anise, coriander, caraway, rue, hyssop, chamomile, elecampane,
licorice, blessed thistle, wormwood, and some others.
3479. Plants used as preserves and pickles ; comprehending love-apple, egg-plant, cap-
sicum, caper, samphire, and the red cabbage, Indian cress, radish, kidneybean, marsh
marygold, &c. included in other sections.
3480. Edible indigenous plants neglected, or not in cultivation ; comprehending the sea-
beet, nettle, sea-peas, and a variety of other natives.
3481. Edible British fungi ; comprehending the mushroom, truffle, and morel.
3482. Edible British fuci ; comprehending the dulse, tangle, &c.
Sect. I. The Cabbage Tribe.
3483. The cabbage tribe is of all the classes of cultivated culinary vegetables, the most
ancient as well as the most extensive. The Brassica oleracea, Tetrad, siliq. Linn., and
CrucifercB, Juss. figured in Eng. Bot. t. 637., being extremely liable to sport, or run
into varieties and monstrosities, has in the course of time, become the parent of a numer-
ous race of culinary productions, so very various in their habit and appearance, that to
many it may appear not a little extravagant to refer them to the same origin. Besides
the different sorts of white and red cabbage, and Savoys, which form the leaves into a
head, there are various sorts of borecoles, which grow with their leaves loose in the natural
way, and there are several kinds of cauliflower and broccoli, which form their stalks or
flower-buds into a head. All of these, with the turnip-rooted cabbage and the Brussels
sprouts, claim a common origin from the single species of brassica above mentioned.
Cabbage of some sort, White, in his History of Selborne, informs us, must have been
known to the Saxons ; for they named the month of February Sprout kale. ' Being a
favorite with the Rbmans, it is probable the Italian cabbage would be introduced at an
early period into South Britain. To the inhabitants of the north of Scotland, cabbages
were first made known by the soldiers of the enterprising Cromwell, when quartered at
Inverness. (Edin. Encyc. art. Hort.)
3484. The original cabbage-plant grows naturally on the sea-shores in different parts of
England, but it has not been observed in Scotland. It is a biennial plant ; the stem-
leaves are much waved and variously indented ; the color is sea-green, with occasionally
a tinge of purple. Early in the spring, the wild cabbage or colewort, from the sea-coast,
is said to be excellent, but it must be boiled in two waters to remove the saltness. The
roots may also be eaten, but they are not very tender. (Neill, in Ed. Encyc. and Martyn,
in Mill. Diet.)
3485. A new arrangement of the cultivated species of brassica has been made by
Prof. Decandolle (Hort. Trans, vol. i. , and in his Reg. Veg.), but as many of the va-
rieties which the brassica oleracea assumes on the continent are little known here, and as
some of our varieties are omitted in Prof. Decandolle's enumeration, there does not
seem at present any sufficient reason to deviate from the usual British arrangement of this
genus. Prof. Decandolle's varieties, or races, of B. oleracea, are —
B. oleracea sylvestris, or wild cabbage I B. oleracea capitata, headed or leaved cabbage
acephala, open cabbage, or borecole caulo-rapa, turnip cabbage, and
bullata, blistered cabbage, or Savoy botrylis, flowery cabbage, or cauliflower, and broccoli.
The colza of the Dutch, he makes a distinct species (B. campestris), and also the turnip {B. Rapa), the
rape {B. Napus), and the summer rape of the Germans {B. precox).
3486. The space occupied by this tribe in most kitchen-gardens may be estimated at one
eighth part of the open compartments, taking the whole year round ; and in cottage-gardens,
the heading cabbages and borecoles generally occupy one half of the whole space. We
shall take the varieties in the order of white cabbage, red cabbage, Savoy, Brussels
sprouts, borecole, cauliflower, and broccoli.
Subsect. 1. White Cabbage. — Brassica oleracea, var. a. capitata, L. and Dec. Chou
pomme, or cabus, Fr. ; Kopfkohl, Ger. ; and Cavolo, Ital.
3487. The common or white garden-cabbage is too well known, and its uses too
universal, to require any description. It produces firm, compact heads, glaucous, green,
or greenish-yellow externally, but blanched within, and varying in different sorts from
three to twelve or fifteen inches' diameter, and from two to fifteen or twenty pounds'
weight.
3488. Subvarieties. These are very numerous : the sorts chiefly cultivated are —
Small early dwarf
Early dwarf York
Large early York
Early dwarf sugar-loaf
Large sugar-loaf
East Ham
Early Battersea
Early Imperial
Pentonville. Large round
head; leaves white and
fleshy, wrinkled like the
Savoy, very delicate and
fine :" in perfection dur-
ing the latter summer
months, when other cab
bagas are of strong flavor.
Antwerp
Russian
Early London hollow
Large hollow sugar-loaf
Large oblong hollow
Large round winter
(white)
Great drum-head flat-
topped
Great round Scotch, or
white Strasbourg : from
which the German sour
krout is chiefly made.
COS PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
3489. Estimate of sorts. The first five or six sorts are suitable for the earliest and secondary summer
crops ; and the middle-sized and large kinds for the principal summer, autumn, and winter supplies.
Thus, 1. For the earliest crops, allot some of the small early dwarf York, East Ham, and sugar-loaf, for
cabbaging in April, May, and June. 2. Raise more considerable quantities of the middle-sized kinds, par-
ticularly the large York, and large sugar-loaf, or the Battersea, Penton, Imperial, Antwerp, Russian, &c.
for general summer crops. 3. Choose the larger later sorts for succession, summer, and general autumn
cabbages. The large hollow sugar-loaf, oblong hollow, long-sided hollow, and large round winter (white\
are excellent for full cabbaging in August, September, and October, till Christmas : or any of the middle-
sized varieties may be eligibly sown for latter succession crops in summer and autumn, to cut in light young
growth ; also to cultivate for cabbage-coleworts, either with small hearts, or as open greens for family and
market supply in autumn, winter, spring, and returning summer. 4. The large round winter cabbage,
great drum, Scotch, and American kinds, all reaching a very expanded bulk in autumn and winter, are
not usually so well fitted for family consumption as the foregoing, being more commonly adopted for field-
culture, to feed cattle in winter, ike.
349U. Propagation. All the kinds are raised from seed annually, of which, according to Abercrombie's
seed estimate, " for a seed-bed to raise the early York, and similar varieties, four feet wide by twenty in
length, two ounces" will be required. For a seed-bed to raise the large sugar-loaf, and other luxuriant
growers, four feet by thirty-six in length, two ounces. Sow at three different seasons, that is, spring,
summer, and autumn, and cover from an eighth to a quarter of an inch. Under a deficiency of winter-
standing young plants, for final transplanting in spring, or, in order to have some spring-sown plants as
forward as possible, a moderate portion of some best early sorts may be sown between the middle of
February and the middle of March, in a slight hot-bed or frame, to nurture the plants till the leaves are
an inch or two in length. Then prick them into intermediate beds in the open garden, there to gain
strength for final transplanting. {Abercrombie.)
3491. So/7 and situation. The soil for seedlings should be light, and, excepting for early sowings, not
rich. Where market-gardeners raise great quantities of seedling-cabbages to stand the winter, and to be
sold for transplanting in spring, they choose, in general, the poorest and stiffest piece of land they have
got, more especially in Scotland, where large autumnal sowings of winter drum-head and round Scotch
are annually made, and where the stiffness of the soil gives a peculiar firmness of texture and hardness of
constitution to the plants, and prevents their being thrown out of the soil during the thaws which succeed
a frosty winter. Transplanted cabbages require a rich mould, rather clayey than sandy ; and, as Xeill and
Nicol observe, it can scarcely be too much manured, as they are an exhausting crop. Autumnal plant-
ations, intended to stand the winter, should have a dry soil, well dug and manured, and of a favorable
aspect. The cabbage tribe, whether in the seed-bed, or final plantation, ever require an open situation.
Under the drip of trees, or in the shade, seedlings are drawn up weak, and grown crops are meagre, worm-
eaten and ill-flavored.
3492. Early and main summer crops. The cabbage being a biennial, the largest crops
are obtained by sowing the year previous to that in which you expect to reap. Sow,
therefore, at the beginning of August, to raise plants to stand over the winter in young
open growth, for cabbaging early, and in succession, the following year. A nice atten-
tion should be paid to the time for sowing this crop, which is the first or second week
in August, being that most conducive to ultimate success, though some sow at the close
of July, to have the plants stronger before the approach of winter ; but of a crop so
forward, many generally run for seed in the spring ; therefore be careful to make the
principal sowing neither sooner than about the fifth, no*- later than the twelfth, of that
month. For, if sown earlier, many of the plants are apt to run in the spring, as just
stated ; and, if sown later, they would not acquire sufficient strength before winter,
to enable them to stand severe weather so effectually as those a little advanced in firmer
growth.
3493. Sow each sort separately in an open free situation, in beds of rich mellow earth, broad cast,
moderatelv thick, and rake in the seed evenly, lengthwise each bed. Give occasional watering, if dry hot
weather; or sometimes shade with mats, in hot sunny days, till the plants come up fully; after which,
continue necessarv moderate watering, if a dry season, to forward and strengthen the crop.
3494. When the plants have two or three leaves an inch or two broad in September, or beginning of
October, lift some considerable jiortion from the seed-beds, and prick into beds of good earth, about four
inches apart, giving water : all these are to remain in the intermediate bed during winter, to gain strength
for transplanting in the spring. Those left in the seed-beds will thus have more room to advance equally
for transplanting the most forward of the early sorts in the same year, towards the end of October, or in
November and December, and the principal supply in the spring, the last fortnight of February, or in
March and ApriL
3495. In transplanting, continue to keep each sort separate, allotting the whole good ground; and, if
dunged, it will be repaid in the crop. Plant some of the dwarf early in rows, from a foot and a half to two
feet asunder, to admit of thinning for use in a young cabbaged state : those of the middle-sized, intended
for main crops, plant at two feet, or two and a half distant. The large autumnal kinds plant at least
from two feet and a half to a vard asunder, giving water at planting in dry warm weather.
3496. In their subsequent growth, if any fail or run to seed, be careful to pull them up directly, and
supply the deficiencies with fresh plants. As the crop proceeds, give it two or more timely hoeings, both
to cut down all rising weeds, and to loosen the ground between the plants, drawing some earth round the
stems, which will strengthen and forward them considerably.
3497. Tlie different sorts will cabbage in succession from April till October. Some may be forwarded in
cabbaging by tying the leaves together, moderately close, with osier twigs, or strings of bass. The succeed-
ing main crops will not need that assistance, butwill head spontaneously in due time. Of the earlier
dwarf kinds, some probably will be fit for cutting, in small cabbagy heads", at the close of April or begin-
ningof May; and the others in full growth from May til) July; aiid the succeeding main crops in full
heads from July till October.
3498. Early spring-sown crop. To succeed the crops of the preceding autumn sowing, it is requisite to
sow in the spring, to raise plants for use the same year, partly as young summer cabbages, and partly with
full heads, in autumn and winter. For this purpose, sow at "the close of February, or in March, and the
beginning of April. A few for early summer use may be sown in the third week of February on a slight hot-
bed, or on a warm border under glass. In case no plants were raised the preceding autumn, or if the young
crop which has stood the winter be much cut by severe weather, there is an additional motive for sowing
a, competent portion in the spring, of dwarf, middle-sized, and large kinds, according to the above estimate
of sorts. Sow the different kinds separately, and in the same method as directed for the crop to stand the
winter. Manage the plants in the seed-bed", and prick a proportion into an intermediate bed in the same
manner. When of suitable growth for final transplanting, in May, June, or July, (taking opportunity of
moist weather, if it occurs,^ plant them out in rows traced from one to two feet asunder for the dwarf and
middle-sized, and for the larger kinds from two feet and a half to a yard distant Give water at planting.
Book I. WHITE CABBAGE. 609
In their subsequent growth, give occasional hoeing to kill weeds, and to draw earth round the stems, as
advised for the August-sown plants.
3499. Late spring or summer sown crop. For late young summer and autumn cabbages and winter
plants, you may sow small portions at any time from May to July, principally of the quick-hearting kinds ;
plant out finally in summer and autumn to produce young heads, and small cabbage- hearted coleworts in
August, September, October, and thence till midwinter. The large late family cabbages, which make
returns for autumn, winter, and early spring, also the largest kinds usually adopted for field-culture, are
to be excluded from this sowing, as they are only properly raised as part of the principal crops sown in
August and early in spring. (Abercrombie.)
3500. Watering cabbages. During long continued droughts in June and July or later, cabbages are apt
to become stinted in their growth, and covered with aphides. To prevent this apply copious waterings
every evening ; water so abundantly supplied is supposed to injure the flavor of some plants, but it is
found to have no effect of that kind on cabbages.
3501. Cabbage-coleworts. The original variety of cabbage called colewort (if ever the
plants which passed by that name were a distinct variety) is, or seems to be, lost, and is
now succeeded by what are called cabbage-coleworts. These, Abercrombie observes, are
valuable family plants, useful in three stages : as young open greens, as greens with
closing hearts, and as greens forming a cabbage growth.
3502. So7-fs proper for coleworts. Procure seed of some middle-sized early variety of the cabbage,
quick-hearting, and of close growth ; such as the early and large York, East Ham, and large sugar-loaf.
Occasionally, for larger coleworts, you may adopt some Battersea, imperial, Antwerp sorts, or early
London hollow; but avoid the larger late kinds of cabbage, which, in a colewort state, are too spreading
and open ; the others grow close, stocky, and full in the heart, and boil most tender and sweet for the
table.
3503. Titnes of sowing. To have a good supply of coleworts for autumn, winter, spring, and returning
summer, it is proper to make three or four sowings in summer and autumn : that is, one sowing toward
the middle of June, a second about the same time in July, with a third in the last week. These
supplementary crops are for transplanting in August, September, and October, and will amount to a con-
tinued provision of autumn, winter, and early spring coleworts, from September till March or April. At
this time the plants of these sowings will mostly start for seeding. To succeed these, effect a very con-
siderable sowing in the beginning from about the third to the sixth of August. Having been transplanted
in autumn, the forwardest of the August-raised plants will be fit for gathering in the course of winter, if
the weather be mild ; but the principal supply should be set apart for a continuing spring crop to increase
in growth from March till .June, without vunning to seed, as would generally be the case, if sown before
the time just specified. What are not used in their colewort state in spring, will advance in cabbaging, to
be cut either with small hearts, or with middling, or full heads, in the early part of summer and autumn.
If it be required to have coleworts in a younger state in summer and autumn, you may sow at the time of
raising the spring-sown crop of cabbages.
3504. Sowing, thinning, and transplanting. Sow in some open compartments of light mellow ground,
in one or more beds, distributing the seed evenly on the surface ; and rake it regularly into beds length-
wise. If the weather be dry, give occasional waterings, both before and after the plants are up. When
the young plants have two or three leaves, if thick in the seed-bed, prick out a portion into intermediate
beds, to increase in growth three or four weeks. When these and those in the seed-beds have several
leaves two or three inches broad, transplant them finally into open compartments of ground, in rows
twelve or fifteen inches asunder, by eight or twelve inches in the lines, as it may be intended to gather
them in smaller or larger growth. If the weather be dry and warm, a watering at planting would be of
much advantage. In their subsequent growth, keep them clear from large weeds by occasional hoeing;
at the same time, loosen the ground about the plants, drawing a little earth to the stems, which
will forward and strengthen their growth ; the hoe will also wound and kill many of the slugs which
sometimes annoy these plants in their young state, about the end of autumn and beginning of winter.
(Abercrombie?)
3505. Taking the cabbage crop. After cutting off the head, never neglect immediately to pull up the stalk,
and carry it off with all the refuse leaves to the compost-heap This practice is enjoined as well to prevent
the stem from pushing out shoots, and needlessly exhausting the ground, as to promote neatness and order.
It is necessary, however, to make an exception in favor of the practice of some, who, instead of removing
the roots and stems of the main summer crop, leave them in the ground deprived of their injured leaves,
and with the intervals between the rows stirred and perhaps manured, allow them to stand till spring.
Thus treated, they push out in autumn, and in January or February abound in fine cabbage-sprouts, not
much inferior to young cabbages. Sometimes this practice is applied to the earliest spring or summer
crop in which case the sprout-cabbages come into use the following autumn.
3506. Cabbage-coleworts are gathered when the leaves are as broad as a man's hand. The largest are
drawn up by the root, which is generally allowed to remain attached to those taken to public markets, as
it- retains thg sap, and tends to preserve them succulent a longer period, than if they were wounded close
to the succulent leaves.
3507. Preserving cabbages. Where this is thought necessary, the plants are laid down on their sides,
and the stems covered with earth close to the head, the outer part of the more exposed side of which may
be sometimes injured, but the inside remains sound.
3508. To save cabbage-seed. The raising of the seed of the different sorts of cabbage,
Neill observes, affords employment to many persons in various parts of England. It is
well known that no plants are more liable to be spoiled by cross breeds than the cabbage
tribe, unless the plants of any particular variety, when in flower, be kept at a very
considerable distance from any other ; also, in flower, bees are extremely apt to carry
the pollen of the one to the other, and produce confusion in the progeny. Market-
gardeners, and many private individuals, raise seed for their own use. Some of the
handsomest cabbages of the different sorts are dug up in autumn, and sunk in the
ground to the head ; early next summer a flower-stem appears, which is followed by
abundance of seed. A few of the soundest and healthiest cabbage-stalks, furnished with
sprouts, answer the same end. When the seed has been well ripened and dried, it will
keep for six or eight years. It is mentioned by Bastien, that the seed-growers of Auber-
villiers have learned by experience, that seed gathered from the middle flower-stem
produces plants which will be fit for use a fortnight earlier than those from the seed of
the lateral flower-stems : this may deserve the attention of the watchful gardener, and
assist him in regulating his successive crops of the same kind of cabbage.
R r
610
PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
Subsect. 2. Red Cabbage. — Brassica oleracea, var. )8. rubra. L. Chou pontme
rouge, Fr. ; Roth Kopfkohl, Gcr. ; and Cavolo rosso, Ital.
3509. The red or purple cabbage is similar in form to the white, but of a purple or
brownish-red color.
3.510. Use. The red cabbage is chiefly used for pickling ; and the dwarf red variety,
Neill observes, " certainly does make one of the most beautiful pickles that can be pre-
sented at table," Both "the dwarf and large sorts are sometimes shredded down in
winter, in salads, like red beet-root ; and the Germans prepare sour krout from all or
any of the varieties.
351 1. Subvarieties. There are three principal varieties of red cabbage, viz.
The lathered or red Dutch; witha large, I Thedwarfred; with a small, round, firm, | The Aberdeen red; with an open leafy
firm, round head, usually cultivated in delicate head, less common than the head, chiefly found in cottage gardens
market-gardens I other I in the north of Scotland.
351 2. The propagation, solving, and culture are in all respects the same as for the white
cabbage; excepting that the heads are not used when imperfectly formed, or as cole-
worts ; but the plants should, in all cases, be allowed to stand till they have formed
close firm heads. Sow in August for a crop to stand the winter, and to come in at the
close of next summer, and thence till the end of autumn. Sow early in spring for re-
turns in the following winter and spring.
Subsect. 3. Savoy. — Brassica oleracea, var. 7. sabauda, L. ; B. 0. var. 7. bullata, Dec.
Chou pomme frisc, Fr.
3513. The Savoy is distinguished from the other close or hearted cabbages by the ru-
gosity of its leaves ; and from the Brussels sprouts, by its cabbaging in large full heads.
The Brussels sprouts is considered a subvariety.
3514. Use. The Savoy is in use as a table-vegetable from November till spring, un-
less destroyed by frost, in which case, it is succeeded by the borecoles or winter greens.
These two classes of the cabbage tribe generally supply the table from November to
May.
3515. Subvarieties. These are —
The irreen I The vellow Savoy ; and of each of these I The oblong, and
The dwarf, and are"- The conical, or sugar-loaf headed.
I The round
3516 Estimate of sorts. The green Savoy is the least hardy, and must be used first. The London
market is generally supplied with it through the month of November, and until the plants are injured by
frost The dwarf Savoy is hardier than the preceding, bearing well the attack of the first winter frosts,
bv which the delicacy of its flavor is materially improved ; and from its small size, it is better adapted to
the tables of private 'familes. Where the whole class is cultivated, this must be considered the second
sort in succession. The best plants grow close to the ground, not exceeding a foot in height. The yellow
Savov bv its hardiness, enables us to continue the use of Savoys till mid-winter. It does not yield to any
of the'others in goodness, and by many persons it is preferred, being considered much sweeter. [Hort.
3517. % Propagation. The Savoy is always raised from seed, and for a seed-bed four feet and a half by
eight feet, half an ounce of seed will be sufficient.
3518 Soil and situation. This esculent answers best on a light rich soil : poor or exhausted ground
should be manured according to the defects of it. Allot an open compartment m the full air, that the
seedlings and advancing plants may grow stocky, and not draw up weak and long stemmed, as they are
liable to do in close situations, or narrow borders, under walls.
3519 Times of sowing A sufficient succession is obtained by three, or at most, four sowings, made from
the last week of February till the second week in May ; for planting out, from May till September. A
small crop may be sown at the end of February, or the beginning of March, to plant out for eariv autumn
Savovs, to cabbage in August or September. Sow a larger portion in the last fortnight of March for a first
considerable autumn and winter crop. Nor omit to sow a full supply in the second or third week of ApW,
for a main crop to be planted out in June, July, and the beginning of August, to attain a full cabbaged
growth late in autumn, and to stand partly over the winter. Furthermore, it would be eligible to make
a moderate sowing at the beginning, or towards the middle of May, in order to plant out the seedlings in
July, August, or September, for smaller heading, to come in towards the spring, and to stand longer
before they run : or, some to use occasionally in winter, as Savoy coleworts. •
55°0 Culture The ground should have been previously trenched to a good depth. Four feet is a con-
venient width for the beds. Sow broad-cast ; and rake in a quarter of an inch deep. As soon as the
plants have two or three leaves, an inch or two in width, if they stand too crowded, thin the seed-beds, by
drawing out a quantity regularly; and prick them into other beds four inches asunder. Should the
weather be drv, water those left, as well as those removed. Permit both divisions to remain three, four,
or live weeks, to gain a good stocky size for final transplanting. When the plants, both in seed-beds and
those pricked out, are advanced with several leaves, two or three inches broad, or more, transplant them
finally into the most open compartments of ground, where they will be less annoyed by caterpillars, that
thev "may cabbage with large full heads ; planting them at different times as ground becomes vacant
Remove "the most forward in Mav or June, for early autumn heading in August or September, but plant
the principal crops in June or July, and from the beginning to the middle of August; taking all possible
advantage of showery weather. In drawing the plants, observe if any are clubbed or knotty at the root,
and cut off the protuberances close. Plant in rows those removed in May, June, or July, two teet and a
half or not less than two feet asunder, by the same distance in the rows ; others late planted in August
and 'September, two feet bv eighteen inches. In scarcity of vacant ground, some Savoys may be occa-
sionally planted between Wide rows of previous standing crops, such as beans, cauliflowers, and early
cabbage that are sufficiently forward to be gathered off by the time the Savoys will want the entire
ground ' Before and after plantings made in dry weather, watering would be of essential service. As
the nlants of the different successions advance, keep them from weeds by occasional broad hoeing. At
same time, loosen the surface of the earth, and draw some about the stems of the plants : let
this be done twice or oftener, to forward them in a free enlarging growth. They will gradually heart,
the same time,
fulTy wbbaSng uT&ptember^ 6"ctob^7,'NoVember,'December7^c. aslhey are the crops of the forward, or
Book I. BORECOLE. «n
later sowings : they may be cut for use accordingly, and during the winter. The Savoys left standing
will continue good till the middle or end of February, when, or in the course of March, they open and
send up seed-stalks.
3521. To save seed. See Cabbage. (3508.)
Subsect. 4. Brussels Sprouts. — Brassica oleracea, a subvariety of var. y. sabauda, L.,
and of B. o. var. y. bidlata, Dec. Chou de Bruxelles, or a jet, Fr.
3522. The Brussels sprouts produce an elongated stem, often four feet high, from the
alae of the leaves of which sprout out shoots which form small green heads like cabbages
in miniature, each being from one to two inches in diameter, and the whole ranged
spirally along the stem, the main leaves of which drop off early. The top of the plant
resembles that of a Savoy planted late in the season ; it is small, and with a green
heart of little value. Van Mons says (Hort. Trans, vol. iii.), " If this vegetable be
compared with any other which occupies as little space, lasts as long, and grows as well
in situations generally considered unfavorable, such as between rows of potatoes, scarlet
runners, or among young trees, it must be esteemed superior in utility to most others."
Nicol considers it as deserving more general culture in Scotland ; and Morgan (Hort.
Trans, vol. ii.) says, it is an excellent sort of winter green for the table, but not
sufficiently hardy to last through the winter in England.
3523. Use. The sprouts are used as winter greens ; and at Brussels they are sometimes served at table
with a sauce composed of vinegar, butter, and nutmeg, poured upon them hot after they have been
boiled. The top, Van Mons says, is very delicate when dressed, and quite different in flavor from the
sprouts.
3521. Culture. The plants are raised from seed, of which an ounce may be requisite for a seed-bed, four
feet by ten feet. Van Mons, in the paper already referred to, says, " The seed is sown in spring under a
frame, so as to bring the plants forward ; they are then transplanted into an open border with a good
aspect." By thus beginning early and sowing successively till late in the season, he says, " we contrive to
supply ourselves, in Belgium, with this delicious vegetable, full ten months in the year ; that is, from the
end of July to the end of May." The plants need not be placed at more than eighteen inches each
way, as the head does not spread wide, and the side leaves drop off. In this, as in every other respect,
the culture is the same as that of the borecole.
3525. Gathering the crop. Morgan says, the sprouts must have some frost before gathered ; but this
Van Mons assures us is an erroneous opinion. In Belgium, the small cabbages are not esteemed if of more
than half an inch in diameter. It is usual to cut off the top about ten or fifteen days before gathering
from the stem. In spring, when the sprouts are disposed to run to flower, their growth is checked by
taking up the plants, and laying them in the ground in any shaded spot
3526. To save seed. Van Mons says, it is usual to save the seeds indiscriminately
from plants which have or have not been topped ; but that he intends to save from the
tops only, hoping thereby to improve the progeny. Whatever mode be adopted, the
grand object is to place the plants where they will be in no danger of receiving the farina
of any other of the brassica tribe.
Subsect. 5. Borecole. — Brassica oleracea, var. 5. sabellica, L. ; B. o. var. /3. acephala, Dec.
Chou vert, Chou cavalier, or Chou non pomnie, Fr.; Kohl, Ger. ; Kale, Sax. ; and
Green Kale, Scotch.
3527. The borecole contains several sub varieties, the common characteristic of all
which is an open head, sometimes large, of curled or wrinkled leaves, and a peculiar
hardy constitution, which enables them to resist the winter, and remain green and fresh
during the season. Morgan says, it is impossible to find a plant of more excellence for
the table, or more easily cultivated than the common borecole. Sinclair recommends
the Woburn perennial kale, which has been grown six years at Woburn Abbev. It
shoots up yearly from the stool, like a true perennial plant, scarcely ever flowers, and is
considered as producing more than thrice the produce of any other borecole, with a very
great saving of manure and labor. It is considered by Sinclair as peculiarly adapted for
farm and cottage gardens.
3528. Use. The crown or centre of the plant is cut off so as to include the leaves which
do not exceed nine inches in length. It boils well, and is most tender, sweet, and deli-
cate, provided it has been duly exposed to frost,
3529. Subvarieties. These are —
1. The green borecole, Scotch kale, or Siberian borecole j 9. The Jerusalem kale
2. The purple or brown kale 10. The Buda kale, Russian kale, Prussian kale, and bv some
3. The German kale, German greens, or curlies called the Manchester kale
4. The variegated borecole 11. The palm -borecole, or chou-palmier
5. The thousand-headed cabbage [ 12. The turnip-cabbage, or turnip-borecole, (B. o. var. 5 Caul,i-
6. The cheu de Milan rapa, Dec.) chou-navet, Fr.
7. The Egyptian kale, rabi kale, or kohl robe 13. The Portugal or large-ribbed borecole
8. Ragged Jack I 14. The Woburn perennial kale, with finely cut leaves.
3530. Estimate of sorts. The three first sorts are the most valuable, and the most generally cultivated :
the third sort is almost universally preferred in Britain. The seventh, eighth, and ninth sorts, beinjj
dwarf, stemless plants, resist black frosts, and come in for a late supply ; the third, fourth, fifth, and tenth
sorts are merely curious plants, and the others are of little merit.
3531. Propagation of the first thirteen species. All the sorts are propagated by seed, which is sold by
weight : and for a seed-bed four feet by ten, Abercrombie says, one ounce of seed is necessary. Sow in
the last fortnight of March, in April, in the beginning of May, and in August. The first week in April
for the principal crop of German kale ; and the first week in August for the latest spring crop of Buda kale,
and which will be ready to transplant in September.
Rr2
G12 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
3532. Subsequent culture. " When the plants have leaves one or two inches broad, take out some from
the seed-bed, and prick into other open beds, six inches apart, giving water : in which let them have four
or five weeks' growth. Those left in the seed-bed, as well as these, will all acquire proper strength for
final transplanting in May, or thence till August. Taking the opportunity of rain, if possible, plant them
in an open compartment, in rows two feet and a half asunder, for the first forward plantings in summer;
the others two feet ; allotting the whole similar distances in the rows. Give occasional water, if dry
weather, till they have struck root. In their advancing growth, hoe the plants once or twice, to cut down
rising weeds, and to draw earth about the bottom of the stems, to encourage their growth in the produc-
tion of large full heads in proper season, September, October, &c." At the approach of winter, the stems
should be earthed up, especially of the taller sorts. When the distances between the plants are such as
have been recommended, the hills round each plant will be of such a size and breadth as to cherish the
roots of the dwarf varieties, and serve as a protection to the tall sorts in stormy weather.
3533. Gathering. The heart is to be gathered of all the tall sorts, after which, with the exception of the
German kale, and the chou de Milan, the stalks should be pulled up, and taken to the compost-heap or
dunghill; but the terms of the two sorts excepted are to be left for the sake of their side shoots or sprouts.
Of the dwarf sorts, the heart may either be cut off, for which the Buda kale and coleworts are well suited ;
or the leaves gathered when the" plant begins to grow, which corresponds with the habits of the Egyptian
and Jerusalem kale.
3534. Projxigation of the Woburn kale is effected by cuttings of six or seven inches,
which readily take root, and may be planted at once where they are finally to remain : the
best season is March and April.
3535. Culture of the Woburn kale. " About the beginning of April, or as soon as
winter greens are out of season, the stems are cut down near to the ground, within two
buds of the roots, the soil is then slightly forked over, and afterwards kept clear of
weeds by the hoe. This is all that is required." {Hort. Trans, v. 299.)
3536. Blanching the Buda or Portugal kale. Wedgewood writes to the Horticul-
tural Society, " I have been trying an experiment with Buda kale, which has an-
swered completely ; this is blanching it as you do sea-kale, by turning a pot over it, and
letting it remain covered till it is quite blanched. "When cut and dressed in that state it
is excellent, and one advantage will be, that the same plant will furnish two cuttings, for
the sprouts are more delicate than even the original heart of the plant. I used no dung
to force it ; but this might be applied with great advantage ; and I think it would be an
excellent substitute for sea-kale." (Hort. Trans, iv. 570.)
3537. To save seed.' This can seldom be done of more than one or two sorts in the
same garden, on account of the risk of promiscuous impregnation by bees, the wind, &c.
As the seed, however, will keep for several years, good specimens of one or two sorts
may be selected every year in rotation, and placed in spots distant from each other, in
autumn, or early in spring. Trench the root and stem into the ground, at nearly double
the distance at which they stood in the plantation. This will allow abundance of air to
circulate round the blossoms and seed-pods. They will be ripe in August, when they
may be gathered, and threshed out ; aud the seed, after being exposed to the dry air m
the shade for a few days, put up in bags till wanted for use.
Subsect. 6. Catdifou-ei: —Brassica oleracea, var. e. botrytis, L. and Dec. Chou-
fleur, Fr. ; Blumenkohl, Ger. ; and Cavolifiori, Ital.
3538. The cauliflower is one of the most delicate and curious of the whole of the brassica
tribe, the flower-buds forming a close, firm cluster or head, white and delicate, and for the
sake of which the plant is cultivated.
3539. Use. " These heads or flowers being boiled, wrapped generally in a clean linen
cloth, are served up as a most delicate vegetable dish. Cauliflower is a particular fa-
vorite in this country. ' Of all the flowers in the garden,' Dr. Johnson used to say, ' I
like the cauliflower.' Its culture, however, had been little attended to till about the close
of the 1 7th century ; since that time it has been greatly improved, insomuch that cauli-
flower may now fairly be claimed as peculiarly an English product. Till the time of
the French Revolution, quantities of English cauliflower were regularly sent to Holland ;
and the Low Countries, and even France, depended on us for cauliflower-seed. Even now,
English seed is preferred to any other." For the early supply of the London market, very
great quantities of cauliflower are fostered under hand-glasses during winter and the first
part of spring ; and to behold some acres overspread with such glasses, gives a stranger
a forcible idea of the riches and luxury of the metropolis. \Neill, in Ed. Encyc. )
3540. The subvarieties in cultivation are —
Earlv, for the first early crops I Red cauliflower ; having the stalks of the I teemed more hardy than the others, and
Later, or large, for principal early, and head of a reddish or purple color, es- good for an early crop.
main crops
3541 Propagation and soil. The cauliflower is raised from seed, of which half an ounce is sufficient
for a *eed-bed four feet and a half wide, by ten in length. The soil for the seed-bed may be light ; but
for final transplanting, it can hardly be too rich, the cauliflower, like the vine, being reputed a rough
feeder." Cleanings of streets; stables, cess-pools, &c. ought therefore to be liberally supplied during the
growth of the plants, when very large heads are desired. » ^_
351° Times of «ourin«. " The earlv and main superior crop, brought to fruit by the longest nursery
attendance- the late summer succession crop, raised by the shortest course; and the Michaelmas crop,
obtained at the least expense ; are sown respectively at three different seasons. The principal sowing u
made about the end of the third week in August, or a day or two before or after the 21st, to raise plants
to stand over the winter, under frames, hand-glasses, or half sheltered in warm borders, for the early and
Book 1. CAULIFLOWER. 613
main superior crops next summer. A secondary sowing in February or March, for succession and late
inferior crops the same year in summer and autumn. A final sowing near the close of May, for ordinary
crops, to yield fruit the following autumn and winter." Ball finds, that if cauliflower-seed is not sown
till the last week in August, and that if the seedlings are not transplanted till the middle or near the end
of November before the hard weather sets in, no sort of covering is necessary, nor any other protection than
that afforded by a wall having a south aspect. " In such a border, and without any covering, young
cauliflower-plants have uniformly stood well for many successive winters, and have always proved better
and sounder plants for spring planting than such as have had additional shelter. The seedlings protected
with glass frames generally grow too gross in the stems, which become partly blackened ; and the plants
being thus unhealthy, are not fit for planting out. Late raised seedlings, which spend the winter in the
open border, uniformly become the largest and finest table cauliflowers during the summer, though they
certainly do not come in quite so early. Cauliflower-plants, it is probable, are often killed with too much
attention. Seedlings raised late in autumn seem to tie very tenacious of life." [Caled. Hort. Mem. iii. 192.)
" A method of producing cauliflower pretty early, and with great certainty, is this : The plants are set in
small pots in the winter season, and kept in any convenient part of the floor ot a vinery or other glazed
house. In the beginning of March, they are taken out of the pots with the ball of earth attached, and
planted in the open ground. If they be here protected against severe frosts with bell-glass covers, they
come into head in the course of April, if the weather prove favorable." (Neill, in Ed. Encyc.)
3543. Sowings to stand the winter. " Time of sowing and first culture. For the early and general crops next
summer, make a considerable sowing in August, about the eighteenth, and thence to the twenty-fourth
day of that month ; or two different sowings between those extremes, at three or four days' interval, to
raise young plants to stand the winter under protection ; some being planted out finally the same year in
October or November, under hand-glasses ; and the others pricked into frames and warm borders, for
planting out finally in the spring, into the open ground, to succeed the hand-glass fruit, or for the general
summer crop. Sow in a bed of rich, light, mellow earth. After sowing, give occasional light waterings in
dry weather, and shade in hot sunny days, till the plants come up. When these have leaves an inch or
an inch and a half broad, in September, prick them into intermediate beds, three or four inches apart ;
watering, and occasionally shading from the mid-day sun, till they have taken root ; to remain in such
beds to gain strength till October."
3544. Hand-glass division. " Then towards the close of October, transplant a quantity finally into rich
ground, which has been well dunged, under hand glasses, in rows three feet and a half or four feet
asunder (with intervening alleys a foot wide), and three feet apart in the row. Set three or four plants
centrally under each glass, about four inches apart, with the design of retaining only one or two of the best
in the spring. Give a moderate watering at planting, and put on the glasses close till the plants take
root, discoverable in a week or ten days by their showing a renewed growtli ; then raise the glasses on the
warmest side, one or two inches in mild days, to admit free air to the plants. Continue the glasses all
winter; but in all temperate weather, tilt up the south side daily, two or three inches, to give the requi-
site admission of free air, in order to strengthen and harden the plants ; and sometimes, in fine, mild,
dry days, you may occasionally take the glasses off, especially if the plants appear to draw, or get on too
fast in growth, as they are sometimes apt to run into small button heads in their nursery state, unless for
future culture; but put on the glasses early towards the evening; and always keep them on at night,
and during cold rain, snow, and frost, shutting them closo down in all inclement weather ; and during ri-
gorous frosts it would be advisable to give some protection, with long, dry, stable-litter, round the glasses,
or to cover with mats, removing the covering when settled mild weather occurs. Thus conforming to the
vicissitudes of the season, continue the glasses till the close of April or beginning of May ; giving larger
admissions of free air as the warmer season of spring advances : and sometimes in fine mild weather,
admit a moderate warm shower of rain. Meanwhile, in March, if all or most of the plants under the
glasses have stood the winter, be careful to leave only one or two of the strongest under each glass ;
transplanting the superabundant into the open garden, in a compartment of rich mellow earth, improved
with rotten dung digged in a spade deep : setting the plants two feet and a half asunder, and giving water.
In thinning the plants, be careful to take out those with black shanks: but do not take the trouble to
transplant them, for they will prove abortive. At the same time, to assist those remaining under the
glasses, draw a little earth about the stem of each. To these continue the glasses till the period men-
tioned above, to forward them in full growth for the most early production ; but as they expand in the
herb, raise each glass upon three props, three or four inches high, to admit air freely, and to give a larger
scope of room above, for the free growth of the plants; or, when further advanced, you may draw a small
ledge of earth round the bottom of each glass, both to raise the props higher, for an additional upward
space, and to contain water when occasionally given in dry weather. Towards the end of April, or the
beginning of May, when the plants will, in a manner, have filled the glasses, remove these from the most
forward, but continue the aid of glass as long as practicable, to accelerate the plants into early heading in
May. Thus the most early crop will produce a supply of flower-heads for gathering in succession in May
and June."
3545. Frame division. " The other plants of the same sowing, designed for wintering in frames, may, in
young growth, at the end of September, or beginning of October, be either pricked at once into the winter
beds, or be, at that time, removed into a preparatory bed in the open garden, to have a month's growth);
in order to be transplanted into the frame-beds at the end of October or beginning of November, in rows
crosswise the bed, four by three inches apart. Give a light watering, and put on the lights of the frame
close till the plants have taken root; then prop up the lights behind, two or three inches, or draw them
off occasionally to the back of the frame in mild, dry days, but keep on when very told, and in rain, snow,
frost, and always at night; and in severe frost cover the glasses and round the frames with dry, long,
strawy litter and mats ; but in all mild, dry weather, admit the air fully, as in managing the hand-glasses.
Then in March or beginning of April, transplant the whole into the open garden, in rows two feet and a
half asunder ; and they will come into full. production in July and August."
3546. Half-sheltered portion. " In want of frames or hand-glasses, you may, in October, either prick
some plants into a warm south border, close under the fence, three inches apart, to be protected in rigor-
ous frosts, with mats, dry litter, or reed pannels ; or you prick some in a bed arched over with hoops, to
receive a covering of mats during cold nights, or heavy rain, snow, and frosts, in the day-time in winter.
Give the full air in all moderate weather, till March or April: then all to be transplanted finally as
above."
3547. Drwnmond, of the Cork botanic garden, protects cauliflower-plants during winter by planting
them in excavations made in the common soil of the garden, and covered with frames thatched with long
straight wheat-straw. He uncovers constantly in mild weather, whether nights or days. {Hort. Trans.
v. 365.)
3548. Secondary sowing, or first spring-raised crop. " For late succession summer cauliflowers, to succeed
the autumn-raised, early, and main summer crops; or, if none were raised to stand the winter ; sow in
the spring, February, or beginning of March, in a moderate hot-bed, or, where that cannot be had, in a
warm border under a frame or hand-glass ; and when the young plants have leaves an inch broad, prick
them into other beds of the same description, three inches apart, to gain strength by three or four weeks'
growth, in order to be planted out in the open garden, at the end of April or the beginning of May ; where
they will produce tolerable heads in July or August. Sow also in the open garden during the last fortnight
in March, and the first in April for a late succession, with small flower-heads in August and throughout
autumn. Plants of the last crop, removed as late as May, for fruiting the same year, should be planted in
a shady border."
Rr 3
614
PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Tart III.
S54£» Second spring-raised crop. " The next and last sowing is for the late autumn and winter crop,
commonly called the Michaelmas crop ; to be made towards the twenty-fourth of May, in a bed ot light
_; . . ... »_*_■- t a- r_ :~. 4.1 I,,*,.— «-.,-.,-];.- ♦ j-i V»^\r1 fill oKnnf trio TV»i^/^l£i r»-f
good
ber and December, if temperate weather follow."
3550 Final culture of the three crops. "With respect to the culture of the different crops after being
finally transplanted, it is to hoe the ground occasionally, in order to cut down weeds, and as well to loosen
the earth, and draw some round the stems of the plants. When the early crops are nearly advanced to
full growth, in May and June, one or two good waterings to the roots will contribute to their producing
largr> heads. In the dry weather of meridian summer, water those not in flower twice a-week ; and those
in flower, every second dav. As the flower-heads show themselves, turn down some of the larger leaves,
to defend' them from sun and rain, and to preserve them white and close, in perfection." {Abercrombie.)
3551 Crop for winter use. Cockburn sows the seeds of early cauliflower in a south border in the be-
ginning of Julv. thins to 12 or 14 inches apart, and in November finds heads produced from ten to thirty
fnchesln circumference He then removes them with balls, and plants them so as their heads do not
touch in earth, in a shed which will keep out ten degrees of heat. All decayed leaves are taken off, and
when severe frost occurs, the plants are covered with drv short hay. " By this management," he says,
" I have been able to send three dishes of the cauliflowe'rs to table every week during the autumn and
winter, and shall be able to continue to do so till February." {Sort. Trans, v. 281.)
355-' Preserving during ivinter. For this purpose it is usual to pull up the plant entire, and hang it up in
a «hed or cellar, or to lav the plants in sand in cellars or sheds, covering the flower with the leaves, and
being careful to remove' everv decayed part as it appears. When a shed or cellar is not at hand for this
purpose a mode may be resorted to which has been adopted by Smith, and described by him in the Caled.
Hort Vle?)i vol i p 129., and which consists in burying the entire plant in a pit about eighteen inches
deep' du°- along the bottom of a wall. On a drv dav he takes up the plant, and wrapping the leaves round
the head of the flower, deposits them in the trench, the heads sloping downwards, and the roots extending
upwards, so that the roots of the one layer cover the tops of another. Next, he covers up the whole closely
with earth, sloping it from the wall, and beating it smooth with the back of the spade, so that ram may
run off. In this way he preserves it in a good state from November to January. The best mode, however,
of prolonging the cauliflower season, is by raising the plants with baUs, and trench-planting them in
frame* or the borders of peach or grape houses not in action, taking care to keep the soil dry, and to re-
move decaying leaves ; or, where frames are in sufficient quantity, to place a few over the plants as they
stand in the compartment.
3553. To save seed. " Mark and leave some of the prime plants of the thoroughly-
nursed early and main crops in May and June, when the flower-heads are in highest
perfection ; as those of late production will not ripen seed effectually. The stools will
afford ripe seed in September ; when be careful to watch the chaffinches, green-birds, &c.
and to o-ather the branches as the seed upon them ripens. Lay them elevated from the
ground, in some sunny, airy situation, to dry and harden to full maturity : after which
let the seed be beaten and rubbed out, cleaned and sifted from the husky parts, spread on
a cloth to dry the whole equally; and then put up for sowing the following year."
(Abercrombie.) ' .
' 3554. Insects. Cauliflower-plants, when first planted out, are frequently infested
with flies, or their larvae, to attract which, it is not uncommon to sow a little radish-seed
on the cauliflower ground a fortnight before transplanting ; the flies preferring the tender
leaves of the radish to those of the cauliflower, the latter are thus suffered to escape.
Subsect. 7. Broccoli. — Brassica oleracea, a subvariety of var. e. botrytis, L. and Dec.
Broccoli, Fr. ; Italienische Kohl, Ger. ; and Broccoli, Ital.
3555. The few broccolis that were known in Miller's time are supposod to have pro-
ceeded from the cauliflower, which was originally imported from the Isle of Cyprus,
about the middle of the 16th century. Miller mentions the white and purple broccoli as
coming from Italy ; and it is conjectured, that from these two sorts all the subsequent
kinds have arisen, either by accidental or premeditated impregnations.
3556. Use. The same as the cauliflower.
3557 Subvarieties. Neill observes, that " no culinary plant is so liable to sport as broccou ; so that new
kinds, slightly different, are continually coming into notice or favor, and as speedily sinking into neglect.
The common" characteristic of broccoli, as distinguished from cauliflower, is co/o?" in the flower and leaves,
and a comparatively hardy constitution to stand the winter. Maher observes {Hort. Irons, vol. i.
p 116 \ that as all plants of" the brassica tribe become less alkalescent, and more palatable in proportion
as they approach to a pale or white color, such varieties of broccoli will undoubtedly be prelerable to pur-
ple ones, if thev turn out equally hardv. H. Ronalds, of Brentford, has given {Hort. Trans vol. in.) a
Description of the different sorts of Broccoli, with an Account of the Method of cultivating them, from which
we shall chiefly compose this article. The sorts which follow are placed in the order in which they come
mM5&LpTrple cape%r autumnal broccoli. This has a close, compact head, of a beautiful purple color ;
the leaves are nearly entire, erect, concave, lobed at bottom, and much waved, short, and regularly sur.
rounding the head ; the veins and mid-rib are stained with purple, which stain is a test ot its being true ;
the head is exposed to the view in growing j in general it is not very large ; as it enlarges, tne projecting
parts of the flower show a greenish-white, mixed with the purple color. When boiled, the whole flower
becomes green. If the season is showery, and this variety is planted in good ground, it comes a* large as
3S99. Cidtvre of the purple broccoli. Sown about the middle of May, and beginning and end of June, it
will produce in regular succession from August to December, or until frost destroy the hearts, bown in
July and August, if the winter is mild, it will bring good heads in spring. When sown in the beginning
of September, and the plants preserved in frames as cauliflowers, fine heads may be expected m the
months of June and July. Thus, bv good management, this kind may be in use during the greater part
of the year • but it is not hardv enough to be depended on for the winter months. The plants grow lrom
one foot to 'one foot and a half high, and should be placed about two feet apart in every direction.
3560. Maker's mode of treating the purple broccoli is as follows : " Three crops are sown annua ly : the
fir* between the 12th and 18th of April j a second between the 18th and £4th of May ; the >. third between
the 19th and 25th of August : these successive crops supply the family from September till the end ot May.
The seeds are scattered exceedingly thin, in a border of very rich light earth. Not a weed is suffered to
Book I. BROCCOLI. 615
appear, and when the young plants have from eight to ten leaves, which is in about a month, they are finally
planted out, at the distance of two feet every way, in a piece of sandy loam, which has been well prepared
for the purpose by digging, and enriching it with a large proportion of very rotten dung, frequently
turned over to pick out every sort of grub, or insect deposited in it. The ground is kept constantly clean
by hoeing whenever a seed-leaf of any weed springs up, and the loose surface is drawn together into a heap
round the stem of each plant. The second crop is treated exactly as the first, but the weaker plants left in
the seed-bed are permitted to remain eight or ten days longer to gain more strength. They are then trans-
planted into pots of the size called siiteens, filled with very rich compost, placing them close to each other
in the shade, and duly watering the plants, till they begin to grow freely. After this, the pots are plunged
in the open ground at two feet distance from each other every way, and about three inches under the
general level, leaving a hollow or basin round each plant, to retain any water given to them when neces-
sary. By the time the pots are filled with roots, and that autumnal rains render watering unnecessary,
the basins are filled up by drawing the earth round each plant, at the same time pressing it firmly down,
to prevent the wind from shaking them. A few of these plants in pots sometimes show flowers too soon ;
and to guard them from early frost, a leaf or two is broken down over them. On the approach of settled
frost in December and January, all the pots are taken up and removed to a frame, pit, or shed, where
they can be sheltered from the extreme severity of the winter, but have air when it is milder, and by this
method a supply is preserved for the table in the hardest winters. To make broccoli succeed in pots, I
find, by experience, that it should be potted immediately from the seed-bed. If it is transplanted ottener,
the head or flower is both less in size, and runs much sooner after it forms. For the same reason, I never
prick out or transplant the general crops ; and as the temperature of our climate does not suffer vegeta-
tion to go on briskly from October to March, by following this method, the heads of flower will remain a
long time in a state of rest after they are formed, without bursting, and heads from six to seven inches
diameter are the ordinary produce of our plants. The seeds of the third crop are sown in a frame, or
under hand-glasses, and about the third week in October, the plants become strong enough to remove, as
in the two former crops."
3561. Green cape, or autumnal broccoli. This sort differs but little from the preceding, except in coloi
and in the heads, as well as the plant, proving in general larger. The leaves are long and narrow, much
like those of a cauliflower ; they are very little waved, and, consequently, have a general appearance of
smoothness ; the veins and mid-rib are green. The head, which has some resemblance to a cauliflower,
is of a greenish-white color, and is usually somewhat covered by the leaves. These two sorts are very
sportive, running much into each other, and have a strong tendency to degenerate, yet are quite distinct,
and when so, very beautiful. The greatest care should be taken in saving the seeds from the plants which
are perfectly true. This remark applies generally to all the sorte.
3562. Grange's early cauliflower broccoli. If this sort is sown at three different times, from the beginning
of May until the end of June, it will bear its heads in succession from Michaelmas to Christmas, if the
weather is not severe. The leaves covering the head, defend it from slight attacks of frost, they have
long naked foot-stalks, are wider and shorter than those of the green cape, are lobed at bottom, but not
much waved ; the veins and mid-rib are whitish green ; the head is large and quite white. It should be
planted at about two feet apart.
3563. Green close-headed winter broccoli, This is a new and good sort, apparently a seedling from the
green cape, which it closely succeeds in coming into use. The plants are dwarf; leaves spreading, and
moderately indented, they are numerous, much waved and large ; the veins are white ; the flower
grows exposed, nearly resembling that of the green cape in appearance, and does not attain a great size.
3564. Culture. The peculiarity of this variety is, that it continues to bear during the whole of the
winter, if the weather is mild. A single plantation, from seeds sown in May, Ronalds found to yield
heads fit for use, through the months of November, December, January, and February. Plant from one
foot and a half to two feet distance.
3565. Early purple broccoli. This is a very excellent kind, of a' deep purple color ; if the true sort, it is
close-headed at first; afterwards it branches, but it is apt to come green, and too much branched, especi-
ally in rich ground. The plants are from two to three feet high, growing strong and tall ; the leaves are
much indented, of a purplish -green color, they spread out wide, but not long, though the stalks are so;
the head is quite open from the leaves ; small leaves are sometimes intermixed with the head : the plants
produce sprouts of flowers from the ala? of the leaves.
3566. Culture. When sown in >April, it begins to produce in November, and continues bearing the
heads and sprouts throughout the winter, in mild seasons ; if sown in June, it produces abundance of
sprouts in March and April. It should be planted three feet apart in rich ground.
3567. Early white broccoli. The heads of this sort are of a close texture, and of a pure white color.
It grows to about three feet in height; with erect, concave, light-green, and nearly entire leaves.
3568. Culture. To obtain heads fine and earlv, the seed should be sown in February, or beginning of
March, on a slight hot-bed. The plants, when about three or four inches high, must be transplanted
into beds of light rich earth, three or four inches apart, and defended from the frost and cold nights
by a mat covering ; they will be strong enough to plant out at two or three feet distance by the end of
April : under this treatment, they will produce beautiful heads in November, and continue to do so until
Christmas, if the weather is tolerably mild. This sort, as well as several others, is sometimes cut in con-
siderable quantities by the market-gardeners, previous to an expected frost, and kept in sheds or cellars for
the supply of the market.
3569. Dwarf brown close-headed broccoli. From its resemblance, I take this to have sprung from the
sulphur-colored broccoli, from which, however, it differs, by coming in earlier, as well as in the shape and
color of its head ; the leaves are also shorter and broader than those of the sulphur-colored ; they are
small, not much waved, dark-green, with white veins ; they grow upright, and do not cover the head at all.
Most of the crowns are green on their first appearance, but soon change to large, handsome, brown heads.
3570. Culture. If sown about the middle of April, it is in use through March and April. Two feet
distance is sufficient for the plants, when put out.
3571. Tall large-headed purple broccoli. This sort produces large, tall, purple heads, at two and three
feet in height.
357'2. Culture. If sown towards the end of March, it will prove a useful kind in March and April. The
plants should be three feet asunder, in good ground.
3573. Cream-colored, or Portsmouth broccoli. This is a very noble sort, exceeding all the others in size. It
is of a buff or cream color, and has a very compact firm head ; its leaves are large and broad, with white
veins; they spread out widely, but the small centre leaves cover the flower. A head, sent by Oldacrc
from the garden of Sir Joseph Banks, to the Horticultural Society, on the 5th of May, 1819, measured
more than two feet in circumference, although it was quite close.
3574. Culture. Seeds sown in the middle of April will be in perfection during the following February,
March, and April. It bears near the ground. The plants should be planted three feet asunder.
3575. Sulphur-colored broccoli. A hardy and valuable sort ; if sown in April, it produces in the following
April, and beginning of May, fine, compact, conical, sulphur-colored heads, some of them slightly dotted
with purple. The leaves have long foot-stalks, are much indented, and of a bluish-grey color.
3576. Culture. Two feet distance will be sufficient for the plants to grow well.
3577. Spring white, or cauliflower broccoli. This sort grows very robust, with large leaves, flat and
narrow, with 'thick veins; the leaves encompass and compress the bead, so as to render it generally in-
visible when fit to cut, which is a gr-at preservative from the frosty mornings common in the spring
months.
It r 4
616 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
3578. Culture. Sow in March, and plant out at three feet distance. When in good ground, it will pro-
duce very tine heads, perfectly white, throughout the months of April and May of the following year.
3579 Late dwarf close-headed purple broccoli. This is the latest purple broccoli, being in perfection
throughout April and the greatest part of May. The plants seldom rise above a foot in height ; the
flower at lirst shows small and green, but soon enlarges, and changes to a close, conical, purple head ; the
leaves are short and small, dark-green, with white veins, much sinuated, deeply indented, and forming a
regular radius round the flower, giving the whole plant a singular and beautiful appearance.
3580. Culture. The seed should be sown in April, and the plants must stand from one foot and a half
to two feet apart.
3581. Latest green, or Siberian, or Danish broccoli. This is the latest and hardiest of all the broccohs, for
the severest winters will not destroy it. The leaves are much undulated and indented, narrow and long,
with a tinge of purple color in the stems. ,
3582. Culture. If sown towards the end of April, it will produce large, compact, green heads during the
whole succeeding May. Two feet distance is sufficient for the plants.
3583. General obseivalions on the culture of broccoli. All the soils are raised from seed ;
and for a bed four feet in width by ten feet, Abercrombie says, one ounce of seed
is sufficient.
3584. Seed-bed. Ronalds, in the paper above quoted, directs the seed-beds to be pre-
pared of rich mould, well dug, and if dry, watered the evening before sowing. The
seeds must be thinly sown, and the beds should be covered with mats or litter till the
plants appear, the covering may then be removed, and the plants watered occasionally as
the state of the weather requires ; should that continue very dry, the best method is to
transplant, when the plants are about two or three inches high, into other beds about four
inches asunder. Being several times refreshed by sprinklings of water, they will, in a
fortnight or three weeks, be sufficiently strong for a second remove. This mode offers
some advantage in giving time to clear off any crops of peas, &c. thereby obtaining
o-round which could not otherwise be conveniently had at the first season of planting out.
The four first sorts on the list, which I consider as congeners, should be only once trans-
planted, as the check their removal occasions is apt to produce the heads prematurely,
which, in that case, will be small, and indifferent in quality. If the season is showery,
it will be needful to cover the beds as soon as sown with netting, to keep off the birds,
also to sprinkle the plants when they appear with lime-water, or to strew on them fresh-
slacked lime, to destroy the slugs. In this case, when the plants are six or eight
inches high, they may be planted at once at the distances recommended for each sort. ^
3585. Insects and diseases. In old gardens, infested, as is often the case, with an in-
sect which in summer insinuates itself into the roots of all the brassica tribe, and causes
a disease usually called the club, trenching the ground deep enough to bring up four
or six inches of fresh undisturbed loam or earth, will probably bury the insects too
deep for mischief, and provide fresh ground for the benefit of the plants. In gardens
much exhausted by reiterated cropping, if this mode cannot be adopted, a good quantity
of fresh-loam from a common or field, dug in, would materially improve the broccoli,
and be of lasting use to future crops. Broccoli, in general, succeeds best in a fresh loamy
soil, where it comes, I ihink, more true in kind, and is hardier, without dung ; but if this
situation cannot be had, deep digging, with plenty of manure, is the only remaining al-
ternative to procure good crops. I believe soap-ashes, dug into the ground in consider-
able quantities, to be a good preservative from the club ; and if the roots of the plants,
just previously to planting, are dipped and stirred well about in mud of soap-ashes with
water, its adherence will, in a great measure, preserve them from attack ; perhaps a mix-
ture of stronger ingredients, such as soot, sulphur-vivum, tobacco, &c. would be still bet-
ter. (Hort. Trans, vol. iii.)
3586. Wood, a writer in the Caledonian Horticultural Memoirs, says he has paid a
considerable degree of attention to the culture of broccoli, and has made considerable
progress therein. He finds that manuring with a compound of sea-weed and horse-dung
produced the largest and finest heads he had seen during a practice of fifty-four years.
3587. Culture without transplanting M'Leod grows cape broccoli in a very superior manner without
transplanting. In the end of Mav, after having prepared the ground, he treads it nrm, and by the assist-
ance of a line, sows his seeds in rows two feet apart, dropping three or four seeds into holes two teet dis-
tance from each other in the row. When the seeds vegetate, he destroys all except the strongest, wmen
are protected from the fly, by sprinkling a little soot over the ground ;- as the p^nts advance they are
frequently flat-hoed until they bear their flowers ; they are once earthed up, during their growth, a
specimen'of the broccoli thus grown was exhibited to the Horticultural Society ; the head was compact ana
handsome, measuring two feet nine inches in circumference, and weighing, when divested ot its leaves
and stalk, three pounds ; the largest of its leaves was upwards of two feet long. M'Leod adopts the same
mode in the cultivation of spring-sown cauliflowers, lettuces, and almost all other vegetables, avoiding
transplanting as much as possible. {Hort. Trans, vol. iv. 559.)
3588 Preserving broccoli during winter. Ronalds observes, that, though broccohs come larger and finer
on the spot where they are planted, yet it is prudent to take up a part of the later "sorts in the beginning
of November, disturbing the roots as little as possible, and lay them in slopingly, with their heads towards
the north, only a few inches above the ground, and about eighteen inches asunder. By this means, the
crown of the plant lving low, is soon covered and protected by the snow, which generally falls previously
to long and severe frosts ; the plant is also rendered tougher in fibre, and hardier, by the check received
m3589 J&weVW. having practised laying in his broccoli-plants in November in the usual way, found but
small heads produced from them in the succeeding spring ; till he tried trenching or laying them in in the
month of September, and "so low as that the centre of the stem at the top of each plant was level with
the surface of the ground" The plants are watered, roots are properly emitted, and the earth drawn
Book I.
INSECTS.
617
round each plant before snow is apprehended. The consequence of this treatment is, that the plants arc
fresh and vigorous in spring, and produce large heads. (Hart. Trans, vol. i. p. 305.)
3590 Nicol takes up the most forward crops of broccoli in the end of October, and lays them on their sides,
so as the heads may not touch each other. In a dry soil and open situation, the plants will thus resist the
severest winters.
3591 Gathering. In gathering broccoli, five or six inches of the stem are retained along with the head ;
and in dressing, fhe stalks are peeled before boiling. Some of the sorts produce sprouts from the sides of
the stems, with small heads, that should be gathered when ready, and are very good when boiled.
3592. To save seed. Wood, already mentioned, selects the largest, best formed,
and finest heads, taking particular care that no foliage appears on the surface of the
heads ; these he marks, and in April lays them in by the heels in a compound of cleanings
of old ditches, tree-leaves, and dung. When the head begins to open or expand, he cuts
out the centre, leaving only four or five of the outside shoots to come to seed. Lifting,
he says, prevents them from producing proud seed, as it is called, or degenerating.
The above method produces seed the most genuine of all the others he has tried. The
sulphur broccoli he finds the most difficult to procure seed from. (Caled. Hort. Mem.
vol. ii. p. 267.) Abercrombie says, broccoli-seeds degenerate in this country, and that
the best seed is obtained from Italy.
Subsect. 8. Of the Insects which infest the Cabbage Tribe.
3593. The whole of the cabbage tribe are liable to the attacks of the larvae of the Ti-
pula oleracea, L. on their roots, and of the caterpillars of butterflies {fig. 464.) and
moths (Jig. 465. ) on their leaves, as
well as of aphides, or cabbage-lice,
snails, and slugs. There is no re-
medy for the first, excepting that of
taking up, cleaning, and transplant-
ing in fresh soil, in a different part
of the garden ; and it is in general
easier to plant afresh from the seed-
bed. With respect to caterpillars,
snails, and slugs, they can only be
gathered by hand, and the way to
do this effectually is to begin as soon
as they appear, employing women
or children to look them over daily
early in the morning. Poultry, and
especially ducks arid sea-gulls, are sometimes of use in keeping these and other insects
under ; a hen and chickens will devour caterpillars and aphides greedily, but are apt to
scratch the soil afterwards, if not timely removed ; turkey fowls are better. Nature has
r/BMifiiPw5*
furnished a remarkable insect, which assists man in the destruction of the caterpillar, the
Ichneumon manifestator, L. (Jig, 466.) " The insects of this genus," Samouelle observes,
" lay their eggs in the bodies
of caterpillars or pupa?, which
are there hatched ; the larva?,
have no feet ; they are soft
and cylindrical, and feed on
the substance of the caterpil-
lar, which never turns to a
perfect insect, while the larva?
of the ichneumon spin them-
selves a silky web, and change
into a pupa incompleta, and
in a few ^days the fly ap-
pears." (Entomologist's Com-
panion, 68.) Ante, 2661.
618 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
3594. Preventive device. " If in a patch of ground where cabhages are to be planted
some hemp-seed be sown all round the edge, in the spring, the strong smell which that
plant gives in vapor, will prevent the butterfly from infesting the cahbages. The
Russian peasantry, in those provinces where hemp is cultivated, have their cabbages
within those fields, by which they are free from caterpillars." (J. Busch, in Hort. Trans.
vol. iv. 569.)
3595. The principal disease to which the cabbage is liable, is the club in the root. The
cause is doubtful, but most probably it proceeds from the puncture of an insect in
depositing its eggs. The part swells and becomes a tubercle as large as a gooseberry,
and sometimes the size of a hen's egg. When it has attacked plants before transplant-
ation, the root on which it appears should be cut off before- planting ; in the case of
transplanted crops there is no remedy but taking up, cutting off, and re-transplanting.
Some in planting apply ashes, lime, &c. at the roots, but nothing of this sort has been
found of much advantage. In general, frequent transplanting (as pricking out twice or
oftener before making the final plantation) is a palliative, as it promotes fibrous roots,
and the club attacks chiefly those which are ramose.
Sect. II. Leguminoxis Plants.
3596. The legximinous esculents are of great antiquity as culinary vegetables; the
British islands are supposed to be less favorable to them, than to most others, all the
diadelphous plants of Linnaeus, or leguminosae of Jussieu, thriving best in a dry atmo-
sphere, and comparatively arenaceous soil. These, it must be allowed, are more com-
mon in other countries than in ours. The space occupied by this tribe in the kitchen-
garden, during the spring and summer months, is very considerable ; probably amount-
ing to an eighth part of the open compartments, and warm borders ; but towards autumn,
as the crops ripen, it is given up to be succeeded by other crops, chiefly of the cabbage and
turnip tribes. These, independently of other circumstances, having fibrous or surface-
roots, succeed well to the tap-roots of the bean and pea. In cottage gardens, the bean
is very profitably grown among cabbages and potatoes ; and the pea and kidneybean
may occupy a space to be filled up in October with winter greens. We shall take them
in the order of the pea, bean, and kidneybean.
Subsect. 1. Pea. — Pisum sativum, L. (Lam. III. i. 163.) Biad. Decan. L. and
Leguminosae, J. Pois, Fr. ; Erbse, Ger. ; and Pisello, Ital.
3597. The pea is a hardy annual, a native of the south of Europe, and cultivated in
this country from time immemorial. It was not very common, however, in Elizabeth's
time, when, as Fuller informs us, peas were brought from Holland, and were " fit
dainties for ladies, they came so far, and cost so dear." It is a climbing plant, with the
legumes, or pods, commonly produced in pairs, the seeds contained in which are the part
of the plant used.
3598. The vise of the pea is familiar in cookery. In one variety, called the sugar-pea
(pois des couches, Fr. ?), the inner tough film of the pods is wanting ; and such pods, when
young, are frequently boiled with the seeds or peas within them, and eaten in the manner
of kidneybeans. This variety is comparatively new, having been introduced about the
middle of the 17th century.
3599. The varieties of the pea are numerous : the principal are —
Early Charlton ; an excellent early sort
nearly equal to the genuine frame
Early golden Charlton
Early Niohol's golden Charlton
Common Charlton
Early single-blossomed
Reading Hotspur ; long pods
Dwarf marrowfat ; large, long pods
Tall marrowfat ; most large, long pods
Green marrowfat, Patagonian
Knight's wrinkled, or marrow ; a white-
blossomed, tall, luxuriant grower ; the
fruit of excellent flavor, cream-colored,
and shrivelled when ripe and dried
Spanish moratto ; largish
Prussian blue ; great bearer
Egg ; largish
W hite rouncival ; large, fine pods
Green rouncival ; ditto
Grey rouncival ; ditto
Tall sugar ; large, crooked pods
Dwarf sugar
Crown, or rose ; of tall, strong growth;
producing its blossom and fruit in a
bunchy tuft at top
Leadman's dwarf; a great bearer, but of
small pods ; good for a latter crop, or
as required for succession
Spanish dwarf; of low growth, small pod
Early dwarf frame; for forcing
Nanterre, or earliest French pea.
3600. Estimate of sorts. " The varieties, besides differing in the color of the blossoms, height of the
stalks, and modes of growth, are found to have some material differences- in hardiness to stand the winter,
time of coming in, and flavor of the fruit. The Charltons are not only very early, but great bearers, and
excellent peas for the table ; and are therefore equally well fitted for the early crop, and forward succes-
sion crops, and inferior to few even for the main summer crops. The frame-pea may, indeed, be raised
without the assistance of heat for a forward crop ; and, if a genuine sort, will fruit a few days sooner than
the Charlton : but it grows low, and bears scantily. The Hotspur is hardy and prolific, and makes returns
nearlv as quick as the Charlton, and about a fortnight before the marrowfat. The sorts already specified,
therefore, embrace the best for sowings made from the end of October till the middle of January, and for
late crops raised between the middle of June and the beginning of August. The fine flavor of the marrow-
fat is well known. A few dwarf marrowfats mav be sown in December and January, as mild weather
may occur : but the time for sowing full crops of the larger kinds of peas, is from the beginning of
February till the end of April. Knight's pea, one of the newest varieties, is very prolific, and retains its
fine sweet flavor when full grown. The egg, the moratto, the Prussian blue, and the rouncivals, the large
sugar, and the crown, are all very fine eating peas in young growth ; and, like the marrowfat, may be
sown freely, according to the demand, from the third "week of February, till the close of April, and, in
smaller crops, until the middle of June. For late crops, in addition to the early sorts already mentioned,
the dwarf sugar, Leadman's dwarf, and Spanish dwarf, are very suitable. The Leadman's dwarf is a
6itnll delicious pea, a great bearer, and in high request at genteel tables : but as the fruit is long in coming
Book I.
PEA.
619
in, it is not advisable to sow it after the third week in June ; rather sow it in March, April, and May,
and then it will be later than the Charltons raised five weeks afterwards. The Charltons and Hotspur,
may be sown in May, for late full crops ; in June for a smaller supply : and in July, along with the frames
for the last returns."
3601. Times of sowing. " Much that relates to this has been incidentally mentioned in the Estimate
of sorts. To try for a crop as early as possible, sow, of the sort preferred as hardy and forward, a small
portion on a sheltered south border, or other favorable situation, at the close of October, or rather in the
course of November. Follow with another sowing in December, that, if the former should be casually
cut off in winter, this coming up later, may have a better chance to stand ; and if both survive the frost,
they will succeed each other in fruit in May and June. For more considerable, and less uncertain
returns, either in succession to the above, or as first early and intermediate crops, sow larger portions in
December or January, if open temperate weather. To provide for main crops, make successive sowings
of the suitable sorts from February till the end of May. It frequently proves, that the fruit from a sowing
at the beginning of February, is not a week later than that from a crop raised in November; nay, the
February-sown plants sometimes surpass all that have stood the winter, in forward returns as well as
quantity. From the middle of February make successive sowings every three weeks in the course of
March, April, and May; or twice a-month in summer, when a continued succession is to be provided till
the latest period. At the close of the sowing season, July and the first week of August, sow a reduced
quantity each time ; because the returns will depend on a fine mild autumn following, and whatever
fruit is obtained will be small and scanty."
3602. Quantity of seed. Of the small early kinds, one pint will sow a row of twenty yards ; for the
larger sorts for main crops, the same measure will sow a row of thirty-three yards.
3603. Process in sowing. " For early sorts, make the drills one inch and a half deep; and let parallel
drills be two feet and a naif, three, or four feet asunder. Peas that are to grow without sticks require the
least room. For summer crops and large sorts, make the drills two inches deep, and four, five, or six feet
asunder. As to the distances along the drill, distribute the peas according to their size and the sea-
son : the frame, three in the space of an inch ; the Charltons, Hotspur, and dwarf marrowfat, two in an
inch ; the Prussian blue and middle-sized sorts, three in two inches; the large marrow-fat and Knight's,
a full inch apart ; the moratto, round vals, and most larger sorts, an inch and a half apart ; and the Pata-
gonian, two inches."
3604. Soil and situation. " The soil should be moderately rich, and the deeper and stronger for the
lofty growers. Peas are not assisted, but hurt, by unreduced dung recently turned in. A fresh sandy
loam, or road-stuff, and a little decomposed vegetable matter, is the best manure. The soil for the early
crops should be very dry, and rendered so where the ground is moist, by mixing sand with the earth of
the drills. For early crops, put in from October till the end of January, let the situation be sheltered,
and the aspect sunny. Before the end of December, every one or two rows should stand close under z.
south or south-eastern fence. In January, several parallel rows may be extended under a good aspect
farther from the fence. After January, till the end of May, sow in an open situation. For the late
crops, return again to a sheltered sunny border."
3605. Subsequent culture. " As the plants rise from half an inch high to two cr three inches, begin to
draw earth to the stems, doing this when the ground is in a 'dry state ; and earthing gradually higher as
the stems ascend. At the same time, with the hoe loosen the ground between the young plants, and cut
down rising weeds. Early crops should be protected during hard frosts by dry straw or other light litter,
laid upon sticks or brushwood ; but remove the covering as soon as the weather turns mild. If in April,
May, and the course of summer, continued dry weather occurs, watering will be necessary, especially to
plants in blossom and swelling the fruit ; and this trouble will be repaid in the produce. Kows partly cut
off may be made up by transplanting. This is best done in March. In dry weather, water, and in hot
days, shade, until the plants strike. All peas fruit better for sticking, and continue longer productive,
especially the larger sorts. Stick the plants when from six to twelve inches high, as soon as they begin
to vine. Provide branchy sticks of such a height as the sort will require : for the frame and Leadman's
dwarf, three feet high ; for the Charlton and middle-sized, four or five feet; for the marrowfat and
larger kinds, six or eight feet ; for the rouncival, and for Knight's marrow-pea, nine or ten feet. Yte.i-e
a row of sticks to each line of peas, on the most sunny side, east or south, that the attraction of the sun
may incline the plants towards the sticks. Place about half the number on the opposite side, and let botJi
rows stand rather wider at top than at the ground Some gardeners stop the leauing shoot of the most
early crop when in blossom ; a device which accelerates the setting and maturity of the fruit."
3606. To forward an early crop. Sow or plant in lines from east to west, and stick a row of spruce-fir
branches along the north side of every row, and sloping so as to bend over the plants, at one foot or eigh-
teen inches from the ground. As the plants advance in height, vary the position of the branches, so as
they may always protect them from perpendicular cold or rain, and yet leave them open to the full in-
fluence of the winter and spring sun. Some cover during nights and in severe weather, with two boards
nailed together lengthwise, at right angles, which forms a very secure and easily managed covering,
but excludes light. A better plan would be to glaze one of the sides, to be kept to the south, and to
manage such row-glasses (fig. 467.), as they might be called, when over peas, beans, spinage, &c, as hand-
glasses are managed when over cauliflower ; that is, to take them off in fine weather, or raise them con-
stantly or occasionally by brick-bats, or other props, as the weather and the state of the crop might require.
3607. Knight sowed peas in the open air, and peas in pots on the first day of March. In the last week
of the month those in pots were transplanted in rows in the open ground ; on the 29th of April the trans-
planted plants were fifteen, and the others four inches high, and in June, the former ripened twelve days
before the latter. (Hort. Trans, v. 341.) Had a single, or even two peas only been planted in each pot,
and th
3608
may be sown at intervals of ten days from the begir
in the usual way, and the spaces to be occupied by the future rows of peas are well soaked with water.
The mould upon each side is then collected, so as to form ridges seven or eight inches above the previous
level of the ground, and these ridges are well watered. The seeds are now sown in single rows along the
tops of the ridges. The plants grow vigorously, owing to the depth of soil and abundant moisture. If
dry weather at any time set in, water is supplied profusely once a-week. In this way the plants continue
green and vigorous, resisting mildew, and yielding fruit till subdued by frost." [Hort. Trans, ii.)
3609. Taking the crop. " The early crops are generally gathered in very young growth, often too
voung, when the pods are thin and the pease small, for the sake of presenting some at table as soon as
possible. In the main crops there is no cause for precipitation : take them as they become pretty plump,
620 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
while the peas are yet green and tender. Leave some on to grow old ; the young pods will then fill in
greater perfection, and the plants will continue longer in bearing."
3610. To save seed. u Either sow approved sorts in the spring, for plants, to stand
wholly for seed, to have the pods ripen in full perfection; or occasionally leave some
rows of any main crop ; let all the early podded ripen, and gather the late formed only
for the table, as the last gleanings of a crop seldom afford good full seed. For public
supply extensive crops are commonly raised in fields. Let the seed attain full maturity,
indicated by the pods changing brown, and the peas hardening : then to be hooked up
and prepared for threshing out in due time, cleaned, and housed."
3611. For the method of forcing peas, see Chap. VII. Sect. XII.
Subsect. 2. Garden-Bean. — Vicia Faba, L. Diad. Dec. L. and Leguminosce, J.
Feve de viarais, Fr. ; Bohn, Ger. ; and Fava, Ital.
3612. The garden-bean is an annual plant, rising from two to four feet high, with a
thick angular stem, the leaves divided, and without tendrils ; the flowers white, with a
black spot in the middle of the wing ; seed-pods thick, long, woolly within, and enclosing
the large ovate flatted seeds, for the sake of which the plant is cultivated in gardens. It
is a native of the east, and particularly of Egypt, but has been known in this country
from time immemorial, having, in all probability, been introduced by the Romans.
" Crops of beans," Neill observes, " are very ornamental to the kitchen-garden, and
render it a pleasant walk, the flowers having a fragrance not unlike those of the orange."
3613. Use. The seeds are the only part used in cookery; and are either put in
soup^ or sent up in dishes apart.
3614. Varieties. The following are the principal sorts planted in British gardens : —
Early small Mazagan
Early long-pod
Early small Lisbon
Large long -pod
Larger sword long-pod
Broad Spanish I Toker ; middling large
Windsor broad Wriite-blossomed ; smallish middling
Large Kenti-.h Windsor I Green nonpareil ; smallish
Largest Taylor's Windsor Mumford; smallish middling
Sandwich ; largish \ Dwarf cluster, or fan ; smallest.
3615. Estimate of sorts. " The Mazagan is one of the hardiest and best flavored of the small and early
sorts. Mazagan is a Portuguese settlement on the coast of Africa, near the Straits of Gibraltar ; and it is
said that seeds brought from thence afford plants that are more early and more fruitful than those which
spring from home-saved seed. The Lisbon is next, in point of earliness and fruitfulness ; some, indeed,
consider it as merely the Mazagan ripened in Portugal. The dwarf-fan or cluster-bean is likewise an
early variety, but it is planted chiefly for curiosity; it rises only six or eight inches high ; the branches
spread out like a fan, and the pods are produced in small clusters. The Sandwich bean has been long
noted for its fruitfulness ; the Toker and the broad Spanish are likewise great bearers. Of all the large
kinds, the Windsor bean is preferred for the table. When gathered young, the seeds are sweet and very
agreeable ; when the plants are allowed room and time, they produce very large seeds, and in tolerable
plenty, though they are not accounted liberal bearers. There are several subvarieties, such as the broad
Windsor, Taylor's Windsor, and the Kentish Windsor. The long-podded bean rises about three feet high,
and is a great bearer, the pods being long and narrow, and closely filled with oblong middle-sized seeds.
This sort is now very much cultivated, and there are several subordinate varieties of it, as the early, the
large, and the sword long-pod. The white-blossomed bean is so called, because the black mark on the
wing of the blossom is wanting. The seed is semi-transparent ; when young it has little of the peculiar
bean flavor, and is on this account much esteemed ; it is at the same time a copious bearer, and proper for
a late crop. It may be mentioned, that Delaunay, in Le bon Jardinier, describes as excellent a new
variety cultivated at Paris, which he calls the green bean from China ; it is late, but very productive ; and
the fruit remains green even when ripe and dried."
3616. Times of sowing for eai-ly and successional crops. " For the earliest crop, plant some Mazagans
in October, November, or December, in a warm border, under an exposure to the full sun. Set them in
rows two feet or two and a half asunder, about an inch and a half or two inches deep, and two or three
inches apart in the rows; or some may also be sown in a single drill, under a south wall." The most
successful plan for nurturing a crop over the winter, is to sow the beans thickly together in a bed of light
earth, under a warm aspect, for the intermediate object of protecting the infant plants the better from
rigorous weather ; and with the view of transplanting them at the approach of spring, or when the size of
the plants (two or three inches in height) require it, into warm borders, at the distances at which the
plants are to fruit. For this object, the width of a garden-frame is a convenient width for the bed, which
should slope a little to the south. Sow two inches deep, either in drills, or by drawing off that depth of
the earth with a hoe or spade, scattering in the beans at the distance of about a square inch. At the ap-
proach of frost, protect the rising plants with a frame, hand-glasses, or the half-shelter of an awning of
matting. In February or March, as soon as mild weather offers, transplant them into a warm south bor-
der, placing one row close under a protecting-fence as far as that advantage can be given. Ease them out
of the seed-bed with their full roots, and with as much mould as will adhere : pull off the old beans at
bottom, and prune the end of the tap-root. Then plant them at the proper final distances, closing the
earth rather high about the stems. Besides the benefit of previous protection, the fruiting of the beans is
accelerated about a week by transplanting. Further, if severe frosts kill the early advanced plants, or if
it was omitted to sow an early crop at the general season, a quantity may be sown thick in a moderate
hot-bed, in January or February, or in large pots placed therein, or in a stove, to raise some plants quickly,
for transplanting as above ; previously hardening them by degrees to the full air. In all cases, as the
young plants come up, give occasional protection in the severity of winter ; and hoe up a little earth to
the stems. Plants which can have no other shelter should be covered lightly with dry haulm or straw ;
but such a covering must be carefully removed as often as the weather turns mild. To succeed the above,
plant more of the same sort, or some of the early long-pod or small Lisbon, in December or January,
when mild weather, for larger supplies, in more open exposures. And in order to obtain either a more
full succession, or a first general crop, plant some early and large long-pods, and broad Spanish, at the end of
January, if open weather, in some warmest compartment of good mellow ground. Some of the larger sword
long-pod, Sandwich, and Toker beans, may also be planted in fuller crops in February, if the weather
permit, both for succession and principal supplies. You may likewise plant any of the preceding kinds, as
well as Windsors and other sorts, in full and succession crops in February, March, and April."
3617. For the main summer crops, " adopt principally the Windsor, Sandwich, and Toker, large long-pod,
and broad Spanish ; all to be assigned under a free exposure, in the main compartments. The Windsor ranks
first in regard to flavor ; but proves, on common soils, not so plentiful a bearer as the other late sorts.
Plant also full succession crops, in March and April, and smaller portions in May and June, for late pro-
Book I. KIDNEYBEAN. 621
duction, especially the long-pod, broad Spanish, and Toker ; also any of the early sorts, which are more
successful in late planting, than the larger broad varieties. The white-blossomed bean, though the
smallest of the middle-sized, is a very desirable sort to plant as secondary crops, both in the general and
late planting seasons, from March till June and July ; being a great bearer, and a tender and sweet
eating bean, if gathered young. Any of the other sorts named in the above list may also be planted oc-
casionally, to increase the variety. For sowings in June and July, the small or early kinds again become
the most proper, as their constitution fits them for standing late as well as early. Thus regular supplies
may be provided for in succession, from June till September." (Abercrombie.)
3618. Quantity of seed. For early crops, one pint of seed will be requisite for every eighty feet of
row ; for main crops, two quarts for every 240 feet of row ; and for late crops, nearly the same as the
early. For the main crops, the quantity cultivated in proportion to that for early or late crops, is gene-
rally treble or quadruple, as to the extent of ground : but a less quantity of seed is requisite for the same
space.
3619. Method of sowing. " Plant all the sorts in rows, two feet and a half apart, for the smaller, or
very early, or very late Kinds ; and three feet for the larger : the smaller beans two inches deep, and
three inches distant in the row ; the larger three inches deep, and four inches distant in the row."
3620. Transplanting. Speechly constantly transplants his early bean-crops, and considers that this
plant may be as easily transplanted as cabbage, or any other vegetable. It is a practice with him to
plant beans alternately with potatoes in the same row ; the rows three feet apart, and the potatoes eigh-
teen inches apart in the row, so that the beans arc nine inches from the potatoes. The beans are
transplanted, by which means they have the start and advantage of the potatoes and weeds, and as they
come in early, may be gathered before they can possibly incommode or injure the potatoes. (Practical
Hints, Sec. p. 17.)
3621. Manual process. " The work of sowing is most generally effected by a dibble, having a thick
blunt end, to make a wide aperture for each bean, to admit it clean to the bottom, without any narrow
hollow part below : strike the earth fully and regularly into the holes, over the inserted beans. Or the
planting may be performed occasionally in drills drawn with a hoe the proper depth and distance as
above : place the beans at intervals along the bottom of each drill, and earth them over evenly; which
method, though suitable to any kinds, may be more particularly adopted in sowing the early and other
small sorts."
3622. Soaking seed in summer. " In planting late crops in June and July, if the weather be dry, it is
eligible to give the beans a previous soaking for several hours in soft water; or, if they are to be sown in
drills, water the drills beforehand, then directly put in the beans, and earth them in while the ground
remains moist."
3623. Subsequent culture. " As the plants come up, and advance from two to four or six inches high,
hoe up some earth to the stems on both sides of each row, cutting down all weeds. Repeat the hoeing
as future weeds arise, both to keep the ground about the plants clean, and to loosen the earth to encou-
rage their growth. In earthing up, great care must be taken that the earth do not fall on the centre of
the plant so as to bury it ; for this occasions it to rot or fail. After earthing up, stir between the rows
with a three-pronged fork. As the different crops come into full blossom, pinch or cut off the tops, in
order to promote their fruiting sooner, in a more plentiful production of well filled pods." (Abercrombie.)
Nicol says, " Topping is unnecessary for any but the early crops ; being practised to render them more
early." Most gardeners, however, are of opinion, that topping improves the crop both in quantity and
quality. It might be worth an ingenious young gardener's while to try the effect of ringing at the bot-
tom of the stalk, against cutting off the top.
3624. To forward an early crop, see this article under Pea. (3606.)
3625. To produce a very late crop. Neill mentions an expedient sometimes resorted to to produce a late
crop. A compartment of beans is fixed on ; and when the flowers appear, the plants are entirely cut over,
a few inches from the surface of the ground. New stems spring from the stools, and these produce a
very late crop of beans.
3626. Gathering. For table use, gather only such as are tender, the seeds decreasing in delicacy after
they attain about half the size which they should possess at maturity. When they become black-eyed,
they are tough, and strong tasted, and much inferior for eating.
3627. To save seed. " Either plant some of the approved sorts, in February or
March, wholly for that purpose ; or leave some rows of the different crops ungathered,
in preference to the gleanings of gathered crops. The pods will ripen in August,
becoming brown and dry, and the beans dry and hard : then pulling up the stalks, place
them in the sun, to harden the seed thoroughly, after which thresh out each sort
separately. " (Abercrombie. )
3628. " To force the bean, see Chap. VII. Sect. XII.
Subsect. 3. Kidneybean. — Phaseolus, L. Diadel. Decaji. L. and Legu?ninosce, J.
Haricot, Fr. ; Schminkbohne, Ger. ; and Faginolo, Ital.
3629. The common dwarf kidneybean, the haricot of the French, and erroneously
termed French bean, is the P. vulgaris, L. (Lob. Ic. 2. p. 59.) It is a tender annual, a
native of India, and introduced in 1597, or earlier. Flowers from June to September.
The species called the runner is the P. multiflorus, Willd. (Schk. Han. 2. 7. 199. a.) a
half hardy annual, and a native of South America, introduced in 1633. It is rather
more tender than the other ; produces flowers from July to September. The stem of
both species is more or less twining, though little of this propensity is shown in the
dwarfish kinds. The leaves are ternate, on long foot-stalks ; the flowers on axillary
racemes ; the corolla generally white, sometimes yellow, red, or purple. The pods are
oblong, swelling slightly over the seeds, which are generally kidney-shaped, smooth, and
shining, when ripe, varying in color according to the variety, and either white, black, blue,
red, or spotted. The fruit of both sorts may be had in perfection from the open garden,
by successive crops from June to October. Speechly suggests (Practical Hints on Domestic
(Economy, p. 15.), that the culture of the kidneybean might become an object of national
or field culture in this country, and be particularly useful in times of scarcity ; " more
especially, as on good land it will flourish and grow luxuriantly, even in a dry parching
season ; in which respect it differs from most other culinary vegetables." It is an article
of field-culture in most warm countries, especially France and America.
3630. Use. The unripe pods are chiefly used in Britain as a legume, for which they
622 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
are in great estimation throughout the year ; heing produced by forcing when they can-
not be grown in the natural ground. They are also used as a pickle. On the continent,
the ripe seeds are much used in cookery ; forming what are called haricots, of different
kinds, and entering into some sorts of soups. In the end of the season, when frost is
expected, the haulm of the kidneybean crop is gathered and dried like that of the pea in
this country, and the ripe beans afterwards threshed out, and preserved for use through
the winter.
3631. Varieties of the dwarf species : —
Early yellow dwarf | Early white I Black-speckled I Streaked, or striped
Early red-speckled Battersea white I Brown-speckled Tawny
Early black, or negro | Canterbury white | Dun-colored | Large white dwarf.
3632. Varieties of the runner or climbing species: —
but the pods similar to the scarlet
kind *
White Dutch runner ; bears very long
smooth pods, but does not continue
so long in tlower as the two former
Canterbury and Battersea small white
runner
Variable runner.
Scarlet runner ; the most plentiful and
lasting bearer, preferable for the main
crop of runner
Large white runner ; a variety of the
scarlet. The seed and blossom white,
3fi33. Constitution and habits. Both the above classes of kidneybeans, dwarfs, and runners, are tender
in their nature, unable to grow freely in the open garden before April or May ; the seed being liable to
rot in the ground from the effects of wet, if planted before the beginning of the former month, even in a
dry soil. The plants are also affected by sharp cold, and make but little progress till settled warm wea-
ther. However, when sown in the proper season, from April or May through the course of summer,
till the beginning of August, they succeed well, making liberal returns of fruit from June or July till
October. The dwarfs require no support ; but the runners, ascending eight or ten feet high or more,
require tall sticks or poles to climb upon, or lines suspended from a contiguous building or fence. They
produce pods their whole length. It deserves notice, that in their voluble habit of growth, the tendrils
turn to the right, or in a direction contrary to the apparent diurnal course of the sun: this aberration
from the common habits of plants has been accounted for by supposing that the native climate of the
scarlet runner will be found to lie south of the equator, and that the plant, although removed to the
northern hemisphere, is still obedient to the course originally assigned to it, turning in a direction which,
in its native climate, would be towards the sun. (Abercrom'bk.)
3634. Estimate of sorts. The dwarfs bear sowing a little sooner, and make returns quicker than the run-
ners. They are, besides, more convenient to cultivate on a large scale; and the smaller pods which they
produce, are esteemed bv many to have more delicacy of flavor. On these accounts, it is usual to raise the
larger supply from the dwarf species. The early yellow, early black, and early red-speckled, are among
the most hafdv and most forward ; the early white comes in a few days later, but is cf superior flavor. The
Canterbury, Battersea, black-speckled, brown-speckled, dun-colored, striped, and tawny, are plentiful
lasting bearers. Growers for sale, in general, depend on the Canterbury and Battersea for main crops ; but
the others just named are also profitable sorts, and acceptable to the consumer. The dwarf kidneybean
continues to produce voung pods in abundance, and in perfection only about three weeks or a month. The
runners yield a succession of fruit from the same sowing a much longer time than the dwarfs. The scarlet
runner ranks first for its prolific property and long continuance in fruit; the pods are thick, fleshy, tender,
and good, if gathered while moderately young. The white variety is equally eligible for a principal crop.
The Dutch runner grows as luxuriantly as hops, and is also a great bearer, in fine long pods, but not so
lasting as the former. As to the smaller runner kinds : these are rather degenerate varieties of the Can-
terbury and Battersea white dwarfs ; casually shooting into runners : they bear, in tolerable abundance,
slender neat pods, which are very good and tender eating; though not so eligible for a principal crop of
runners as the scarlets.
3635. Quantity of seed. Half a pint will sow a row eighty feet in length, the beans being placed from two
and a half to three inches apart.
3636. Soil. The soil for both species should be light and mellow, inclining to a dry sand for the early
sowings, and to a moist loam for the sowings in summer.
3637. Separate culture of dwarf s. About the beginning of April, if the weather be temperate, fair, and
settled, make the first sowing, or in a dry south border, or other sheltered compartment with a good aspect,
or sow in a single row close under a south fence ; beginning with a small proportion of the most hardy early
sorts. It is a good method to follow in a week with a second sowing in case the former should fail. You
may sow for a larger crop about the middle, or twentieth of April. For the early crops, make the drills two
feet asunder. The common depth is an inch and a half for the smaller-sized beans. Drop the beans in
each row at this season prettv close together, as many may fail ; from one to two inches apart. Cover them
in evenly the full depth of the drill. For the main crops, you may sow more fully towards the end of April ;
and in full crops in May and June ; a portion once every fortnight or three weeks, of the Canterbury and
other sorts, approved for a main supply. Draw drills, two feet or two and a half asunder, an inch and a
half or two inches deep. Drop the beans therein, three inches apart, and earth iu the full depth of the
drills. For supplies in succession, sow in July once or twice ; and make a moderate sowing at the begin-
ning of August for a late and last crop. In the drought of high summer, it is advisable to accelerate the
germination of the seed, by laying it in damp mould, till it begins to sprout, or by soaking it in soft water for
six or eight hours previous to sowing ; and by watering the drills to receive it. Crops sown after the middle
of Julv should be favored in situation, or the time of their bearing will be much shortened by the decline of
summer. From this course of sowings, a regular succession of young green pods will be produced from
June and Julv till October. As the plants of the different crops advance in growth, occasionally hoe and
stir the ground between the rows. Cut down all weeds as they spring. Draw some earth to the stems of
the plants as they rise to height, which will strengthen and forward them considerably. When advanced to
full bearing, it is advisable to gather the pods in moderately young or medium growth.
3638. Culture of runners. The runner kidneybeans may be sown in a small portion, towards the end
of April, if tolerablv warm drv weather; but as these beans are rather more tender than the dwarf sorts,
more liable to rot in the ground bv wet and cold, especially the scarlets, the beginning or middle of May
will be time enough to sow a considerable crop ; and you may sow a full crop about the beginning of June.
Allot principally the scarlet and large white runners. Some Dutch runners are very eligible as a se-
condary crop. The first crops should have the assistance of a south wall. Intermediate crops may be
sown in anv open compartment, or against any feuce not looking north. The latest sown will continue
bearing the longer under a good aspect and shelter. In sowing, draw drills about an inch and a half, or
not more than two inches deep. Let parallel rows be at least four feet asunder, to admit in the intervals
tall sticks or poles for the plants to climb upon. Place the beans in the drills four inches apart, and earth
them in evenly, the depth of the drills. A row contiguous to a fence or building may ascend upon lines.
Some mav be sown in a single row along a border, or on each side of a walk ; and have the support of a
slight trellis of laths and lines ; or they might be arched over with similar materials, to form a shady walk
or1x)wer. In a cold wet season, or when requisite to have a few plants more forward than the general
crop, some scarlets may be sown in April, either in a slight hot-bed, or in pots, under frames or hand-
glasses to raise and forward the plants till two or three inches high : then, at the end of May, transplant
Book I. ESCULENT ROOTS. 623
them into the open garden. As the plants come up, and advance from three to six inches in growth, hoe
some earth to the stems, cutting down all waeds. When they begin to send forth runners, place suitable
supports to each row ; and conduct the tendrils to the sticks or lines, turning them in a contrary di-
rection to the sun. The ascending plants will soon come into flower, podding at the joints in long
succession. They are so prolific that the returns from three sowings, in May, June, and July, will last from
July till October.
3639. Taking the crop. Gather the pods, both from dwarfs and runners, while they are young,
fleshy, brittle, and tender ; for then are they in highest perfection for the table ; and the plants will
bear more fully, and last longer in fruit, under a course of clean gathering, not leaving any superabundant
pods to grow old.
3640. To save seed. Either sow a portion for that object, or leave rows wholly ungathered of the main
crops, or preserve a sufficiency of good pods promiscuously. The beans saved should be the first-fruits of
a crop sown at a period which throws the entire course of growth into the finest part of summer. Let
them hang on the stalks till they ripen fully in August and September ; then let the haulm be pulled up,
and placed in the sun, to dry and harden the seed, which should be afterwards cleared out of the husks,
bagged up, and housed.
3641. Forwarding an early crop. The kidneybean is often partially forced in hot-houses or frames,
with a view to its fruiting in the open garden ; and supplies of green pods are also kept up throughout
the winter and spring months, by forcing in hot-houses and pits ; for the details of both practices, see
Ch. VII. Sect.X.
3642. Insects. The pea, bean, and kidneybean are liable to the attacks of various insects, ^gg
especially the aphides in dry seasons. The Bruchus Pisi {fig. 468.) is particularly destructive to
the pea, and its larva (a) is "often found in the ripe pod. In gardens, the only mode of keeping
them under, is to cut off" the part infested, and remove it with the insects attached. When
early crops are newly sown or planted, mice will burrow for and eat the seed, and when it be-
gins to penetrate the soil, it is attacked by snails and slugs, and sometimes by birds. The usual
means of defeating the attacks of these and other enemies, must always be early resorted to by
the gardener.
Sect. III. Esculent Roots.
3643. The esculent-rooted culinary plants delight in a light, rather sandy, deep, and
well stirred soil. It must be dry at bottom ; but a moist atmosphere and moderate tem-
perature are greatly favorable to the growth of almost the whole of the plants we have in-
cluded in this section. Hence the excellence of the potatoe crop in Ireland, and the size
to which turnips, carrots, parsneps, &c. attain in Britain and Holland, compared to what
they do in France and Germany. The space occupied in the kitchen-garden by this class
of vegetables is considerable ; but as it is regulated in some degree by the quantity of the
more common roots grown in the farm for culinary use, it is less subject to estimation.
In most gardens, however, the esculent roots taken together may occupy as much space
as the legumes. In cottage gardens, they may be considered as occupying one half of
the whole, to be in part succeeded by winter greens.
Subsect. 1. Potatoe. — Solanum tuberosum, L. {Bauh. Prod. 89. t. 89.) Pent. Dig. L.
and Solanece, B. P. Pomme de Terre, Fr. ; Cartoffel, Ger. ; and Porno di Terra, Ital.
3644. The potatoe is a perennial plant, well known for the tubers produced by its roots.
The stem rises generally from two to three feet in height, with long and weak branches,
furnished with leaves interruptedly pinnate. The flowers are white or tinged with purple.
The fruit is a berry of the size of a plum, green at first, but black when ripe, and con-
taining many small, flat, roundish, white seeds. It is supposed to be a native of South
America, but Humboldt is very doubtful if that can be proved : he admits, however, that
it is naturalised there in some situations.
3645. Sabine and Lambert consider it as satisfactorily proved, that it is to be found both
in elevated places in the tropical regions, and in the more temperate districts of the western
coasts of South America. {Hart. Trans, v. 250. ; Jour. B. Instit. x. 25.) Some
tubers, said to be of the wild potatoe, have been received by the Horticultural Society, and
grown by them ; they differ so little from those of the cultivated potatoe, that Sabine con-
jectures, " that the original cultivators of this vegetable did not exercise either much art
or patience in the production of their garden-potatoes." (Hort. Trans, v. 257.)
3646. SW Joseph Banks (Hort. Trans, i. 8.) considers that the potatoe was first brought
into Europe from the mountainous parts of South America, in the neighborhood of
Quito, where they were called papas, to Spain, in the early part of the sixteenth century.
From Spain, where they were called battatas, they appear to have found their way first to
Italy, where they received the same name with the truffle, taratovfii. The potatoe was
received by Clusius, at Vienna, in 1598, from the governor of Mons, in Hainault, who
had procured it the year before from one of the attendants of the Pope's legate, under the
name of taratoufli, and learned from him, that it was then in use in Italy. In Germany
it received the name of cartoffel, and spread rapidly even in Clusius's time. To England
the potatoe found its way by a different route, being brought from Virginia by the colon-
ists sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1584, and who returned in July 1586, and
" probably," according to Sir Joseph Banks, "brought with them the potatoe." Thomas
Herriot, in a report on the country, published in De Bry's Collection of Voyages (vol. i.
p. 17.), describes a plant called openawk, with "roots as large as a walnut, and others
much larger ; they grow in damp soil, many hanging together, as if fixed on ropes ; they
are good food, either boiled or roasted."
3647. Gerrard, in his Herbal, published in 1597, gives a figure of the potatoe, under
G24 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
the name of the potatoe of Virginia, whence, he says, he received the roots ; and this ap-
pellation it appears to have retained, in order to distinguish it from the hattatas, or sweet
potatoe (Convolvulus battatas), till the year 1640, if not longer. " The sweet potatoe,"
Sir Joseph Banks observes, "was used in England as a delicacy long before the intro-
duction of our potatoes : it was imported in considerable quantities from Spain and the
Canaries, and was supposed to possess the power of restoring decayed vigor. The kissing
comfits of Falstaff, and other confections of similar imaginary qualities, with which our
ancestors were duped, were principally made of these and of eringo roots."
3648. Gough, in his edition of Camden s Britannia, says, that' the potatoe was first
planted by Sir Walter Raleigh on his estate of Youghall, near Cork, and that it was
"cherished and cultivated for food" in that country before its value was known in
England ; for, though they were soon carried over from Ireland into Lancashire, Gerrard,
who had this plant in his garden in 1597, under the name of Batlata Virginiai.a, recom-
mends the roots to be eaten as a delicate dish, not as common food. Parkinson men-
tions, that the tubers were sometimes roasted, and steeped in sack and sugar, or baked
with marrow and spices, and even preserved and candied by the comfit-makers.
3649. The Royal Society, in 1663, took some measures for encouraging the cultivation
of potatoes, with the view of preventing famine. Still, however, although their utility
as an article of food was better known, no high character was bestowed on them. In
books of gardening, published towards the end of the seventeenth century, a hundred
years after their introduction, they are spoken of rather slightingly. " They are much
used in Ireland and America as bread," says one author, "and may be propagated with
advantage to poor people." " I do not hear that it hath been yet essayed," pre the words
of another, " whether they may not be propagated in great quantities, for food for swine
or other cattle." Even the enlightened Evelyn seems to Lave entertained a prejudice
against them: "Plant potatoes," he says, writing in 16£9, "in your worst ground.
Take them up in November for winter spending ; there will enough remain for a stock,
though ever so exactly gathered." The famous nurserymen, London and Wise, did not
consider the potatoe as worthy of notice in their Complete Gardener, published in 1719;
and Bradley, who, about the same time, wrote so extensively on horticultural subjects,
speaks of them as inferior to skirrets and radishes.
3650. The use of potatoes, however, gradually spread, as their excellent qualities became
better understood. But it was near the middle of the eighteenth century before they
were generally known over the country : since that time they have been most extensively
cultivated. In 1796, it was found, that in the county of Essex alone, about 1700 acres
were planted with potatoes for the supply of the London market. This must form, no
doubt, the principal supply ; but many fields of potatoes are to be seen in the other
counties bordering on the capital, and many ship-loads are annually imported from a dis-
tance. In every county in England, it is now more or less an object of field-culture.
The cultivation of potatoes in gardens in Scotland was very little understood till about
the year 1740 ; and it was not practised in fields till about twenty years after that pe-
riod'. It is stated in the General Report of Scotland (vol. ii. p. 111.), as a well ascer-
tained fact, that in the year 1725-6, the few potatoe-plants then existing in gardens about
Edinburgh, were left in the same spot of ground from year to year, as recommended by
Evelyn ; a few tubers were perhaps removed for use in the autumn, and the parent-plants
were then well covered with litter to save them from the winter's frost. Since the middle
of the eighteenth century, the cultivation of potatoes has made rapid progress in that coun-
try ; so that they are now to be seen in almost every- cottage garden. The potatoe is now
considered as the most useful esculent that is cultivated ; and who, Neill asks, "could, a
jmori, have expected to have found the most useful plant among the natural family of the
Luridce, L., several of which are deleterious, and all of which are forbidding in their aspect."
3651. Use. The tubers of the potatoe, from having no peculiarity of taste, and con-
sisting chiefly of starch, approach nearer to the nature of the flower, or farina of grain,
than any vegetable root production ; and for this reason it is the most universally liked,
and can be used longer in constant succession by the same individual without becoming
unpalatable, than any other vegetable, the seeds of the grasses excepted. " So generally
is it relished, and so nutritious is it, accounted," Neill observes, " that on many tables it
now appears almost every day in tne year. It is commonly eaten plainly boiled, and in
this way it is excellent. When potatoes have been long kept, or in the spring months,
the best parts of each tuber are selected, and mashed before going to table. Potatoes are
also baked, roasted, and fried. With the flour of potatoes, puddings are made nearly
equal in flavor to those of millet ; with a moderate proportion of wheat-flour, bread of
excellent quality may be formed of it ; and potatoe starch, independently of its use in
the laundry, is considered an equally delicate food as sago or arrow-root." As starch and
suo-ar are so nearly the same, that the former is easily converted into the latter, hence the
potatoe yields a powerful spirit by distillation, and a strong wine by the fermentive process.
3652. Varieties. These are very numerous, not only from the facility of procuring new
Book I. POTATOE.
625
sorts by raising from seed ; but because any variety cultivated for a few years in the
same soil and situation, as in the same garden or farm, acquires a peculiarity of cha-
racter or habit, which distinguishes it from the same variety in a different soil and situ-
ation. The varieties in general cultivation may be distinguished in regard to yrrecocily,
tar dity, form, size, color, and quality.
3653. Precocity. The earliest varieties are —
Hog's early frame ; a small watery pota-
toe, fit only for very early forcing
Royal dwarf; a mealy potatoe, much grown
at Perth
Early Manchester ; waxy and red
Common early frame; waxy
Foxe's yellow seedling ; similar, but rather
larger, waxy
American early; much esteemed at
Edinburgh
Early dwarf; waxy
Early ash-leaved ; dry
Early champion ; large
M'Cree's early; dry.
3654. JVb blosso?7is are produced by any of the above sorts : they are roundish in form,
small-sized, white, and not of the best quality.
3655. Tardily. The latest sorts are —
The round purple } The speckled purple, or tartan ; commonly grown in
The oblong purple mossy soils in Scotland.
3656. The form of potatoes is either round, oblong, or kidney-shaped.
3o57. Of the round, the most esteemed are —
The champion ; late and early varieties I Round red ; middle-sized, smooth
The oxnoble ; very large, and of a peculiar flavor Round rough red ; or Lancashire,
not generally esteemed
3658. The oblong are —
The red-nosed oval; often confounded
with the red kidney
The oblong red ; varied with white
The oblong white
The American red ; long and not thick
The Irish red, or pink ; oblong and en-
tirely red, with hollow eyes
The bright-red, blood-red, or apple-po-
tatoe; ovate, with small full eyes,
much grown in Cheshire and Lan-
cashire, mealy and agreeably flavored.
Purple; very mealy, productive, and keeps
well
Red apple; mealy, keeps the longest of
any.
3659. The kidney-shaped are —
The common white kidney; of a peculiar flavor esteemed by many | The red kidney ; reckoned somewhat more hardy.
3660. In size, the early sorts are the least, and the oxnoble and late champions the
largest.
3661. In color, the early sorts are in general white, the oblong sorts red, and the latest
sorts purple.
3662. In quality, potatoes are either watery, as the very early sorts ; waxy, as the
American and Irish reds ; or mealy, as the ash-leaved early, the champion, the kidney, &e.
3663. The following list is recommended by the principal London seedsmen at the
present time : —
For forcing in frames, or for the first crop in the open garden.
Fox's seedling | Early manley | Early mule ( Broughton dwarf.
For general cultivation in the open garden or field.
Early kidney; good flavor, and very early, keeps well | Nonsuch; early, prolific | Early shaw ; good early sort for general use.
For main crops, arranged in the order of their ripening.
Early champion; very generally culti- I Bread-fruit; originated about 1810, pro>
vated, prolific, and mealy I lific, white, and mealy
Red-nose kidney J Lancashire pink-eye ; good
Large kidney I Black skin ; mealy, white, and good
3664. In general, every toivn and district has its peculiar and favorite varieties, early
as well as late, so that, excepting as to the best early kinds, and the best for a general crop
in all soils, any list, however extended, could be of little use. Dr. Hunter, in his
Georgical Essays, has supposed the duration of a variety to be fourteen years ; and
Knight (Hort. Trans, vol. i. ) concurs with him in opinion. There are some excellent
sorts of party-colored potatoes in Scotland, which degenerate when removed from one
district to another ; and most of the Scotch and Irish varieties degenerate in England.
The best mode, therefore, to order potatoes for seed is to give a general description of
the size, color, form, and quality wanted, and whether for an early or late crop.
3665. Propagation. The potatoe may be propagated from seed, cuttings or layers of the green shoots
sprouts from the eyes of the tubers, or portions of the tubers containing a bud or eye. The object of the
first method is, to procure new or improved varieties ; of the second, little more than curiosity, or to mul-
tiply as quickly as possible a rare sort ; and of the third, to save the tubers for food. The method by por-
tions of the tubers is the best, and that almost universally practised for the general purposes, both of field
and garden culture.
3666. By seed. Gather some of the ripest apples in September or October, take out and preserve the
seed till spring, and then sow it thinly in small drills. When the plants are up two or three inches thin
them to five or six inches' distance, and suffer them to grow to the end of October, when the roots will
furnish a supply of small potatoes, which must then be taken up, and a portion of the best reserved for
planting next spring in the usual way. Plant these, and let them have the ensuing summer's full growth
till October, at which time the tubers will be of a proper size to determine their properties. Having con-
sidered not merely the flavor of each new variety, but the size, shape, and color, the comparative fertility
and healthiness, earliness or lateness, reject or retain it for permanent culture accordingly. (Abercrombie.)
3667. To produce seeds on early potatoes. The earliest varieties of potatoes, it has been already re-
marked, do not produce flowers or seed. Knight, desirous of saving seed from one of these sorts, took
a very ingenious method of inducing the plants to produce flowers. " I suspected the cause," he says,
" of the constant failure of the early potatoe to produce seeds, to be the preternaturally early formation of
the tuberous root; which draws off for its support that portion of the sap which, in other plants of the
same species, affords nutriment to the blossoms and seeds : and experiment soon satisfied me that my con-
jectures were perfectly well founded. 1 took several methods of placing the plants to grow, in such a
situation, as enabled me readily to prevent the formation of tuberous roots ; but the following appearing
the best, it is unnecessary to trouble the Society with an account of any other. Having fixed strong stakes
S s
626 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
in the ground, I raised the mould in a heap round the bases of them, and in contact with the stakes : on
their south sides I planted the potatoes from which I wished to obtain seeds. When the young plants were
about four inches high, they were secured to the stakes with shreds and nails, and the mould was then
washed away, by a strong current of water, from the bases of their stems, so that the fibrous roots only of
the plants entered into the soil. The fibrous roots of this plant are perfectly distinct organs from the run-
ners, which give existence, and subsequently convey nutriment to the tuberous roots ; and as the runners
spring from the stems only of the plants, which are, in the mode of culture I have described, placed
wholly out of the soil, the formation of tuberous roots is easily prevented; and whenever this is done,
numerous blossoms will soon appear, and almost every blossom will afford fruit and seeds." Knight, con-
sidering that the above facts, which are more fully explained in the Philosophical Transactions for 1806,
were sufficient to prove, that the same fluid or sap gives existence alike to the tuber, and the blossom, and
seeds, and that, whenever a plant of the potatoe affords either seeds or blossoms, a diminution of the crop
of tubers, or an increased expenditure of the riches of the soil, must necessarily take place, succeeded in
producing varieties of sufficiently luxuriant growth, and large produce for general culture which never
produced blossoms. (Hort. Trans, vol. i. 188.)
3668. By cuttings, or the layers of the stalks, or suckers. Make cuttings of the young stalks or branches,
of five or six inches in length, in May or June ; attending to the general directions for forming cuttings.
Choose, if possible, showery weather; or strike them under a hand-glass, or in a half empty pot covered
with a pane of glass, as in striking cucumber-cuttings.
3669. Layers. In June or July, when the potatoe-stalks are advanced one or two feet long, choose such
plants as stand somewhat detached, and lay down the shoots on the ground with or without cutting, in the
common mode of layering. Cover them with earth about three inches, leaving the points of the shoots
exposed. These shoots will emit roots at every leaf, and produce full-grown potatoes the same year, attain-
ing perfection in autumn.
3670. Suckers. Remove in June, off-set sucker shoots, with a few roots to each ; plant them carefully,
and they will produce a late crop like the layers.
3671. By sprouts or shoots from the tubers. In default of genuine early sorts ; or, to save the tubers for
use in seasons of scarcity, the sprouts which are generally found on store-potatoes in spring, and picked off
and thrown away as useless, will, when carefully planted in loose well prepared soil, yield a crop; and this
crop will be fit for use a little sooner than one produced from cuttings or sections of the same tubers, in
which the buds are not advanced. Almost every thing, however, depends on the fine tilth, and good state
of the ground.
3672. By portions of the tubers. This is the only method fit for general purposes. In making the sets or
sections, reject the extreme or watery end of the tuber, as apt to run too much to haulm, and having the
eyes small, and in a cluster ; reject also the root or dry end, as more likely to be tardy in growth, and pro-
duce the curl. Then divide the middle of the potatoe, so as to have not more than one good eye in each
set. Where the potatoe scoop is used, take care to apply it so as the eye or bud may be in the centre of
each set, which this instrument produces, of a semi-globular form. The larger the portion of tuber left to
each eye, so much the greater will be the progress of the young plant. The scoop is only to be used in
seasons of scarcity, when the portion of tuber saved by it may be used for soups for the poor, or for feeding
cattle. The best scoop is that described and figured in Supp. Encyc. Brit. art. Agr.
3673. Size of the sets. Knight has found that for a late crop small sets maybe used, because the plants of
late varieties always acquire a considerable age before they begin to generate tubers ; but for an early crop
he recommends the largest tubers, and he has found that these not only uniformly afford very strong plants,
but also such as readily recover when injured by frost : for being fed by a copious reservoir beneath the
soil, a reproduction of vigorous stems and foliage soon takes place, when those first produced are destroyed
by frost, or other cause. He adds, "when the planter is anxious to obtain a crop within the least possible
time, he will find the position in which the tubers are placed to vegetate by no means a point of indiffer-
ence ; for these being shoots or branches, which have grown thick instead of elongating, retain the dis-
position of branches to propel their sap to their leading buds, or points most distant from the stems of the
plants, of which they once formed parts. If the tubers be placed with their leading buds upwards, a few
very strong and very early shoots will spring from them ; but if their position be reversed, many weaker
and later shoots will be produced ; and not only the earliness, but the quality of the produce, in size, will be
much affected." (Hort. Trans, iv. 448.)
3674. Quantity of sets. In respect to proportioning the quantity of sets to the space to be planted,
Abercrombie directs, " For a plot of the early and secondary crops, eight feet wide by sixteen in length ;
planted in rows fifteen inches asunder by nine inches in the row, a quarter of a peck of roots or cuttings.
For full-timed sorts and main crops, a compartment, twelve feet wide by thirty-two in length, planted in
rows two feet distant by twelve inches in the row, half a peck of roots or cuttings will be required."
3675. Soil and manure. The best soil for the potatoe is a light, fresh, unmixed loam,
where they can be grown without manure. Here they have always the best flavor. In
a wet soil, they grow sickly, and produce watery tubers, infected with worms and other
vermin. To a poor soil, dung must be applied ; littery dung will produce the earliest
and largest crop ; but mellow dung, rotten leaves, or vegetable earth, will least affect the
flavor of the tubers.
3676. Season for planting. " The last fortnight of March, and first fortnight of April, is the most
proper time for planting the main crops ; a little earlier or later, as the spring may be forward or late, the
ground dry or wet. Occasional plantings may be made in May, or even the beginning of June." {Aber-
crombie.)
3677. Methods of planting. The sets of whatever kind, or the plants forwarded in pots, to be turned out
with their balls entire for producing an earlv crop in the open air, should always be inserted in regular
rows ; the object of which is to admit with greater facilitv the stirring the earth between, and the earthing
up of the plants. The rows may be fifteen inches apart for the small early sorts ; and for the larger, twenty
inches or two feet, according to the poorness or richness of the soil. In the lines traced, make holes tor
the sets at eight, twelve, or fifteen inches' distance, letting their depth not be less than three, nor exceed
five inches.
3678. Planting on a level surface will answer on a light soil. In small gardens, the planting may be per-
formed by a common large dibble with a blunt end. For planting considerable crops, a strong larger dibble,
about a yard long, is used, with a cross handle at top for both hands, the lower end being generally shod
with iron, and having a short cross iron shoulder about four or five inches from the bottom, as a guide to
make the holes of an equal depth ; one person striking the holes, and a boy directly dropping a set into each
hole. Strike the earth in upon them fully with a dibble, hoe, or rake, either as each row is planted, or when
the whole planting is finished. Sometimes the process is to open a small hole with the spade, and to drop
in a set, which set is covered in by the opening of the next hole.
3679. On strong heavy land, the planting ought to be on raised beds with alleys, or in drills on the crown
of parallel ridges. The beds may either be raised by previous digging, throwing on good earth till the
terrace rise to the desired height, or in the different method described below. To plant in drills, trace
cN.rn at the medium distance above specified : form them to the proper depth with a narrow spade or large
hoe : in these place the sets a foot or fifteen inches apart, and earth over. To avoid the inconveniences of
Book I. POTATOE. 627
low wettish ground, whether it be arable or grass land, or a cultivated garden, potatoes are planted in
raised beds four feet wide, with alleys half that width between. The beds are thus raised :— Without dig-
ging the surface, lay some long loose litter upon the intended beds. Upon this litter place the sets about a
foot apart ; and upon the sets apply more litter, equally distributed over the whole : then digging the alleys,
turn the earth thereof upon the beds five or six inches deep ; or, if grass, turn the sward downward, level-
ling in the top-spit to the same depth. The plants will produce very good crops.
3680. Subsequent culture. " From the March or April planting, the stems generally rise fully in May.
After the plants have appeared, give an effectual hoeing on dry days, cutting up all the weeds, and stir the
ground about the rising stalks of the plants. When advanced from six to twelve inches high, hoe up some
earth to the bottom of the stems, to strengthen their growth, and promote the increase below : continue
occasional hoeing to eradicate weeds, till the plants cover the ground, when but little further care will be
required. Permit the stalks to run in full growth, and by no means cut down, as is sometimes practised ;
the leaves being the organs for transmitting the beneficial influence of the sun and air to the roots, which is
most necessary to the free and perfect growth of the tubers." (Abercrombie.)
3681. Pinching off the blossoms. It is now generally admitted, that a certain advantage, in point of pro-
duce, is obtained bypinching off the blossoms as they appear on the plants. The fact has been repeatedly
proved, and satisfactorily accounted for by Knight, who imagines, that it may add an ounce in weight to the
tubers of each plant, or considerably above a ton per acre. (Hort. Trans, vol. i. 190.)
3682 Taking the crop. " Clusters of roots in the early planted crop will sometimes by June or July be ad-
vanced to a sufficient size for present eating, though still small. Only a small portion should be taken up at
a time, as wanted for immediate use, as they will not keep good above a day or two. In August and Septem-
ber, however, they will be grown to a tolerably good size, and may betaken up in larger supplies, though
not in quantities for keeping a length of time. Permit the main winter crops to continue in growth till
towards the end of October or beginning of November, when the stalks will begin to decay — an indication
that the potatoes are fully grown : then wholly dig them up, and house for winter and spring. Let them
then be taken up, before any severe frost sets in ; having, for large crops, a proper potatoe-fork of three or
four short flat tines, fixed on a spade-handle. Cut down the haulm close, and clear off forward : then fork
up the potatoes, turning them clean out of the ground, large and small j and collect every forking into
baskets."
3683. Housing and preserving the crop. Abercrombie recommends "housing potatoes in a close, dry,
subterranean apartment, laid thickly together, and covered well with straw so as to exclude damps and
frost." There they are to be looked over occasionally, and any that decay picked out. In spring, when
they begin to shoot, turn them over, and break off the sprouts or shoots from each tuber, perfectly close,
in order to retard their future shooting as much as possible. Potatoes so stored, will continue good all the
winter and spring, till May and June.
3684. Pying (as it is called in some places) is a good method of preserving potatoes in winter. They are
piled on the surface of the ground, in a ridged form, of a width and length at pleasure, according to the
quantity, but commonly about five or six feet wide. This is done by digging a spit of earth, and laying it
round the edge, a foot wide (if turf the better), filling the space up with straw, and then laying on a course
of potatoes, dig earth from the outside, and lay upon the first earth. Put straw a few inches along the inside
edge, then put in more potatoes, and so on, keeping a good coat of straw all the way up between the potatoes
and the mould, which should be about six inches thick all over ; beat it close together, and the form it lies
in, with the trench all round, will preserve the potatoes dry ; and the sharpest frost will hardly affect them ;
in a severe time of which, the whole may be covered thickly with straw. In the spring, look over the
stock, and break off the shoots of those designed for the table, and repeat this business to preserve the pota-
toes the longer good.
3685. Curl disease. The disease called curl, has in many places proved extremely
troublesome and injurious. It has given rise to much discussion, and to detail all the
various opinions would be a useless task. It may, however, be remarked, that the expe-
riments of Dickson (Ceded. Hort. Mem. i. 55.) show, that one cause is the vegetable
powers in the tuber planted, having been exhausted by over-ripening. That excellent
horticulturist observed, in 1808 and 1809, that cuts taken from the waxy, wet, or least
ripened end of a long flat potatoe, that is, the end nearest the roots, produced healthy
plants ; while those from the dry and best ripened end, farthest from the roots, either did
not vegetate at all, or produced curled plants. This view is supported by the observations
of a very good practical gardener, Daniel Crichton, at Minto, who, from many years' ex-
perience, found (Id. p. 440. ) that tubers preserved as much as possible in the wet and
immature state, and not exposed to the air, were not subject to curl. And Knight
(Hort. Trans. 1814), has clearly shown the beneficial results of using, as seed-stock, po-
tatoes which have grown late, or been imperfectly ripened in the preceding year. Dickson
lays down some rules, attention to which, he thinks, would prevent the many disappoint-
ments occasioned by the curl. He recommends, 1. The procuring of a sound healthy
seed-stock of tubers for planting from a high part of the country, where the tubers are
never over-ripened : 2. The planting of such potatoes as are intended to supply seed-
stock for the ensuing season, at least a fortnight later than those planted for a crop, and
to take them up whenever the stems become of a yellow-green color, at which time the
cuticle of the tubers may be easily rubbed off" between the finger and thumb : 3. The
preventing those plants that are destined to yield seed-stock for the ensuing year, from
producing flowers or berries, by cutting ofF the flower-buds ; an operation easily per-
formed by children, at a trifling expense. ShirrefF (Coded. Hort. Mem. vol. i. p. 60.,
and in the Farmers Magazine) controverts Dickson's opinion, and accounts for the curl
disease as the effects of old age, on the hypothesis that plants like animals will not live
beyond certain periods, &c. The essay is ingenious, but totally speculative. Young,
who has paid much attention to the subject, has brought forward a variety of facts to show
that the " curl on the young stem rising weakly arises chiefly from the two causes men-
tioned by Dickson and Crichton, over-ripe tubers, or the employment of seed-stock that
has been improperly kept during winter, that is, kept exposed to the light and air instead
of being covered with earth or sand, or straw, so as to preserve their juices." (Caled. Hort.
Mem. iii. 278.) The same view, it may be remarked, had occurred to Dr. Hunter. A
Ss 2
628 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III,
fact ascertained by Knight deserves to be particularly noticed : it is this ; that by plant-
ing late in the season, perhaps in June, or even in July, an exhausted good variety may
in a great measure be restored ; that is, the tubers resulting from the late planting, when
again planted at the ordinary season, produce the kind in its pristine vigor, and of its for-
mer size.
3686. Crichton, who has made a variety of experiments on the effects of exposure
to the air in hampers and open floors, and on exclusion of the air by covering with earth
{Caled. Mem. vol. i. 440.), concludes, " That the curl in the potatoe may often be occa-
sioned by the way the potatoes are treated that are intended for seed. I have observed,
that wherever the seed-stock is carefully pitted, and not exposed to the air in the spring,
the crop has seldom any curl ; but where the seed-stock is put into barns and out-houses
for months together, such crop seldom escapes turning out, in a great measure, curled ;
and if but few curl the first year, if they are planted again, it is more than probable the
half of them will curl next season."
3687. For forcing potatoes, see Ch. VII. Sect. XL
Subsect. 2. Jerusalem Artichoke. — Helianthus tuberosus, L. (Jac. Vind. 2. t. 161.)
Syng. Polyg. Frust. L. and Corymbiferce, J. Poire de Terre, Fr. ; Erde Apfel, Ger. ;
and Girasole, Ital.
3688. The Jerusalem artichoke is a hardy perennial, a native of Brazil, and introduced
in 1617. It has the habit of a common sun-flower, but grows much taller, often rising
ten or twelve feet high. The season of its flowering is September and October ; but
though its roots endure our hardest winters, the plant seldom flowers with us, and it never
ripens its seed. The roots are creeping, and are furnished with many red tubers, clus-
tered together, perhaps from thirty to fifty to a plant. Before potatoes were known, this
plant was much esteemed. The epithet Jerusalem is a mere corruption of the Italian word
Girasole (from girare, to turn, and sol), or sun-flower ; the name Artichoke is bestowed
from the resemblance in flavor which the tubers have to the bottoms of artichokes.
3689. Use. The roots are esteemed a wholesome, nutritious food, and are eaten
boiled, mashed with butter, or baked in pies, and have an excellent flavor. Planted in
rows, from east to west, the upright herb of the plant affords a salutary shade to such
culinary vegetables as require it, in the midsummer months, as lettuce, turnips, strawber-
ries, &c.
3690. Propagation. It is raised by planting, either some small offset tubers of the main roots, or middling-
sized roots cut into pieces for sets, which is more eligible. Preserve one or two full eyes to each cutting.
3691. Quantity of sets. For a row 120 feet in length, the sets being inserted two feet apart, half a peck,
or sixty roots, will be sufficient. (Abercromiie.)
3692. Culture. It will grow in any spare ordinary part of the garden ; but to obtain fine large roots, give
it an open compartment of pretty gobd mellow ground. The season for planting is February, March, or be-
ginning of April. Having digged the compartment, plant them, either by dibble, in rows two feet and a half
asunder, about eighteen inches in the lines, and three or four inches deep ; or, in drills by a hoe, the same
depth and distances. The plants will come up in April and May. In their advancing growth, hoe and cut
down all weeds, drawing a little earth to the bottom of the stems. The root will multiply into a progeny of
tubers, in a cluster, in each plant, increasing in size till September and October : you may then cut away the
stems, and dig up the produce as wanting. Or, in November, when they are wholly done growing, it will be
proper to take up a quantity, and lay in dry sand under cover, to be ready as wanting, in frosty weather, when
the others are frozen up in the ground, or affected by the frost As the roots of this plant are very prolific,
the smallest piece of a tuber will grow. In taking up the produce, you should therefore clear all out as well
as possible ; as any remaining part will come up the following year disorderly, and pester the ground ; and
would thus continue rising for many years, but not eligible to cultivate for a good crop. Therefore, to an-
swer a demand, make a fresh plantation every year. (Abercrombie.)
Subsect. 3. Turnip. — Brassica Papa, L. and Dec. {Eng. Pot. 2176.) Tetrad.
Siliq. L. and Cruciferce, J. Navet, Fr. ; Steckriibe, Ger. ; and Navone, Ital.
3693. The turnip is a biennial plant, growing in a wild state in some parts of Eng-
land ; but better known as an inhabitant of the garden and the farm. In its wild state,
the root-leaves are large, of a deep-green color, very rough, jagged, and gashed ; in the
second season it sends up a flower-stalk, with leaves embracing the stem, smooth, glau-
cous, oblong, and pointed.
3694. Use. The use of the root, boiled and mashed as a dish, in broths, soups, and
stews, or entire, is familiar over all Europe. The top-shoots, from such as have stood
the winter, are gathered whilst tender, and dressed as spring greens or spinage. The seed
is also sometimes sown as small salading. " The navet, or French turnip, is considered a
distinct species, and is the B. Napus, L. and B. N. var. 0. esculenta,Dec, or edible rape.
It is a different plant from the navet of Decandolle, which he calls B. campestris, var.
y. napo-brassica." Of the true navet or French turnip cultivated in England, Dickson
observes {Hort. Trans, vol. i.)> " that it enriches all the foreign soups. Stewed in gravy,
it forms a most excellent dish, and being white, and of the shape of a carrot, when mixed
alternately with those roots upon a dish, it is very ornamental. In France, as well as in
Germany, few great dinners are served up without it in one shape or other." In using
it, there is no necessity to cut away the outer skin or rind, in which, indeed, the flavor
Book I. TURNIP. 629
chiefly resides ; scraping it will be quite sufficient. Justice observes, that it is neither fit
to be eaten boiled alone nor raw ; but that two or three of them in seasoning will give a
higher flavor than a dozen of other turnips. (British Gardener s Director, p. 159.)
3695. Varieties. Those in general cultivation are the
Early white Dutch
Early stone
Common round white
Large round white
Yellow Dutch
Aberdeen yellow
Maltese golden ; an excellent and beauti-
ful root
Green-topped large round white ; skin of
the crown green
Red-topped large white
Tankard ; large oblong
French (B. Napus, var. esculenta), navet
de Meaux, Fr. ; small oblong
Small round French, petit Berlin, Fr.,
teltarv, Ger.
Swedish (B.campestris,var. napo-brasrica,
Dec), Navet de Suede, Fr.; large round,
and a very hardy plant, more valued
for field-culture than in gardens for
3696. Estimate of sorts. The first three sorts are the fittest for early, first succession, and main summer
crops for the table. The early white Dutch is proper both for the most early and first succession crops, as
is also the early stone. The common round white is highly eligible for the main crop ; and the large round
white stands nearly on a par with that, and, if not sown to come in with it, should at least succeed it, as a
late summer and autumn crop. In large grounds, portions of the large white green-topped, and the large
white red-topped, may be sown for autumn and winter ; but the surest plant for winter consumption is
the yellow Dutch ; although constituted to stand intense frost unhurt, it has a fine flavor, and is very nu-
tritive. Small portions of any of the other sorts may be cultivated in secondary crops for variety, or to
answer a particular demand. The French, or navet, is of excellent flavor. It was anciently used
throughout the south of Europe, and was more cultivated in this country a century ago than it is now. It
is still in high repute in France, Germany, and Holland. It is grown in the sandy fields round Berlin,
and also near Altona, from whence it is sometimes imported to the London market. Before the war, the
queen of Geo. III. had regular supplies sent to England from Mecklenburgh. The Swedish, for its large size
and hardy nature, is extensively cultivated in fields for cattle : it is also occasionally raised in gardens for
the table, to use in winter and spring like the yellow Dutch.
3697. Seed estimate. For a seed-bed four feet and a half by twenty-four, the plants to remain and be
thinned to seven inches' distance, half an ounce.
3698. Time of sowing. This root can be obtained most part of the year, by sowing every month in spring
and summer. Make first, a small sowing in the last fortnight of March, or the first days of April, for early
turnips in May and June ; but, as these soon fly up to seed the same season, adopt a larger early sowing
about the middle of April. The first main sowing should follow at the beginning, or towards the end of
May, for roots to draw young about the end of June, and in full growth in July and August. Sow full
crops in June and July, to provide the main supplies of autumn and winter turnips. Make a final smaller
sowing in the second or third week of August, for late young crops, or to stand for the close of winter and
opening of spring : the turnips of this sowing continue longer than those of the previous sowings before
they run in the spring. As the crops standing over winter shoot up to seed-stalks in February,
March, or April, the root becomes hard, stringy, and unfit for the table. Make the sowings a day or two
before or after the prescribed times for the opportunity of showery weather ; or, if done at a dry time,
give a gentle watering.
3699. Soil and situation. The turnip grows best in a light moderately rich soil, broken fine by good
tilth. Sand or gravel, with a mixture of loam, produces the sweetest-flavored roots. In heavy excessively
rich land, the plant sometimes appears to flourish as well ; but it will be found to have a rank taste, and
to run more speedily to flower. A poor, or exhausted soil, ought to be recruited with a proportion of
manure suited to the defect of the staple earth. Dung, when requisite, should have been laid on the
preceding autumn ; for when fresh, it affords a nidus for the turnip-fly. Let the early crop have a
warm aspect, and the lightest driest soil. Sow the crops raised after the first of May in the most
open exposure.
3700. Process in sowing, and precautions against the fly. Let the ground be well broken by regular dig-
ging, and neatly levelled to receive the seed. Procure bright well-dried seed. At a season when the
turnip-fly is not apprehended, the seed may be put into the ground without any preparation, either alone
or mixed with a little sand ; but in the hot weather of summer, it is advisable to use some cheap and effec-
tual preventive of the fly. It appears from a trial of Knight, at the suggestion of Sir Humphrey Davy,
that lime slacked with urine, and mixed with a treble quantity of soot, if sprinkled in with the seed at the
time of sowing, will protect the seeds and genns from the ravages of this pernicious insect ; but this anti-
dote cannot be conveniently applied unless the sowing be in drills. A yet simpler remedy, found by Mean
to be perfectly successful, is, to steep the seed in sulphur-water, putting an ounce of sulphur to a pint of
water, which will be sufficient for soaking about three pounds of seed. (Abercrombie.)
3701. Arch. Gorrie, a Scottish gardener of merit, tried steeping the seed in sulphur, sowing soot, ashes,
and sea-sand, along the drills, all without effect. At last, he tried dusting the rows, when the plants were
in the seed-leaf, with quick-lime, and found that effectual in preventing the depredations of the fly. " A
bushel of quicklime," he says, " is sufficient to dust over an acre of drilled turnips ; and a boy may soon be
taught to lay it on almost as fast as he could walk along the drills. If the seminal leaves are powdered in
the slightest degree, it is sufficient ; but should rain wash the lime off before the turnips are in the rough-
leaf, it may be necessary to repeat the operation if the fly begin to make its appearance." (Cat. Hort.
Mem. vol. i.)
3702 Mixing equal parts of old seed with new, and then dividing the mixture, and steeping one half of it
twenty-four hours in water, has often been tried with effect, and especially by farmers. By this means
four different times of vegetation are procured, and consequently four chances of escaping the fly. Radish-
seed is also frequently mixed with that of the turnip, and the fly preferring the former, the latter is allowed
to escape.
3703. Neill says, " one of the easiest remedies, is to sow thick, and thus ensure a sufficiency of plants
both for the fly and the crop." But the most effectual preventive on a large scale is found in sowing late,
where that can be done ; the fly in its beetle state having fed on other herbage, and disappeared before the
turnip comes into leaf.
3704. Abercrombie directs to " sow broad-cast, allowing half an ounce of seed for every 100 square feet,
unless some particular purpose will be answered by drilling. In the former method, scatter the seed reguJ
garly and thinly ; in dry weather, tread or roll it in lightly and evenly ; but after heavy showers, merely
beat it gently down ; rake in fine. Let drills be an inch deep, and twelve or fifteen inches asunder. In
the heat of summer it is of great importance to wait for rain, if the ground be too extensive to be properly
watered ; for the fermentation caused by copious rain and heat gives an extraordinary quick vegetation to
the seed, which in a few days will be in the rough leaf, and out of all danger from the fly. This insect is
weakened or killed by drenching showers, and does no injury to the turnip when much rain falls. It is de-
sirable to have the last sowing finished by the twentieth of August."
3705 Reparation of a destroyed solving. "When a crop is destroyed by the fly, the necessary reparation is
immediately to dig or stir the ground, and make another sowing; watering soon, and occasionally after,
wards, unless rain falls.
3706. Subsequent culture. " As soon as the plants have rough leaves about an inch broad, hoe and thin
them to six or eight square inches' distance, cutting up all weeds. As the turnips increase in the root, ?.
part may be drawn young by progressive thinnings, so as to leave those designed to reach a full size ulti-
mately ten or twelve square inches. Water garden-crops sometimes in hot weather. One great advantage
Ss 3
630 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
attending the cultivation of the navet is, that it requires no manure whatever ; any soil that is poor and
light, especially if sandy, suits it, where it seldom exceeds the size of one's thumb or middle finger ; in
rich manured earth, it grows much larger, but is not so sweet or good in quality." (Justice and Dickson.)
3707. Taking the crop and preserving it by housing. " In the successive crops, begin to draw as above
in a thinning order, that such others as are coming forward may have room to enlarge in succession ; by
which means a regular supply will be procured till March or April of the second season ; specific sorts
being sufficiently hardy to continue good throughout our ordinary winters. But of the winter crops for
the table, draw a portion occasionally in November, December, or whenever there is an appearance of
the frost setting in severe. Cut the tops off close, and house the roots in some lower shed or cellar, laid in
sand, ready for use while the ground is frozen." Instead of cutting the top and roots close off, some prefer
leaving about an inch of the top, and the whole of the root ; and, when the bulbs are kept in a sufficiently
cool store, this seems preferable, as more likely to retain the sap. (Abercrombk.)
3708. Turnip-tops. These are to be gathered from among the earliest spring-produced leaves, either
from the crown, or flower-stalk. They are equally good from any of the varieties, and less acrid from
those of the Swedish. Sometimes very late sowings are made in September and October, which never
bulb, but which are preserved entirely for thin produce, as greens in spring.
3709. Field-turnips. Where a family can be supplied from the field, the roots will always be found of a
better flavor than those produced in the garden ; and the same remark applies to all the brassica tribe,
excepting the cauliflower and broccoli, and to potatoes and most tuberous roots.
3710. To save seed. " Either leave, in the spring, some of the best sound roots of the
winter-standing crop, or leave, in May or June, a part of the spring-sown crop of the
same year : or, to be more certain of good kinds, transplant, in November or February,
a quantity of full-grown well-shaped roots of the autumn or winter crop, into large,
deepish drills, two feet asunder ; inserting the bottom fibre into the nether ground, and
the main root fully to the bottom of the drill ; and earth well over. The plants will
shoot in large branchy stalks in summer, and ripen seed in July or August."
[Abercrombie.) It is preferable, however, to procure turnip-seed, as indeed that of
most other vegetables, from the regular seedsmen ; as the seed-farmers have oppor-
tunities of keeping the sorts distinct, which cannot be had within the precincts of a
walled garden.
3711. Insects and diseases. (See Process in Solving, supra.) The club or anbury is the
principal disease to which turnips in gardens are liable, for which we know of no palli-
ative but good culture, as turnips cannot be transplanted like the cabbage tribe. (See
Sect. I. Subsect. 8.)
Subsect. 4. Carrot. — Daucus carota, L. (Eng. Bot. t. 1174.) Pent. Dig. L.
and Umbelliferce, J. Carotte, Fr. ; Gelbe Rube, Ger. ; and Carota, Ital.
3712. The carrot is a hardy biennial, and common in many parts of Britain, in sandy
soils, and by road-sides. It is known in many places by the name Of bird's nest, from
the appearance of the umbel when the seeds are ripening. The leaves are pinnatifid
and much cut : the plant rises to the height of two feet, and produces white flowers in
June and July, succeeded by rough, hispid seeds, which ripen in August. The root of
the plant, in its wild state, is small, dry, sticky, of a white color, and strong-flavored;
but the root of the cultivated variety is large, succulent, and of a red-yellow, or pale
straw-color.
3713. Use. It is used in soups and stews, and as a vegetable dish. Parkinson
informs us, that in his day, ladies wore carrot-leaves in place of feathers. In winter, an
elegant chimney ornament is sometimes formed, by cutting off a section from the head or
thick end of a carrot containing the bud, and placing it in a shallow vessel with water.
Young and delicate leaves unfold themselves, forming a radiated tuft, of a very hand-
some appearance, and heightened by contrast with the season of the year.
3714. The varieties of the carrot in common cultivation are —
Large red, or field carrot; grows to a , Orange carrot; large, long^ root, of an | small early crop. Also for shallow
large sue, and is chiefly cultivated 1 orange color; best sort tor the main 1 soils
in fields and in farmers' gardens for crop I Late horn ; same characteristics ; but
coloring butter 1 Early horn ; short, smaller root ; for a « suited for a late crop.
3715. Christie enumerates the following varieties, as having been grown in the garden
of the Horticultural Society, some of which are foreign sorts newly introduced : —
Bom carrots. Early red, common early, long horn I red, purple ; and the altringham, or superb, originally
Long carrots. White yellow, long yellow, long orange, long | from Cheshire. • (Hurt. Traiu. vol. lv.p. obh.)
3716. Soil. The carrot requires a light mellow soil, mixed with sand, which should be dug or trenched
one or two spades deep, breaking well all the lumpy parts, so as to form a porous bed, and an even sur-
face. The orange and red sorts, on account of their longer roots, require a soil proportionally deeper than
the horn.
3717- Seed estimate, and sowing. The seeds have numerous forked hairs on their borders, by winch
they adhere together, and therefore should, previously to sowing, be rubbed between the hands, and
mixed with dry sand, in order to separate them as much as possible. They are also very light, and there-
fore a calm day must be chosen for sowing ; and the seeds should be disseminated equally, and trodden in
before raking. Previously to sowing, if convenient, the seed should be proven, by sowing a few in a pot.
and placing it in a hot-bed or hot-house, as it is more frequently bad than most garden-seeds. For a bed
four and a half feet by thirty, one ounce will be requisite, and the same for one hundred and fifty feet of
drill-row. * ,_ , .
3718. Times cf sowing. To have early summer carrots, sow on a warm border in the beginning ot
February ; or, to have them still more forward, sow in a moderate hot-bed, giving copious admissions of
air. In the open garden, " begin with the early hom in the last fortnight of February, or first week of
March, as dry, fine, and open weather may occur. The first-sown beds should be assigned a favorable
situation, and covered for a time with haulm. Follow with the orange in the first fortnight of March,
Book I. PARSNEP. 651
and make successive sowings thence till the 20th of April, for main crops. Add smaller sowings twice in
May, for plants to draw young late in summer : also sow a few at the commencement of July for a later
succession of young carrots in summer and autumn. Lastly, in the beginning of August, two separate
small sowings may be made, for plants to stand the winter, and afford young roots early in spring, March
and April."
3719. Culture. " When the plants are up two or three inches in growth, in May and June, they will
require thinning and clearing from weeds, either by hand or small hoeing. Thin from three to five
inches' distance such as are designed for drawing in young and middling growth. But the main crop,
intended for larger and full-sized roots, thin to six or eight inches' distance. Keep the whole clean from
weeds in their advancing young growth. Some of small and middling growth will be fit for drawing in
June and July ; large sizeable roots, in August and September ; and those of full growth, by the end of
October." (Abercrombie.)
3720. Preserving during luinter. " Carrots are taken up at the approach of winter, cleaned, and stored
among sand. They may be built very firm, by laying them heads and tails alternately, and packing with
sand. In this way, if frost be excluded from the store-house, they keep perfectly well till March or
April of the following year. Some persons insist that the tops should be entirely cut off at the time of
storing, so as effectually to prevent their growing ; while others wish to preserve the capability of veget-
ation, though certainly not to encourage the tendency to grow."
3721. To save seed. Plant some largest best roots in October, November, or the last
fortnight of February, two feet apart ; insert them a few inches over the crowns. They
will yield ripe seed in autumn, of which gather only from the principal umbel, which is
likely not only to afford the ripest and largest seed, but the most vigorous plants. A
considerable quantity of carrot-seed for the supply of the London seedmen is raised near
Weathersfield, in Essex ; and much is imported from Holland.
3722. Insects. Carrots, when they come up, are apt to be attacked by insects like the
turnips ; the most approved remedies for which are thick sowing, in order to afford both
a supply for the insects and the crop ; and late sowing, especially in light soils, thus per-
mitting the grubs to attain their fly state before the seed comes up.
Subsect. 5. Parsnep. — Pastinaca sativa, L. (Flor. Dan. t. 1206.) Pent. Dig. L.
and UmbellifercE, J. Panais, Fr. ; Pastinake, Ger. ; and Pastinaca, Ital.
3723. The parsnep is a biennial British plant, common in calcareous soils by road-sides
near London. The wild variety is figured in English Botany, t. 556. The garden-
parsnep has smooth leaves, of a light or yellowish-green color, in which it differs from the
wild plant, the leaves of which are hairy and dark-green ; the roots also have a milder
taste : it does not, however, differ so much from the native plant, as the cultivated does
from the native carrot.
3724. Use. The parsnep has long been an inmate of the garden, and was formerly
much used. In Catholic times, it was a favorite Lent root, being eaten with salted fish.
" In the north of Scotland," Neill observes, " parsneps are often beat up with potatoes
and a little butter;" of this excellent mess the children of the peasantry are very fond,
and they do not fail to thrive upon it. In the north of Ireland, a pleasant table beverage
is prepared from the roots, brewed along with hops. Parsnep wine is also made in some
places ; and an excellent ardent spirit, distilled after a similar preparatory process, to
that bestowed on potatoes destined for that purpose.
3725. Varieties. There is only one variety in general cultivation in Britain ; but the
French possess three, the Coquaine, the Lisbonaise, and the Siam.
The Coquaine, Dr. Maculloch informs" us
{Ceded. Hort. Mem. vol. i. p. 408.), is
much cultivated in Guernsey and Jer-
sey. The roots run sometimes four feet
deep, and are rarely so small in circum-
ference as six inches, having been known
to reach sixteen. The leaves of this
variety grow to a considerable height,
and proceed from the whole crown of
the root
The Lisbonaise does not extend to so great
a depth as the coquaine ; but the root
is equally good in quality, and what is
lost in length is gained in thickness.
The leaves are small and short, and
only proceed from the centre of the
crown
The Siam has a root of a yellowish color,
not very large, but tender, and more
rich in taste than the other varieties.
3726. Soil. The soil most proper for the parsnep should be light, free from stones,
and deep. It should be dug or trenched before sowing at least two spits deep ; and the
manure should either be perfectly decomposed, or, if recent, deposited at the bottom of
the trench.
3727. Seed estimate, and solving. Sow in the end of February, or in March, but not later than April;
and for a bed five feet by twenty, the plants to remain thinned to eight inches' distance, half an ounce of
seed is the usual proportion. Having prepared either beds, four or five feet wide, or one continued plot,
sow broad-cast, moderately thin, and rake the seed well into the ground.
3728. Culture. When the plants are about one, two, or three inches high, in May or June, let them be
thinned and cleared from weeds, either by hand, or by small hoeing ; thinning them from eight or twelve
inches' distance. Keep them afterwards clean from weeds till the leaves cover the ground, after which no
further culture will be required. The roots will be pretty large by the end of September, from which time
a few may be drawn for present use : but the parsnep is far best at full maturity, about the close of
October, indicated by the decay of the leaf. The root will remain good for use till April and May
following.
3729. Preserving during winter. The parsnep is not so liable as the carrot to be hurt by frost, if left in
the ground. But it would be proper, in the beginning of November, when the leaves decay, to dig up a
portion of the roots, and to cut the tops off close, laying them in sand, under cover, ready for use in hard
frosty weather. The rest will keep good in ground till they begin to shoot in the spring : then, in February
or March, dig them up; cut the tops off; and, preserved in sand, the root will remain till about the end
of April.
3730. To save seed. " Transplant some of the best roots in February, two feet asunder,
inserted over the crowns ; they will shoot up in strong stalks, and produce large umbels
of seed, ripening in autumn." (Abercrombk.)
Ss 4
632
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
Sub6ect. 6. Red Beet. — Beta vulgaris, L. (Schk. Han. i. t. 56.) Pent. Dig. L. and
Chenopodece, B. P. Betterave, Fr. ; Rotlie Riibe, Ger. ; and Barba Biettola, Ital.
3731. The red beet is a biennial plant, rising with large, oblong, thick, and succulent
leaves, generally of a reddish or purple color ; the roots often three or four inches in dia-
meter, of a foot or more in length, and of a deep-red color. It produces greenish flowers
in August. The red beet is a native of the sea-coast of the south of Europe ; it was
cultivated in this country by Tradescant, the younger, in 1656, and then called beet rave
(or beet-radish), from the French name betterave.
3732. Use. The roots are boiled and sliced, and eaten cold, either by themselves, or
in salads ; they also form a beautiful garnish, and are very much used as a pickle. Some
consider the green-leaved variety as more tender in the roots than the red-leaved sort ;
other prefer those with a few small dark-red leaves. From one variety, having a red
skin, but white flesh, sugar is prepared in some parts of France and the Netherlands ;
but this manufacture, introduced under Buonaparte's reign, is now almost entirely given
up in favor of West India produce. The roots, dried and ground, are sometimes used
as " a supplement to coffee," and dried in an oven in thin slices : they are also used in
comfitures. (Ar. Cours d" Agricultur, art. Bette.)
3733. Varieties. These are numerous, but the principal are —
The common long-rooted ; which suits I The short, or turnip-rooted ; suited to I The green-leaved ; red-rooted, suited to
light, deep, rich soils, and grows very I shallow soils 1 soils of light open texture,
large
3734. Morgan has enumerated the following sorts of red beet, as having been culti-
vated in the garden of the Horticultural Society : —
Large-rooted
Long-rooted
Dwarf; one of the best
Turnip-rooted ; and early va-
riety
Small-red
Castlenaudari; much esteemed
in France, and said to have
the flavor of a nut.
Green-topped ; much grown in
Scotland. — He also enume-
rates some yellow-rootea
sorts, none of which are in
general cultivation.
(Hort. Trans, v. iii. p. 277. !
3735. Seed and soil. The beet is always raised from seed, and for a bed four feet and a half by twelve
feet, one ounce is requisite. The soil in which it naturally delights is a deep rich sand, dry and light
rather than moist. Sowing in seed-beds and transplanting has been tried ; but though it may answer for
the spinage or pot-herb beets, (white and its varieties,) it will not answer where the object is a large clean
root.
3736. Solving. The beet is sown annually in the last week of March, or beginning of April. If sown
earlier, many of the plants are apt to run into flower, and so become useless. " The ground on which it
is sown should have been previously enriched by mellow compost and sea-sand ; but rank dung is not to
be laid in, as it is apt to induce canker. For the long-rooted kind, trench to the depth of eighteen inches.
Sow either broad-cast on the rough surface, and rake well into the earth ; or, as the seed is large, sow in
drills an inch or two deep, and a foot asunder ; or dot it in with a thick blunt-ended dibble, in rows that
distance, making holes ten or twelve inches apart, about an inch and a half deep ; drop two or three seeds
in each hole, but with the intention to leave only one best plant."
3737. Subsequent culture. " When the young plants are advanced into leaves, one, two, or three inches
in growth, they must be thinned and cleared from weeds, either by hand or small-hoeing, especially those
60wn promiscuously broad-cast and in drills : thin the latter to twelve inches' distance; and those holed
in by dibble, to one in each place. They will acquire a large full growth in the root by September or
October, to take up for use as wanted, and in continuance all winter and spring following : or in Novem-
ber, it mav be proper to dig up a quantity, cut off the leaves, and deposit the roots in dry sand, under
cover, ready for use in winter, in case of hard frosty weather, which would fix them fast in the ground ;
or the rest may be digged up at the same time, and trenched in close together in some dry compartment,
to be covered occasionally in severe frost, to prevent their being frozen in, that they may be readily taken
up as wanted. Towards spring, in February or the beginning of March, if any remain in the bed where
raised, their removal then, being trenched in close together over the root, will, in some degree, check
their shooting, and preserve them from running, so as to keep them good all the spring till May and
June." {Abercrombie.)
3738. Housing. In the northern counties, the winter stock of beet is commonly lifted and housed in
sand, in the manner of carrots. In digging up the roots for this purpose, great care must be taken that
they be not in anywise broken or cut, as they bleed much. For the same reason, the leaves should be
cut off, at least an inch above the solid part of the root.
3739. To save seed. Either leave a few strong roots standing in the rows ; or select a
few, and transplant them to a spot where they will be in no danger, when in flower, of
being impregnated with any other variety. They will shoot up the second year, when
their flower-stalks should be tied to stakes, to prevent their breaking over.
Subsect. 7. Skirret Sium Sisarum, L. (Schk. Hand. i. t. 69.) Pent. Dig. L. and
Umbelliferce, J. Chervis, Fr. ; Zuckeriviirzel, Ger. ; and Sisaro, Ital.
3740. The skirret is a perennial tap-rooted plant, a native of China, known in this
country since 1548. The lower leaves are pinnated, and the stem rises about a foot
high, terminated by an umbel of white flowers, in July and August. The root is com-
posed of fleshy tubers, about the size of the little finger, and joined together at the crown
or head ; they were formerly much esteemed in cookery. In the north of Scotland, the
plant is cultivated under the name of crummock.
3741. Use. The tubers are boiled, and served up with butter ; and are declared by
Worlidge, in 1682, to be " the sweetest, whitest, and most pleasant of roots."
.3742. Culture. This plant grows freely in a lightish soil, moderately good. It is propagated both from
seed, and by offsets of established roots. The better method is to raise seedlings, to have the root in
perfection, young and tender.
Book I. SCORZONERA, SALSIFY. 633
5743. By seed. " Sow between the21st of March and the 15th of April ; a fortnight later rather than any
earlier for a full crop, as plants raised forward in spring are apt to start for seed in summer. Sow on an
open compartment of light ground, in small drills eight inches apart. When the plants are one or two
inches high, thin them to five or six inches asunder. They will enlarge in growth till the end of autumn :
but before the roots are full grown, in August, September, or October, some may be taken up for con-
sumption as wanted : those left to reach maturity will continue good for use throughout winter, and in
spring, till the stems run."
3744. By slips. " Having some plants of last year's raising, furnished with root-offsets, slip them off;
taking only the young outward slips, and not leaving any of the larger old roots adhering to the detached
offsets : which plant by dibble, in rows from six to nine inches asunder. They will soon strike, and en-
large, and divide into offsets : which, as well as the main roots, are eatable and come in for use in
proper season.'
3745. To save seed. Leave some old plants in the spring : they will shoot up stalks,
and ripen seed in autumn.
Subsect. 8. Scorzonera, or Vipers Grass. — Scorzonera Hispanica, L. (Lam. III.
t. 647. f. 5.) Syng. Polyg. JEqu. L. and Cichoracece, J. Scorzonere, or Salsajis
d? Espagne, Fr. ; Scorzonere, Ger. ; and Scorzonera, Ital.
3746. Tlie scorzonera is a hardy perennial, a native of Spain, the south of France, and
Italy, cultivated in this country since 1576. The stem rises two or three feet high, with
a few embracing leaves, and is branched at top ; the lower leaves are linear, eight or
nine inches long, and end in a sharp point ; the flowers are yellow, and appear from
June to August. The root is carrot-shaped, about the thickness of one's finger ; taper-
ing gradually to a fine point, and thus bearing some resemblance to the body of a viper.
3747. Use. The outer rind being scraped off, the root is steeped in water, in order to
abstract a part of its bitter flavor. It is then boiled or stewed in the manner of carrots
or parsneps. The roots are fit for use in August, and continue good till the following
spring.
3748. Culture. " To have an annual supply, sow every year ; for although the plant, as to its vegetable
life, be perennial, the root continuing only one season useful, must be treated merely as a biennial. The
quantity of seed for a bed four feet and a half by ten feet, to be sown in drills fifteen inches asunder, is
one ounce. Sow every spring, at the end of March, or in April : follow with a secondary sowing in May.
This root likes a deep, light soil. Allot an open compartment. Sow either broad-cast, and rake in evenly ;
or in small drills, twelve or fifteen inches asunder, and earth over half an inch or an inch deep. When
the young plants are two or three inches high, thin them to six or eight inches' distance. Clear out all
weeds as they advance in growth. The plants having a free increase all summer, the roots will, some of
them, be of a moderate size to begin taking up in August, others in September, but will not attain full
growth till the end of October, when, and during the winter, they may be used as wanted ; or some may
be dug up in November, and preserved in sand under cover, to be ready when the weather is severe. The
plants left in the ground continue useful all winter till the spring ; then those remaining undrawn, shoot
to stalk in April and May, and become unfit for the table."
3749. To save seed. " Leave some old plants in the spring ; which will shoot up in
tall stems, and produce ripe seed in autumn." (Abercrombie.)
Subsect. 9. Salsify, or Purple Goafs Beard. — Tragopogon porrifolius, L. (Eng. Pot.
638.) Syng. Polyg. JEqu. L. and Cichoracece, J. SalsipZs, Fr. ; Pocksbart, Ger. ;
and Sassifica, Ital.
3750. The salsify is a hardy biennial, a native of England, but not very common. The
root is long and tapering, of a fleshy white substance ; the herb smooth, glaucous, and
rising three or four feet high. The leaves, as the trivial name imports, resemble those of
the leek ; the flowers are of a dull purple color, closing soon after mid-day ; the seed, as
in other species of goat's beard, is remarkable for having attached to it a broad feathery
crown. It has taken place in gardens of the T. pratensis, which was cultivated in Ger-
rard's and Parkinson's time, but is now entirely neglected.
3751. Use. The roots are boiled or stewed like carrots, and have a mild, sweetish
flavor; the stalks of year-old plants are sometimes cut in the spring, when about four or
five inches high, and dressed like asparagus.
3752. Culture. " Salsify is raised from seed, annually, in the spring, and for thirty feet of drill, one
ounce of seed is sufficient. Allot an open situation. The soil should be light and mellow, full two' spits
deep, that the long tap-root may run down straight. Sow in March, April, and in May, for first and suc-
cession crops, either broad-cast in beds, and rake in the seed, or in small drills, eight or ten inches asun-
der. The plants are to remain where sown. When they are two or three inches high, thin them about
six inches apart. In the dry hot weather of summer, water now and then till the ground be soaked.
The roots having attained a tolerable size in August and September, may be taken up occasionally for
.present use. Those remaining, perfect their growth in October, for a more general supply ; and will
continue good all winter, and part of the following spring. For winter use, take up a portion before frost
hardens the ground, and preserve in sand. Such year-old plants as remain undrawn in the following
spring, shoot up with thick, fleshy, tender stalks: these are occasionally gathered young to boil; the
roots continuing good till the plant runs to stalk in April or May."
3753. To save seed. " Leave or transplant some of the old plants in spring ; which
will shoot, and produce ripe seed in autumn." (Abercrombie.)
634 PRACTICE OF GARDENING, Part III.
Subsect. 10. Radish. — Raphanis sativus, L. (Lam. III. t. 568.) Tetrad. Siliq. L. and
Crucifercc, J. Radis and Rave, Fr. ; Rettig, Ger. ; and Rafano, Ital.
3754. The radish is an annual, a native of China, and mentioned by Gerrard in 1 584.
" The leaves are rough, lyrate, or divided transversely into segments, of -which the infe-
rior less ones are more remote. The root is fleshy, and fusiform in some varieties, in
others sub-globular ; white within, but black, purple, yellow, or white, on the outside ;
the flowers pale-violet, with large, dark veins ; pods long, with a sharp beak."
3755. Use. Formerly the leaves were often boiled and eaten ; but now the roots are
chieflv employed. These are eaten raw in spring, summer, autumn, and winter. The
youno- seedling leaves are often used with cresses and mustard, as small salad ; and radish
seed-pods, when of plump growth, but still young and green, are used to increase the
variety of vegetable pickles, and are considered a tolerable substitute for capers.
3756. Varieties. These may be divided into the spring, autumn, and winter sorts.
Sprino- radishes may be subdivided into the long or spindle-rooted (Rave, Fr.); and the
round°or turnip-rooted (Radis, Fr.); the autumn sorts are chiefly oval or turnip-rooted,
and the winter radishes are ovate or oblong, and dark-colored. " The character of a
o-ood long-rooted radish," Strachan observes, " is to have its roots straight, long, free from
fibres, not tapering too suddenly, and especially to be fully formed on the top, or well
shouldered, as it is called, and without a long neck ; the roots should be ready to draw
whilst the leaves are small, whence the name short-top radish, and if they soon attain a
proper size, and also force well, they are then called early and frame radishes." (Hort.
Trans, vol. iii. p. 438.)
Spring and Summer Kinds. i Autumn Kinds. I Winter Radishes.
Lone sorts. Scarlet, or salmon-colored, White Russian ; the root larger than any , White Spanish; root large oval, outside
and its subvarieties — of the long-rooted kinds, white, tapering white tinged with green, flesh not, farm,
Short topt scarlet and ' ^e a carrot, flavor nutty, like that of ] solid, and white
Earlvframe scarlet: which are the two the rampion. {Hort. Trans, iii. 115.) Oblong brown; root middle-sized, pear-
Yellow turnip ; root large, ovate, yellow, shaped, outside coat rough and brown,
or dusky-brown, and rough without, | marked with white circles, flesh hot,
but the flesh white | firm, solid, and white, plant very hardy
Round brown ; root large, shape irregu- Black Spanish ; root large, irregularly
lar, externally matted with greenish- pear-shaped, rough and black externally,
brown, and the flesh soft, and of a and the flesh hot, firm, solid, and white :
greenish-white. very hardy
Purple Spanish ; a subvariety of the black,
I with a purple skin.
{Christie, in Hort. Trans, iv. 13.)
sorts most generally cultivated
Purple ; an early sort "of good flavor, but at
present neglected
Long white; the original variety cultivated
in Gerrard s time, white, semi-transpa-
rent, and delicate.
Turnip-Radishes.
White ; root globular like a turnip
Earlv white ; a subvariety
The pink ; rose-colored, scarlet, and crim-
son are names applicable to one sort
which approaches to the pear-shape.
3757. Estimate of sorts. The spindle-rooted kinds are cultivated in the largest proportion for the first
crops. The small turnip-rooted 'sorts may be sown in spring as secondary crops, and in summer and au-
tumn for more considerable supplies. The winter sorts have a coarser flavor than the other kinds; but
being of a hardy nature, are frequently sown. They are sliced in salads, or occasionally eaten alone with
salt, vinegar, and other condiments.
5758. Propagation. All the varieties are raised from seed.
3759. Soil and situation. The soil should be light and mellow, well broken by digging : for sowings be-
tween the middle of October and the middle of Februarv, let the site be a dry sheltered border, open to
the full sun. From the middle of February to the end of March, any dry open compartment will be suit-
able. As spring and summer advance, allot cooler and shaded situations. A scattering of the smaller
growing sorts mav be sown among some broad-cast crops of larger growth, such as spinage, lettuce, and
onion ; it may be'also drilled between wide rows of beans, or on ground intended to be sown with a late
3760. Times of sowing. " The crops raised between the middle of October and the middle of February,
are usually confined to the spindle-rooted kinds. Of the early short-top red, a first small saving may be
made at the end of October, another in November, and a third in the last fortnight of December, if open
temperate weather ; respectively to stand over the winter : but make the principal early sowings in January,
or the beginning of February. From this time sow every fortnight or ten days, in full succession crops
till the end of May ; as well the white and red small turnip-rooted as the autumn sorts. The winter sorts
are sometimes raised at the beginning of summer ; but the fittest season to sow them is from the end of
June to the end of August ; that is, in July for use in autumn, and in August, to provide a supply through-
out winter." __ _.
3761. Seed, process in sowing, and common culture. " Sow each sort separate ; and for a bed tour teet
six inches by twelve feet, two ounces of seed will be required of the spring sorts, and an ounce and halt
for the autumn varieties. All the kinds may be sown either broad-cast or in drills ; but the latter is pre-
ferable, as allowing the roots to be drawn regularlv, with less waste. If you sow broad-cast, it is a good
method to make beds four or five feet wide, with alleys between, a foot wide, the earth of which may be
used to raise the beds, or not, as the season may make it desirable to keep the beds dry or moist. Av0ld
sowing excessively thick, as it tends to make the tops run, and the roots stringy. Rake in the seed well,
full half an inch deep, leaving none on the surface to attract the birds. If you trace drills, let them be
for the spindle- rooted kinds half an inch deep, and about two inches and a half asunder ; for the small
turnip-rooted, three quarters of an inch deep, and four or five inches asunder; and for the black turnip
or Spanish, six or eight inches asunder, because the root grows to the size of a middle-sized turnip. As
the plants advance in growth, thin them so as to leave the spindle-rooted about two inches square aistance,
and the other sorts three, four, or five, leaving the most space to the respective sorts in tree-growing wea-
ther. In dry warm weather, water pretty frequently : this swells the roots, and makes them mild and
Cr3762 Occasional shelter. " The crops sown between the end of October and the end of February, be-
sides being favored in situation, will want occasional shelter, according to the weather. On the first ap-
proach of frost, whether the seed is just sown, or the plants have appeared, cover the ground, either with
clean straw dry long haulm, or dried fern, two or three inches thick, or with mats supported on short
stout peo* The covering will keep off the birds, and by its warm effect on the mould, lorward the ger-
mination of the seed. The time for removing or restoring it must be regulated by the weather ; as the
plants should be exposed to the full air whenever it can be safely done. If the season be cold without
frost take off the covering every morning, and put it on towards evening ; and if the weather be sharp
and frosty, let it remain on night and day, till the plants have advanced into the first rough leaves, and at-
Book I. SPINACEOUS PLANTS. 635
terwards occasionally, till the atmosphere is settled and temperate. Replace it constantly at night till there
is no danger of much frost happening ; then wholly discontinue the covering."
3763. Pods for pickling. " Radish seed-pods should be taken for pickling when of plump growth, in July
and August, while still young and green."
3764. To save seed. " Transplant a sufficiency of the finest plants in April or May,
when the main crops are in full perfection. Draw them for transplanting in moist wea-
ther, selecting the straightest, best-colored roots, with the shortest tops, preserving the
leaves to each ; plant them, by dibble, in rows two feet and a half distant, inserting each
root wholly into the ground, down to the leaves. Keep the red and salmon-colored kinds
in separate situations, to prevent a commixture of their farina, and to preserve the kinds
distinct. With proper watering, they will soon strike, and shoot up in branchy stalks,
producing plenty of seed ; which will be ripe in September or October. In transplanting
for seed the turnip-rooted kinds, select those with the neatest-shaped roundest roots, of
moderate growth, and with the smallest tops. They, as the others, will yield ripe seed in
autumn. To obtain seed of the winter sorts, sow in the spring to stand for seed ; or
leave or transplant, in that season, some of the winter-standing full roots. As the different
kinds ripen seed in autumn, cut the stems ; or gather the principal branches of pods ;
and place them in an open airy situation, towards the sun, that the pod, which is of a
tough texture, may dry, and become brittle, so as readily to break, and give out the seed
freely, whether it be threshed or rubbed out."
3765. For forcing the radish, see Chap. VII. Sect. XIII.
Sect. IV. Spinaceous Plants.
3766. As the excellence of spinaceous plants consists in the succulency of the leaves,
almost every thing depends on giving them a rich soil, stirring it frequently, and sup-
plying water in dry seasons. The space they occupy in the garden is not considerable,
say a thirtieth part ; more especially as some of them, the common spinage for example,
often comes in as a temporary crop between rows of peas, or beans, or among cauliflowers
and broccoli s, &c. The plant of this class the most deserving of culture in the cottage
garden, is the Swiss chard, which produces abundance of succulent, and most nutritious
foliage. It is to be found in every cottage garden in Switzerland and the north of
France.
Subsect. 1. Spinage. — Spinacia oleracea, L. (Schk. Hand. in. t. 324.) Dioec. Hex. L.
and Chenopodece, B. P. Epinard, Fr. ; Spinat, Ger. ; and Spinaci, Ital.
3767. The common spinage is an annual plant, cultivated in this country since 1 568,
and probably long before ; but of what country it is a native is not certainly known ;
some refer it to Western Asia. The leaves are large, the stems hollow, branching, and,
when allowed to produce flowers, rising from two to three feet high. The male and fe-
male flowers, as the name of the class imports, are produced on different plants ; the
former come in long terminal spikes; the latter in clusters, close to the stalk at every joint.
It is almost the only dioecious plant cultivated for culinary purposes.
3768. Use. The leaves are used in soups ; or boiled alone, and mashed and served
up with gravies, butter, and hard-boiled eggs. The leaves may be obtained from sowings
in the open ground at most seasons of the year, but chiefly in spring, when they are
largest and most succulent.
3769. Varieties. These are —
The round-leaved, or smooth-seeded | The oblong triangular-leaved, or prickly seeded.
3770. Estimate of sorts. " These varieties of spinage are adapted for culture, principally, at two differ-
ent seasons. The round-leaved sort, of which the leaves are larger, thicker, and more juicy, is mostly
sown in spring and summer, for young spinage in those seasons : the triangular-leaved is chiefly sown in
autumn, to stand for winter and the following spring ; for the leaves being less succulent, it is hardier to
stand the inclement weather : but a portion of this is acceptable, when the other sort is principally
3771. Summer crop. " Begin in January, if open weather, with sowing a moderate crop of the round-
leaved. Sow a larger quantity in February ; and more fully in March. The plants presently fly to seed in
summer, especially if they stand crowded ; it is therefore proper to sow about once in three weeks, from the
beginning of March to the middle of April : then, every week till the middle of May: from which time,
till the end of July, sow once a fortnight. Small crops, thus repeated, will keep a succession during the
rest of summer and throughout autumn. A portion of the prickly seeded spinage may be sown as thought
proper, to come in among the successive summer crops ; and if drilled between lines of other vegetables,
will encroach less than the smooth-seeded, a thing to be considered where the spare room is not of a liberal
width."
S772. Soil and situation. " The soil which suits any of the general summer crops will do for spinage ;
that for the early crop should be lightest and driest. For a January sowing, allot a warm border, or the
best-sheltered compartment. Afterwards, for all the supplies during summer, sow in an open compartment.
Where it is necessary to make the utmost of the ground, the spring sowings, in February, March, and
April, may be made in single drills between wide rows of young cabbages, beans, peas, or other infant
crops of slow growth ; or they may be made still better on spots intended to receive similar plants, including
cauliflowers and horse-radish ; and the spinage will be off before the slower-growing crops advance consi-
derably ; or spinage and a thin crop of radishes may be sown together; and the radishes will be drawn in
time, to give room for the spinage."
3773. Seed and process in sowing. " When raised by itself, spinage is generally sown broad-cast, and
two ounces will sow a bed four feet and a half by thirty feet : but in drills one ounce will sow the same
space. In drills, it is easier to weed and gather : let the drills be from nine to twelve inches apart. Beds
636 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. P^rt III.
four feet wide, with small alleys, are convenient of access. Let the ground be thoroughly dug. Whether
broad-cast or in drills, sow thinly ; and rake or earth in about an inch deep."
3774. Subsequent culture. " When the plants are up, showing leaves about an inch broad, clear them
from weeds, either bv hand or small hoeing ; and thin the plants where crowded (especially the broad-cast
crops) to three inches apart ; and when advanced in growth, every other may be cut out for use, increasing
the distance to about six inches, that the remainder may grow stocky, with large spreading leaves. The
plants of the earlv and succession crops attain proper growth for gathering in April, May, and June. When
the leaves are from two to five inches in breadth, cut the plants clean out to the bottom, or sometimes cut
only the larger leaves. But as soon as there is any appearance of their running to seed, they may be
drawn out clean as wanted."
3775. Winter crop. " The prickly seeded, or triangular-leaved, is alone constituted to stand a severe
winter, and the quantity of seed is the same as in the spring sowings. The main winter crop should
be sown in the first or second week of August, and a secondary one towards the end of that month,
to stand later in the spring, until the round spinage comes in. The plants of these sowings will acquire
proper growth and strength, and will not run the same year, nor very early in the spring, which is
apt to be the case with crops sown sooner."
;377n. Site. " Allot a compartment of dry-lying mellow ground, with an open aspect to the winter s
sun ; and let it be digged regularly."
3777. Process in sowing. " In general, sow broad-cast, treading the seed down, and raking it well
into the ground. The bed may be one continued space ; or the garden may be divided into
beds three or four feet wide, with spade-wide alleys between them, which are convenient both in the
culture and the gathering of the crop A portion may be sown thinly in broad shallow drills, from
six to twelve inches asunder. When the plants are advancing with leaves an inch broad, in September,
they will require thinning and clearing from weeds ; which may be done either by hand or by small-
hoeing : thin the plants to two or three inches' distance. If by October and November the plants are
forward in crowth, with leaves two or three inches broad, some may be gathered, occasionally, in the
larger leaves ; or, where most crowded, plants may be cut out to give the others room for a strong
stocky growth, so as to be more able to endure the cold and wet in winter, and produce larger and
thicker leaves. In this stage, clear out all weeds by hand, as any left in hoeing would grow again,
especially in a moist season. During the winter, if the spinage advances in pretty free growth, some
may be partiallv gathered as wanted, taking the larger outward leaves : the others will increase in suc-
cession. At the end of winter, thin the plants to seven inches by seven, ten by five, or twelve by four.
On a dry dav, stir the surface of the mould, if it has been much battered by rough weather. The plants
will reach full growth in Februarv, March, and April, bearing, for frequent gathering, numerous clusters
of large leaves. In April and Mav, the larger plants may be cut out fully for use, clean to the bottom, or
drawn, if the ground be wanted ; as they will then soon go to seed-stalks, past useful growth ; and will
be succeeded in May and June by the young spring-sown crops of round spinage."
3778. To save seed. " To obtain seed of the round-leaved, leave a sufficient quantity
of established plants in April, May, or June, to run up in stalks; or transplant in autumn
some of the spring-sown which have not run. To save seed of the triangular spinage,
transplant in March some good strong plants, of the winter crop. For large supplies,
a portion of each may be sown in February, or the first fortnight of March, to stand
wholly for seeding. Sow each sort separate. Respecting both sides, observe, that
they are of the class Dicecia, the male and female flowers growing separately, on two
distinct plants. When the plants are flowering for seed, the cultivator should examine
whether the male plants, distinguishable by the abundant farina upon the blossoms,
stand crowded or numerous to excess ; in which case he should pull up the superfluous
plants, leaving a competency for fertilising the female blossoms, which else would
prove abortive. And when the female blossoms are set, it is best to dispose of all the
male plants, drawing them by hand ; which will give more room to the females to grow
and perfect their seed. The plants rejected may be profitably given to young pigs. The
seed ripens in July and August." (Abercrombie.)
Subsect. 2. White Beet. — Beta Cicla, L. Pent. Big. L. and Chenopodece, B. P
Bette, or Poirce, Fr. ; Mangold Kraut, Ger. ; and Biettola, ItaL
3779. The white beet is a hardy biennial plant, with leaves larger than the red beet, and
very thick and succulent. It is a native of the sea-coasts of Spain and Portugal, and
was introduced in 1570, and cultivated by Gerrard and Parkinson. It produces greenish
flowers in August and September.
3780. Use. The white beet is cultivated in gardens entirely for the leaves, which are
boiled as spinage, or put into soups. Those of the great white, or sweet beet are
esteemed for the midribs and stalks, which are separated from the lamina of the leaf, and
stewed, and eaten as asparagus, under the name of chard. The variety called the Man-
gold IFiirzel, Ger. (Mangold-root), is reckoned a valuable agricultural plant for feeding
cattle, and affording sugar.
3781. Varieties. The principal of those known in this country are —
The common green-leaved small rooted I leaves whiter, and with white ribs and
beet; the roots not thicker than a man's I veins
thumb { The great white, or Swiss chard ; large
The common white small-rooted ; the ' stalks, smaller erect leaves, with
strong white ribs and veins ; grown
in many parts of the continent for
the chard, which in taste nearly equals
asparagus.
3782. Propagation and soi!. It is raised from seed ; and, for a bed four feet and a half by twelve sown
in drills, one ounce is requisite. The soil for the varieties to be used as pot-herbs, may be considerably
stronger and richer than for the red or vellow beets, and need not be quite so deep. The plants endure
for two years, shooting the autumn of the second ; but it is best not to depend on the shot or shoot leaves
of the second vear, but to sow at least annuallv.
3783. Sowing. The white beet is generally sown in gardens in the beginning of March, and sometimes
also in September, to furnish a supply of tender leaves late in the season, and early next spring. Sow
either broad-cast, and rake in the seeds ; or in drills, six or eight inches apart for the smaller kinds, and
ten or twelve for the larger. For the mangold, eighteen inches are not too much.
3784. Culture. When the plants have put out four leaves, they are hoed and thinned out to from four
inches to a foot, according to the sort A second thinning should take place a month afterwards, and the
ground should be kept clear of weeds, and stirred once or twice during the season with a fork or pronged
Book I. NEW ZEALAND SPINAGE. 637
hoe. In cultivating the Swiss chard, the plants are frequently watered during summer, to promote the
succulency of the stalks ; and in winter they are protected by litter, and sometimes earthed up, partly for
this purpose, and partly to blanch the stalks. Fresh chards are thus obtained from August to May.
The mangold is often transplanted, especially in field-culture, but this being foreign to our present puqiose,
we take leave of it. When the garden sorts of white beet are transplanted, the proper time is during
moist weather in May or June. The distance from plant to plant may be from ten to fourteen inches,
much of the advantage of transplanting depending on the room thus afforded the plants ; together with
the general disposition of transplanted annuals, with fusiform roots, as the turnip, carrot, &c. to throw out
leaves and lateral radicles.
3785. Gathering. The most succulent and nearly full-grown leaves being gathered as wanted, others
will be thrown out in succession. The root is too coarse for table use.
3786. To save seed. Proceed as in growing the seed of red beet.
Subsect. 3. Orache, or Mountain Spinage. — Atriplex hortensis, L. (Blackw. t. 99.)
Polyg. Monoec. L. and Chenopodecs, B. P. Arroche, Fr. ; Meldekraut, Ger. ; and
Atrepice, Ital.
3787. The orache is a hardy annual, a native of Tartary, and introduced in 1548. The
stem rises three or four feet high ; the leaves are oblong, variously shaped, and cut at the
edges, thick, pale-green, and glaucous, and of a slightly acid flavor. It produces flowers
of the color of the foliage in July and August. There are two varieties, the white or
pale-green ; and the red or purple-leaved.
3788. Use. The leaves are used as spinage, and sometimes also the tender stalks.
The stalks are good only while the plant is young ; but the larger leaves may be picked
oflP in succession throughout the season, leaving the stalks and smaller leaves untouched,
by which the latter will increase in size. The spinage thus procured is very tender, and
much esteemed in France.
3789. Culture. The orache is raised from seeds, which should be sown on a rich deep soil in August or
September ; sow in drills from one foot to eighteen inches asunder, keep the ground clear of weeds during
the autumn, and in spring thin the plants to four or six inches in the row. Stir the soil occasionally till
the plants come into flower in July, when the crop may be considered over. Spring sowings, however,
are made in places where this sort of spinage is in demand. In the market-gardens round Paris, the
plant is often cultivated in the broad-cast way, like common spinage.
3790. To save seed. Leave a few plants of the most tender and succulent constitutions
to blossom, and they will produce abundance of seeds in August.
Subsect. 4. Wild Spinage. — Chenojmdium bonus Henricus, L. (Eng. Bot. 1033.)
Pent. Dig. L. and Chenopodece, B. P. Anserine, Fr. ; Henkelkraut, Ger. ; and
Anserino, Ital.
3791. The wild spinage is an indigenous perennial, common by way-sides in loamy
soils. The stem rises a foot and a half high, is round and smooth at the base, but up-
wards it becomes grooved and angular. The leaves are large, alternate, triangular,
arrow-shaped, and entire on the edges. The whole plant, but especially the stalks, is
covered with minute transparent powdery particles.
3792. Use. While young and tender, the leaves are used as a substitute for spinage,
for which purpose, Curtis observes, it is cultivated in Lincolnshire, in preference to the
garden sort. Withering observes, that the young shoots, peeled and boiled, may be eaten
as asparagus, which they resemble in flavor.
3793. Culture. The plant may be propagated by dividing the roots ; or the seed may be " sown in March
or April, in a small bed. In the course of the following September, in showery weather, the seedlings
are transplanted into another bed which has been deeply dug, or rather trenched to the depth of a foot
and a half, the roots being long and striking deep, while at the same time they are branched; so that
each plant should have a foot or fifteen inches of space. Next season the young shoots, with their leaves
and tops, are cut for use as they spring up, leaving perhaps one head to each plant, to keep it in vigor.
The bed continues productive in this way for many successive years. The first spring cutting may be got
somewhat earlier, by taking the precaution of covering the bed with any sort of litter during the severity
of winter." (NeiU.)
Subsect. 5. New. Zealand Spinage. — Tetragonia expansa. (Plant, grass. 113.) Icos.
CDi-Pentag. L. and Ficoidece, J.
3794. New Zealand spinage is a half hardy annual, with numerous branches, round,
succulent, pale-green, thick, and strong, somewhat procumbent, but elevating their ter-
minations. The leaves are fleshy, growing alternately at small distances from each
other, on shortish petioles ; they are of a deltoid shape, but rather elongated, being from
two to three inches broad at the top, and from three to four inches long ; the apex is al-
most sharp-pointed, and the two extremities of the base are bluntly rounded ; the whole
leaf is smooth, with entire edges, dark-green above, below paler, and thickly studded
with aqueous tubercles ; the mid-rib and veins project conspicuously on the under sur-
face. The flowers are sessile in the alae of the leaves, small and green, and, except that
they show their yellow antherse when they expand, they are very inconspicuous. The
fruit when ripe has a dry pericarp of a rude shape, with four or five hornlike processes
enclosing the seed, which is to be sown in its covering. It is a native of New Zealand,
by the sides of woods in bushy sandy places, and though not used by the inhabitants, yet
being considered by the naturalists who accompanied Captain Cook, as of the same
638 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
nature as the chenopodinm (see Foster, Plant, esculent., &c.), it was served to the sailors,
boiled every day at breakfast and dinner. It was introduced here by Sir Joseph Banks in
1772, and treated as a green-house plant ; but has lately been found to grow in the open
garden as freely as the kidneybean or nasturtium. As a summer spinage it is as valuable as
the orache, or perhaps more so. Every gardener knows the plague that attends the frequent
sowing of common spinage through the warm season of the year ; without that trouble
it is impossible to have it good, and with the utmost care it cannot always be obtained
exactly as it ought to be (particularly when the weather is hot and dry) from the rapidity
with which the young plants run to seed. The New Zealand spinage, if watered, grows
freely, and produces leaves of the greatest succulency in the hottest weather. Anderson,
one of its earliest cultivators, had only nine plants, from which he says, " I have been
enabled to send in a gathering for the kitchen every other day since the middle of June,
so that I consider a bed with about twenty plants quite sufficient to give a daily supply,
if required, for a large table."
3795. Use. It is dressed in the same manner as common spinage, and whether boiled
plain, or stewed, is considered by some as superior to it ; there is a softness and mildness
in its taste, added to its flavor, which resembles that of spinage, in which it has an advan-
tage over that herb.
3796. Culture. The seed should be sown in the latter end of March, in a pot, which must be placed in
a melon-frame : the seedling plants while small should be set out singly, in small pots, and kept under the
shelter of a cold-frame, until about the twentieth of May, when the mildness of the season will probably
allow of their being planted out, without risk of being killed by frost. At that time a bed must be pre-
pared for the reception of the plants, by forming a trench two feet wide, and one foot deep, which must
be filled level to the surface with rotten dung from an old cucumber-bed ; the dung must be covered with
six inches of garden-mould, thus creating aii elevated ridge in the middle of the bed, the sides of which
must extend three feet from the centre. The plants must be put out three feet apart ; I planted mine at
only two feet distance from each other, but they were too near. In five or six weeks from the planting,
their branches will have grown sufficiently to allow the gathering of the leaves for use. In dry seasons
the plants will probably require a good supply of water. They put forth their branches vigorously as soon
as they have taken to the ground, and extend before the end of the season three feet on each side from
the centre of the bed.
3797. In gathering for use, the young leaves must be pinched off the branches, taking care to leave the
leading shoot uninjured ; this, with the smaller branches which subsequently arise from the alas of the
leaves which have been gathered, will produce a supply until a late period in the year, for the plants are
sufficiently hardy to withstand the frosts which kill nasturtiums, potatoes, and such tender vegetables.
{Anderson, in Hort. Trans. voL iv. 492.)
3798. To save seed. Place a plant or two in a poor soil, or train one up a wall, or
stunt one or two in lime rubbish, or in pots sparingly watered, as in growing the pea-plant
for seed. Or a few cuttings may be struck in autumn, and preserved through the winter
in the green-house.
Subsect. 6. Sorrel. — Rumex, L. Hex. Trig. L. and Folygonece, J. Oseille, Fr. ;
Sauerampfer, Ger. ; and Acetosa, Ital.
3799. French sorrel, Roman sorrel, or round-leaved sorrel, is the R. Scutatus, L. ; a
perennial plant, a native of France and Italy, and cultivated in this country since 1596.
The leaves are somewhat hastate, blunt, and entire ; glaucous, smooth, soft, and fleshy.
The trailing stems rise from a foot to a foot and a half high, and the flowers, of a greenish-
white, appear in June and July.
3800. Garden-sorrel is the R. acetosa, L. {Eng. Bot. 127.), an indigenous perennial,
common in meadows and moist situations. The root-leaves have long foot-stalks, are
narrow-shaped, blunt, and marked with two or three large teeth at the base ; the upper
leaves are sessile and acute. There are two varieties of this species, the broad-leaved,
and the long-leaved, both in cultivation, and the former esteemed the most succulent.
3801. Use. Both sorts are used in soups, sauces, and salads ; and very generally by
the French and Dutch, as a spinage ; in the latter way it is often used along with herb-
patience, to which it gives an excellent flavor, as well as to turnip-tops.
3802. Culture and soil. " The finer plants are propagated from seed, but good plants can be obtained by
parting the roots, which is the most expeditious way. The native varieties flourish both in humid meadows
and sandy pastures : their roots strike deep. The trailing round-leaved requires a dry soil."
3803. By seed. " Sow in anv of the spring months, best in March. Drop the seed in small drills, six or
eight inches asunder. When'the plants are one or two inches high, thin them to three or four inches
apart: when advanced to be a little stocky, in summer or autumn, transplant a quantity into another bed,
from six to twelve inches apart, if of the first two sorts : leaving those in the seed-bed with the same
intervals. But leave almost double that distance for the round-leaved creeping kind. They will come
in for use the same year."
3804. By offsets. Part the roots in spring or autumn. Either detach a quantity of offsets, or divide
full plants into rooted slips : plant them at a foot distance, and water them.
3805 General treatment. As these herbs, however originated, run up in stalks in summer, cut them
down occasionally ; and cover the stool with a little fresh mould, to encourage the production of large
leaves on the new stem Fork and clean the ground between the plants every autumn or spring ; and
keep it clear from weeds. If, in two or three years, they have dwindled in growth, bearing small leaves,
let them be succeeded by a new plantation.
3806. To save seed. " Permit some old plants to run up in stalks all the summer :
they will ripen seed in autumn." (Abercrombie.)
Book 1.
ALLIACEOUS PLANTS.
639
Subsect. 7. Herb-Patience, or Patience-Dock. — Rumex Patientia, L. (Blachv. 349.)
Hex. Dig. L. and Polygoneee, J. Rhubarbe des Monies, Fr. ; Gartenampfer, Ger. ;
and Romice, Ital.
3807. The herb-patience is a hardy perennial plant, a native of Italy, introduced in
1573. The leaves are broad, long, and acute-pointed, on reddish foot-stalks; the stems,
where allowed to spring up, rise to the height of four or five feet. It produces its
whitish-green flowers in June and July.
3808. Use. " In old times, garden-patience was much cultivated as a spinage. It
is now very much neglected, partly perhaps on account of the proper mode of using it
not being generally known. The leaves rise early in the spring ; they are to be cut
while tender, and about a fourth part of common sorrel is to be mixed with them. In
this way patience-dock is much used in Sweden, and may be safely recommended as
forming an excellent spinage dish." (Neill.)
3809. Culture. Garden-patience is easily raised from seeds, which may be sown in lines in the manner
of common spinage, or white beet, and thinned out and treated afterwards like the latter plant. If the
plants be regularly cut over two or three times in the season, they continue in a healthy productive state
for several years.
Sect. V. Alliaceous Plants.
3810. The alliaceous esculents are of great antiquity and universal cultivation. No
description of useful British garden is without the onion ; and few in other parts of the
world, without that bulb, or garlic. They require a rich, and rather strong soil, and
warm climate, thriving better in Spain and France than in England. The onion and
leek crops may occupy a twentieth of the open compartments in most kitchen-gardens ;
and a bed of five or seven square yards in those of the cottager.
Subsect. 1. Onion. — Allium Cepa, L. Hexandria Monogynia, L. and Asphodeleae, J.
Oignon, Fr. ; Ziviebel, Ger. ; and Cipola, Ital.
381 1. The common bulbous onion is a biennial plant, supposed to be a native of Spain ;
though as Neill observes, " neither the native country, nor the date of its introduction
into this island, are correctly known." It is distinguished from other alliaceous plants
by its large fistular leaves, swelling stalk, coated bulbous root, and large globular head
of flowers, which expand the second year in June and July.
3812. Use. The use of the onion, in its different stages of growth, when young, in
salads, and when bulbing and mature, in soups and stews, is familiar to every class of
society in Europe ; and for these purposes has been held in high estimation from time
immemorial.
3813. The varieties ascertained to be best deserving of culture are as follows : —
The silver-skinned ; flat, middle-sized, and
shining ; chiefly used for pickling
Early silver-skinned ; a subvariety of the
other, smaller, and excellent for pick-
ling
Yellow ; small, globular, strong-flavored,
and good for pickling
Two-bladed ; flat, small, brownish-green,
has few leaves, ripens early, and keeps
well ; one of the best for pickling
True Portugal onion of the fruiterers ;
large, flatly globular, mild; does not
keep well
Spanish, Reading, white Portugal, Cam-
bridge, Evesham, or sandy onion ; large,
flat, white tinged with green, mild,
but does not keep very well ; good for
a general crop, much cultivated round
Reading
Strasburgh, Dutch, or Flanders onion, the
seed being generally procured from
thence,; or Essex onion, when the seed
is saved in that county; oval, large,
and light-red, tinged with green ; har-
dy, keeps well, but of strong flavor ;
much the most generally cultivated in
Britain
Deptford onion ; middle-sized, globular,
pale-brown ; a subvariety of the Stras-
burgh, and very generally cultivated
Globe; large, globular, pale-brown, tinged
with red, mild, and keeps well ; very
popular among gardeners
3814. Estimate of sorts. The Strasburgh is most generally adopted for principal crops, and next the
Deptford and globe. The Portugal and Spanish yield large crops for early use, and the silver-skinned
and two-bladed are reckoned the best for pickling. The potatoe-onion is planted in some places as an
auxiliary crop, but is considered inferior to the others in flavor : the Welsh onion is sometimes sown
for early spring-drawing.
3815. Soil. The onion, " to attain a good size, requires rich mellow ground on a dry sub-soil. If the
soil be poor or exhausted, recruit it with a compost of fresh loam and well consumed dung, avoiding to
use stable-dung in a rank unreduced state. Turn in the manure to a moderate depth ; and in digging
the ground, let it be broken fine. Grow picklers in poor light ground, to keep them small." The mar-
ket-gardeners at Hexham sow their onion-seed on the same ground for twenty or more years in succes-
sion, but annually manure the soil. After digging and levelling the ground, the manure, in a very
rotten state, is spread upon it, the onion-seed sown upon the manure, and covered with earth from the
alleys, and the crops are abundant and excellent in quality. (Hort. Trans, i. 121.)
James's keeping ; large, pyramidal, brown,
hardy, strong in flavor, and keeps well :
originated some years ago by James, a
market-gardener, in Lambeth Marsh.
Pale-red ; middle-sized, flattened, globe
shape, pale-red, strong flavor, keeps
well
Blood-red, Dutch blood-red, St. Thomas s
onion; middle-sized, flat, very hardy,
deep red, strong flavor, and keeps par-
ticularly well ; much grown in Wales
and Scotland: in the London market
it is esteemed for its diuretic qualities
Tripoli ; the largest onion grown ; oval,
light red, tinged with green and brown,
soft and mild, but does not keep long
after it is taken up
Lisbon; large, globular, smooth, bright,
white, and thin skin, tardy in ripening
but hardy, much used for autumnal
sowing ; seed generally obtained from
the south of France
Welsh onion, or ciboule (Allium Jistulosum,
L ); a native of Siberia, hardy, strong in
flavor, but does not bulb ; sown in
autumn for drawing in spring
Underground or potatoe onion ; multiplies
itself by the formation of young bulbs
on the parent root, and produces an
ample crop below the surface ; ripens
early, but does not keep beyond Feb-
ruary ; flavor strong
Tree or bulb-bearing onion {Allium
cepa, var vivipara), Oignon d'Bgypte,
Fr. ; originally from Canada, where the
climate being too cold for onions to
flower and seed, when they are al-
lowed to throw up flower-stalks, the
flower becomes viviparous, and bears
bulbs instead of flowers ; here it re-
tains the same habit. It is more an
object of curiosity than use, though,
in some parts of Wales, Milne informs
us (Hort. Trans, iii. 419.); the cauline
bulbs are planted, and produce ground-
onions of a considerable size, while
the stem supplies a succession of
bulbs for next year's planting. It is
considered stronger, ana to go farther
as seasoning than other onions. (Hort.
Trans iii. 369.
Scallion ; a term generally given to the
strong green tops of onions in the
spring which do not bulb, or to the
shoots from bulbs of the preceding year.
Miller mentions it as a distinct sort ;
some consider it the Welsh onion ; and
Milne thinks it may not improbably
be the hollow leek, a species of Allium
grown in Pembrokeshire and other
parts of South Wales, with roots in
clusters like that of shallots.
(Hort. Trans, iii. 41 G.)
640 PRACTICE OF GARDENING Part III.
5816. Seed and times of sowing. When onions are to be drawn young, two ounces of seed will be re-
quisite for a bed four feet by twenty-four ; but when to remain for bulbing, one ounce will suffice for a
bed five feet bv twenty-four feet. . . ,.
3817. The course of culture recommended by Abercrombie for the summer, and what he calls winter-
laid-by crops, is as follows : " Allot an open compartment, and lay it out in beds from three to five feet in
width. Sow broad-cast, equallv over the rough surface, moderately thick, bed and bed separately, and
rake in the seed lengthwise each bed, in a regular manner. When the plants are three or four inches
high, in May and June, let them be timely cleared from weeds, and let the principal crop be thinned,
either by hand, or with a small two-inch hoe ; thinning the plants to intervals of from three to five inches
in the main crops designed for full bulbing ; or, some beds may remain moderately thick for drawing
voung, by successive thinnings, to the above distance. For the Spanish, from seed obtained immediately
from Spain, the final distance should be six or seven inches. Keep the whole very clear from weeds, in
their young and advancing state. The plants will begin bulbing a little in June ; more tully in July ;
and be" fully grown in August to large bulbs. In July or August, when the leaves begin to dry at the
points and" turn yellow, lav the stems down close to the ground, bending them about two inches up the
neck, which promotes the ripening of the bulb, particularly in wet or backward seasons. Ine crop of
full bulbers will be ready to take up towards the middle of August. When the necks shrink, and the
leaves decav, pull them wholly up in due time : spread them on a compartment of dry ground, in the
full sun, to drv and harden completely, turning them every two or three days ; and in a week or fort-
night they will be ready to house. Clear off the grossest part of the leaves, stalks, and fibres ; then
deposit the bulbs in some' close drv apartment, in which sometimes turn them over, and pick out any
that decay ; and they will thus keep sound and good, all winter and spring, till May following."
3818. Transplanting onions. This practice was recommended by Worlidge in his Systema Horticulture,
pubhshed early in the 17th century, and has lately been revived by Knight, Warre, Macdonald, and
others. It may be observed, that it'has been practised, for an unknown period, in some of the market-
gardens near London, known bv the name of the " Gardens of the Neat's Houses." Knight observes,
that every bulbous-rooted plant," and indeed every plant that lives longer than one year, generates in one
season the sap or vegetable blood which composes the leaves and roots of the succeeding spring. " This
reserved sap is deposited in, and composes, in a great measure, the bulb; and the quantity accumulated,
as well as the period required for its accumulation, varies greatly in the same species of plant, under
more or less favorable circumstances. Thus the onion, in the south of Europe, acquires a much larger
size during the long and warm summers of Spain and Portugal, in a single season, than in the colder cli-
mate of England ; but under the following mode of culture, which I have long practised, two summers
in England produce nearly the effect of one in Spain or Portugal, and the onion assumes nearly the form
and size of those thence imported. Seeds of the Spanish or Portugal onion are sown at the usual period
in the spring, very thicklv, and in poor soil ; generally under the shade of a fruit-tree ; and in such situ-
ations the bulbs, in the autumn, are rarely found much to exceed the size of a large pea. These are
then taken from the ground, and preserved till the succeeding spring, when they are planted at equal dis-
tances from each other, and thev afford plants which differ from those raised immediately from seed,
only in possessing much greater strength and vigor, owing to the quantity of previously generated sap
being much greater in the bulb than in the seed. The bulbs, thus raised, often exceed considerably five
inches in diameter, and being more mature, they are with more certainty, preserved in a state of perfect
soundness, through the winter, than those raised from seed in a single season."
3819. West has tried the above mode, and found it perfectly successful. ( Hort. Trans, iv. 139.) Brown, of
Perth, has practised transplanting onions for upwards of twenty years ; all the difference between his mode
and that of Knight and the Neat's Houses' gardeners, is that, instead of sowing under the shade of trees,
he picks out all the small onions, from the size of a pea to that of a filbert, from his general crop. If the sown
crops fail, he can always trust to the transplanted crop as a reserve. {Xeill, in Encyc. Brit. art. Hort.)
3820. James transplants either autumn-sown onions, or such as are forwarded by a hot-bed in spring,
in drills which have been dunged, by which he considers a larger crop may be obtained with less dung than
by the broad-cast mode of dunging. {Hort Trans, iv. 130)
3821. Warre states that the onion is also transplanted in Portugal, and the general practice is as follows :
the seed is sown " very thinly, in November or December, on a moderate hot-bed, in a warm situation,
with a few inches of rich light loam upon it, and the plants protected from frost by mats and hoops. In
April or May, when they are about the size of a large swan's quill, they are transplanted on a rich light
loam, well manured with old rotten dung. The mode of transplanting is particular. The plants are laid
flat, about nine inches asunder, each way, in quincunx, the beard of the root, and part only of the plant,
lightlv covered with very rich mould, well mixed with two thirds of good old rotten dung. This compost
is slightly pressed down" on the plant ; water is given when the weather is dry, until the plants have taken
root. Subsequently, the earth is occasionally broken around them, by slight hoeing, in which operation
care is taken not to" wound the bulb. Weeding is diligently attended to, and the watering continued, ac-
cording to the state of the weather. In Portugal, the means of irrigation are easy, the effects of which
are particularly beneficial to the onion ; for, by letting the water filter, or pass through small heaps of
dung, placed in the alleys of the beds, a very rich liquid flows in upon the plants. The dung, as it is
exhausted, or washed away, should be renewed ; and the water must be checked in its current, so that
it may gentlv spread over the surface." {Hort. Trans, iii. 68.)
3822. Macdoiia/d's practice is noticed and approved of by Warre. " He sows in February, sometimes
on a slight hot-bed, or merely under a glass frame ; and between the beginning of April and the middle
of the month, according to the state of the weather, he transplants in drills about eight inches asunder,
and at the distance of four or five inches from each other in the row. The bulbs thus enjoying the great
and well known advantages of having the surface-earth frequently stirred, swell to a much larger size than
those not transplanted ; while in firmness and flavor they are certainly not inferior to foreign onions."
{Caled. Hort. Mem. iii. 68.)
3823. Wliatever plan of transplanting spring-sown onions may be adopted, care should be taken to keep
the incipient bulb above ground ; and in the case of planting autumn-formed bulbs in spring, they should
be covered as slightly and loosely as possible, otherwise, in neither ease, will the bulbs attain a satisfactory
magnitude.
3824. Culture of a ivintcr-standing crop to be drawn for use the succeeding spring. " Allot a soil
rather more light and sandy for the summer crop, on a sub-soil at least equally dry. The compartment,
especially for any of the biennial kinds, should lie warm and sheltered. The beds may be three or four
feet wide, running parallel to the best aspect. The medium time for the principal sowing falls about the
seventh of August ; and for a secondary crop, near the £5th. Sow the bulbing sorts and the Welsh peren-
nial separately ; distribute the seed pretty thickly. If the soil be drv and light, tread down the seed evenly
along the surface of each bed, and then' rake it in neatly. When the plants are come up, one, two, or
three inches, carefully hand-weed in time, before any rising weeds spread; not thinning the plants,
because they should remain thick, for their chance in winter, and to be by degrees drawn thinningly for
use in salads and otherwise; but reserve a principal supply to remain till spring. Observe, the Welsh
onion, in particular, commonly dies down to the ground about mid-winter; but the root-part, remaining
wholly sound, sends up a new vigorous stem in February and March. At the opening of spring, let the
whole" of both sorts be well cleared from weeds ; they will continue fit to draw young, during all the
spring months, till May ; then let some of the bulbous" kinds be thinned, to remain for early bulbing in
June and July; but as they will soon after shoot up in stalk, they are chiefly for present use, not being
eligible as keeping-onions."
Book I. LEEK. 641
3825. Lifting and preserving the general crop of onions. This, according to Nicol, should not be delayed
after the beginning or middle of September. When taken up, they are to be spread thin on the ground ;
" but if the weather be wet, they had better be removed to a gravel walk, or a space purposely covered
with sand or gravel, in the full sun. Turn them over once or twice a-day, until they are thoroughly dried
and then store them in a well aired loft, &c. ; here still turn them occasionally, if they lie anywise thick • or
may string them up by the tails, or hang them in nets. If they are not intended to be strung, the tails
and outer husks should be displaced before housing them, and the latter at all events ; that is, just as
much as comes easily offin rubbing. The manner of stringing them is this : take in your hand' three or
four by the tails; tie them hard with a new strand of matting, or a bit of packthread ; place on two or
three more onions ; lap the thread once or twice round their tails ; place more onions, which also lap
hard, and so on. In this manner may be made a string (as it is called), or bunch, of a yard in length, or
more; which by being hung up in a dry well aired place, free from frost, is an excellent way of keeping
onions." In Portugal, " when the onions are ripe," Warre observes, " they are drawn up out of the
ground, and a twist is given to the top, so as to bend it down. They are left on the ground to season
before they are housed ; then, immediately platted with dry straw into ropes or strings, of twenty-five
each, and hung up to dry ; they are not permitted to sweat in a heap. Their keeping well depends
greatly upon the weather being dry and favorable, when they are brought into the house, and also upon
their being carefully handled, and not bruised. In this country, I have practised, with much success,
searing the roots with a hot iron, for the purpose of preserving the onions, which checks their sprouting,
and they should be kept in a dry airy place."
3826. To save seed. " Select some of the largest, well housed, sound, firm bulbs,
either in October, the beginning of November, or in February. Draw drills three or
four inches deep, either a single row, or two or three rows together, a foot asunder ; in
which plant the onions, six, ten, or twelve inches apart, and earth in about three inches.
In planting double or treble rows, allow an interval of two feet between each bed of two
or three rows, to admit of going in, both to place stakes and horizontal lines for the sup-
port of the seed-stems, and to cut down weeds. The plants will shoot up in stalks two
or three feet high, producing each a large head of seed, which will ripen in August or
September."
3827. Culture of the potatoe-onion. This variety, erroneously supposed to have been
brought from Egypt by the British army about 1805, was grown in Driver's nursery in
1796, and has been known in Devonshire for upwards of twenty years. It is thus cul-
tivated at Arundel Castle, by Maher. Having thoroughly prepared the ground, and
formed it into beds four feet wide, " I draw lines the whole length, three to each bed, and
with the end of the rake handle, make a mark (not a drill) on the surface ; on this mark
I place the onions, ten inches apart ; I then cover them with leaf-mould, rotten dung, or
any other light compost, just so that the crowns appear exposed. Nothing more is neces-
sary to be done until they shoot up their tops ; then, on a dry day, they are earthed up,
like potatoes, and kept free from weeds until they are taken up. In the west of England,
where this kind of onion is much cultivated, I understand that it is the practice to plant
on the shortest day, and take up on the longest. The smallest onions used for planting
swell, and become very fine and large, as well as yield offsets ; the middle-sized and
larger bulbs produce greater clusters." [Hurt. Trans, iii. 305.)
3828. Dymond states [Hort. Trans, iii. '306.), that in Devonshire it is planted in
rows twelve inches apart, and six inches' distance in the row ; that the plants are earthed
up as they grow, and that the smaller bulbs yield a greater increase than the larger. A
similar practice is adopted by some Scotch cultivators. (Caled. Hort. Mem. i. 343. and
iv. 216.)
3829. Wedgewood does not earth up, and finds his bulbs acquire a much larger size
than when that practice is adopted. {Hort. Trans, iii. 403.) The fact is, as we have
observed in generalising on the subject of earthing up (8233.), surface-bulbs, as the onion,
turnip, &c, are always prevented from attaining their full size by that operation, what-
ever they may gain in other respects.
Subsect. 2. Leek. — Allium porrum, L. (Blackiv. t. 421.) Hexan. Monog. L. and
Asphodeleee, B. P. Poireau, Fr. ; Lauch, Ger. ; and Poro, Ital.
3830. The leek is a hardy biennial, a native of Switzerland, and introduced in 1562.
The stem rises three feet, and is leafy at bottom, the leaves an inch wide. The flowers
appear in May, in close, very large balls, or purplish peduncles. The leek is mentioned
by Tusser ; but was, no doubt, known in tins country long before his time. Worlidge,
speaking of Wales, says, " I have seen the greater part of a garden there stored with leeks,
and a part of the remainder with onions and garlic."
3831. Use. The whole plant is used in soups and stews ; but the blanched stem is
most esteemed. Leeks formerly constituted an ingredient in the dish called porridge,
which some suppose to be derived from the Latin porrum.
3832. The varieties are —
The narrow-leaved, or Flanders leek I The Scotch, or flag, or Musselburgh I The broad-leaved, or tall London leek.
leek
3833. Propagation. From seed ; and for a bed, four feet wide by eight in length, one ounce is requisite.
3834. Soil and site. The soil should be light and rich, lying on a dry sub-soil. A rank soil does not
suit it, so that when manure is necessary, well reduced dung, mixed with road-drift, is better than dung
alone. The situation should be open. Let the ground be dug in the previous autumn or winter ready for
sowing in spring. For the principal crop, allot beds four or five feet wide. A small crop may be sown
T t
642
PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
thinly with a main crop of onions, and when the latter are drawn off, the leeks will have room for full
^SSoV' Times of sowina. A small first crop, or the subordinate crop in the onion-bed, may be sown at
the end of February, if the weather be mild, and the ground in a dry state ; but it is better not to sow the
main supply till the course of March • or first week of April. It is eligible to sow a secondary crop at the
end of April or beginning of May. for a late succession in winter and the following spring
3836. Course of culture. When the plants are three or four inches high, in May or June, weed them
clean and thin where too crowded. Water well in dry hot weather, to bring the plants forward. The
leek is much improved in size by transplanting; those designed for which will be fit to remove when from
six to ten inches high, from June till August. For this purpose, thin out a quantity regularly trom the
seed-bed, either in showery weather, or after watering the ground : trim the long weak tops ot the leaves
and the root-fibres : and plant them, by dibble, in rows from nine to tweJve inches asunder, by six or eight
inches in the row ; inserting them neaily down to the leaves, or with the neck-part mostly into the ground,
to whiten it a proportionate length. Press the earth to the fibres with the dibber, but leave the stem as
loose as possible, and as it were standing in the centre of a hollow cylinder. Give water, if the weather
be dry. Those remaining in the seed-bed, thin to six or eight inches' distance. Keep the whole clear
from weeds In hoeing, loosen the ground about the plants, to promote their free vigorous growth, borne
plant in hollow drills, and earth up as in- celery-culture, which produces very large stems. The mam
crops will attain a mature useful size in September, October, and November; and continue in perfection
all winter and the following spring. When frost is expected, a part may be taken up, and laid in sand.
The late-sown crop will continue till May, without running to stalk.
3837. To save seed. Transplant some best full plants, in February or the beginning
of march, into a sunny situation, or in a row near a south fence. They will shoot in
summer, in single tall seed-stalks. Support them, as necessary, with stakes ; and they
will produce ripe seed in September. Cut the ripe heads with part of the stalk to each ;
tie two or three together, and hang up under cover, to dry and harden the seed thoroughly,
when it may be rubbed out, cleaned, and put by for future service. {Abcrcrombie.)
Subsect. 3. Chive. — Allium Schcvnojrrasum, L. (Eng. Bot. 2438.) Hex. Momg. L.
and Asphodelece, B. P. Civette, Fr. ; Binsenlauch, Ger. ; and Cipoletta, Ital.
3838. The chive, or cive, is a hardy perennial plant, a native of Britain, and found in
meadows and pastures, though but rarely. The leaves rise from many small bulbous
roots connected in bunches ; are awl-shaped, thread-like, and produced in tufts. The
flowers are white, tinged with reddish-purple, and appear on round stalks in June. ^
3839. Use. Chives, when gathered, are cut or shorn by the surface, and on this ac-
count are generally named in the plural. The foliage is employed as a salad ingredient
in spring, being esteemed milder than onions or scallions. Occasionally the leaves and
roots are taken together, slipped to the bottom singly in small separate cibols, in lieu of
young onions in the spring for salads. They are also used as a seasoning to omelets,
soups, &c.
3840 Culture Chives may be planted in any common soil and situation. The plant is propagated by
«!]ips • or by dividing the roots in the spring or autumn. Plant them in any bed or border, from eight to
twelve inches apart ; they will soon increase into large bunches. In gathering the leaves for use, cut
them close, and others will shoot up in succession. A bed lasts three or four years; after which period
it must be renewed, by dividing the roots.
Subsect. 4. Garlic. — Allium sativum, L. [Moris, s. 4. t. 15. f. 9.) Hexandria Monogy-
nia, L. and Asphodelece, B. P. Ail, Fr. ; Knoblauch, Ger. ; and Aglio, Ital.
3841. The garlic is a hardy perennial bulbous-rooted plant, growing naturally in
Sicily and the south of France. The leaves are linear, long, and narrow. The bulb is
composed of a dozen or fifteen subordinate bulbs, called cloves. It flowers in June and
July, and has been cultivated in this country since 1548.
3842. Use. It is cultivated for the sake of the bulb, which is used in various kinds
of dishes, being in general introduced only for a short period into the dish while cooking,
and withdrawn when a sufficient degree of flavor has been communicated. It is much
more used in foreign, and especially in Italian, cookery than in ours. It is occasionally
also prescribed in medicine.
3843 Culture. Garlic is propagated by planting the cloves on subdivisions of the bulb, and prefers
" a light drv soil, rich, but not recently dunged. In February, March, or beginning of April, Having
some'larae full bulbs, divide them into separate cloves, and plant them singly in beds, in rows lengthwise.
Set them from six to nine inches asunder, two or three inches deep, either in drills or in holes made with
a blunt-ended dibble. In placing the cloves in drills, thrust the bottom a little into the ground, and earth
them over the proper depth. The plants will soon come up : keep them clear from weeds, the bum*
will be full-grown in July or beginning of August." . . .
3844 Taking the crop. " The maturity of the bulbs is discoverable by the leaves changing yellowish,
in a decaying state ; when they may be taken wholly up. Continue the stalky part of the leaves to eacn
root • spread them in the sun to dry and harden, and then tie fhem in bunches by the stalks, and house
them to keep for use, as wanted; they will remain good till next spring and summer. If, in their ad-
vancing growth, some are required for present use, before attaining maturity, a few of the early planting
may be drawn in May or June ; but permitting the general supply to attain lull growth as above. {Aoer-
crombie.) .
Subsect. 5. Shallot. — Allium ascalonium, L. (lior. His. s. 4. t. 14. f. 3.) Hexan-
dria Monogynia. L. and Asphodelece, B. P. Echalote, Fr. ; Sclmlotte, Ger. ; and
tiadogni, Ital.
3845. The shallot is a bulbous-rooted perennial, a native of Palestine, found, as the
trivial name imports, near Ascalon. Some old authors denominate it the barren onion,
Book I. ASPARAGINOUS PLANTS. 643
from the circumstance of its seldom sending up a flower-stalk. The roots separate into
cloves, like those of garlic ; and the leaves rise in tufts like those of the chive, but larger.
The flavor of the bruised plant is milder than any of the cultivated alliaceous tribe.
3846. Use. The cloves are used for culinary purposes, in the manner of garlic and
onions. In a raw state, cut small, it is often used as sauce to steaks and chops ; and
sometimes a clove or two is put in winter salads. The roots become mature in July and
August, and, dried and laid in store, are in season till the following spring.
3847. Culture. The shallot is propagated by dividing the clustered root into separate offsets. These
are to be planted in February, or early in March, or in October and November. Planting in autumn is
generally preferred as producing the best bulbs ; but great care must be taken that much wet do not reach
the roots in winter. Abercrombie directs to " lay out some light rich ground, in beds four feet wide,
and in rows extending along these, to plant the offsets six inches apart, either in drills two inches deep,
or inserted to that depth by the dibber, or with the finger and thumb." Nicol advises not to dung land
intended for shallots, as rendering them liable to the attacks of maggots and insects : a very common
complaint of gardeners.
3848. Machray, at Errol, {Cal. Hort. Me?n. i. 275.) finds soot mixed with the manure given to shallot-
beds effectual in preventmg the appearance of maggots ; while the roots were improved in size.
3849. Henderson, of Delvine, (Caled. Mem. vol. i. 199.) to prevent the maggot, picks out the very
smallest shallot-rcots for planting; manures the ground with well rotted dung or house-ashes. He plants
about the middle of October, as recommended by Marshal, and never has had the roots injured by the
maggot in the smallest degree. " Autumn planting," he says, " is the whole secret." To prove this, he
planted some roots in spring, only seven feet distance from those planted in autumn ; and while the latter
were untouched, the former were destroyed by these insects. The smallness of the roots planted, prevents
them from growing mouldy. The most intense frost does not hurt them. From 204 cloves planted in
October, 1810, he lifted, in August, 1811, above 5000 good clean roots, measuring in general about three
and a half inches in circumference.
3850. Knight, to guard against the maggots in shallots, tried planting the bulb on the surface, instead
of burying it two or three inches in the soil ; and the experiment was attended with such perfect success,
that he confidently recommends this mode of culture. He places a rich soil beneath the roots, and raises
the mould on each side to support them till they become firmly rooted. This mould is then removed by
the hoe and water from the rose of a watering-pot, and the bulbs, in consequence, are placed wholly out
of the ground. " The growth of those plants," he adds, " now so closely resembled that of the common
onion, as not to be readily distinguished from it ; till the irregularity of form, resulting from the nume-
rous germs within each bulb, became conspicuous. The forms of the bulbs, however, remained perma-
nently different from all I had ever seen of the same species, being much more broad and less long ; and
the crop was so much better in quality, as well as much more abundant, that I can confidently recommend
the mode of culture adopted to every gardener." {Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 98.)
3851. Taking and preserving the crop. When the leaves begin to decay, the bulbs are fit to be taken
up, when they should be dried and housed, either on the floor of the root-loft, in nets hung from the
roof, or in strings, as recommended for onions. Should any roots be wanted during the growth of the
crop, a few may be taken up young in June and July for immediate consumption.
Subsect. 6. Rocambole. — Allium Scorodoprasum, L. (Plenck. Ic. t. 256.) Hexan.
Monog. L. and Asphodelece, B. P. AU a" Espagne, Fr. ; Rocketibollun, Ger. ; and
Scorodopraso, Ital.
3852. The rocambole is a perennial plant, a native of Denmark, and mentioned by
Gerrard as cultivated in 1596. It has compound bulbs, like garlic, but the cloves
are smaller. These are produced at the roots, and also, though of a smaller size, on the
stem, which rises two feet high, and produces the bulbs in the axilla? of the leaves in
July and August-
3853. Use. The cloves, both of the stalk and root, are used in the manner of garlic
or shallot, and nearly for the same purposes. It is considered milder than garlic.
3854. Culture. It is propagated by planting the separated cloves of the root-bulb, or occasionally the
cloves of the head, in February, March, or April. A small bed, or a few rows, will be sufficient for a
family garden. Plant it either by dibble, or in drills, in rows six inches apart, and two inches deep. The
plants shoot up, each in a slender stalk, contorted at top, and terminated by a small head of cloves, which,
as well as the root, will acquire full growth in July or August, for immediate use ; or to be taken up, and
spread to dry, tied in bunches, and housed for future consumption.
Sect. VI. Asparaginous Plants.
3855. The asparaginoiis class of esculents may be considered as comparatively one of
luxury. It occupies a large proportion of the gentleman's garden, often an eighth part ;
but does not enter into that of the cottager. A moist atmosphere is congenial to the chief
of them, especially to asparagus and sea-kale, which are sea-shore plants, and are brought
to greater perfection in our islands than any where else, excepting perhaps in Holland.
Subsect. I. Asparagus. — Asparagus officinalis, L. (Eng. Hot. t. 339.) Hex. Monog. L.
and Asphodelece, B. P. Asperge, Fr. ; Spargel, Ger. ; and Asparago, Ital.
3S56. The asparagus is a perennial plant, found in stony or gravelly situations near
the sea, but not very common. It grows near Bristol, in the Isle of Portland, and
sparingly in Seaton Links, near Edinburgh. The roots consist of many succulent
round knobs, forming together a kind of tuber, from which numerous erect round
stems arise with alternate branches, subdivided into alternate twigs, not unlike a
larch fir-tree in miniature. The leaves are very small, linear, and bristle-shaped ; the
flowers nodding, of a yellowish-green, and odorous, are produced from June to August ;
and the berries of a yellowish-red : the whole plant has a very elegant appearance.
Many of the steppes in the south of Russia and Poland are covered with this plant, which
T t 2
The Battersea, Deptfbrd, Large Gravesend, Large Reading,
Dutch, Cork, and Early Mortlake are subvarieties.
644 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part HI.
is there eaten by the horses and oxen as grass. In its native state, it is so dwarfish in
appearance, even when in flower, that none but a botanist attending to the minute struc-
ture, would consider it as the same species with our cultivated plant. This vegetable is
cultivated extensively for the London market ; and it is estimated, that in the parish of
Mortlake alone, there are generally about eighty acres under this crop. One grower
there, Biggs, has sometimes had forty acres under asparagus at one time. A great deal
is also grown near Deptford, and one grower there, Edmonds, has had eighty acres en-
tirely under this crop ; — a thing, Neili observes, which must appear almost incredible to
those who have not witnessed the loads of this article daily heaped on the green-stalls of
the metropolis for the space of nearly three months. Asparagus, this author adds, was
a favorite of the Romans ; and they seem to have possessed a very strong-growing variety,
as Pliny mentions, that, about Ravenna, three shoots would weigh a pound ; with us, six
of the largest would be required. It is much praised by Cato ; and as he enlarges on the
mode of culture, it seems probable that the plant had but newly come into use. In this
country, Dutch asparagus was preferred in the end of the 17th century ; and this variety
is still distinguished for affording the thickest shoots. In a garden formed at Dunbar,
in the very beginning of the 1 8th century, by provost Fall (a name well known in the
mercantile world), asparagus was for many years cultivated with uncommon success.
The variety used was the red-topped, and it was brought from Holland. The soil of the
garden is little better than sea-sand. This was trenched two feet deep, and a thick layer
of sea-weed was put in the bottom of the trench, and well pressed together and beat down.
This was the only manure used, either at the first planting, or at subsequent dressings.
There was an inexhaustible supply of the article generally at hand, as the back-door of
the garden opens to the sea-shore. [Ed. Encyc. art. Hort.)
3857. Use. The esculent part is the early shoots or buds, when three or four inches
high, and partially emerged from the ground in May and June. They are in great
esteem in Britain, and on the continent; and this plant has, in consequence, been culti-
vated for an unknown period. In Paris it is much resorted to by the sedentary operative
classes, when they are troubled with symptoms of gravel or stone.
3858. Varieties. There are two varieties cultivated : viz.
The red-topped ; rising with a large head, full, close, and
of a reddish-green
The green-topped ; rising with a smaller head, not generally
so plump and close, but reckoned better flavored
3859. Estimate of sorts. Both varieties are in great estimation : the red-topped is most
generally cultivated by market-gardeners, and the green-topped in private gardens. Both
succeed by the same mode of culture.
3860. Propagation. Asparagus is propagated only from seed, though the roots might
be divided like those of the garden-ranunculus, if thought necessary. It is best, however,
to raise the plant from seed ; and it is of considerable importance to gather it from the
strongest and most compact shoots ; such seed, as might naturally be expected, yielding
by far the best plants. Seed, as well as one and two year-old plants, may be purchased
from nurserymen and market-gardeners : and when a new garden is formed, the latter
practice is generally adopted for the first plantation, in order to gain time.
3861. Quantity of seed or roots. If sown to transplant, for a bed four feet and a half
wide by six feet in length, one quart of seed will be requisite. If sown to remain, for
a bed four feet and a half wide by thirty feet in length, one pint is necessary. If plants
a year old are wanted for a plantation, then, for a bed four feet and a half wide by thirty
feet in length, to contain four rows of plants, nine inches distant in the row, one hundred
and sixty plants will be requisite.
3862. Sotving, and culture in seed-bed. It is generally sown broad-cast on a four-feet
bed, in March, not very thickly, often with a thin sprinkling of onions or radishes. The
seed being slightly trodden in, the bed is raked smooth, and after the plants make their
appearance, they are to be kept as free from weeds as possible, and the ground stirred with
a narrow hoe once or twice during the summer. In the end of October following, the
roots are protected from the frost by spreading over the ground some rotten dung or litter,
which remains till March or April, according to the season, when the plants are trans-
planted to a compartment prepared for their final culture.
3863. Judd {Hort. Trans, vol. ii.) sows in drills eighteen inches apart, burying the seed two inches :
the object is to admit of stirring between. He keeps the plants thin, and if the weather proves dry, waters
once a week or fortnight
3864. Soil and prejmration. " Asparagus-ground should be light, yet rich ; a sandy
loam, well mixed with rotten-dung or sea-weed, is accounted preferable to any. The
soil should not be less than two feet and a half deep ; and before planting a bed, it is
considered good practice to trench it over to that depth, burying plenty of dung in the
bottom, as no more can be applied there for eight or ten years. It can scarcely, there-
fore, be too well dunged ; besides, although the plant naturally grows in poor sandy soil,
it is found that the sweetness and tenderness of the shoots depend very much on the
Book I. ASPARAGUS. 645
rapidity of the growth, and this is promoted by the richness of the soil; Damp ground,
or a wet sub-soil, are not fit for asparagus : indeed, the French consider wetness as so
prejudicial to this plant, that they raise their asparagus-beds about a foot above the alleys
in order to throw ofFthe rain." (Neill.)
3865. Abercrombie says, " For planting asparagus, allot a plot of sound brownish loam, mixed with
sand, in an open compartment, full to the sun. Having trenched it thirty inches deep, or as near that
depth as the soil will allow, manure the bed with well reduced dung, six inches thick, or more, digging
in the dung regularly one spade deep. Then lay out the ground in regular beds four feet and a half wide,
with intervening alleys three feet wide. If the soil is naturally too light and poor, improve it with a little
vegetable mould, or pulverised alluvial compost, after the bottom has been dunged."
3866. Judd (who laid before the Horticultural Society, in 1816, " a specimen of asparagus, pro-
nounced, by those who saw it, to be the finest they had ever 6een,") says, " Prepare a piece of good land,
unencumbered with trees, and that lies well for the sun ; give it a good dressing of well reduced horse-
dung from six to ten inches thick, all regularly spread over the surface ; then proceed with the trenching
(if the soil will admit) two feet deep; after this first trenching, it should lie about a fortnight or three
weeks, and then be turned back again, and then again in the same space of time ; by this process, the dung
and mould become well incorporated ; it may then be laid in small ridges till the time of planting. This
work should all be performed in the best weather the winter will afford, that is, not while it rains, or
snow is lying on the ground, as it would tend to make the land heavy and sour : all this is to be particu-
larly attended to, as the preparation of the soil is of more consequence than all the management after-
wards. At the time of planting, I always spread over the ground another thin coat of very rotten dung,
and point it in half a spade deep, making my beds three feet wide only, with two feet of alleys ; so that three
rows of grass, one foot apart, are all I plant on each bed : I find this to be the best method, as by this plan
there is not the least trouble in gathering, whereas you are obliged to set a foot on one of the wide beds,
before you can get at all the grass, to the great injury of the bed and the buds under the surface."
3867. Dr. Macculloch gives the following mode of preparing an asparagus bed, as practised in France ;
and which, it is stated, has been adopted by a gentleman in Peebleshire with success. " A pit, the size of
the intended plantation, is dug five feet in depth, and the mould which is taken from it, must be sifted,
taking care to reject all stones, even as low in size as a filberd-nut : the best parts of the mould must then
be laid aside for making up the beds. The materials of the bed are then to be laid in the following propor-
tions and order : six inches of common dunghill-manure, eight inches of turf, six inches of dung as before,
six inches of sifted earth, eight inches of turf, six inches of very rotten dung, eight inches of the best earth.
The last layer of earth must then be well mixed with the last of dung. The compartment must now be
divided into beds five feet wide, by paths constructed of turf, two feet in breadth, and one foot in thick-
ness." {Caled. Hort. Mem. vol. ii.)
3868. Dr. Forbes describes the Vienna mode of making an asparagus-bed to last 25 years. It is deeply
trenched, and in the bottom is placed a layer of bone, horn, chips of wood, or branches of trees a foot
thick. Over this is placed good mould, cow-dung, and river mud, &c. {Hort. Trans, v. 335.)
3869. Removal and planting. Take up the plants carefully with a fork, to avoid
cutting the roots, exposing them to the air as short a time as possible ; and at the time of
planting, place them among a little sand in a basket covered with a mat.
3870. Nicol says, " It is of very great importance for the ensuring of success in the planting of aspara-
gus, to lift the roots carefully, and to expose them to the air as short time as possible. No plant feels a
hurt in the root more keenly than asparagus ; the fibrils are very brittle, and if broken, do not readily
shoot again." (Kal.41.)
3871. Smith has proved experimentally, that though the common season for planting is March and April,
yet, that it may also be successfully performed in June, without any extraordinary care. Judd, already
mentioned, transplants when he observes the plants beginning to grow, which, he says, is " the best time
for the plants to succeed. If moved earlier, they perhaps have to lie torpid for two or three weeks, which
causes many of them to die, or if not, they shoot up very weak." In France (according to Dr. Macculloch),
they plant even as late as July, cutting off" such young shoots as the plants have made before the operation.
( Caled. Hort. Mem. vol. i.)
3872. The distance at which asparagus is commonly planted is nine inches in the row, and one foot be-
tween the rows; in general, between every fourth row so planted, a double distance is left for an alley.
Many asparagus-farmers, however, consider it better to plant in single rows at two feet and a half or three
feet distance, than to adopt the bed form. The crowns of the plants are generally covered two inches with
soil.
3873. Method of planting. " Stretch a line lengthwise the bed, nine inches from the
edge, and with a spade, cut out a small trench about six inches deep, perpendicular next
to the line, turning the earth displaced along by the other side the trench ; and, having
the plants ready, set a row along the trench, nine inches apart, with the crown of the roots
two inches below the surface, drawing some earth just to fix them as placed. Having
planted one row, directly cover them in fully with the earth of the trench, raking it back
regularly an equal depth over the crown of the plants. Proceed then to open another
trench a foot from the first ; plant it as above ; and in the same manner plant four rows
in each bed. Then lightly raking the beds lengthwise, draw off any stones and hard
clods, and dress the surface neat and even. Then let the edges be lined out in exact order,
allowing three feet for each alley. But sometimes in planting large compartments of aspara-
gus, a first trench having been made, and the roots planted as above, then a second trench
is opened, of which the earth is turned into the first over the plants. So proceed in
planting the whole ; making allowance between every four rows for an alley of three feet.
In a dry spring or summer, water the roots from time to time, till the plants are esta-
blished. ' ' (Abercrombie. )
3874. Judd strains the line, and cuts down a trench, sloping in the usual way for planting box, and
making choice of all the finest plants, puts them in one foot apart, and one inch and a half below the sur-
face. This done, he lets the alleys and beds lie level till autumn, and then digs out the alleys deep enough
to get from four to six inches of mould all over the bed ; over this he lays a good coat of rotten diing, and
fills in the alleys with long dung.
3875. In France, they plant in beds five feet wide, separated by paths constructed of turf, two feet in
breadth, and one foot in thickness. The plants are placed eighteen inches asunder, spreading out the roots
as wide as possible in the form of an umbrella, and keeping the crown one and a half inch under ground.
Tt 3
546 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
A pin is put to each plant as a mark ; and as soon as the earth is settled and dry, a spadeful of fine sand
is thrown over each pin in the form of a mole-hill.
3876. Extent of the plantation. An asparagus-compartment should not contain less than
a pole of ground, as it often needs this quantity to furnish a good dish at one time. For a
large family, ahout sixteen roods are kept in a productive state, which are calculated to
furnish, on an average, between two hundred and three hundred shoots every day in the
height of the season. {Neill, in Ed. Encyc.)
3877. Abercrombie says, when the buds come to be fully productive, five square poles of ground, planted
with 1600 plants, will yield from six to eight score heads daily.
3878. Progressive culture. Permit the entire crop the two first years, and the greater
part of it the third year, to run up to stalks ; keeping the beds free from weeds, and stir-
ring the surface. It is a common practice to sow onions, lettuce, &c. the two first years
over the beds ; and to plant cauliflower in the alleys between them. The advantage of
this practice is questionable ; and, at all events, it should not be continued after the plants
are in full bearing. Judd, having dug out the alleys the first season, instead of repeating
that operation the next, lays on a coat of good dung three inches thick, and forks it evenly
into the beds and alleys, and so on every season after, " never digging out the alleys
any more, as it is known the asparagus-plant forms a fresh crown every season ; and
sometimes it happens, that in a few years the crown will increase almost into the alley ;
so, that by digging out this, you must inevitably spoil that plant : if this is not the case
when the beds are in good condition, the roots will be sure to work out at the sides into
the alleys, and by digging out the latter, these roots must be cut off, and you will often
see them exposed all the winter before dung can be got to fill them up ; rather than be
treated in this way, they had better be without any thing all the winter, as asparagus does
not suffer generally by frost. The first two years I have a very thin crop of celery-plants
or lettuce upon the beds, but nothing afterwards ; nor do I plant any thing in the alleys
after the same period, for I think the asparagus is injured thereby."
3879. Autumn dressing. The following is the usual practice, as described by Aber-
crombie : " Towards the end of October or beginning of November, the stalks which have
run up to seed, having done growing, or begun to decay, cut them down close, and carry
them away ; then hoe off all weeds from the beds into the alleys : this done, proceed with
the line and spade to mark out the alleys the prescribed width ; then dig each alley
lengthwise, a moderate spade deep, and spread a good portion of the earth equally on each
side over the adjoining beds ; digging down the weeds as you advance, clean to the bot-
tom of the alleys, under a proper depth of earth. Form the edges of the beds full and
straight, and the alleys of an equal depth ; and thus let them remain till spring."
S880. Judd, on the above practice, observes, " rather than treat them in this way, they would be better
without any thing." He fills up the alleys with litter or dung, to exclude the frost.
3881. Nicol recommends covering aspr'ragus-beds with good dung, and not mere litter, as frequently is
done, in the idea that the roots would otherwise perish. Fresh dung mixed with sea-weed, he considers
the very best manure tor asparagus. {Kal. 129.)
3882. The French cover in autumn, with six inches of dung, and four of sand ; and in performing this
operation, as well as every other, great care is taken not to tread on the beds, so as to condense the earth.
In planting and cutting, a" plank is always used to tread on ; and the turf-divisions of the beds which are
intended to prevent the condensation of "the earth below, in consequence of walking among the beds, are
removed every three years.
3883. Neill mentions a very proper precaution before covering, which is, to stir the surface of the beds
with a fork, in order that the juices of the manure washed down by the rains, may be readily imbibed.
He adds, that some cover the manure with a thin layer of earth from the alleys, which is called
landing up.
3884. Spring dressing. About the end of March or towards the middle of April, be-
fore the buds begin to advance below, proceed, with a short three-tined fork, to loosen the
surface of the beds ; introducing the fork slanting two or three inches under the mould,
turn up the top earth near the crown of the roots, with care not to wound them. Then
rake the surface lengthwise the bed, neatly level, drawing off the rough earth and hard
clods into the alleys ; also, trim the edges of the beds and surface of the alleys regularly
even. Thus to loosen the bed, enables the shoots to rise in free growth, admits the air,
rains, and sunshine, into the ground, and encourages the roots to produce buds of a hand-
some full size. (Abercrombie.)
3885. Tune of coming to a bearing state. In general, transplanted asparagus comes
up but slender the first year ; it is larger the second ; and the third year some shoots
may be fit for gathering ; in the fourth year the crop will be in good perfection.
(Abercrombie. )
3886. Judd begins to cut the third season, but not generally. By the French method before mentioned,
" in three years the largest plants will be fit to cut for use."
3887. Blanching. No attempt at blanching the tops is made in this country, otherwise
than by having abundance of loose earth on the surface through which they spring ; but
Lastevrie informs us [Col. de Machines, &c.) that joints of cane are placed separately
over each stalk in Spain : and Bauman of Vienna, in a communication to the Horticultural
Book I. ASPARAGUS. 647
Society on the culture of asparagus in Austria, says, " to give asparagus-shoots growing
in the open air as much length and tenderness as possible, there is inserted over each stem
destined to be gathered, as soon as it shoots above ground, a woe len tube or pipe eigh-
teen inches high, and one inch in diameter." (Hort. Trans, v. 334.) Dr. Forbes, on the
same subject, says, " in order to preserve the whiteness of the asparagus-shoots, they
should be covered with a wooden or earthen pipe of twelve or fifteen inches in height, with
a hole in the top." (Hort. Trans, v. 336.)
3888. Cutting and gathering. " In new plantations, be careful not to begin cutting
till the stools are advanced to mature age, having been planted three or four years, and
become of competent strength for producing full-sized shoots. Likewise observe, both in
new and old beds, to gather all the produce in a regular successive order within the proper
limits of the season specified above. As the rising shoots project two, three, four, or five
inches at most above ground, while the top bud remains close and plump, they are in the
best condition for gathering. Cut them off within the ground, with a narrow sharp-
pointed knife, or small saw, nine inches long ; thrusting the knife, or saw, down straight,
close to each shoot separately, cut it off slantingly, about three inches below the surface,
with care not to wound the younger buds advancing below. Observe, in a new plant-
ation, in the first year's gathering, if the shoots come up of irregular sizes, to cut only
some of the larger for a fortnight, or three or four weeks, and then permit the whole to
run; but otherwise, when in strong production, gather all as they come, two or three
times a-week, or as required, during the season, till the 21st of June; then, at farthest,
terminate the cutting, and permit the after-shoots to run up in stalk till October. If from
a particular inducement you cut later than the 21st of June, be careful to leave two or
more shoots to each stool, in order to draw nourishment to it ; for the stools left without
growing shoots will perish, and by negligence in this respect many vacuities or unpro-
ductive spots are left in beds." (Abercrombie.)
3889 Nicol says, the best method of cutting is to scrape away an inch or two of the earth from the shoot
vou would cut, and then slip the asparagus-knife (fig*- nl> 1120 down another inch or two, taking care not
to wound the crown, or any adjoining shoot. Shoots two inches under the ground, and three or four above
it, make the handsomest dishes.
3890. Nei/l observes, " after the beds are in full bearing, all the shoots are gathered as they advance, till
the end of June or beginning of July ;" a common rule being to " let asparagus spin (grow up), when green
peas come in." Dr. Macculloch states that the same practice is pursued in France.
3891. Judd says, " I never make a practice of cutting very much after the first week in June : I then
begin to let it run ; in fact, I never cut the very small grass at all. Asparagus being so valuable a vege-
table, some persons continue to cut indiscriminately till the latter end of June, but this practice is of very
great injury to the next year's produce." {Hort. Trans. voL ii. 237.)
3892. Duration of the crop. Generally, three months ; from the middle of April to the
middle of July. (Neill.)
3893. Duration of the plantation. Abercrombie says, " A plantation of asparagus,
under good culture will mostly continue for ten or twelve years to afford plentiful crops ;
after which, the stools usually decline in fertility, and the shoots in quality ; so that to
provide a permanent annual supply, some fresh beds should be planted a sufficient time
beforehand, allowing four years for their advancing to a productive state."
3894. Dr. Macculloch says, the French beds which he describes "will generally last thirty years; but, if
they be planted in such abundance as to require cutting once in two years, half the bed being always m a
state of reservation, it will last a century or more." {Calcd. Mem. vol. ii. 250.)
3895. To save asparagus-seed. " Select some of the finest and earliest heads as they
make their appearance in the spring ; tie them to stakes during summer, taking care not
to drive the stake through the crown of the plant. In autumn, when the berries are ripe,
wash out the seeds, if for the market, or to be sent to a distance ; but, for home-sowing, keep
them in the berry till the time of sowing, the pulp being a great nourishment to the
seed, which ought to be kept in a dry place during the winter." (Judd, in Hort. Trans.
vol. ii. 234.)
3896. Forcing asparagus. Meager, writing in the middle of the 17th century, men-
tions, that the London market was, at that period, supplied with forced asparagus early in
the year. " Some having old beds of asparagus, which they are minded to destroy, and
having convenience of new or warm dung, lay their old plants in order on the dung, and
the heat doth force forward a farewell crop." (English Gardener, 188.) Where much
asparagus is forced, it becomes necessary to form plantations on purpose for an annual
supply. The plants are raised from seed in the usual way ; but when transplanted, as
they are not intended to remain longer than three years in the bed or plantation, they need
not be planted wider than seven or nine inches. When of three years' standing in the bed,
they are eligible for removal to the forcing pit or frame, or to be excited by a super-
- stratum of tan and warm dung, in the manner of sea-kale or rhubarb. As some guide to
proportion the forcing plantations to the demand, 600 plants are required for an ordinary-
sized three-light frame, which, Nicol says, will yield a dish every day for about three
weeks.
3897. For the details of forcing asparagus, see Ch. VIII. Sect. IX.
Tt 4
648 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
Subsect. 2. Sea-kale. — Crambe maritima, L. (Eng. Bot. 924.) Tetrad. S'diq. L.
and Crucijerce, J. Chou marin, Fr. ; Meerkohl, Ger. ; and Crambio, Ital.
3898. The sea-kale is a hardy perennial, found in various parts of our shores. The
whole plant is smooth, of a beautiful glaucous hue, covered with a very fine meal ; oc-
casionally, however, it varies like the wallflower-leaved ten-week stock, with quite green
leaves. The radical leaves are large, more or less sinuated and indented, containing in
the axil a bud or rudiment of next year's stem. The flower is of a rich white appear-
ance, and smells strongly of honey. The common people on the western shores of
England have, from time immemorial, been in the practice of watching when the shoots
begin to push up the sand or gravel, in March and April ; when they cut off the young
shoots and leaf-stalks, then blanched and tender, and boil them as greens. The precise
period of its introduction to the garden is unknown. Parkinson and Bryant state, that
the radical leaves are cut by the inhabitants where the plant grows wild, and boiled as
cabbage ; and Jones, of Chelsea, assured the late Curtis, that he saw bundles of it, in
a cultivated state, exposed for sale in Chichester market in 1753. Maher states
(Hort. Trans, i.), that the crambe maritima was known and sent from this king-
dom to the continent more than two hundred years ago, by Lobel and Turner ;
but Miller, in 1731, was the first who wrote upon it professionally. About the
year 1767, it was cultivated by Dr. Lettsom, at Grove Hill, and by him brought
into general notice in the neighborhood of London. In the Gardener's Dic-
tionary, published in 1774, by Gordon, at Fountain-bridge, near Edinburgh, di-
rections are given for the cultivation of this vegetable, and for blanching it, by covering
the beds four inches deep with sand or gravel. Professor Martyn has printed some
valuable instructions for its cultivation, from the MS. of the Rev. M. Laurent; and the
late Curtis, by a pamphlet on its culture, has done more to recommend it, and diffuse
the knowledge of it, than any of his predecessors. Sea-kale is now a common vegetable
in Covent Garden market, and Neill observes, has even begun to appear on the green-
stalls of the Scottish metropolis. But in France it is nearly unknown. Bastien
{Manuel du Jardinier, 1807) describes the chou viarin tf Angleterre, but he appears to
have tried to use the broad green leaves, instead of the blanched shoots. Disgusted with
his preparation, he denies the merits of sea-kale ; and resigns the plant, with a sneer, to
colder climates. When the French gardeners, however, have learned to cultivate it, and
especially to force it at mid-winter, it will doubtless soon become a favorite with the
Parisians. (Ed. Encyc. art. Hort.)
3899. Use. The young spring shoots, and the stalks of the unfolding leaves, blanched
by rising through the natural ground in a wild state, or by earthing up in gardens, are
the parts used ; and when boiled, and dressed like asparagus, are not inferior to that
vegetable. They form also an excellent ingredient in soups. Sometimes the ribs of the
large leaves are peeled and dressed as asparagus, after the plant has ceased to send up
young growths. By forcing, sea-kale may be had in perfection from November till May,
a period including all the dead months of the year. It is remarked by Nicol, that vege-
tables are seldom improved by forcing, but that sea-kale forms an exception, the forced
shoots produced at mid-winter being more crisp and delicate in flavor than those procured
in the natural way in April or May. Sir George Mackenzie (Caled. Hort. Mem. vol.
i. 313.) observes, that sea-kale cannot easily be overdone in cooking, and that after being
well boiled, it should be thoroughly drained, and then suffered to remain a few minutes
before the fire, that a farther portion of moisture may be exhaled.
3900. Propagation. Sea-kale is generally and best raised from seed ; of which, if
sown to transplant, for a seed-bed four feet by nine, sown in drills a foot apart by eight
inches in the row, two ounces will suffice ; if sown to remain, then the same quantity
will serve for a plot five feet by fifteen, sown in drills two feet apart. Plantations may
also be formed by detaching rooted offset-shoots from established plants, or by cuttings
of the roots, leaving about two eyes to each cutting. The last fortnight of March, and
the first of April comprises the best time for putting in seed, or cuttings, and removing
plants. .
3901. Soil. The native soil of sea-kale is deep sand, sometimes covered or partially
interlaminated with alluvial matter from the sea. "Hence," says Abercrombie, ^ " a
light, dry, moderately rich mould, of a loose texture, suits it best. A fit soil for it," he
adds, " may be composed of one half drift sand, two sixths rich loam, and one third small
gravel, road-stuff, or sea-coal ashes. If the loam be not rich, add a little rotten dung."
Barton (Caled. Hort. Mem. vol. ii. p. 99.) cultivates sea-kale in " a pretty strong
loam, on a loose till-bottom, which he previously prepared by trenching, and mixing
with it a good portion of vegetable mould from decayed leaves, adding a quantity of
river sand. " , .
3902. Culture. Maher pursues the following mode : " Prepare the ground in De-
cember or January, by trenching it two feet and a half deep ; if not that depth naturally,
Book I. SEA-KALE. 649
and light, it must be made so artificially by adding a due proportion of fine white sand,
and very rotten vegetable mould ; if your ground is wet in winter, it must be effectually
drained, so that no water may stand within a foot at least of the bottom ; for the strength
of your plants depends on the dryness of the bottom, and richness of your soil. Then
divide the ground into beds, four feet wide, with alleys of eighteen inches, after which
at the distance of every two feet each way, sow five or six seeds two inches deep, in a
circle of about four inches in diameter : this operation must be performed with strict
care and regularity, as the plants are afterwards to be covered with blanching-pots,
and both the health and beauty of the crop depend upon their standing at equal dis-
tances. In the months of May and June, if the seeds are sound, the young plants will
appear. When they have made three or four leaves, take away all but three of the best
plants from each circle, planting out those you pull up (which by a careful hand may be
drawn with all their tap-root,) in a spare bed for extra forcing, or to repair accidents.
The turnip-fly and wire-worm are great enemies to the whole class of tetradynamia
plants. I know no remedy for the latter, but picking them out of the ground by hand ;
the former may be prevented from doing much damage, by a circle of quick-lime strewed
round the young plants. If the months of June and July prove dry, water the whole
beds plentifully. In the following November, as soon as the leaves are decayed, clear
them away, and cover the beds an inch thick with fresh light earth and sand, that has lain
in a heap and been turned over at least three times the preceding summer ; this, and
indeed all composts, should be kept scrupulously free from weeds, many of which nourish
insects, and the compost is too often filled with their eggs and grubs. Upon this dress-
ing of sandy loam, throw about six inches in depth of light stable-litter, which finishes
every thing to be done the first year. In the spring of the second year, when the plants
are beginning to push, rake off the stable-litter, digging a little of the most rotten into
the alleys, and add another inch in depth of fresh loam and sand. Abstain from cutting
this year, though some of the plants will probably rise very strong, treating the beds the
succeeding winter exactly as before. The third season, a little before the plants begin to
stir, rake off the winter covering, laying on now an inch in depth of pure dry sand or
fine gravel. Then cover each parcel with one of the blanching-pots, pressing it very
firmly into the ground, so as to exclude all light and air ; for the color and flavor of the
sea- kale is greatly injured by being exposed to either."
3903. Barton, in the autumn, covers all the sea-kale beds, excepting the roots intended to be taken up
for forcing, with leaves, as they are raked up from the pleasure-grounds ; covering each bed in thickness
according to the strength and age of the roots, giving the greatest covering to the oldest, upon an average
from five inches to a foot when first laid on : over this, I place a slight covering of long dung, just suffi-
cient to keep the leaves from being blown about. The covering is suffered to remain on the beds until
the whole is cut for use the following spring ; after which the dung and leaves may be removed, and the
ground dug regularly over. By this treatment, the heads will be found free and well blanched, and, from
the sweetness of the leaves, free from any unpleasant flavor. As the heads become ready for use, they
will raise the covering, by which means they will be easily perceived, without removing any more of the
covering than the part where those heads are that are intended to be cut. Those beds which have had
the thickest covering of leaves in autumn, come first into use, and the others in rotation ; so that the
last cutting is from what was sown the spring before. Aware that cutting from one-year-old plants
is generally disapproved of, Barton defends the practice from his experience of its not proving injurious,
and because thereby the sea-kale season is prolonged, as the one-year-old plants " come in much later in
spring than the old-established roots." {Caled. Hort. Mem.)
3904. Taking the crop. Cut the young stems, when about three inches above ground,
carefully, so as not to injure any of the remaining buds below, some of which will
immediately begin to swell. A succession of gatherings may be continued for the space
of six weeks, after which period the plants should be uncovered, and their leaves suffered
to grow, that they may acquire and return nutriment to the root for the next year's
buds. The flowers, when seeds are not wanted, ought to be nipped off with the finger
and thumb, as long as they appear. {Hort. Trans, vol. i. )
3905. Forcing sea-kale. No vegetable is more easily or more cheaply forced than sea-
kale, whether the operation be performed in beds or drills in the open air, or in hot-bed
frames or flued pits.
3906. Abercrombie, Xicol, and Maker recommend forcing in beds in the open air. " Seven weeks,"
the former observes, " before the time at which you wish to cut shoots for the table, begin to prepare
the plants for forcing, and to ferment a sufficient quantity of fresh stable-dung. Having trimmed the
leaves from the plants, carefully point the surface of the ground ; and over the tops of the roots, spread
fresh light earth, mixed with drift-sand or coal-ashes, two or three inches in depth. When the dung is
well prepared, which will be in about three weeks, proceed to the forcing. If you mix tree-leaves with
the dung, begin to ferment them a week or a fortnight sooner. Cover each of the plants, either with a
regular blanch ing-pot, or with a garden-pot of the largest size. When the latter is employed, stop the
hole with a cork, and cement it with clay, to keep out both the weather and the rank steam from the
lining. Then lay a portion of prepared dung alone or mixed with tree-leaves, about and over each pot,
pressing it down firm, extending it eight or ten inches all round, and raising the bank six or eight inches
above the pot. It will be necessary to examine the plants frequently, and to measure the heat within
the covers now and then, lest, by some inadvertency, the quantity of litter should not have been well-ap-
portioned, or rightly prepared. If the heat be under 50Q, there is not enough heat to excite the plants ;
md if above 60°, it is too fiery and may injure them. In about three weeks or a month after being
covered up, the first shoots will be from six to ten inches long, and fit for the table. If the plant send up
a flower-stalk, cut it away ; and successive supplies of shoots will be produced, till perhaps the end of the
(hird month from beginning to force."
650
PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Pakt III.
3907 Maker observes, that the only thing necessary in forcing sea-kale, is to be very particular in
euardin" against too much heat, using trial-sticks, and never if possible, exceeding oo . So much mis-
chief ensues when this is violent, that it is far better to begin time enough, and force slowly, rather than
quickly Like Abercrombie, Maher covers with dry sea-coal ashes, sifted neither very small nor very
lar^e ' These are the best remedies against worms, which, after forcing is commenced, often spring up on
the surface, and spoil the delicacy of the young shoots. Salt, he adds, also effectually destroys worms,
and will not injure the sea-kale. .
3908 Abercrombie says, unless the weather be unusually rigorous, it will not be necessary to renew the
linings of hot litter oftener than once in seven or eight weeks. Take away the exhausted part, and mix
the remainder with fresh dung and leaves. Maher says, after the sea-kale is gathered, the dung will be
found in the finest possible state for spring hot-beds. When the stools will produce no mere shoots,
remove the litter and the covers, and dress the ground, in order, as observed by Maher, that their leaves
mav be suffered to grow, and acquire and return nutriment to the root, for the next year s buds.
3909 Xicol savs, he knows an instance of a row of sea-kale having been forced in the above way every
season for seven years, in which the plants in it are as vigorous and healthy as others in the same com-
partment that are forced only every second year.
3910 Barton forces sea-kale on dung-beds, under frames, exactly in the manner generally adopted for
asparagus The advantages he considers to be the certainty of having the latter vegetable fit for use at
any particular time, and the saving of dung and labor. The latter saving, he says, « must appear obvious
to every practical gardener, when he considers the difficulty attending the keeping up a proper and
regular decree of heat, by covering with dung over pots and other similar methods, (as generally prac-
tised ) at sS inclement a season of the vear ; requiring three times the quantity of dung to produce an
equal number of heads, to what will be necessary when the roots are placed in a frame; for a com-
mon melon-frame will contain as many heads as are capable of being produced in two drills of twenty
yards each by covering with hot dung. He finds two frames, of three lights each, quite sufficient for a
larse family -the first prepared about the beginning of November, and the second about the last week in
December ; and by the time the second frame is exhausted, sea-kale will be ready for use m the open
gr3911d' TV. Gibbs' of°Inverness, {(Med. Mem. voL i. p. 388.) also forces in frames, blanching by keeping
the bed covered with mats. Economy and certainty he considers to be the advantages attending this
mode As the plants are no longer of use after being forced, a succession is kept up by annual sowings,
and the plants are allowed to attain three years' growth before taking up for forcing.
side i
fsIflopedVsors%7makVuie"top of the trench,' at'the'surface-level, two feet and a half wide : this trench
is filled with linings of hot dung, on the inner edges of which, garden-lights are placed, and the glass
kept covered with mats until the kale is fit to cut. • The same plan," he adds, " is applicable to asparagus,
and also to rhubarb, or any other perennial vegetable intended to be excitea where it stands, and a
covering of boards, canvas, or mats, might be substituted for the glass lights." (Hart. Trans iv 63.)
3913 Melross, of Ardgowan, forces sea-kale in a vinery. He plants " along the back of the flue where
no vine-roots are, places covers on the plants, and in two weeks, when the heat for forcing vines is kept
up " he has " as fine sea-kale as could be desired. When a dish is cut, he lifts the roots, and supplies
their places by others from the open ground. He considers this a very easy and certain method, espe-
cially in a wet climate." {Caled. Hort. Mem. iv. 164.)
3914. Gathering. Remove a part of the earth, leaves, or whatever is employed in
blanching ; cut off" the heads or shoots, and slip off the stalks of the leaves.
3915. Produce. From four to six heads, according to the size, tied together like
asparagus, make a dish : and, Maher says, a blanching-pot which contains three plants,
will afford a dish twice in a season. Hence, from sixty to a hundred pots will suffice
for forcing sea-kale for a large family. From the above data, it is easy to form an esti-
mate of the breadth of ground requisite for plantations of this plant to come in naturally.
3916. To save seed. Let a stool which has not been cut, run in spring ; and seed will
be produced on every stem.
Subsect. 3. Artichoke.— Cynara Scolymus,!,. (Blackiv. t. 458.) Stjn. Polyg. Mqu. L.
and Cynarocephala, J. Artichaut, Fr. ; Artischoke, Ger. ; and Carcioffolo, Ital.
3917. The artichoke is a perennial, with numerous large pinnatifid leaves, three or
four feet long, covered with an ash-colored down ; the mid-rib deeply channelled and fur-
rowed. The time of flowering is August and September. It is a native of the south
of Europe, and was introduced in England in 1548.
3918 Use. The flower-heads in an immature state contain the part used, which is
. the fleshy receptacle, commonly called the bottom, freed from the bristles and seed down,
vulgarly called the choke, and the talus or lower part of the leaves of the calyx. In
France,' the bottoms are very commonly fried in paste, and they form a desirable ingre-
dient in ragouts. They are occasionally used for pickling ; and sometimes they are
slowly dried and kept in bags for winter use. In France the bottoms of young arti-
chokes are frequently used in the raw state as a salad ; thin slices are cut from the bot-
tom with a scale or calyx leaf attached, by which the slice is lifted, and dipped in oil
and vinegar before using. The chard of artichokes, or the tender central leaf-stalk
blanched, is by some thought preferable to that of the cardoon. The flowers possess the
quality of coagulating milk, and have sometimes been used in the place of rennet.
3919. Varieties. There are three varieties cultivated : —
^ ■ , v k „,. rv-,1 Artichoke with I Globe, or largest, with duskv purplish i The dwarfish globe; a prolific variety,
C^n,cal French « oval Aruchokew^th Ulooe r , ^ jr ^ ^ ^^.^ hMe room
SS KoT^^to « & "S top, and the receptacle mo* succulent with its head.
the globe sort • than the other I
3920 Estimate of sorts. The globe sort is generally preferred for the main crop; but the conical, or
French t -cneral y considered as possessing more flavor as the flower-heads are cut off tor use when m
I 'immature state ; both sorts continue producing them from July to November.
Book I. CARDOON. 651
3921. Propagation. This esculent is propagated by rooted suckers or young shoots,
" risino- in the spring from the roots of the old plants ; these are fit to slip off for plant-
ing in March and April, when from five to ten inches high. Opening the ground to die
old stool, slip them off clean to the root, leaving the three strongest on each mother-
plant to advance for summer production. Those slipped off, prepare for planting, by
pulling away some of the under and decayed or broken leaves, and by pruning any
straggling long tops of the leaves remaining ; also cut off casually hard or ragged parts
at the bottom of the root. Then, having an open compartment, with a light rich soil of
food depth, well dunged and dug, plant the sets by dibble, in rows four feet asunder,
and two feet apart in each row. Give each plant some water : repeat this once or twice,
if very dry weather, till they have taken root."
3922. Subsequent culture. " AH spring and summer keep them clear from weeds by occasional hoeing
between the plants : this, with regular waterings in the dry weather of summer, is all the culture which
they require, till the season of production is terminated. They will produce some tolerable heads the
same vear, in August, and thence till November : next year they will head sooner, in full perfection. By
having fresh stools planted everv year or two, the old and new plantations together furnish a production
of heads from June or July till November. Besides the main head, several smaller lateral heads gene-
rally spring from the sides of the stem in succession ; but, in order to encourage the principal head to
atta'in the full size, most of the side suckers should be detached in young growth, when their heads are
the size of a large egg, which in that state are also prepared for some tables. As to the continuing main
heads, permit them to have full growth till the scales begin to diverge considerably, but gather them
before the flowers appear, cutting to each head part of the stalk. When the entire crop on a stem is
taken, cut oft' the stem close to the ground, to give the plant more strength for new shoots." {Aber-
crombie.) " To encourage the production of large main heads, some detach all the lateral heads in a
young state. These are commonly in a fit state for eating raw, having attained about one third of their
proper size ; and they are for this purpose frequently sold in Covent Garden market, chiefly to foreigners.
Another thing practised with the same view is the shortening the ends of the large leaves." (Neill, in
Ed. Encyc.)
3923. Nicol mentions, that the strongest crops he ever saw, grew in rather a mossy earth that had been
trenched fully a yard in depth, and had been well enriched with dung, and lined ; and that the plants were
generally covered before winter with a mixture of stable-litter and sea- weed. This last article, we believe,
is one of the very best manures for artichokes. In no place is the plant to be seen in greater perfection than
in gardens in the Orkney Islands ; and we know that the luxuriance of the plants in these is to be ascribed
to the liberal supply of sea-weed dug into the ground every autumn. It was long ago remarked by a hor-
ticultural writer, that " water drawn from ashes, or improved by any fixed salt, is very good for arti-
chokes." (Systems Agricultural, 1682.)
3924. Winter dressing. Abercrombie says, " First cut down all the large leaves, but without hurting the
small central ones, or the new shoots. Then dig the ground between and along each row ; raising it gra-
dually from both sides, ridgeways over the roots, and close about the plants. In rigorous frosty weather,
cover also in the litter, a foot thick, and close about each plant."
3925. Spring dressing. In spring, the litter and earth being removed in March or April, according to the
kind of season7, the stocks are examined ; and two or three of the strongest or best shoots being selected for
growing, the rest are removed bv pressure with the thumb, or by a knife, or wooden chisel. Those shoots
or suckers are used for new plantations. Dig the whole ground level, loosening it close up to the crown of
the roots of everv plant.
3926. Duration of the /plants. " Artichoke-plants continue productive for several years ; but, every
season, some well rotted dung or fresh sea-weed, should be delved into the ground at the winter dressing.
It is certain, however, that after a few years, the plants begin to degenerate, the heads becoming smaller
and less succulent. It is therefore a general rule not to keep an artichoke-plantation beyond four or at most
six years. Scarcely any kind of grub or wire- worm ever touches the roots of artichokes : they form, there-
fore, an excellent preparative for a crop of onions, shallot, or garlic. In many gardens, a small new plant-
ation is formed every year ; and in this way the artichoke season, which begins in June, is prolonged till
November ; those from the old stocks continuing till August, when those from the new stocks come in. If
the last gathered be cufwith the stems at full length, and if these be stuck among moist sand, the heads
may be preserved a month longer."
3927. Culture for producing the chard. " When the artichoke compartment is to be shifted,
and the old stocks are at any rate to be destroyed, the plants may be prepared, after mid-
summer, when the best crop of heads is over, for yielding chards against winter. The
leaves are to be cut over within half a foot of the ground ; the stems as low as possible.
In September or October, when the new shoots or leaves are about two feet high, they are
bound close with a wreath of hay or straw, and earth or litter is drawn round the stems of
the plants. The blanching is perfected in a month or six weeks. If the chards are
wished late in winter, the whole plants may be dug up before frost sets in, and laid in
sand in their blanched state ; in this way they may be kept for several weeks."
3928. Seed. The heads when suffered to remain ten days or a fortnight, after the season
of cutting, expand the calyx leaves, and display an aggregation of jagged purple florets,
producing a fine appearance. When ripe seed is wanted, those heads in flower are to be
bent down and retained in that position, so as that the calyx may throw off the autumnal
rains. In general, however, the seed is not perfected in our climate.
Subsect. 4. Cardoon, or Chardoon. — Ctjnara Cardunculus, L. {Tabern. Icon. 696.)
Si/ng. Polyg. JEqu. L. and CynarocephalcB, J. Cardoon, Fr., Ger., and Ital.
3929. The cardoon is a hardy perennial plant, a native of Candia, introduced to Eng-
land in 1658, and known in all the European languages under the same name. It greatly
resembles the artichoke, but rises to a greater height ; and becomes a truly gigantic her-
baceous vegetable of four or five feet in height. It produces flowers like those of the
artichoke in August and September. " In France," Neill observes, " the native prickly
plant is sometimes cultivated under the name of Cardoon of Tours, and is accounted pre-
ferable to the common garden variety. So formidable are its spines, that great care is
652
PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
necessary in working about it, to avoid personal injury ; a strong leather dress, and thick
gloves, are therefore worn. This prickly sort has not yet been introduced into Britain."
° 3930. Use. The tender stalks of the inner leaves of the cardoon, rendered white and
tender by earthing up, are used for stewing, and for soups and salads, in autumn and
winter. When the plants are large, the inner leaves and stalks are rendered by blanching
white, crisp, and tender, to the extent of two or three feet. The plant is not in much re-
quest, and is only cultivated in some particular family-gardens, and a few market-grounds.
On the continent, it is in considerable repute, as indeed are many of salad and pot-herbs,
which are comparatively neglected in this country.
3931 Propagation. Though a perennial, it often dies in the winter, and therefore requires to be raised
from seed almost every vear ; and for a bed four feet wide by eight feet, two ounces are sufficient. Formerly
the plants were raised on hot-beds, and transplanted in May and June, but now the seed is generally sown
where the plants are to remain. ...... • u
3932. Soil. The best soil for the cardoon is one that is light, deep, and not over rich.
3933. Times of sowing. The chief sowings are made in the spring; for a small early crop, in the last
fortnight of March ; and for the main crop, in the first or second week ot April. Further, for a late full
crop, you may sow towards the close of June.
3934 Solving for transplanting. Sow in a bed of common light earth, moderately thin ; and rake m the
seed evenly When the plants have risen, thin them to three or four niches' distance, to give them room
to acquire stocky growth for transplanting. When they have been raised about eight weeks, transplant
them; allotting an open compartment of well digged ground, and taking an opportunity of rain falling.
Having lifted the plants, trim any long straggling tops of the leaves and fibres of the roots. Plant them
either in the level ground, or in drills, or form a hollow patch for each plant ; in all cases at four feet and
a half distance Thus you will have ample scope for their growth, and considerable space of ground to land
them up. Give water at planting, and occasionally till they take root. In their advancing growth, hoe
and loosen the ground about the plants, cutting down all weeds.
3935 Sowing to remain. A crop may be raised by sowing where the crops are to remain, not to have any
check by removal. Sow in small hollow patches, at the distance specified above, two or three seeds in each.
Thin the plants to one strongest in each patch.
3936 Landing up. When the plants are advanced in large growth, two or three feet high or more, m
August, September, and October, proceed to land them up for blanching. First tie the leaves of each plant
together with hay or straw bands ; then digging and breaking the ground, earth up round each plant a foot
or more high or two thirds of the stem. As the stems rise higher, tie and earth them up accordingly,
giving them a final earthing in October.
3937. Watei-ing in autumn. Regular waterings in the dry weather of August and September will pre-
vent the plants from seeding. ,^. . .. ..
3938. Taking the crop. When thev are blanched a foot and a half, or two feet in length, or more, they
may be digged up, as wanted, in September, October, and throughout winter.
3939. Occasional shelter. Protect the plants in severe frost with long litter, either as they stand, or
turned down on one side. - . »_«.#« *. • ■>
3940. To save seed. Leave some full-grown plants in the spring, to shoot up in stalk. (Abercrombie.)
Subsect. 5. Rampion. — Campanula Rapunculus, L. (Eng. Bot. 283.) Pent. Moiwg.
L. and C.ampanulacecB, B. P. Raiponce, Fr. ; Rapunzel, Ger.; and Raperonzo, Ital.
3941. The rampion is a biennial plant, a native of England, but rare. The root is
long, white, and spindle-shaped ; the lower leaves oval-lanceolate, and waved ; the flower-
stalk is about two feet high, and furnished with a panicle of blue flowers in July and
August. The whole plant abounds with a milky juice.
3942. Use. The root is eaten raw like a radish, and has a pleasant nutty flavor ; it is
also sometimes cut into winter salads, and then the leaves as well as the root are used.
3943 Culture. The seed should be sown in the latter end of May, on a shady border of rich earth, not
over stiff, the mould being made as firm as possible : it is better not to rake in the seed, which, being so
verv fine may, by that operation, be buried too deep. If the sowing is earlier than May, the plants will
sometimes run to flower in the autumn, and so become useless. Moderate waterings must be given as they
come up through a fine rose of a watering-pot, and it is necessary that they be kept, at all times, tolerably
moist When the plants are of sufficient size, they must be thinned out, to the distance of three or four
inches apart ; those drawn will bear transplanting well, if put into a border similar to the seed-bed, but
care must be taken to insert the roots straight into the earth, and not to press the mould too close ; the
roots which become forked are not so good as the straight ones. In November, the plants will be fit for
use, and will continue so until April. (Dickson, in Hort. Tram.)
3944. To save seed. Leave or transplant some of the best plants in spring, and they will produce flowers
and abundance of seed in autumn.
Subsect. 6. Hop.—Humulus Lupulus, L. (Eng. Rot. 427.) Dioec. Pent. L. and
Urticeee, J. Houblon, Fr. ; Hopfen, Ger. ; and Lupolo, Ital.
3945. The hop is a perennial plant, a native of Britain, and well known as being
cultivated for its flowers, which are used in preserving beer. It rises with a rough shoot,
and rough tripartite leaves, the former climbing round whatever comes m its way to a
considerable height, and producing flowers of a peculiar odor in July.
3946. Use in cookery. The young shoots, when they have risen three or four inches
from the root, were formerly gathered and boiled like asparagus, to which they are very
little inferior ; these shoots are still occasionally to be found in the market, under the name
of hop-tops. A pillow filled with hop-flowers will induce sleep, unattended with the bad
effects of soporifics which require to be taken internally.
3947. Culture. The hop is propagated by dividing the roots in autumn or spring. It requires a deep
rich soil, which should be frequently stirred and kept qu'te free of weeds, and the plantation should be
renewed every seven or ten years according to circumstances. In field-culture, it is planted in hills or in
groups of three or four plants, at six or eight feet centre from centre ; but in growing a few for hop-tops,
thev may be planted in single rows at three feet distance, and one foot asunder in the row.
Book I.
ALISANDER, BLADDER-CAMPION, THISTLE.
653
Sursect. 7. Alisaiukr, or Alexanders. (Jig. 469.) — Smyrnium Olusalrum, L. (Eng.
Bot. 230. ) Pent. Dig. L. and UmbelliferecE, J. Maceron, Fr. ; Smyrnerkrant,
Ger. ; and Macerone, Ital.
3948. The alisander is a biennial plant, rising about
two feet high, and flowering in May and June ; the
leaves are of a pale-green color, and the flowers
yellowish. It grows naturally near the sea in several
places, and may often be observed naturalised near old
buildings.
3949. Use. It was formerly much cultivated, its
leaf-stalks having been used when blanched, as a pot-
herb and salad. It somewhat resembles the celery in
flavor, by which vegetable it has been almost entirely
supplanted. Some consider the leaves and stalks of
the S. perforatum, a native of Italy, as preferable to
those of this plant.
3950. Culture. " Where the plants are in demand, sow a pro-
portionate crop at the close of March, in the course of April,
or beginning of May : either broad-cast, raking in the seed ;
the plants, when between three and six inches high, to be trans-
planted into drills, eighteen inches or two feet asunder, by five
or six inches apart in each row ; or sow at once in drills that
distance, to remain, thinning out the superfluous plants in proper time. The seed is sold by weight, and
if sown to transplant, for a bed three feet and a half wide by six feet in length (21 superficial feet),
half an ounce will suffice ; if sown to remain, then for a bed four feet by twenty-four, containing two
drills, two feet apart, or for forty-eight feet in length of drilling, then one ounce will be requisite.
When the plants are well advanced in growth, earth them up several inches on each side the rows,
to blanch the lower parts white, for use in summer, autumn, &c. You may likewise sow a moderate por-
tion in August, to stand over the winter for a supply in spring and the early part of the summer, till the
spring-sown plants come in."
3951. To save seed. The alisander produces nothing fit for the table after the second year ; and as it
ripens plenty of seed in autumn, it is proper to save some every year for sowing as above. (Abercrombie.)
Subsect. 8. Bladder- Campion. — Silene inflata, H. K. (Eng. Bot. t. 164.); Cucubalus
behen, L. Dec. Trig. L. and Caryophyllece, J.
3952. The bladder-campion is a perennial, growing naturally by the sides of corn-
fields and pastures ; and also on the sea-shore. The stems are smooth and erect, rising
from a foot to eighteen inches high. The leaves are smooth, glaucous, and the flowers in
nodding panicles.
3953. Use. Our kitchen-gardens, Bryant observes, scarcely afford a better-flavored
vegetable than the young shoots of this plant when boiled. They ought to be gathered
when not above two inches long. The sprouts are to be nipped off when of a proper
size, and the plants will produce a succession of fresh ones for at least two months.
3954. Culture. A similar culture to that given to the asparagus, or sea-kale, would answer, and probably
h ighly improve this plant. Bryant says, its culture would well reward the gardener's trouble. Seeds may ei th er
be procured from wild plants, or the roots, which run very deep, may be transplanted into deep light soil.
Sibsect. 9. Thistle. — Carduus and Onopordium, L. ; and Cynaroceplialce, J.
3955. There are two sorts of thistle, which are, or were formerly, used as asparaginous
plants, viz. the milk-thistle, and cotton-thistle.
3956. The milk-thistle, or our lady's thistle, is the Carduus Marianus, L. (Eng. Bot.
t. 976.) It is a biennial plant, a native of Britain, and found in church-yards and
near ruined buildings. The plant rises from four to six feet high, furnished with large
leaves, covered with an irregular network of beautiful milky veins.
3957. Use. When very young, the leaves are used as a spring salad ; and blanched, are
used in winter salads; stripped of their spines, they are sometimes boiled and used as greens ;
and the young stalks peeled, and soaked in water to extract a part of their bitterness,
are said to be excellent. Early in the spring of the second year, the root is prepared like
salsify or skirret ; the receptacle of the flower is pulpy, and eats like that of the artichoke.
3958. Culture. The seeds are sown in a good dry soil, early in February ; and when the plants come up,
they are thinned out to one foot and a half distance from one another. The intervals are to be kept free
of weeds, and stirred occasionally during the summer ; and in autumn the leaves are to be tied up like
those of endive, and the earth drawn round to blanch them. The blanched herb being cut off for use
during winter, the roots remain to be used in spring.
3959. To save seed. Leave one or two plants untied up the first season, and in the second they will
produce flowers in July, and seed in August.
3960. The cotton-thistle is the Onopordium acanthium, L. (Eng. Bot. t. 977.) It is a
biennial plant, indigenous in various parts of Britain, and remarkable for its large downy
leaves and lofty stem, often rising ten feet high, and covering a circle of six or eight feet
diameter.
3961. Use. It was formerly used like the artichoke and cardoon ; the receptacle and
the tender blanched stalks, peeled and boiled, being the parts used.
3962. Culture. The same as the Cardoon. See Subsect. 4.
654 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
€ect. VII. Acetarious Plants.
3963. The acetarious vegetables are a numerous class, of various culture, habits, and
use, and of which but little that is general can be here observed, excepting that they are
all articles of comparative luxury, or condiments, rather than food ; and consequently,
that though they occupy a moderate portion, perhaps a fortieth of the kitchen-garden, yet,
excepting a few of the sorts, as the lettuce, radish, cress, &c. they are seldom found in
those of the cottager.
Sobsect. 1. Lettuce. — Lactuca sativa, L. Syng. Polyg. JEqu. L. and Cichoracece, J.
Laitue, Fr. ; Gartensalat, Ger. ; and Lattuga, Ital.
39(54. The lettuce is a hardy annual, introduced or cultivated in 1562, but from what
country is unknown. Some authors consider it as merely a variety of one of the three native
species ; one of which, the L. virosa, seems very likely to be the parent plant. The
leaves are large, milky, frequently wrinkled, usually pale-green, but varying much in
form and color in the different varieties. Though of but a few months' duration in the
same individual, yet, in gardens, by successive sowings in spring, summer, and autumn,
it is obtained most part of the year.
3965. Use. The use of lettuce as a cooling and agreeable salad is well known ; it is
also a useful ingredient in soups. It contains, like the other species of this genus, a
quantity of opium juice, of a milky nature, from which, of late years, a medicine has
been prepared by Dr. Duncan, senior, of Edinburgh, under the title of Lactucarium,
and which he finds can be administered with effect in cases where opium is inadmissible."
{Caled. Hort. Mem. vol. i. 160. 259. ; vol. ii. 314. ; and vol. iv. 153.)
3966. Varieties. These are very numerous; and, from the names, many of them
appear to have come to us from the Greek islands and the coast of the Levant. The
best are —
Green Cos
White Cos
Silver Cos
Spotted Cos
Egyptian early Cos
Black-seeded green Cos
Lap
Brown Cilicia
Green Cilicia
Common white cabbage
Large white cabbage
Brown Dutch cabbage
Imperial cabbage ; large and fine
Grand admiral, or admirable; a very
large fine cabbage-lettuce
Large Roman
Hardy green cabbage (capuchin)
Tennis-ball cabbage
Prussian.
3967. Estimate of sorts. In their general growth, all the Cos lettuces are more or less upright, of an
oblong shape. The cabbage-lettuces are round-leaved, growing in a compact full head of squat form,
close to the ground. Both have white, close, firm heads when in perfection; the varieties reach ma-
turity from June till September. Meanwhile they are occasionally used in young open growth. 'In a
very young state, the cabbage-lettuces have a milder, more agreeable taste than the Cos : but when both
classes are full grown, the flavor of the Cos is preferred for salads, while the cabbage kinds are more used
for soups. The Cilicia, of a nature between the other two, is much admired by some, but is less culti-
vated than formerly. The lap is drawn young, and cut with small salads. For principal summer and
autumn crops, the "white, the silver, the green, the spotted, the Egyptian, with the other kinds of Cos,
are eligible in the first degree. Next to these are the common and the large white cabbage, the brown
Dutch, the imperial, the grand admiral, the Roman, and both sorts of the Cilicia. Those kinds should
be reserved for the end of summer which are the most backward in starting for seed, among which are
the hardy green, the brown Dutch, and the tennis-balL Any of the other kinds may be resorted to for
secondary crops, or to answer a local preference for particular names. For a very early crop, or for a late
sowing, to stand the winter, the fittest of the Cos kinds are the white, the green, the black-seeded, and
the Egyptian ; the latter is hardy, forms a close head, and comes early : of the cabbage class, the
brown "Dutch, the hardy green, the common white, and the tennis-ball are much relied upon for
their hardiness in standing severe weather.
3963. Propagation. From seed ; of which, for a seed-bed four feet wide by ten feet in length, a quarter
of an ounce is sufficient, and will produce upwards of four hundred plants.
3969. Soil and situation. " All the sorts grow freely on any rich mellow soil, where the sub-soil is dry.
For the most part, raise this vegetable as a principal crop, on beds set apart for it ; and keep the varieties
separate, but to multiply the supplies throughout summer, portions may be sown, thinly intermixed with
principal crops of leeks, onions, carrot, and spinage, which will come off before the lettuces are full
grown ; also, with any young perennials which stand at wide intervals."
3970. Times of sowing. " To obtain a constant supply of good lettuces, it is advisable to sow every
month, from February to July, for the main summer and autumn crops ; and to sow distinct sorts in
August and September, to produce late autumn and winter plants, of which a reserve is to stand for
spring and earlv summer heading lettuces in the following year. For the first early crops, you may begin
to sow at the end of January or beginning of February, if mild dry weather ; or, more generally, later in
February, or in the first week of March, on a sheltered south border. Some choice kinds may be sown in
a frame,' and forwarded by forcing. But for the main summer crops, sow in March and April, in any
open situation. Follow with secondary sowings twice or oftener every month, from May till about the
seventh of August ; to provide for a succession through the summer, till October, as the plants sown early
in the year, after heading fullv, soon fly up to seed-stalks. The sowing in the midst of summer should be
on shady borders. For a crop" to come' in during winter, and stand over partially till spring, make two
late sowings, in the third week of August and last fortnight of September."
3971. Process in sowing. " The ground should have been broken in the previous digging. Sow broad-
cast, moderately thin ; rake in lightly, and very even." .
3972. Management of the sinnmer crops. " In the successive crops raised from the opening of spring
till the close of summer, when the plants reach about two, three, or four inches' growth, they shoutd be
thinned ; of those removed let a requisite number be planted out, from a foot to fifteen inches asunder,
to remain for cabbaging. Such as continue in the seed-beds may be either gathered thinningly, in pro-
gressive stages, till the final reserve advance in close heading ; or as they increase in size, be planted out at
the square distance specified above, especially those designed to stand till of stocky growth. In dry wea-
ther water well at transplanting. Also weed and hoe the beds thinned, and water them, if necessary.
In the first heading crop of Cos lettuces, when about three parts grown, and beginning to close the inner
leaves a number mav be forwarded in cabbaging, by tying the leaves together, moderately close, with
strings' of bass ; the remainder will head and whiten, in" due time, without this assistance. Under the
Book I. ENDIVE. 655
above culture, the successive crops will advance freely to a stocky growth : the earliest will cabbage mo-
derately in May, but more fully in June, and in perfection in July and August.
3973. Crop raised on heat. " For an accelerated crop, some may be sown in the
beoinnino- or middle of February on a gentle hot-bed. When the plants are one or two
inches high, in March or April, prick a portion either into a v. arm border, if a mild
season, and let them be shielded with mats, during nights and bad weather ; or into a
frame or slender hot-bed, to bring them more forward. According to their progress, in
April or May, transplant them into the open garden, from six to twelve inches asunder,
to remain for heading."
3974. Winter-standing crop. " To have lettuces for drawing in minor growth for use, during winter,
and to stand over in part for returns in a muture stage, early next "spring and the beginning of summer,
sow in the third week of August and in the first fortnight of September, the suitable hardy sorts. You
may, further,- towards the close of September, sow a smaller portion on a warm border or sloping terrace ;
the" plants to remain and take the chances of the weather : if these survive, they will be acceptable hi the
spring ; some to thin out for use young, and the remainder to transplant for larger growth, early in sum-
mer, without running. The plants of the August and September sowing, will soon appear, and will be
ready to transplant the same season. Some may remain where sown, and a good portion may be trans-
planted to warm borders ; a quantity of the choice Cos may be planted in beds of light dry earth, under
frames or hand-lights, or under awnings, to have the protection of mats in cold nights, and partially on
inclement days. Accordingly, about the middle or end of September, and in October, when the plants
are two or three inches high, prick out a quantity (taking first those of the August sowing), from the
seed-beds into prepared warm-lying ground, in rows six inches by four apart. From such as remain in the
seed-beds, you may conveniently thin out some young plants, for occasional use in the winter, but so as
to leave a competency to remain for spring. As October advances, let some considerable quantity of
choice lettuces of the September sowing be pricked out from the seed-bed into dry sheltered south borders,
three or four inches asunder, wholly to continue for spring and early summer lettuces. Through October
to the beginning of November, it is advisable to prick a quantity of the Cos kinds thickly, in frames or
underhand-lights, to have protection during the night, and in all bad winter weather ; or, if deficient
in frames and glasses, you may transplant a part into a south border, to be arched over with hoops, and
covered occasionally with mats ; or, as the young plants are tender in winter, protection, afforded in
some of these ways, will preserve them more effectually in rigorous weather. During the winter, let
those in frames, and the others under occasional shelter, have the free air on all mild dry days ; but let
them be defended always at night with the glasses, and with mats or other additional covering in intense
frost or very rigorous weather : in the day-time, protect them from heavy rain, snow, and frost, but so
as to admit the light ; also, in a severe season, you may cover the choicer plants in the open borders with
mats, light straw-litter, or fern ; or occasionally with reed panels, or wattled hurdles, placed slantingly
over to the wall. These coverings should be continued only in rigorous frosts, and removed when the weather
is open. Then in the spring, about March or April, the plants in open borders, which have survived the
winter, should be thinned, so as to stand from six to twelve inches apart; and those thinned out may be
planted in another compartment at the same distance. At the same period, all the lettuces which have
wintered under frames, hand-glasses, or mats, should be transplanted into the open garden. In their
final stations, the whole will advance to useful sizes in the course of April, or will reach full growth with
stocky hearts about May : thus the table may be supplied till the early crops of spring succeed. The
plants first sown in the current year come to have good heads in June and July. Winter and early spring
lettuce may be further accelerated by transplanting some of the strongest autumn-raised plants, interme-
diately protected, as above, by frames or glasses, into hot-beds, or the borders of forcing-stoves : trans-
plant the lettuces to be thus forced, with balls of earth about the roots, in December, January, and
February. Those excited by heat in December, will have cabbaged hearts by the heginning of March."
3975. To save seed. " Leave or transplant either some of the early winter-standing plants, in March
or April, or of the forwardest spring-sown crops, in May or beginning of June, fifteen inches asunder.
They will produce ripe seed in August and September." (Abercrombie.)
Subsect. 2. Endive. — Cichorium Endivia, L. Syng. Polyg. JEqu. L. and Cicho-
racece, J. Ckicoree des Jardins, Fr. ; Endivie, Ger. ; and Endivia, Ital.
3976. The endive is a hardy annual, a native of China and Japan, and introduced in
1548. The root-leaves are numerous, large, sinuate, toothed, and smooth ; the stem
rises about two feet high, is branched, and produces pale-blue flowers in July and
August.
3977. Use. It is cultivated for the stocky head of leaves, which, after being blanched
to take away the bitter taste, are used in salads and stews in autumn, winter, and spring.
It is in great repute both in England and on the continent.
3978. The varieties are —
Green curled-leaved; principal sort for the main crops I Broad-leaved Batavia ; of largest upright growth.
White curled-leaved I -
3979. Estimate of sorts. " All the sorts are eligible for culture; but allot, principally,
the green curled for the main crops of autumn and winter endive, this being of the most
stocky full growth, and hardiest to stand severe weather. As to the others, allot a smaller
portion of the white curled for early summer and autumn use : of the broad-leaved kind,
provide a moderate crop for autumn, till November or December ; being by some
esteemed preferable for stews and soups, though not much used in salads."
3980. Propagation. All the varieties are raised from seed, of which, for a seed-bed
four feet wide by ten in length, half an ounce is sufficient.
3981. Times of solving. The proper seasons are, May for a smaller early crop ; and principally June and
July to the beginning of August ; for full and succession crops, all autumn and winter, till the following
wring. For, if sown earlier than the middle of May or beginning of June, they will mostly run to stalk
the same season, before attaining mature useful growth. If any are required for early young summer
endive, sow only a small portion of the white curled, in April or May, as the plants will soon run to seed.
In the middle or towards the end of May, you may begin sowing moderately of the different sorts ; but do
not sow fully till nearly the middle of June, that the plants may stand without running the same year.
About the twelfth and twenty-fifth of that month, also at the beginning and middle of July, sow the main
656 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
and succession crops for autumn and winter ; and a finer smaller sowing about the beginning of August,
for late supplies in the end of winter and following spring.
3982. Culture in the seed-bed. Sow each sort separately in beds of rich mellow earth, in an open situ-
ation ; scattering the seeds thinly, and rake in the seed. When the plants are up an inch or two in growth,
thin them moderately, where in clusters, that they may have room to grow stronger and stocky for trans,
planting. But if a portion are sown in soil of sufficient depth, and thinned to the distances mentioned
under transplanting, instead of being moved, they may be expected to yield heads of the finest kind, under
the same culture as is given to the others. #
3983. Transplanting. As the plants attain a sufficient growth, being from four to six
inches high, or in a month or five weeks from the time of sowing, proceed to transplant
the successive crops. The ground should be light and rich on a dry sub-soil. Dig it a
full spit deep ; set in shallow trenches, or drills the depth of a hoe, endive blanches with
less trouble than if inserted on a level surface. The lines may be fifteen inches asunder ;
the plants ten or twelve inches distant in the line. Drawing the strongest first, plant out
portions from June till October ; but the principal removals will fall in August ; in
which months three different plantings may be made for succession ; also for a general
winter crop, at the beginning of September. While the plants are in hand, trim the ex-
tremities of the leaves, and shorten the top roots a little. Water at planting ; and moder-
ately afterwards once in two days, if the weather be dry, till the plants take root. At the
end of September, and in October, likewise plant some in a warm dry border, to stand
the winter more effectually. Also, in the last fortnight of October or beginning of
November, it would be proper to insert some stout plants thickly on a bank of dry light
soil, raised a foot or two behind, sloping to the south. Thus they will remain drier in
winter, and will be preserved more securely from rotting in that season. The bed might
be also defended in severe weather with frames and glasses, or with an occasional awning
of mats or sail-cloth.
3984. Grange, of Kingsland, transplants in October, on sloping banks, at the base of hedges or walls ; or
if these are not to be had, he forms banks with a slope of 45 degrees facing the south. The width of the
face of the bank measures five feet ; along it he places four rows of pantiles stuck more than halfway into
the earth with the convex side to the sun. A plant of endive is then placed opposite the concave side of
each tile, the latter serving to keep its leaves dry. In winter these banks are covered with dippings of
hedges or straw to keep them drv, and to exclude the frost.
3985. Blanching. As the transplanted crops advance to full growth, stocky and full in the heart, some
should have the leaves tied up every week or fortnight, to blanch or whiten, and to render them tender,
crisp and mild-tasted. Perform this in drv davs ; and in winter, when the weather is dry without frost.
Using strings of fresh bass, or small osier twigs, tie the leaves regularly together a little above the middle,
moderately close. If the soil be light and dry, earth them up half way ; but if moist, merely tie them
The two curled sorts, if neatly earthed up, will branch pretty well without being tied. The Batavian, from
its loftier, looser growth, in everv case hearts and blanches better with a bandage. The blanching will be
completed sometimes in a week,'when the weather is hot and dry ; at others, it may take a fortnight or
three weeks : after which the endive should be taken up for use, or it will soon rot, in six days or less,
especially if much rain fall. To save the trouble of tving, this esculent is also occasionally blanched by
setting up flat tiles or boards on each side of the plants, which, resting against other in an angular form,
and confined with earth, exclude the light. Further, endive may be blanched under garden-pots, or
blanch ing-pots, in the manner of sea-kale. In the heat of summer and autumn, tying up is best ; but in
wet or cold weather, to cover the plants preserves while it blanches them.
3Q86 Occasional shelter. At the approach of severe frost, cover some thickly with straw-litter. Also
plunge a portion into a raised bank of light dry earth, under a glass-case, or covered shed, open to the
south Protect with litter in rigorous weather ; but uncover, and give plenty of air on mild days.
3987 To save seed. " Allot some of the strongest old plants in February or March, if any remain ; other-
wise, sow seed in March or April, and transplant or thin the plants to twelve or fifteen inches' distance.
They will shoot, and the seed ripen in autumn."
Subsect. 3. Succory, or Wild Endive. — Cichorium Intybus, L. (Eng. Bot. 539.) Syn-
genesia Polygamic. jEqualis, L. and Cichoraceee, J. Chicoree Sauvage, Fr. ; Genuine
Cichorie, Ger. ; and Cicoria, Ital.
S988. The succory, or chiccory, is a hardy perennial not uncommon in calcareous wastes
and by road sides. The whole plant greatly resembles the common broad-leaved endive ;
the leaves are runcinated ; the stem rises from two to four and five feet high, producing
blue flowers from June to August. The plant is but little cultivated in gardens in this
countrv, though it is in much repute on the continent, and especially in Italy. It has
been grown in the fields, in France and England, as a fodder for cattle, when coming into
flower ; and is at present much cultivated in Holland and Flanders, for the roots, which
are dried, and ground, and used on almost every part of the continent, partly along with,
and partly as a substitute for coffee, by those who cannot afford to use that article
genuine : but Miller and other English authors on horticulture do not notice it as an
article for the garden.
3989. Use. The leaves are blanched and used as those of endive, or during winter
forced in the dark, and so blanched. In this state it is the Barbe de Capucin of the
French. It is also sown thick in frames, and in the open air, and when it has produced
two rough leaves, cut as a small salad. When lettuce or garden-endive is scarce, chic-
cory can always be commanded as salading by those who possess any of the most
ordinary means of forcing. The roots cut in pieces, dried and ground, afford a powder,
which Dr. Howison (Caled. Hort. Mem. iv. 132.) thinks preferable to that of coffee ; and
Dr. Duncan (Disc, to Caled. H. S. 1820) is of opinion that the plant might be cultivated
with great national advantages, as a substitute for that exotic berry. About Bruges, the
Book T.
DANDELION. CELERY.
657
roots are scraped and boiled, and eaten along with potatoes, or with a sauce of butter and
vinegar.
3990. Varieties. The French have the common large-leaved, the chicoree a navel, or
cafe-chicoree, with large white fleshy roots, and the variegated chiccory.
3991. Culture. Isaac Oldacre, an excellent practical gardener, who experienced the advantages of cul-
tivating this plant in the Imperial gardens near Petersburgh, gives the following directions. "It should
be sown in the end of June or beginning of July, on a rich piece of ground, broad-cast, in the same manner
as endive ; when the leaves begin to cover the ground, thin out the plants, leaving those that remain on
the beds from three to four inches apart ; those pulled out may be planted into other beds, at the same
distance as those which are left to remain ; keep them clear from weeds, and if the leaves grow verv
470
strong, and shade the roots much, cut them off within one inch of the
ground. The end of September or beginning of October is the proper
time to shift the roots ; the leaves should be first cut off with care, so as
not to destroy the hearts of the plants, then dig up the roots, shorten
them, and plant them in pots or portable boxes, with a dibble, very close
together, in rich mould ; give them water when dry, and shelter them in
severe frosts, by a light covering of litter. After they are well rooted,
the pots or boxes, as wanted, are to be removed into the mushroom-house
or cellar, where they must be entirely excluded from light, in order to
blanch the leaves, which will be effected in six or seven days. Succory
will thrive in a heat of sixty degrees, but it is best to keep it in a lower
temperature. If the roots are strong, each pot or box will bear cutting
twice, after which they should be removed, and changed for the succes-
sion, as the leaves of the future growth become bitter. (Hort. Trans.
vol. iii. p. 139.)
3992. Crop in cellars. On the continent, the roots are taken up on the
approach of winter, and stacked in cellars in alternate layers of sand, so
as to form ridges with the crowns of the plants on the surface of the ridge.
Here, if the frost be excluded, they soon send out leaves in such abund-
ance as to afford a supply of salad during winter. If light is excluded,
the leaves are perfectly blanched, and in this state are known under the
name of Barbede Capucin. On ship-board it is customary to use a barrel of sand with numerous holes
(Jig. 470.), or a hamper, for the same purpose.
3993. To save seed. Proceed as directed for endive.
Subsect. 4. Dandelion. — Leontodon Taraxacum, L. (Eng. Pot.) Syngen. Polygam.
JEqu. L. and Cichoracece, J. Dents de Lion, or Pisse-en-lit, Fr. ; Lowenzahn, Ger. ;
and Piscia in letto, Ital.
3994. The dandelion is a hardy perennial, a native of Britain, well known among gar-
deners as a troublesome weed, but which may also be used as a salad, and as a substitute
for coffee.
'3995. Use. The leaves in early spring, when just unfolding, afford a very good in-
gredient in salads. The French sometimes eat the young roots, and the etiolated leaves,
with thin slices of bread and butter. When blanched, the leaves considerably resemhle
those of endive in taste. The root is considered an equally good substitute for coffee as
chiccory, and may, like that plant, be stored in cellars or barrels for producing winter
salad. {Caled. Hort. Mem. iv. 138.)
3996. Culture. Though regularly produced in the London market, it is seldom or never cultivated, being
generally to be found in sufficient luxuriance by the sides of hedges and dry ditches. It might easily be
propagated either by seeds or roots ; and, if introduced as a garden-plant, should have a rich deep soil, and
be carefully tied up, and earthed round, to blanch it effectually. Cut off all the flowers as they appear, to
prevent the dispersion of the seed, and the weakening of the plant. When salad is scarce, the dandelion
might be dug up from road sides in winter, and forced in pots, like succory.
Subsect. 5. Celery. — Apium graveolens, L. (Eng. Pot. 1210.) Pent. Dig. L. and
Umbelliferce, J. Ache, Fr. ; AZppich, Ger. ; and Appio, Ital.
3997. The celery is a hardy biennial plant, a native of Britain, and known in its wild
state by the name of smallage. It is frequent by the sides of ditches, and near the
sea, where it rises with wedge-shaped leaves, and a furrowed stalk producing greenish
flowers in August. The whole plant has a rank coarse taste, and the effects of cultiv-
ation in producing from it the mild sweet stalks of celery are not a little remarkable.
A head of celery, we are informed (Caled. Hort. Mem. vol. ii. p. 297.), was dug up on
the 4th of October, 1815, at Longford, near Manchester, which weighed 9 lhs. when
washed, with the roots and leaves still attached to it, and measured four feet six inches in
height. It was of a red sort, perfectly solid, crisp, and firm, and remarkably well flavored.
3998. Use. The blanched leaf-stalks are used raw, as a salad, from August till
March ; they are also stewed, and put in soups. In Italy, the unblanched leaves are
used for soups, and when neither the blanched nor the green leaves can be had, the seeds
bruised, form a good substitute. The root only of the variety called the celeriac is used,
and Sabine informs us (Hort. Trans, vol. iii.) "it is excellent in soups, in which, whether
white or brown, slices of it are used as ingredients, and readily impart their flavor.
With the Germans, it is also a common salad, for which the roots are prepared by
boiling, until a fork will pass easily through them ; after they are boiled, and become
cold, they are eaten with oil and vinegar. They are also sometimes served up at table,
stewed with rich sauces. In all cases, before they are boiled, the coat and the fibres
U u
658 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
of the roots, which are very strong, are cut away ; and the root is put in cold water, on
the fire, not in water previously boiling."
3999. Varieties. These are —
The common upright Italian
The large hollow upright
The solid-stalked upright
The large red-stalked upright
The turnip-rooted, or celeriac, the cele-
ri-ruie, of the French, and the knott-
cetleric, of the Germans. This is hardier
than the other kinds, andwill continue
longer in spring. It is grown to e
large size in the neighborhood of
Hamburgh, and sometimes imported
for the London market.
4000. Estimate of sorts. The first three sorts are preferable for general culture. The red variety is
rather coarse for salads, but it is hardy to stand the winter, and well adapted for soups and stews. The
turnip-rooted is cultivated on account of its root, which is fit for use in September and October, and may
be preserved in sand through the winter.
4001. Propagation. All the sorts are raised from seed ; and half an ounce is reckoned
sufficient for a seed-bed four feet and a half wide by ten feet in length, of the upright
sorts ; but for celeriac, a quarter of an ounce will be enough for a bed four feet
square.
4002. Soil. Celery delights in a soil rather moist, rich in vegetable mould, but not
rank from new unrotted dung.
4003. Times of solving. The most forward crop is slightly forced : any of the
varieties may be sown in the spring, in the open garden, at two or three different times,
from the 21st of March till the first week in May; but the principal sowing should be
made in the first fortnight of April.
4004. Early crop. " For early summer and autumn celery : sow a small portion towards the end of
February, in a moderate hot-bed. When the young plants are about two inches high, prick out some
into a warm border, two or three inches apart, or rather into a second slight hot-bed, if before the 21st of
March, as well to protect the plants as to expedite their growth for final planting. As soon as the leaves
are six inches high, in May or June, transplant them into trenches for blanching, as directed below for
the main crops, but as these early-sown plants will not continue long in full growth, before many of them
will pipe or run, you should plant only a moderate crop, for a temporary supply : when they are advanced
in the trenches from eight to twelve inches in growth, begin to earth them up several inches on both sides
each row ; continue earthing up by degrees as they rise higher, till they are whitened from six to twelve
inches in length ; when they may be digged up as wanted."
4005. Main crops. " To raise the main crops for summer, autumn, and winter,
make a considerable sowing at the commencement of April. Sow in beds of light mellow
earth, and rake in the seed lightly and regularly. In very dry weather, give moderate
watering both before and after the plants come up. When they are two, three, or four
inches high, thin the seed-bed, and prick out a quantity at successive times into inter-
mediate beds, three or four inches asunder. Water those removed, and till they have
struck."
4006. Judd sows about the middle of January in a warm situation, on very rich ground, protecting it by
mats at night. When the plants are from two to three inches high, he pricks out into a nursery-bed,
immersing the plants, as he draws them, in water, so as they may remain moist while out of ground.
The plants remain in the nursery-bed till they become " very strong." {Hort. Trans, vol. ii.)
4007. Walker, a gardener, near Manchester, grows the red celery ; sows for the early crop about the
1st of March, and for the late crop about the 1st of ApriL " The seed-bed is formed of fresh, dark,
loamy soil, mixed with old rotten dung, half and half, and placed on a hot-bed. The nursery or
" transplanting bed is formed with old hot-bed dung, very well broken, laid six or seven inches thick, on
a piece of ground which has lain some time undisturbed, or has been made hard by compression. The
situation should be sunny. The plants are set six inches apart in the dung, without soil, and covered with
hand-glasses. They are watered well when planted, and frequently afterwards. By hardening the soil
under the dung in which the plants are set, the root is formed into a brush of fibres ; and by thus pre-
venting the pushing of a tap-root, the plant never runs to seed before the following spring." {Caled. Hort.
Mem. vol. ii.)
4008. Transplanting into trenches. " When either the plants left in the seed-bed, or
those removed, are from six to twelve inches high, or when the latter have acquired a
stocky growth, by four or five weeks' nurture in the intermediate bed, transplant them
into trenches for blanching. For this purpose allot an open compartment. Mark out
the trenches a foot wide, and from three feet to three and a half distance ; dig out
each trench lengthwise, a spade in width, and a light spit deep, that is, six or eight
inches. Lay the excavated earth smoothly in the intervals, making the edges of the
trenches equally full and straight ; also loosen the bottom moderately, in a level order, to
receive the plants. Before inserting them, it would essentially strengthen the soil to
apply some good rotten dung in each trench two or three inches thick, and let it be
digged in at the bottom regularly, a moderate depth. Then having lifted the plants, just
trim any long straggling tops of the leaves and fibres of the roots ; also slip off side
shoots ; plant a single row along the bottom of each trench, four or five inches apart.
Give a good watering directly ; and occasionally after, if the weather be dry, till the
plants take root and show a renewed growth. Continue planting out a monthly succes-
sion in June, July, August, and September ; thus providing for a supply from July and
August of the present summer throughout the course of autumn and winter, till May in
the following spring."
4009. Judd prepares his ground for transplanting, by trenching it two spades deep, mixing with it in the
operation a good dressing of well reduced dung from the old forcing-beds. He says, " I give it a second
trenching, that the dung may be the better incorporated with the mould, and then leave it in as rough a
state as possible, till my plants are ready to be put out. In the ground thus prepared, I form trenches
twenty inches wide, and six inches deep, at six feet distance from each other, measuring from the centre
Book I. CELERY. 659
of each trench. Before planting, I reduce the depth of the trenches to three inches, by digging in suf-
ficient dung to fill them so much up. At the time of planting, if the weather be dry, the trenches are
well watered in the morning, and the plants are put in, six inches apart, in the row, in the evening, care
being taken by the mode above mentioned, to keep the fibres quite wet whilst out of ground ; as they are
drawn from the nursery-bed, the plants are dressed for planting, and then laid regularly in the gardenlpan.
The trenches in which my rows of celery are planted, being so very shallow, the roots of the plants grow
nearly on a level with the surface of the ground : this I consider particularly advantageous ; for as con-
siderable cavities are necessarily formed on each side when the moulding takes place, all injury from stag-
nant water or excess of moisture is prevented. The trenches, when planted, are watered as may be
required." He adds, " that he prepares his ground for celery during the winter, and avoids putting much
of a crop in the space between the trenches, especially one that grows tall, as he finds celery does best, when
it grows as open as possible."
4010. Walker makes his trenches at four feet distance, and eighteen inches wide, twelve deep, and filled
nine inches with a compost of fresh strong soil, and well rotted dung ; three fourths dung, and one fourth
soil. Old hot-bed dung is the best. The plants should be taken up with as much dung as will conveniently
adhere to the roots, and the side shoots are removed from the stems ; they are then set with the hand at
nine or ten inches apart in the centre of each trench ; it is necessary to water well until they are ready to
be earthed up, but not afterwards.
401 1. Landing up. As the plants in the trenches rise from ten to fifteen inches high,
Abercrombie begins to land up for blanching, observing " to trim in the earth gently,
when rirst raised to the stems, with a hoe or spade, but mostly the latter. When the
plants are of more advanced growth, earth them up equally on botli sides each row,
three, four, or five inches, according to the strength and height of the different crops.
Repeat this once a week or fortnight, till by degrees they are landed up from twelve
inches to two feet, in order to blanch them of some considerable length. Continue thus
landing up the different crops from* July till February. As the autumnal and main
winter crops attain full growth, give them a final landing up near the tops, which will
increase the length of the blanched part, and also protect the latter crops more effectually
during the winter."
4012. Judd, in landing up celery, does " not think it well to load the plants with too much mould at first ;
the two first mouldings, therefore, are done very sparingly, and only with the common draw-hoe, forming
a ridge on each side of the row, and leaving the plants in a hollow, to receive the full benefit of the rain
and waterings. When the plants are strong enough to bear six inches height of mould, the moulding is
done with the spade, taking care to leave basis enough to support the mass of mould which will ultimately
be used in the ridge, and still keeping for some time the plants in a hollow, as before directed. The process
of moulding is continued through the autumn, gradually diminishing the breadth of the top, until at last
it is drawn to as sharp a ridge as possible to stand the winter. In the operation of moulding it is necessary,
in order to prevent the eartli from falling into the heart of the plant, to keep the outer leaves as close
together as possible; for this purpose, before I begin the moulding, I take long strands of bass matting,
tied together till of sufficient length to answer for an entire row ; and I fasten this string to the first plant
in the row, then pass it to the next plant, giving it one twist round the leaves, and so on, till I reach the
other end, where it is again fastened ; when the moulding is finished, the string is easily unravelled, by
beginning to untwist it at the end where it was last fastened."
4013. Walker " having removed the lateral shoots, the leaves of each plant being held together with
one hand, the soil, pulverised, is drawn round with the other, taking care not to earth up too high at once,
nor too close. The heart should always be left quite free. This may be repeated about once a fortnight,
until the plants are ready for use."
4114. Late crop. " For late spring celery to stand till the end of May in the returning
spring, without running considerably, it is expedient to make a small late sowing at the
commencement of May. The plants when six weeks old may be pricked on interme-
diate beds in rows, six inches by three asunder ; to remain till September or October ;
then transplant them into moderate trenches ; as they advance in growth, earth them up
a little in winter ; and, finally, in the spring, in February or March."
4015. Occasional shelter. " On the approach of frost, take up a part of the crop, and
lay it by under dry sand for winter use. To preserve the plants left in the bed, lay some
long dry litter over the tops; which remove in every interval of mild weather." It is a
common complaint that very fine-looking celery is often found to be rotten at the base
of the leaf-stalks ; the fact being, that when celery is full grown and the blanching com-
pleted, it begins to decay, and will not keep good in the ground for more than a month
at most. Some, therefore, take up and preserve in dry sand ; but in that situation it
soon becomes tough and dry. The best mode seems to be that of forming successive
plantations. "
4016. Taking the crop. " It is best to begin at one end of a row, and dig clean down
to the roots, which then loosen with a spade, that they may be drawn up entire without
breaking the stalks."
4017. Cultivation of celeriac The times of sowing are the same as for the other sorts.
Celeriac requires a rich well manured soil, and, according to an account communicated
by Lord Stanhope to Sabine (Hort. Trans, hi.), the plants are raised on a hot-bed
under glass, and transplanted when two or three inches high to another hot-bed, and set
one inch and a half apart. " In the beginning or middle of June they are transplanted into
a flat bed in the open air, at the distance of fifteen inches from each other, and not in
trenches like other celery. They must be abundantly watered as soon as they are set
out, and the watering must be repeated every other day, or, if the weather should be
warm, every day. As they increase in size, they will require a greater quantity of
water, and they must be occasionally hoed. The roots will be fit for use in September
or October." In a note to this paper, Sabine states, that he has been informed, that
Uu 2
660
PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
the plan of giving excess of water is peculiar, and that the vigorous growth of the
plant is more dependent on richness of soil than on any other cause. Ahercrombie
directs to earth up the bulbs four or five inches, to blanch them when they are full
grown.
4018. To save seed. " Either leave some established plants in the spring where grow-
ing ; or in February or March dig up a competent number, cut down the top leaves, and
set the plants in the ground, full two feet asunder. They will produce seed in autumn."
4019 Walker grows onlv red celery : and in preparing plants for seed, chooses the most solid, of the
reddest color, and the smallest size. When taken out of the transplanting-bed, the lateral shoots being
removed, they should be planted in a dry warm situation, where the seed will ripen well.
SirBfcECT. 6. Mustard. — Sinapis, L. Tetradynamia Siliquosa, L. and Crucifera, J.
Seneve, Fr. ; Sen/, Ger. ; and Senapa, Ital.
4020. Of mustard there are two species in cultivation, the black and tlie tuhite ; an-
nuals, and natives of Britain.
4021. The white mustard is the Sinapis alba, L. {Eng. Bot. t 1677.) It grows na-
turally in corn-fields, and flowers in June and July. The leaves are pinnatifid, the
pod round and rough, and abruptly terminated. The seed is yellow, and, as well as
the flowers, is larger than those of the black species.
4022. Use. This species is cultivated chiefly as a small salad, and is used like cresses
while in the seed ; when these are newly expanded, they are mild and tender ; but when
the plants have advanced into the rough leaves, they eat rank and disagreeable.
4CP3 Culture For spring and summer consumption, sow once a week, or fortnight, in dry warm situ-
ations . in February and March ; and afterwards in any other compartment. " In summer, sow in shady
borders if it be hot sunny weather ; or have the bed shaded. Generally sow m shallow flat drills, trom
three to six inches apart ; scatter the seed thick and regular, and cover in thinly with the earth about a
quarter of an inch. To furnish gatherings in winter, or early in spring, sow in frames or under hand-
glasses • and when the weather is frosty or verv cold, in hot-beds and stoves, as directed for cress
40°4 ' To save seed Either sow a portion in March or April, to stand for that purpose ; or, for small
supplies, leave some rows of the spring sowing, grown too large for salads ; they will ripen seed in
autumn.
4025. The black mustard is the S. nigra, L. [Eng. Bot. 969.) the seneve of the French.
It is frequent in corn-fields. It is altogether a larger plant than the white, with much
darker leaves, and their divisions blunter. The flowers are small, the pods smooth, and
lying close to the stem.
4026 Use Black mustard is chiefly cultivated in fields for the mill, and for medicinal purposes. It is
sometimes, 'however, sown in garden's, and the tender leaves used as greens early in spring. The seed-
leaves, in common with those of the cress, radish, rape, &c. are sometimes used as a salad ingredient ; but
the crand purpose for which the plant is cultivated is for seeds, which, ground, produce the well known
condiment If the seeds, Dr. Cullen observes, betaken fresh from the plant, and ground, the powder
has little pungencv, but is very bitter ; by steeping in vinegar, however, the essentia oil is evolved, and
the powder becomes extremely pungent. In moistening mustard-powder for the table, it may be re-
marked that it makes the best appearance when rich milk is used; but the mixture m this case does not
keep good for more than two days. The seeds of both the black and white mustard are often used in an
eni»7 & (Mtm-e ftTtlJinill " To raise seed for flower of mustard, and other officinal occasions sow,
either "in March or April, generally the black sort, or occasionally the white, in any open compartment:
or make large sowings in fields, where designed for public supply. Sow moderately thick, either in drills
from six to twelve inches asunder, or broad-cast, and rake or harrow in the seed When the plants are
two or three inches in the growth, hoe, or thin them moderately, where too thick, and clear them from
weeds. They will soon run up in stalks ; and in July or August return a crop of seed, ripe for gather-
ing." (Altercrombie.)
Subsect. 7. Bape. — Brassica Kapus, L. var. oleifera, Dec. {Eng. Bot. t. 2146.)
Tetrad. Silvj. L. and Cruciferce, J. Navetle, Fr. ; Bepskohl, Ger. ; and Napo sal-
vatico, Ital.
4028. The rape is a biennial plant, a native of Britain, and distinguished by its glau-
cous root-leaves, and yellow flowers, which appear in April.
4029. Use. Rape is cultivated in gardens as a small salad herb, to be gathered
voun* in the seed-leaves, and used in cresses and mustard. Like these, it has a warm
flavor* and is recommended as a stomachic. The plant is also much used in agriculture.
4030. Culture for small salading. Sow at the same time with cresses, mustard &c in winter and
spring ; or at any season when small salading is required. Sow in drills or beds, and follow the culture
di403iedr°r5 "?Si/MT?Insplant two or three plants any time during the summer, and they will flower
and seed the second year abundantly.
Subsect. 8. Corn-Salad, or Lamb-Lettuce. — Valeriana Locusta, L. ; Fedia olitoria,
Willd. (Eng. Bot. 811.) Triandria Monogyn. L. and Dipsacecc, J. Mdche, Fr. ;
Ackersalat, Ger. ; and Valerkmello, Ital.
403^ The corn-salad is a diminutive annual plant, common in corn-fields or sandy
soils "The leaves are long and narrow, of a pale glaucous hue, the lower ones rather
succulent The flowers are very small, pale-bluish, and collected into a close little
corvmb ■ thev appear in the open fields in April. When cultivated, it rises a foot high,
Book I. GARDEN-CRESS, AMERICAN CRESS. 661
and flowers in March. Gerrard tells us, that foreigners using it while in England, led
to its being cultivated in our gardens.
4033. Use. It is used in salads through winter and early spring ; both as a substitute
for common lettuce in those seasons, and to increase the variety of small salads. For
these purposes it has long been a favorite plant in France, under the denomination of
mache, doucette, salade de chanoine, and poule grasse.
4034. Propagation. It is raised from seed, of which a quarter of an ounce is sufficient for a bed four
feet by five.
4035. Times of sowing. " To answer the common demand, two or at most three sowings will be suffi-
cient, viz. a principal sowing at the beginning or towards the middle of August ; a secondary sowing early
in September, to furnish together crops in winter and early spring; and a smaller sowing in spring, the
close of February or course of March, if the plants are required in continuation throughout that season
though they are apt to get rank-ta6ted in warm dry weather. If wanted throughout summer, sow once
a month, and cut the crop quite young."
4036. Culture. " Sow in any bed of common mellow earth, broad-cast, and rake in the seed. When
the plants are up, thin them two or three inches asunder, that they may have room to acquire some small
stocky growth for gathering."
4037. To save seed. " Leave some plants in spring; they will produce seed in July or August."
(Abcrcrombie.)
Subsect. 9. Garden-Cress. — Lepidium sativum, L. (Zorn. Ic. 16.) Tetrad. Silic. L.
and Crucifera?, J. Cresson, Fr. ; Gemeine Kresse, Ger. ; and Crescione, Ital.
4038. The garden-cress is a hardy annual plant, cultivated since 1548 ; but its native
country is unknown. The cultivated plant rises with numerous small long leaves,
curled or plain ; from which proceeds a stalk from fifteen to twenty inches high, fur-
nished with white flowers, which blossom in June and July. The whole plant partakes
strongly of the pungent smell and acrid taste which distinguish the Cruciferce.
4039. Use. It is cultivated in gardens for the young leaves, which are used in salads,
and have a peculiarly warm and grateful relish. It ranks among gardeners as the prin-
cipal of the small salads.
4040. Varieties. These are —
The common plain-leafed ; principally I Curled-leaved ; equally good as a salad, I Broad-leaved ; less cultivated for salad-
cultivated and preferable as a garnish 1 ing, but grown for tearing tux-
keys, &c.
4041. Propagation. All the varieties are raised from seed, of which one ounce or
one eighth of a pint will suffice for a bed four feet by four feet.
4042. Times of sowing and site of the' crop. " Cress should be raised three or four times every month,
as it may be in demand, to have crops delicately young in constant succession. For culture in the
open garden, begin in the first, second, or third week in March, as a forward spring may bring mild
weather or otherwise : allot some warm situation for the early spring sowings ; and if the weather take a
cold turn, either put on a spare frame, or cover with matting between sunset and sunrise. When spring
is confirmed, sow in any open compartment. At the beginning of summer, the same ; but, in hot dry
weather, either sow in a shady border, or if the situation be open, shade with mats in the middle of the
day. For autumn sowings, when cold weather is approaching, allot some warm borders, and give occa-
sional protection. When crops are in demand throughout winter, either sow in a moderate hot-bed, or in
cradles to be placed in a stove ; pans filled with rotten tan are to be preferred to pots or boxes with mould.
From the last fortnight of October till the first of March, it will be mostly fruitless to sow in the open
garden ; but a terrace, sloping south under a frame, may be used at the decline of the year and most
early part of spring, as the intermediate step between the open garden and hot-bed, if more within the
means at command. During this interval, some market-gardeners sow it just within the glasses which
cover larger plants." The cress is often raised on porous earthen-ware vessels, of a conical form, having
small gutters on the sides, for retaining the seeds. These are called pyramids, are somewhat ornamental
in winter, and afford repeated gatherings.
4043. Process in sowing and subsequent culture. " Having allotted a fine mellow soil to receive the seed,
dig the surface, and rake it finally preparatory to sowing, which mostly perform in small, flat, shallow
drills, four, five, or six inches asunder. Sow the seed very thick, and earth over very lightly, or but just
thinly cover. Give occasional waterings in warm dry seasons."
4044. Taking the crop. " To gather cress in perfection, cut them while moderately young, either clean
to the root, or only the tops of advanced plants. They will shoot again for future gathering, but the
leaves will be hotter, and not so mild and tender as those of younger plants."
4045. To save seed. " Either sow a portion in the spring for that purpose ; or leave some rows of any
overgrown old crop in April and May. The plants will yield seed in autumn."
Subsect. 10. American Cress. — Erysimum prcecox, Smith. {Eng. JBot. t. 1129.)
Tetradynamia Siliquosa, L. and Cruciferce, J. Cresson d' AmerUjue, Fr. ; and Ameri-
kanisher Kresse, Ger.
4046. The American cress is a native of Britain, and found in watery places; and
was formerly considered as a variety of the common winter cress (E. Barbarea) ; but, as
observed by Neill, it is only biennial ; while the common winter cress is perennial.
It has smaller leaves, more frequently sinuated; the lower are lyre-shaped, and those on
the stalk pinnatifid. It is often called black American cress, and sometimes French
cress.
4047. Use. It is generally liked ss a winter cress and early spring salad, resembling
in flavor the common winter cress, but rather more bitter. It is in demand in some
families throughout the year.
4048. Culture. It is raised from seed, which is sold by weight, and for every ten feet of drill, a quarter
of an ounce will be requisite. " Sow in a bed of light dry earth, rather in drills nine inches apart, than
broad-cast. For winter and spring use, make a cowing in the last fortnight of August, or beginning of
September, on a warm sheltered border. If wanted throughout summer, sow every six weeks from March
to August, giving a sunny or shady situation according to the advancement of the season. Water occa-
Uu 3
662 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
sionallv in dry hot weather. At the approach of winter, shelter the plants, by laying a few light twig*
among them so as not to interfere with their growth ; and upon these, a covering of fern, reeds, or dry
litter. The plants being cut, or the outside leaves stripped off, shoot again for another gathering."
4049. To sive seed. " Let a few choice plants, raised in spring, run ; and they will ripen seed before
the decline of summer." (Abercrombie.)
Subsect. 11. Winter Cress. — Barbarea vulgaris, H. K. (Eng. Bot. 443.); Erysi-
mum Barbarea, L. and Smith. Tetrad. Siluj. L. and Cruciferce, J. Barbare, Fr. ;
Winter Kresse, Ger. ; and Erba di Santa Barbarea, Ital.
4050. The winter cress is a veil-known perennial plant, common in moist shady
situations. The lower leaves are lyre-shaped, and the upper obovate and indented. The
flower-stalk rises about a foot high, and produces yellow flowers from April to August.
The whole plant is bitter and somewhat aromatic. Neill observes, " Some still con-
sider the 'American cress of gardeners as a varjety of this; but after cultivating both
for several years, we have found those to be right who regard them as distinct." A
double variety of Barbarea is well known in the flower-border as the yellow rocket of gar-
deners.
4051. Use and culture. The same as the American cress.
Subsect. 12. Water-Cress. — Nasturtium officinale, H. K. (Eng. Bot. t. 855.); Sisym-
brium Nasturtium, L. Tetrad. Siliq. L. and Cruciferce, J. Cresson de Fontaine, Fr. ;
Briinnenkresse, Ger. ; and Cressione di Sorgenti, Ital.
4052. Water-cress is a creeping amphibious perennial, growing in wet ditches and
slow running streams. The stems are spreading, declining or floating, if in water. The
leaves are alternate, pinnate, and somewhat lyre-shaped. The flowers are white in a
corymb, soon lengthened out into a spike in June and July. The plant, when growing
in a rapid current, has its leaves lengthened ; and in this state, Martyn remarks, is some-
times mistaken for the water-parsnep (Siu}n nodifwrum, L.), which commonly grows with
it, and is deleterious.
4053 The cultivation of the watercress is said to have been first attempted in 1808, by Bradbury, at
Northfleet-Spring-Head, near Gravesend. This cultivator now grows five acres at West Hyde, near
Rickmansworth : he sends the cress in hampers, each containing eight dozen bunches, to the London
markets every day throughout the vear, excepting Sundays, and in consequence of this and other supplies
from artificial sources, the wholesale price of the article is reduced one half. There are now several culti-
vators of water-cress at Hacknev, Bayswater, Uxbridge, and other places. Water-cresses are also culti-
vated near Paris. {Neill, in Ho'rt. Tour, 490.)
4054. Use. It forms an excellent spring salad either alone or with brook -lime or
scurvy-orass. It is a popular favorite in spring in most places ; and is eaten fasting,
or withbread and butter, by those who have faith in its antiscorbutic virtues. The juice
is decocted with that of scurvy-grass and Seville oranges, and forms the popular remedy
called spring juices.
4055 Varieties Bradburv considers that there are three, the green-leaved, the small brown-leaved, and
th° large brown-leaved. The green-leaved is the easiest cultivated, the small brown-leaved the hardiest,
and the large brown the best for cultivation in deep water, and that preferred by this cultivator.
4056 Culture The mo<t suitable description of water is a clear stream, and not more than an inch and
half deep running over sand or gravel ; the least favorable, deep still water on a muddy bottom. It is highly
advantageous to make the plantations in newlv risen spring-water, as, the plants not only thrive better ill
it but in consequence of its being rarelv frozen, thev generally continue in vegetation, and in a good state
for fathering through the whole winter season. The plants are disposed in rows parallel with the course
of the stream In shallow water the distance between the rows is not more than eighteen inches, but in
deep water it is as much as from five to seven feet. When the plants begin to grow in water one inch
and a half deep thev soon check the current so as to raise the water to the height of three inches about
the plants which is considered the most favorable circumstance in which they can be placed. Where the
plants are not in rows, the water is impeded in its course, and the plants are choaked up with weeds and
th° different matters which float down the stream ; and when the cress is grown in deep water, the roots
are easilv drawn out of the soil in gathering. The cress will not grow freely in a muddy bottom, nor will
it ta^e well when there is mud about the roots; which should be carefully removed, and replaced by
gravel or chalk It is absolutely necessarv to have a constant current, as where there is any obstruction to
the stream or flow of water, the plants cease to thrive. After the plants have been cut about three times,
thev be"in to stock, and then the oftener thev are cut the better ; in summer it is necessary to keep them
very closely cut ; and in water of a proper depth, and with a good soil, each bed supplies a gathering
once a-week. In winter the water should be rather deeper than in summer (four or five inches) ; to
obtain this, the plants are left with more head, that the water may thus be impeded.
4057 Replanting The most expensive part of the cultivation is the necessity of cleaning out and re-
planting the beds twice a-year ; as the mud quicklv collects about the roots, and the duck- weed and other
plants become intermixed'with, and choak up the cress ; it is almost impossible to pick it in a fit state for
market after the plantation has been made five or six months. The mode of replanting is to remove all
the roots of plants, beginning at the stream head, and then cleai the bed of the stream from mud and rub-
bish which however, it should be remarked, make excellent garden manure. From the crop ot plants
thus' taken 'out the youngest, and those with most roots, are selected ; these are placed on the gravel in
rows at the requisite distance, with a stone on each plant, to keep it in its place. The times ot renewing
the beds are in May and June, and from September to November. The planting is done in succession, so
that the" crops mav come regularly into cutting. Those planted in May are fit to cut in August, and those
planted in November are ready to gather in the spring.
4058 Culture in water-beds. Some market-gardeners who can command a small stream of water, grow
the water-cress in beds sunk about a foot in a retentive soil, with a very gentle slope from one end to the
other Alone the bottom of this bed, which mav be of any convenient breadth and length, chalk or gravel
is deposited ana the plants are inserted about six inches' distance even- way. Then, according to the
«lone and length of the bed, dams are made six inches high across it, at intervals ; so that when these dams
are full the water may rise not less than three inches on all the plants included ui each. The water being
Book I. SCURVY-GRASS, BURNET. 663
turned on will circulate from dam to dam ; and the plants, if not allowed to run to flower, will afford
abundance of young tops in all but the winter months. A stream of water, noiarger than what will fill a
pipe of one inch bore, will, if not absorbed by the soil, suffice to irrigate in this way an eighth of an
acre. As some of the plants are apt to rot off in winter, the plantation should be laid dry two or three
times a-year, and all weeds and decayed parts removed, and vacancies filled up. Cress grown in this way,
however, is far inferior to that grown in a living stream flowing over gravel or chalk.
4059. Taking the crop. The shoots are cut for market, not broken off, which is the usual mode of ga-
thering the wild cress, and which latter practice is found to be very injurious to the plants in the beds
(Hort. Trans, iv. 540.)
Subsect. 13. Brook-lime. — Veronica beccabunga, L. (Eng. Bot. 655.) Diandria
Monogynia, L. and Scrophularince, B. P. Beccabongue, Fr. ; Bachbunge, Ger. ; and
Beccabungia, Ital.
4060. The brook-l'une is a perennial plant, a native of Britain, and common in rivu-
lets and wet ditches. It has a trailing or procumbent stem, furnished with smooth, dark-
green, elliptical leaves, from the axilla? of which proceed bunches of blue flowers in July.
4061. Use. The young tops and leaves are used as a salad, like the water-cress, with
which it is often mixed, being milder, more succulent, and only slightly bilterish in taste.
In Scotland the sprigs of brook-lime are brought to market under the name of water-
purpie, and sold along with wall-cresses (well, or water-cresses).
4062. Culture. The same as for the water-cress.
Subsect. 14. Garden-rocket. — Brassica Eruca, L. (Schk. Hand. 2. t. 186.) Tetrad.
Siliq. L. and Cruciferce. J. Boquette cidtivee, Fr. ; Raukette, Ger. ; and Ruca, Ital.
4063. The garden-rocket is an annual plant, a native of Austria, and known in this
country in 1573. The stem rises two feet high, is upright and branchy, and furnished
with smooth, pulpy, cut and toothed leaves. When in flower in July, it has a strong pe-
culiar smell, almost fetid. This plant is now neglected in Britain, but is still in use in
several places on the continent.
4064. Use. The leaves and tender stalks are used as salad ingredients, and form an
agreeable addition to cresses and mustard early in spring.
4065. Culture. Sow in a warm border early in February, and again in March and April for successive
crops. Thin the plants after they have produced the first rough leaf to three or four inches asunder, and
keep them clear of weeds, if a supply is desired throughout the year, monthly sowings may be made j and
in autumn, under frames.
4066. To save seed. Allow a few of the strongest plants of the spring sowing to come into flower ; they
will produce abundance of seeds in August.
Subsect. 15. Scurvy-grass. — Cochlearia officinalis. L. (Eng. Bot. 550.) Tetra-
dynamia Siliculosa, L. and Cruciferce, J. Cranson officinal, Fr. ; Lqffelkraut, Ger. ;
and Coclearia, Ital.
4067. The scurvy-grass is a biennial plant, indigenous to most of our sea-shores, and,
like the sea-pink (Statice), growing also on inland mountains. The root-leaves are
round ; those of the stem sinuated ; the whole plant is low and spreading, seldom rising
above a foot. The flowers are white, and appear in April and May.
4068. Use. The smaller leaves are occasionally used like the water-cress, and some-
times eaten between slices of bread and butter. The plant is also occasionally used me-
dicinally. ,
4069. Varieties. A thick-leaved variety, called the Dutch scurvy-grass, is cultivated
in some gardens.
4070. Culture. The plant may either be propagated from seed, or by dividing the roots. It delights in a
sandy soil and a moist atmosphere, which it finds alike by the sea-shore and on lofty mountains. It will
grow, however, almost any where, and is often found firmly established on old walls and ruins, sowing
itself, and thus remaining many years. When to be raised from seed, sow about July. Plants from a
spring sowing seldom prosper. Abercrombie says, " Sow in drills eight inches apart; and when the
plants are up, thin them to six inches' distance ; these thinned out, may be transplanted into new beds. In
the following spring, the succulent leaves will be fit for use.
4071. To save seed. Leave some plants in flower in May, and they will ripen abundance of seed in July.
Subsect. 16. Burnet. — Poterium Sanguisorba, L. (Eng. Bot. t, 860.) Moncec. Po-
lyan. L. and Rosacea, J. Petite Pimprcnelle, Fr. ; Pimpernelle, Ger. ; and Pim-
pinella, Ital.
4072. The burnet is a hardy perennial plant, indigenous in Britain, and found in dry
upland calcareous soils. The leaves are pinnated, and form a tuft next to the root ; but
are alternate on the stem : the leaflets are partly round-shaped, partly pointed, and much
serrated on the edges. The stem rises fifteen inches high, and the flowers form small
greenish heads tinged with purple in July.
4073. Use. Burnet-leaves are sometimes put into salads, and occasionally into soups,
and they form a favorite herb for cool tankards. When slightly bruised, they smell
like cucumber, and they have a somewhat warm taste. They continue green through the
winter, when many other salad-plants are cut off, or in a state unfit for use. It was for-
merly in much greater repute than at present.
Uu4
664 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
4074. Propagation and culture. The plant may be raised from 6©ed : of which half an ounce will suffice
for a bed three feet by four. It may either be sown in spring or early in autumn. It may also be very
readily propagated by parting the roots early in spring. When the plants are of two or three inches
growth, transplant into rows, or a bed, at six inches plant from plant Cut down all flower-stalks not
intended for seed.
Subsect. 17. Wood-Sorrel. — Oxalis acetosella, L. (Eng. Bot. 762.) Decan. Pentag. L.
and Geraniacece, J. Oseille, Fr. ; Sauerampfer, Ger. ; and Acetosa, Ital.
407.5. The ivood-sorrel is an indigenous perennial plant, found in woods, and by
hedge-sides, and in moist, shady situations. It has a scaly, bulbous, articulate root, and
ternate, obcordate, hairy leaves. The flowers rise from the root singly, are of a pale flesh
color, and appear in April and May.
4076. Use. The leaves form a very grateful addition to salading, and communicate
an agreeable relish to dishes of mashed greens.
4077. Culture. The plant is readily propagated by dividing the roots, and may be planted in a moist
shady situation in bog earth. Here, by preventing the plants from coming into flower, and cropping the
herb of a part of the plantation two or three times in the season, a supply of fresh young leaves may be
obtained from April to October.
Subsect. 18. Small Salads.
4078. By small salads gardeners and cooks understand the small herbs, or very youn"-
plants, which are used in the seed-leaves ; such as cress, mustard, radish, and rape"; also
the lamb-lettuce. Others, such as sorrel, are either pot-herbs or salad-herbs. Some-
times the white cabbage, lettuce, endive, and succory, are also sown, to be cut in the
seed-leaf. The small salads are occasionally used by themselves, when there is a de-
ficiency of the greater salad-plants, the lettuce, endive, celery-, &c. But when both kinds
can be had, they are in general combined.
4079. Culture. Sow very thick in drills, or on beds of very finely pulverised soil, watering in dry wea-
ther to accelerate germination and the succulency of the plants. Early in spring sow under glass, or in a
warm sheltered situation, and in winter in pots and boxes to be placed in some of the forcing-houses,
or in the stove ; or sow in the borders of the forcing-houses, or in hot-beds or pits, &c. Observe, that a sup-
ply is wanted in most families throughout the year.
4080. Gathering. Cut off the seed-leaves and about half their foot-stalks, as soon as the former are ex-
panded ; some prefer letting small salading grow till one or two of the proper leaves appear, in which
case it is of a stronger flavor.
Sect. VIII. Pot-herbs and Garrdshings.
4081. Pot-herbs and garrdshings require but a very small portion of the kitchen-garden,
perhaps not above two or three poles, even in the largest, and with the exception of
parsley, marygold, and Indian cress, they are rarely found in those of the cottager.
Subsect. 1. Parsley. — Apium Petroselinum, L. Pent. Trig. L. and Umbellifera?, J.
Persil, Fr. ; Petersilie, Ger. ; and Petroselino, Ital.
4082. The parsley is a hardy biennial, a native of Sardinia, and introduced in 1548.
It is so common as to be naturalised in several places both of England and Scotland.
Tiie root-leaves are compound, and much curled in some varieties. The flowers are
pale-yellow, and appear in June ; they have usually one leaflet at the origin of the uni-
versal umbel ; and an involucre of from six to eight short folioles, fine almost as hairs,
to the partial umbel. " It may be right to notice, that the poisonous plant called fool's
parsley (JEthusa Cynapium), a common weed in rich garden-soils, has sometimes been
mistaken for common parsley. They are very easily distinguished : the leaves of fool's
parsley are of a darker green, of a different shape, and, instead of the peculiar parsley
smell, have, when bruised, a disagreeable odor. When the flower-stem of the fool's
parsley appears, the plant is at once distinguished by what is vulgarly called its beard,
three long pendent leaflets of the involucrum. The timid may shun all risk of mistake
by cultivating only the curled variety. This last, it maybe remarked, makes the prettiest
garnish." (Neill, in Ed. Encyc.)
4083. Use. The leaves of the two first varieties are used as pot-herbs at all seasons
of the year ; also as a garnish. The third kind is esteemed for its large white carrot-
shaped root, drawn in autumn and winter, like parsneps, for the table ; and occasionally
to be used in medicine, being considered a remedy for the gravel.
4084. Varieties. These are —
The common plain-leaved ; seldom cultivated I The broad-leaved, or large-rooted Hamburgh ;
The curled thick-leaved ; most esteemed cultivated for its carrot-shaped root.
4085. Culture of the pot-herb kinds. " One sowing in spring will mostly furnish young leaves all the
year ; though to answer a constant demand, many persons make successive sowings from February to
May. Some also sow early in autumn for young parsley in winter and spring; but such a supply is bet-
ter provided by cutting down established plants. Sow in a single drill, along the edge of any compart-
ment, or occasionally in rows nine or twelve inches asunder. Draw small drills, something less than an
inch deep; in which drop the seed moderately thick, and cover a little above half an inch. The plants
will come up in three or four weeks, and when two or three inches high, may be gathered as wanted,
all the summer, winter, and following spring, till May, when they will go to seed. Have always a young
crop sown timely in the spring, to succeed the declining old plants. In gathering pot-herb parsley, cut
close and regular. In summer, when the plants grow rank, yielding more leaves than can be used, cut
them in close to the bottom, and they will shoot up stocky in a regular close growth. Observe also to do
Book I. PURSLANE, TARRAGON, FENNEL. 665
the same in autumn, about the end of September, that the plants may form heads of fresh young leaves
before winter. On the approach of frosty weather, protect them with haulm or reed panels, laid upon
branches of birch or other light supports."
4086. Culture of Hamburgh parsley. " To obtain large roots, allot a compartment where the soil is
deep, and has been well digged. Any common mould will suit, if dry and not too rich. Sow in Fe-
bruary, March, or early in April, in one or more beds j'-either in drills nine inches asunder, or broad-cast,
and rake in. The plants should be thinned to nine inches' distance, to give room for proper growth in
the roots ; for use in August, September, October, and thence till the following spring. On the approach
of frost, take up some roots, and preserve them in sand. A sowing may be made in the third week in
June, where young roots are wanted in winter."
4087. To save seed. " Permit some old plants to run to stalks in May j they will produce plenty of seed,
ripening in July or August." (Abercrombie.)
Subsect. 2. Purslane. — Portulaca oleracea, L. [Plant, grass, 123.) Dodec. Monog. L.
and Portulacece, J. Pourpier, Fr. ; Portulak, Ger. ; and Porcellana, Ital.
4088. The jmrslane is an annual plant, a native of South America, and introduced in
1652. It has a round, smooth, rather procumbent stem, and diffused branches; the
leaves somewhat wedge-shaped and fleshy; the flowers, yellow and sessile, appear in
June and July.
4089. Use. The young snoots and succulent leaves are esteemed cooling, and are
used in spring and summer as an ingredient in salads, and as pot-herbs and pickles.
The plant was formerly much more in request than at present.
4090. Varieties. There are two varieties of the P. oleracea cultivated, the green and the golden.
The latter is by some considered as a distinct species (P. sativd). It has rather larger leaves, and is less
succulent than the P. oleracea.
4091. Culture. Both sorts are raised from seed, and for a bed four feet by four feet, sown either broad-
cast or in drills, nine inches apart, one eighth of an ounce will suffice. " Each variety is somewhat ten-
der ; the green, which is usually preferred, is perhaps rather the hardiest. An early crop may be sown
in February or March, on a moderate hot-bed : the plants will require the -ia of a gentle heat till the
middle of May; when the seed may be sown in a warm border. If a continued succession is required,
sow every month during summer, till August, or while the plant can be raised ; generally in small drills,
from three to six inches asunder. The plants will soon come up : they should remain where sown. In
very dry hot weather, water thrice a week. The shoots may be gathered for use when they are from two
to five inches in height, and are well furnished with leaves. Cut them off low, and the bottom part will
soon sprout out again."
4092. To save seed. " Leave some of the first open-border plants to run ; they will give ripe seed in
autumn." (Abercrombie.)
Subsect. 8. Tarragon. — Artemisia Dracuncxdus, L. (Blackw. t. 116.) Syng. Polyg.
Super. L. and Corymbiferce, J. V Estragon, Fr. ; Dragun, Ger. ; and Dragon-
cello, Ital.
4093. The tarragon is a perennial plant, a native of Siberia, but cultivated in our gar-
dens from the time of Gerrard, in 1548. Its branched stem rises a foot and a half high,
and has narrow leaves, green on both sides. The smell of the plant is fragrant, and its
taste aromatic. .
4094. Use. The leaves and tender tips are used as an ingredient in pickles. A
simple infusion of the plant in vinegar makes a pleasant fish sauce. In France it is em-
ployed, on account of its agreeable pungency, to correct the coldness of salad-herbs ; it is
also put in soups, and other compositions.
4095. Culture. " Avoid planting tarragon in a wet tenacious soil ; as in that case the root is apt to
perish in a severe winter. This herb may be propagated in the spring, by seed ; or, more expeditiously,
by offset bottom slips, or sections of the root and top, planted in spring or autumn : also plentifully in
summer, from June to August, by slips or cuttings of the spring stalks or branch shoots. The germs are
to be planted in beds or borders from six to nine inches apart, and properly watered. They will quickly
increase in a branchy head, for use the same year, to gather green, as wanted ; and a portion may be
dried and housed for winter. When the stems are running up for flower, if seed is not wanted to be
saved, cut them down ; which will force up fresh young shoots. It would be proper, towards the end of
autumn, to transplant some full plants close under a south fence, to preserve them more effectually
in winter, and cause an earlier production of young tops in spring."
4096. To obtain green tarragon in winter. " Plant some stocky roots in a hot-bed, or in pots placed in
a hot-house." {Abercrombk.)
Subsect. 4. Fennel. — Anethum Fceniculum, L. (Eng. Bot. t. 1208.) Pent. Trig. L.
and Umbelliferce, J. V Aneth, Fr. ; Dillkraut, Ger. ; and Aneto, Ital.
4097. The fennel is a perennial plant, naturalised in England, and found in chalky
soils. The plant rises with finely cut leaves, and capillary leaflets, on a smooth, dark-
green, branched, tubular stalk, to the height of five or six feet. On the summit are pro-
duced umbels of gold-colored flowers, in July and August. The whole plant is aro-
matic, and has long been an inmate of the garden.
4098. Use. The tender stalks of common fennel are used in salads ; the leaves
boiled, enter into many fish sauces ; and raw, are garnishes for several dishes. The
blanched stalks of the variety called jinochio are eaten with oil, vinegar, and pepper, as a
cold salad, and they are likewise sometimes put into soups.
4099. The varieties are —
The common, or sweet I verv tender. " Owing to the peculiar nature of this variety,"
Park-green-leaved I Neill observes, "'it is more tender than the common fennel, and
Dwarf, or finochio. This variety is characterised by a I often perishes in the course of the winter. Misled by this eir-
tendency in the stalk to swell to "a considerable thickness. cumstance, several horticultural writers describe it as an an.
This thickened part is blanched by earthing up, and is then | nual species, under the appellation A. ugetum,"
666
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
4100. Propagation. They are all raised from 6eed, of which half an ounce is sufficient for a seed-bed
four feet by six feet Sometimes also, they are raised from offsets from the old plants, where only a few
are wanted. " Sow in the spring in light earth, either in drills from six to twelve inches apart, or broad-
cast and raked in. When the plants are three or four inches high, thin or transplant a quantity fifteen
inches asunder. As the roots of old plants divide into side offsets, these may be slipped off in spring,
summer, or autumn, and planted a foot apart. They will produce immediate leaves for present supply,
and in continuance ; or for an immediate larger supply of leaves, you may procure some established full
roots, and plant as above ; let them be well watered."
4101. Subsequent culture. " The same plants remain several years by the root : but as fennel sends up
strong stems for seed in summer, these, or a part of them, should be cut down, to encourage a production
of young leaves below, in succession. It is apt to spread more than is desirable, if suffered to seed. The
swelling stems of the finochio variety, when of some tolerable substance, should be earthed up on each
side five or six inches to blanch them white and tender. This will be effected in ten days or a fortnight ;
and by successive sowings, or cutting down plants during summer, successive crops of blanched stalks may
be had from June to December."
4102. To save seed. Permit some of the best stalks to shoot j they will produce large umbels of seed
in autumn. (Abercrombie.)
SlIBSECT. 5.
Trig. L. and
J)M, — Anethum graveolens, L. (Blackiv. t. 545. ) Tent.
Umbelliferee, J. VAneth, Fr. ; Dill. Ger. ; Aneto, Ital.
4103. The dill is a hardy biennial plant, a native of Spain, and introduced in 1570.
The plant is of upright growth, somewhat similar to fennel, but smaller. It has finely
divided leaves, and a slender single stem, bearing an umbel of flowers at top, which ap-
pear in June and July. The whole plant is powerfully aromatic.
4104. Use. The leaves are used to heighten the relish of some vegetable pickles,
particularly cucumbers ; and also occasionally in soups and sauces. The whole herb is
also used in medical preparations.
4105. Culture. It is raised from seed, of which half an ounce is sufficient for a bed three feet by four '
feet. " Sow annually in February, March, or April, or occasionally in autumn, as soon as the seed is
ripe, to come up stronger in the spring, in any open compartment ; either in drills, six or twelve inches
apart ; or broad-cast thinly, and raked in evenly. The plants should remain where raised ; and may be
thinned moderately, should they rise too thick. They will shoot up in stalks, with leaves and seed-um-
bels in summer and autumn, for use in proper season."
4106. To save seed. " Leave some plants where raised: they will furnish plenty of seed in autumn.
Or, from self-sown seeds, many plants rise spontaneously in the spring." (Abercrombie.)
Subsect. 6. Chervil. — Sca?idix Cerefolium, L. ; Chcerophyllum sativum of Persoon's
Sync>2)sis Plantarum. (Eng. Bot. 1268.) Pentand. Dig. L. and Umbelltferce, J.
Cerfeuil, Fr. ; Gartenkerbel, Ger. ; and Cerfoglio, Ital. (Jig. 471.)
4107. The chervil is an annual plant, a native
of various parts of the continent of Europe, and
sometimes observed naturalised in our gardens
in England. The plant rises from a foot to
near two feet high ; the leaves are of a very
delicate texture, three times divided, and the
flowers, of a whitish color, appear in June.
There is a variety cultivated in the Paris gar-
dens with beautifully frizzled leaves.
4108. Use. The tender leaves are used in
soups and salads ; but are much less in demand
now than formerly.
4109. Culture. It is propagated from seed ; and for a
bed four feet by four, a quarter of an ounce is sufficient.
" Sow a bed or two in August and September, as well to
come in use at the end of the same autumn, as to stand
for winter and spring. If a continued succession be re-
quired in spring and summer, begin to sow again in the
last fortnight of February, and sow a portion every
month till August, or twice a month in the midst of
summer ; as the plants of the spring and summer sow-
ings soon run up for seed. Sow the seed in shallow drills, from six to nine inches apart, and earth in
lightly : or sow occasionally broad-cast, and rake in evenly, just covering the seed. l"he plants are to
remain where sown. When the leaves are two, three, or four inches in growth, they are proper tor
gathering. Cut them off close, they will shoot up again, and may be gathered in succession, though the
plants of the spring and summer sowing soon spindle up into seed-stalks, ceasing to produce young leaves,
which are the useful parts." ...
4110. To save seed. " Leave some plants in the spring : they will shoot to stalks, and give ripe seed in
July or August." (Abercrombie.)
Subsect. 7. Horse-radish. — Cochlearia Armoracia, L. (Eng. Bot. 2223.) Tetrad.
Silic, L. and Cruciferce, J. Cranson, or Le Grand Raifort, Fr. ; Merrettig, Ger. ;
and Bamolaccio, Ital.
4111. The horse-radish is a perennial plant, growing naturally in marshy places, and
by the sides of ditches, in some parts of England. The leaves are very large, oblong,
sometimes smooth, and at other times notched at the edges ; on the stem they are some-
times deeply pinnatifid ; the flowers are white, and appear in loose panicles in May and
June. It has been long cultivated in gardens, and forms one of the most profitable
articles raised bv the market- gardener.
Book I.
INDIAN CRESS.
667
4112. Use. The root scraped into shreds is a well known accompaniment of English
roast beef. It is also used in winter salads, in sauces, and sometimes eaten raw.
4113. Propagation and culture. The following excellent instructions are by Knight : " Horse-radish
thrives best in deep, soft, sandy, loam, that is not very dry in summer, nor inundated in winter ; the
situation must be open. During winter, trench the ground three feet deep, and in the following Fe-
bruary procure your sets, in the choice of which take the strongest crowns or leading buds from old plants,
cutting them about two inches long. Mark out the ground in four-feet beds and one-foot alleys ; then
take from the first bed nine inches of the top soil, laying it upon the adjoining bed ; after which take out
an opening at one end of the bed, in the common way of trenching, fifteen inches deep from the present
surface ; then level the bottom, upon which plant a row of sets across the bed, at nine inches apart each
way, with their crowns upright ; afterwards dig the next trench the same width and depth, turning the
earth into the first trench over the row of sets : thus proceeding trench after trench, to the end. Where
more than the produce of one bed is required for the supply of the family for twelve months, the third
bed is next to be planted, which treat as directed for the first, only observing to lay the earth on the
fourth, and so on for any number of beds. Upon every alternate bed, which is not planted, a dwarf
annual crop may be grown. The plants must be kept clear from weeds during summer : and as soon
as the leaves decay in autumn, let them be carefully raked off with a wooden-toothed rake ; in the fol-
lowing February, eighteen inches of the earth of the unplanted bed must be laid as light as possible,
and equally over the beds that are planted ; then trench and plant the vacant beds exactly in the same
manner as before directed. The following autumn, the first planted horse-radish may be taken up, by
opening a trench at one end of the bed to the bottom of the roots, so that the sticks or roots of horse-
radish may be taken up entire and sound, which for size and quality will be such as have not generally
been seen. The following February the one-year-old crop will require additional earth as before di-
rected, which must of course be taken from those beds which are now vacant, which, when done, if the
ground appears poor, or unlikely to produce another vigorous crop, they must have a coat of manure."
(Hort. Trans, i. 207.)
4114. Judd has also written on the culture of horse-radish {Hort. Trans, v. 302.), and his practice, though
very different from Knight's is also excellent, and perhaps preferable. Knight takes strong buds from old
plants, while Judd takes about three inches of the top part of each stick or root, and then cuts clean oflf
about a quarter of an inch of this piece under the crown, so as to leave no appearance of a green bud.
Judd trenches only two feet deep, and if he applies manure, puts it in the very bottom of the trench ; " for
if not so done, the horse-radish, which always puts out some side roots, would send out such large side
roots from the main root, in search of the dung lying contiguous, as materially to injure the crop. In
planting, holes are made eighteen inches apart every way, and sixteen or eighteen inches deep. The root-
cuttings are let down to the bottom of the holes, which are afterwards filled up with fine sifted cinder-dust,
and the surface of the bed is then raked over. The season of planting is the middle of March." The essen-
tial difference between Knight's plan and Judd's is, that the former produces his root from the root-end
of the cutting downwards, and the latter from the bud-end Upwards : hence the one plants near the
surface, and the other near the bottom of the trench. Judd's mode seems more certain of producing one
entire strong root than Knight's.
4115. Preserving. Horse-radish, if dug up in autumn, may be preserved through the winter in sheds or
cellars, among sand or dry earth.
Subsect. 8. Indian Cress, or Nasturtium. — Tropceolum majus, L. (Bot. Mag. 23.)
Octan. Monog. L. and Geraniacece, J. Capucine, Fr. ; Iiapuzinerblume, Ger. ; and
Fior Cappucino, Ital.
4116. The Indian cress is a hardy annual, a native of Peru, introduced in 1686. The
stalks, if supported, will rise eight or ten feet high ; the leaves are peltate, or have their
petiole fixed to the centre of the leaf; the flowers are very showy, of a brilliant orange
color, and continue in succession from July till destroyed by frost. In its native
country, it endures several seasons ; but here, being unable to sustain our winter, it is
treated as an annual plant, and requires to be sown every year.
4117. Use. The flowers and young leaves are frequently eaten in salads ; they have
a warm taste, like the common cress, thence the name of nasturtium. The flowers are
also used as a garnish to dishes, in which they form a brilliant contrast with the flowers
of borage. The berries are gathered green and pickled, in which state they form an
excellent substitute for capers.
4118. Varieties: —
There is a variety with double flowers,
which is propagated by cuttings, and
requires to be treated as a green-house
plant. The flowers are preferable for
garnishing.
The Tropaohtm minus, a native of Peru,
and introduced in 1596, nearly a cen-
tury before the other, is also sometimes
cultivated for culinary purposes ; but is
of weakly growth, and by no means
equal to the common in produce.
There is also a variety of this species
with double flowers, propagated by
cuttings, and preserved through the
winter under glass ; but, like the double
variety of T. majus, it is more orna-
mental than useful.
4119. Culture. The single varieties of both sorts are raised from seed, of which one ounce will sow
twenty-five feet of drill. The plants will thrive in almost any soil, but a light fresh loam is best, as less
likely to make the plants grow rank and luxuriant, and produce few berries, which one that is rich is apt
to do. Care must be taken to select good sound seed, berries of the last year, for those of greater age will
not grow at all, or not freely and regularly. " Sow in March or April, or not later than the beginning of
May, in one small crop, of one, two, or three rows, for a moderate family. Either allot the large sort a
situation in a single row, near a vacant fence, trellis, or wall, on which the runners may be trained ; or
divide an open compartment into rows, three or four feet asunder, to admit sticks for their support. Form
drills an inch and half deep ; in which deposit the seeds two or three inches apart, and earth them over
evenly. When the plants begin to advance in runners, let them be trained to a fence or trellis. It is
generally necessary, at first, to conduct the main runners, hut they will afterwards climb unassisted."
4120. Taking the crop. " For pickling let the berries just attain their full size, but pluck them while
green, plump, and tender."
4121. To save seed. " Permit a sufficiency of the berries to remain till mature. In August and Sep-
tember, gather them as they ripen ; spread them to dry and harden ; then put them up for sowing next
year." (Abercrombie.)
668 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
Subsect. 9. Marigold, or Poi-marigold Calendula officinalis, L. Syng. Polyg. Xe-
cess. L. and Corymbiferce, J. Souci du Jardin, Fr. ; Ringelblume, Ger. ; and
Fiorrancio, Ital.
4122. Tlie pot-marigold is an annual plant, a native of France and Spain, and known
in this country since 1573. It has a short divaricated stem, dividing into numerous
branches, from one to two feet in height, and furnished with blunt lanceolate leaves.
The yellow flowers proceed from the ends of the branches, and last from June till killed
by the frost. It is one of the oldest and best known inhabitants of our gardens. " Its
flowers," Gerrard observes, " having been formerly in much repute as comforters of the
heart." Though little faith is now placed in its virtues, it still keeps its place in most
cottage gardens, both in England and Scotland, though rarely applied to any culinary
purpose.
4123. Use. Marshal observes, that " the flower is a valuable ingredient in broths and
soups, however much it may have got into disuse." The dried flowers are also used in
domestic medicine.
4124. The varieties are —
The single orange-flowered; most aromatic and proper for keeping I The childing or proliferous; sends out small flowers from the
The single lemon-flowered ; rather less aromatic margins of the calvx of the large central flowers culti-
The double flowered of both varieties j Tated chiefly for ornament.
4125. Culture. Sow in February, March, or April, and for a seed-bed four feet by four feet, sown in
drills a foot asunder, a quarter of an ounce will suffice ; " or you may deposit the seed in autumn (Sep-
tember), to have it come up forwarder in the spring, though the spring sowing will come up in very good
time. Sow on a light dry soil, either in drills a foot asunder, or broad-cast ; and rake in the seed. When
the plants are up two or three inches in growth, thin them to about twelve or fifteen inches asunder, or
they may be transplanted with that interval. They will grow freely in either method, and come into
flower the following May or June, and continue flowering in plentiful succession throughout summer and
autumn ; to be cut for use as wanted. A store for winter should be gathered when in full flower, spread
to dry out of the sun, and afterwards put up in paper bags."
41z6. To save seed. " The flowers, as far as they are left to run, will in autumn produce a competency.'*
{Abercrombie.)
Subsect. 10. Borage. — Borago officinalis, L. (Eng. Bot. 36.) Pent.' Monog. L. and
Boraginece, B. P. Bourrache, Fr. ; Borragen, Ger. ; and Borragine, Ital.
4127. Tlie borage is an annual, and sometimes a biennial plant, with the lower leaves
oblong, alternate, and spread on the ground ; the flower-stem rises nearly two feet high ;
and, with the leaves, is rough with white bristly hairs. The light-blue flowers make a
beautiful appearance, and are produced for several months in succession, beginning with
May. It is a native, or naturalised in several parts of Britain.
4128. Use. The young leaves and tender tops are used occasionally as salads, and to
furnish a boiled dish in summer and autumn. The plant was formerly in high estimation
as a cordial herb for driving away sorrow; but " very light surely," says Sir J. E. Smith,
" were those sorrows that would be so driven away." The spikes of the flowers form
an ingredient in negus and cool tankards, and the blossoms are occasionally employed
as a garnish. The juice of the plant affords nitre, and the withered stalks" have been
observed to burn like match-paper.
4129. Course of culture. It is raised from seed, and for a bed four feet and a half by six feet, one ounce
is requisite. " Sow every year in the spring, any time in February or March, till May, &c. for summer
supply ; and in any of the summer months, for young borage in autumn, as the plants of the spring and
early summer sowings soon run up to stalks in the same year ; and in July or August and September, to
furnish young leafy plants for winter and following spring. A small crop of each sowing will be sufficient
for the supply of a family. This herb loves a dry soil. Sow either broad-cast, and raked in, or in small
drills six to twelve inches asunder. Where the plants rise too close, thin them to that distance. Although
this herb will grow when transplanted, it prospers best when it remains where sown. Where the young
leafy tops and flower-spikes are in demand, permit the stem to run up."
4130. To save seed. " Leave some of the plants which first run : they will produce plenty of seed
<n autumn : and from self-sown seeds many young plants will come up spontaneously." {Abercrombie.)
Sect. IX. Sweet Herbs.
4131. Of sweet herbs, one or two kinds, as the lavender, peppermint, and some other
mints, are extensively cultivated by market-gardeners for the druggists ; but a very few
square yards of the private kitchen-garden will suffice to cultivate as much of each as is
ever wanted by any family. The sage, thyme, mint, and tansy, appear in single plants
in the border of the cottager's garden.
Subsect. 1. Thyme. — Thymus vulgaris, L. Didy. Gymnos. L. and Labiat<e, J.
Thym, Fr. ; Thimian, Ger. ; and Timo, Ital.
4132. Of thyme there are two species cultivated for culinary purposes, the common
and the lemon thyme.
4133. Common or garden thyme is the Thymus vulgaris, L. ; a low evergreen under-
shrub, a native of Spain and Italy, and cultivated in this country since 1548, and pro-
bably long before. It seldom rises above a foot high, has smaller flowers than the
common wild thyme, and is more delicate in its flavor. There are two varieties, the
broad and the narrow leaved, besides the \ariegatcd, grown for ornament.
Book I. SAGE, CLARY. 669
4134. Lemon thyme is the T. citriodorus, P. S. ; a very low evergreen shrub, trailing
and seldom rising above four or six inches in height. It is readily distinguished from
the former, and from wild thyme, of which it has generally been considered as a variety,
by its strong smell of lemons, as the trivial name imports.
4135. Use. The young leaves and tops are used in soups, stuffings, and sauces. For
these purposes, the broad-leaved common is generally preferred ; but the flavor of the
yellow is much liked in peculiar dishes.
4136. Culture. " To raise the plant from seed is the general and most eligible method. It is occasion-
ally multiplied by parting the roots of stocky close plants, and by slips of the young shoots."
4137 By seed. " Sow in March or April in a bed or border of light tine earth, either broad-cast scat-
tered thin, and raked in lightly, which is the general course, or in small shallow drills, six inches
asunder : the young plants may either remain, or be transplanted in the summer, when two or three
inches high. A portion may be drilled, for an edging to a border. Give occasional light waterings in
dry warm weather, both before and after the plants are up. As soon as they are from three to five
inches in growth, in June or July, taking the opportunity of rain, thin some out, and plant six inches
asunder, and water at planting. Others may be planted in a single row to form an edging to a border,
either set close to form at once a full edging, or as far as three inches apart. Seedlings thus treated will
come in for use the same year. Those who raise considerable supplies of thyme for the markets, usually
sow large portions thickly in beds, to remain till of useful growth ; then to be drawn oft* root and top to-
gether, at different seasons, as wanted ; it is then tied in small bunches for market. Some persons also
transplant considerable portions in spring and summer, to six, ten, or twelve inches' distance, to form a
stocky full growth, to be drawn off in large bushy plants."
4138. By offsets. " Thyme is also propagated by slips of the branchy shoots in the spring, or early in
autumn ; but more effectually by sections of the stool, top and root together, or by removing rooted
branches. To make branches quicklv root, loosen the mould about any established bushy plants, in spring
or summer, and lay some fresh earth a small depth upon the spreading shoots : they will all be well rooted
the same year for planting off. Plant in light rich earth : shade and water till rooted. In autumn, to
provide against the effects of frost on exotic evergreens, dry and house a store for winter ; either cutting
the tops, or drawing entire plants."
4139. To save seed. " It is produced abundantly, and ripens in summer and autumn. Gather the seed-
spikes, spread them upon a cloth to dry ; rub out clean, and put the seeds up for sowing the following year."
(Abercrombie.)
Subsect. 2. Sage. — Salvia officinalis. L. (Ger. Herb. 623. f. 1.) D'wn. Monog.L. and
Labiatee, B. P. Sauge, Fr. ; Salbey, Ger. ; and Salvia, Ital.
4140. The sane is an evergreen under-shrub, a native of the south of Europe, and
mentioned by Gerrard, in 1597, as an inhabitant of our gardens. It rises about two
feet high, with wrinkled, green, cinereous leaves, white, or tinged with white or dusky
purple. The flowers are terminal, in long spikes, of a blue color, and appear in June
and July.
4141. Use. The leaves are used in stuffings and sauces for many kinds of lus-
cious and strong meats ; as well as to improve the flavor of various articles of cookery.
The decoction called sage-tea is usually made from one variety, the small-leaved green,
or sage of virtue ; but any of the others are equally fit for this purpose.
4142. Varieties. These are —
The common, or red | The green | The small-leaded green, or sage of virtue | The broad-leaved, or balsamic.
4143. Estimate of sorts. " The red is the principal sort in culinary use, having the most agreeable and
fullest flavor ; the green is next in estimation with the cook : but the small-leaved is generally preferred
to those to eat as a raw herb, and for decoctions ; while the broad-leaved balsamic species is the most ef-
ficacious in a medical way, and is also a tea-herb. However, any of the sorts may be occasionally used
for those alternate purposes."
4144. Culture. " All the varieties mav be propagated by slips or cuttings of the young shoots, taken
from March to June ; but most successfully in May and June, by detaching the young shoots of the same
vear. The outward shoots are to be preferred ; slip or cut them off five or six inches long, stripping off
the under leaves, and preserving the top leaves entire : plant them in a shady border, six inches asunder,
inserting them quite down to the top leaves, and water them. They will soon take root freely, especially
the voung shoots planted in May and June. In the advancing growth, if they spindle up in flower-stalks,
pinch or cut that part down, that the plants may shoot out full and stocky from the bottom in close bushy
growth for use the same year. In gathering sage for use, cut or slip off the young side and top shoots
neatly ; and be careful not to stub too close, especially towards winter, and during that season. In July
and the rest of summer, it is usual to gather some of young top growth to dry for winter. Keep the plants
in regular bushy heads bv cutting away disorderly growths, and the decayed flower-stalks in autumn.
Keep them clear from weeds ; and sometimes loosen the earth between and about the plants, with a hoe,
garden-trowel, or small spade, in spring and autumn. Make a fresh plantation once in two, three, or four
years, or as may be necessary by the plants becoming naked, stubby, and dwindling." {Abercrombie.)
Subsect. 3. Clary. — Salvia Sclarea, L. (Fl. Grcec. i. t. 27.) Bian. Monog. L. and
Labiatee, B. P. Orvale, Fr. ; Scharlachkraut, Ger. ; and Schiarea, Ital.
4145. The clary is a hardy biennial, a native of Italy, introduced in this country in
1562. The lower leaves are very large, the stem is about two feet high, clammy to
the feel ; the flowers are in loose, terminating spikes, composing whorls, and of a pale-
blue colour.
4146. Use. The leaves are sometimes used in soups, though some dislike its scent.
Its flowers are used for a fermented wine, and the whole plant is, like sage, esteemed
medicinal.
4147. Culture. Clary is raised from seed, and sometimes from cuttings and slips. A small bed will sup-
pi v most families ; and, if raised from seed, a quarter of an ounce will suffice for a seed-bed to be trans-
planted from two feet bv two. Sow in the last fortnight of March, or the course of April, in any bed or
border thinly, and rake' in the seed. In summer, when the plants are advanced two or three inches, trans-
plant a portion of the strongest from twelve to eighteen inches apart, to allow competent room for the
670
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
leaves to spread into Aill growth, when they will be fit for use the same year, and in continuation through
winter until the following spring and summer.
4148. To save seed. In the spring, allot some old plants to run up into stalk : these will yield ripe seed in
autumn.
Menthe, Fr. ;
Subsect. 4. Mint. — Mentha, L. Didy. Gymnos. L. and Labiates, J.
M'unze, Ger. ; and Erba Santa Maria, Ital. (Jig. 472.)
4149. Of mint there are several species cultivated in gardens ; all of them indigenous
perennials. The principal are —
41.50. The peppermint (M. piperita, L.), (Eng. Bot. 687.) (a). This species may
readily be distinguished by its subcamphorated
odor, and blackish-purple flowers, which appear
in August and September. It is found in watery
places.
4151. Use. Almost entirely for distillation, for
which it is extensively cultivated in low, rich,
soft, marshy lands, especially such as can be
irrigated or flooded.
4152. The spearmint (M. viridis, L.), (Eng. Bot.
2424.) (b). This sort rises from two to three feet
high, with sessile, lanceolate, naked leaves; the
whole plant has a reddish-green hue ; is occasion-
ally found in marshy situations, and flowers in Au-
gust. There is a narrow and a broad-leaved variety.
4153. Use. The young leaves and tops are
used in spring salads, and form an ingredient in
soups ; they are also employed to give flavor to
certain dishes, as peas, &c, being boiled for a time, and then withdrawn in the manner
of garlic.
4154. The pennyroyal-mint (M. pidegium ~L.), (Eng. Bot. 1206.) (c) Pouliot, Fr. ;
Foley, Ger ; and Puleggio, Ital. ; is a trailing plant with small, smooth, ovate leaves. It
is indigenous in watery pastures, and places subject to inundations. It flowers in Sep-
tember.
4155. Use. In different branches of cookery, and also for distilling pennyroyal-water.
4156. Culture. All " the species are raised by the same methods, viz. by parting the roots, bv offset
young plants, and by cuttings of the stalks." By the roots. This is performed in spring or autumn." Hav-
ing some full roots from any established beds, divide them as expedient ; and drawing drills with a hoe,
about two inches deep, and six inches asunder, place the roots in the drills, moderately close, and earth
them over to an equal depth. By offsets in the spring. Procure these from established plants, and dibble
them, in rows, six inches asunder. By cuttings of the young stalks in May, June, or advanced summer.
Taking the opportunity of showery weather, cut them into lengths of five' or six inches ; and plant the
cuttings by dibble, six inches apart, inserted halfway into the earth.
4157. Soil. Spearmint and peppermint like a moist soil ; pennyroyal a strong loam.
4158. Subsequent culture. " Propagated in any of the above methods, the plants set in spring or sum-
mer will come into use the same year. Water new plants till they take root Keep them clean from
weeds. At the end of autumn, cut away any remaining stems ; at which season, or in spring, spread a
little loose earth thinly over the beds."
4159. Taking the crop. " For culinary use, or salads, gather both when the young green tops are from
one inch to six inches in length, and in their advanced growth, throughout the summer. When nearly
full grown in June, July, or August, or beginning to flower, gather a store for winter. Spread the heads
thinly in some dry place, shaded from the sun, to be well dried : then, tied in bunches, house the store.
When designed for distilling, let them attain full growth, coming into flower ; then cut, and use the heads
immediately. The peppermint, being principally used for distilling, and such of the pennyroyal as is
wanted for the same purpose, should stand till they begin to flower ; being then in highest perfection.
Cut in dry weather and tie in bunches, and carry under cover, ready for immediate use. Cut full-grown
stalks close to the bottom."
4160. New plantation. " All the species continue by the roots many years ; but when the plants shoot
dwindling, or weakly, make a fresh plantation in time."
4161. Forcing spear matt. " Mint, in a young green state, may be obtained all winter, and early in
spring, by planting some roots in a gentle hot-bed, or in pots or shallow pans, to be plunged therein.
Plant the roots pretty thickly, and earth over an inch and a half deep ; or some roots, thus planted in
pots or boxes, may be placed in a stove. Plant for succession every three weeks, as forced roots soon decay.
In order to have young leaves and tops all the summer, cut down some advanced stalks every month,
when new shoots will be thrown up ; and to have dried balm for the winter, permit others to complete
their growth, and come into blossom. These last are to be cut as soon as the dew is off in the morning,
for in the afternoon, and especially during bright sunshine, the odor of the plant is found to be much di-
minished. Dry the crop thus gathered in the shade, and afterwards keep it in small bundles, compactly
pressed down, and covered with white paper. By the common mode of hanging up mint and other herbs
in loose bundles, the odor soon escapes. The mint having a travelling root, the bed soon becomes co-
vered, so as not to admit of further culture ; hence, after four or five years' standing, a fresh plantation
will require to be made."
Subsect. 5. Marjoram. — Origanum, L. Didy. Gymnos, L. and Labiates. J. Mar-
jolaine, Fr ; Marjoran, Ger. ; and Maggiorana, Ital.
4162. Of marjoram four different species are cultivated; the pot, sweet, ivinter,
and common.
4163. Pot-marjoram is the 0. Onites, L. (Bocc. Mus. t. 38.); a hardy perennial un-
der-shrub, a native of Sicily, introduced in 1759. The stem rises more than a foot high,
Book I. SAVORY, BASIL. 671
and is covered with spreading hairs ; the leaves are small and acute, almost sessile, and
tomentose on both sides. Though hardy enough to withstand our winters, it seldom ri-
pens its seeds in this country. It is in flower from July to November, and is propagated
from seed, but chiefly from rooted slips.
4164. Sweet marjoram is the 0. Marjorana, L. [Moris, s. 11. t. 3. f. 1.) ; a hardy
biennial, a native of Portugal, and introduced in 1573. It resembles the 0. Onites, but
the leaves have distinct petioles, and the flowers, which appear in June and July, are
collected in small close heads ; and hence is often called knotted marjoram. As the
seed seldom ripens in this country, it is generally procured from France. When in
blossom, the herb is cut over, and dried for winter use, so that a sowing requires to be
made every year.
4165. The winter siveet marjoram is the 0. Heracleoticum, L. [Lob. Ic. 492.); a
hardy perennial, a native of Greece, and introduced in 1640. The leaves of this species
resemble those of 0. Marjorana ,- but the flowers come in spikes. It flowers from June
to November ; requires a sheltered dry soil, and seldom ripening its seeds in this country,
is propagated by cuttings and slips.
4166. The common marjoram is the 0. vulgare, L. [Eng. Bot. 1143.); a hardy
perennial, a native of Britain, and found under thickets and copses on chalky soils. It
bears a considerable resemblance to the last-named species. The flowers arise in subrotund
panicles, in smooth clustered spikes, of a reddish color, in July and August. This
species is only used in cookery in default of one of the others.
4167. Use. All the species, but especially the three first, are aromatics, of sweet
flavor, much used as relishing herbs in soups, broths, stuffings, &c. The young tender
tops and leaves together are used in summer in a green state ; and they are dried for
winter.
4168. Culture. The three first species prefer a light dry soil ; the other, a calcareous soil and shady
situation. Though the O. Marjorana, or sweet marjoram, be a biennial in its native country, and here,
when it receives the aid of a green-hou6e through the winter, yet, in the open garden, it requires to be
treated as an annual, and sown and reaped the same year. For a seed-bed three feet by three feet, a quarter
of an ounce of seed is sufficient. Sow in April on a compartment of light earth, either in small drills, or
broad-cast ; or sow a portion in a hot-bed, if requisite to have a small crop forwarded. When the plants are
one, two, or three incheshigh, thin the seed-beds ; and plant those thinned out in a final bed, six inches apart,
giving water ; or, where larger supplies are required, some may remain thick where sown, to be drawn
off" by the root as wanted. The pot, winter, and common marjoram maybe propagated from offsets by
parting the roots in spring and autumn. Plant in rows or in beds, allowing a square foot for each plant.
41(59. Gather the tops of all the sorts as wanted for summer use ; and when in full blossom, in July or
August, for preservation through the winter.
Subsect. 6. Savory. — Satureja, L. Didynamia Gymnospermia, L. and Labiatce, J.
Sariette, Fr. ; Saturei, Ger. ; and Satoreggia, Ital.
4170. Of savory two species are cultivated, the winter and summer savory.
4171. Winter savory is the S. Montana, L. [Sab. Hort. 3. t. 64.) ; a hardy under-shrub,
a native of the south of France and Italy, and known in this country since 1562. The
shoots are furnished with two narrow stiff leaves, an inch long, placed opposite at each
joint, and from the base of these a few small leaves proceed in clusters. It produces
whitish flowers in May and June.
4172. Summer savory is the S. hortensis [Lam. III. ii. 504. f. 1.) ; a hardy annual, a
native of Italy, and known in this country since 1652. The branches are slender, erect,
and about a foot high ; leaves opposite, and about an inch in length. It flowers in June
and July.
4173. Culture. " The perennial is generally propagated by slips, or cuttings, ot the young side shoots,
in April, May, June, or July ; planted in a shady border, and watered ; also by dividing the bottom off-
set rooted shoots, the root and top-part together, planted as above. When the plants are a little advanced
in branchy top growth, they may be transplanted : set some in single plants, a foot apart ; others, to form
a close edging. Keep the ground clear of weeds : in spring and autumn loosen the earth a little about
the plants, and trim off decayed and irregular parts. This herb may also be occasionally raised from seed
in the spring, as directed below, for the summer savory. It continues useful summer and winter ; and
some may be gathered, when of full growth, in autumn, to dry for winter use. The annual is always
raised from seed. In March or April, sow either in small drills, nine by six inches apart ; or, on the
smoothed surface, and rake in lightly. The plants may either remain, to be thinned, or some may be
transplanted in June, nine by six inches asunder. This herb comes in for gathering from June until Octo-
ber. When a store is to be dried, draw it by the roots." {Abercrombie.)
Subsect. 7. Basil. — Ocymum, L. Didyn. Gymnos. L. and Labiat<e, J. Basilic, Fr. ;
Basilikum, Ger. ; and Basilico, Ital.
4174. Of basil two species are cultivated as culinary aromatics. The sweet, or larger
basil, is the 0. Basilicum, L. [Blackiv. t. 104.) ; a tender annual plant, highly aro-
matic, rising from six to twelve or fifteen inches high, and thickly covered with small
oval leaves. It produces small white flowers in June and July ; is a native of the East
Indies, and was introduced to this country in 1548.
4175. The bush, or least basil, is the 0. Minimum, L. [Schk. Hand. 2. t. 166.) ; an
annual aromatic plant, a sort of diminutive of the other, forming a round orbicular bushy
672 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
head, not half the size of the larger basil. It is a native of the East Indies, flowers in
June and July, and was introduced to this country in 1573.
4176. Use. The leaves and small brachial, or leafy tops, are the parts gathered ; and
on account of their strong flavor of cloves, they are often used in highly seasoned dishes.
A few leaves are sometimes introduced into salad, and not unfrequently into soups.
4177. Culture. Both species are raised from seed, and for a seed-bed of three feet by one and a half, to
furnish plants for a tinal plantation four feet by twelve, a quarter of an ounce will be sufficient. Sow on
a hot-bed in the end of March, and plant out in a warm border of rich soil, the larger at eight or ten inches
every way, and the lesser at six or eight inches square. Sometimes both sorts are sown in the open border ;
but so treated, they come up late and small. In transplanting from the hot-bed, take care to raise the
plants in small tufts, or single plants, with balls attached ; by which they receive no check, and if watered
after planting, and in dry weather, will soon produce abundance of tops.
4178. Seed can only be saved in England in warm dry seasons, and under the most favorable circum-
stances of situation and precocity. In general it is procured by the seedsmen from Italy. .
Subsect. 8. Rosemary. — Rosmarinus officinalis, L. (Flor. Greec. 1. t. 14.) Dian-
dric Monogynia, L. and Labiates, B. P. Romarin, Fr. ; Rosmarin, Ger. ; and
Rosmarino, Ital.
4179. The rosemary is a hardy under-shrub, a native of the south of Europe, intro-
duced in, or before, 1548. The plant is evergreen, rising sometimes six or eight feet
high, though rarely. The leaves are sessile, linear, dark-green above, and greyish or
whitish underneath ; the blossoms are of a pale-blue color. The whole plant is highly
aromatic.
4180. Use. The flowers and calyces form a principal ingredient in the distillation of
Hungary water. Infusions of the leaves are made in some drinks. Sprigs of rosemary
are used as a garnish ; and were given in Shakspeare's time as tokens of remembrance :
" There's rosemary ; that's for remembrance," says the distracted Ophelia. In some
parts of the west of England and in Wales, the sprigs are still distributed to the company
at funerals, and often thrown into the grave upon the coffin of the deceased.
4181. Varieties. These are —
The green, or common | The gold-striped. | The silver-striped.
4182. Culture. " The green is hardiest as a plant, and is the sort generally used. The finest plants are
raised from seed. Sow either broad-cast or in small drills, six inches apart. The green is also raised by
planting slips or cuttings of the young shoots in spring and summer, in a shady border. Let these be taken
off five, six, or seven inches long, detaching the under-leaves. Set them in a row from six to twelve inches
apart, nearly two thirds into the ground : water at planting, and occasionally afterwards, till they have
struck. The plants will be strong and well rooted by autumn, when they should be transplanted at proper
distances. A light sandy soil assists exotic evergreens, that retain some of their original delicacy, to stand
the winter ; partly by preventing them from growing too luxuriantly, and partly by not being a conductor
of frost. In their final situations, train the plants, either with a bushy head, of moderate growth ; or, if
near a fence, in a fan-like order. The striped sort may be propagated as above ; or with most success, by
layers of the young wood, as it is not so free to grow from cuttings. Being a little tender, it must be planted
in" a warm situation. It is retained chiefly as ornamental, on account of the variegation of its leaves.
Rosemary is of several years' duration, continuing in full foliage at all seasons where the exposure is not
too severe." (Abcrc>o>/iok.)
Subsect. 9. Lavender. — Lavandula spica, L. (Schk. Hand. 2. t. 157.) Didyn. Gym-
nos. L. and Labiatce, J. Lavende, Fr. ; Spiklavendel, Ger. ; and Lavendula, Ital.
4183. The lavender is a hardy under-shrub, a native of the south of Europe, and intro-
duced in 1658. The plant rises from two to four, feet high, with hoary linear leaves,
slightly rolled back at the edges ; the flowers form terminating spikes, of a blue color,
and appear from July to September. The leaves and flower are powerfully aromatic.
4184. Use. It is rather a medicinal plant than one used in cookery ; though a few
plants are kept in every garden. Imitation scent-bottles are made by the ladies of the
fragrant spikes. They are also put in paper-bags, and placed among linens to perfume
them. Lavender-water, a well known perfume, is distilled from the flowers ; for which
purpose the plant is extensively cultivated in different places, but more especially at
Miteham in Surrey, and Maidenhead in Berkshire.
4185. Varieties. The narrow-leaved and the broad-leaved, both equally good.
4186. Propagation and culture. " It is propagated by cuttings and slips like rosemary : it likes a dry
soil, and may be planted either in distinct plants two feet asunder, or to form a sort of hedge-row, in one
or more line's, especially where large supplies of flowers are required for distilling. The plants will advance
in a close branchv growth, from a foot and a half to two feet high, or more ; and, when established, will
produce plentv of flowers in Julvand August : gather them while in perfection, cutting the spikes off" dose
to the stem. Then give the plants occasional trimming, taking off the gross and rampant shoots of the
year, and the decaved flower-spikes." Xeill observes, " If lavender be planted in a dry, gravelly, or poor
soil, its flowers have a powerful odor, and the severitv of our winters has little effect on it ; while in a rich
garden-soil, although it grows strongly, it is apt to be'killed, and the flowers have less perfume."
Slbsect. 10. Tansy. — Tanacetum vul^are, L. (Eng. Rot. 1229.) Sytig. Polyg. Suiter.
L. and Corymbiferce, J. Tanesie, Fr. ; Rheinfarrn, Ger. ; and Tanaceio, Ital.
4187. The tansy is a perennial plant, growing in many parts of Britain on the sandy
banks of rivers. The stem rises to the height of two or three feet in its wild state, richly
furnished with deep-green finely divided leaves; the flowers are yellow, and appear in
terminating corymbs in July and August. The leaves and flowers are aromatic.
Book I. PLANTS USED IN TARTS, &c. 673
4188. Use. The young leaves are shredded down and employed to give color and
flavor to puddings ; they are also used in omelets and other cakes, and were formerly in
much repute as a vermifuge.
4189. Varieties. These are, the common; the curled, generally preferred ; and the
variegated, cultivated chiefly for ornament.
4190. Culture. Tansy may be propagated in spring or autumn by rooted slips, or by dividing the roots
into several sets : plant them in any compartment of the kitchen or physic garden, from twelve to eighteen
inches asunder. The plant continues for several years, producing abundant tufts of leaves annually. As
they run up in strong stalks in summer, these should be cut down to encourage a production of young leaves
low on the stem. ... . ,
4191. To have young tansy in winter. Plant some roots either in a hot-bed or in pots placed therein, or
in a pinery or forcing-house, "i any time from November to March. (Abercrombie.)
Subsect. 1 1 . Costmary, or Alecost. — Tanacetum Balsamita, L. ; Balsamita vul-
garis, H. &■« {Schk. Hand. 5. t. 240.) Syng. Polyg. Superf. L. and Corymbiferce, J.
Coq.fLs-jardins, Fr. ; Fraue?imunze, Ger. ; and Costo ortense, Ital.
*192. The cost mary is a hardy perennial plant, a native of Italy, and introduced in this
country in 1568. The lower leaves are large, ovate, of a greyish color, and on long foot-
stalks ; the stems rise two or three feet high ; they are furnished with leaves of the same
shape, but smaller and sessile. The flowers are of a deep yellow color, and appear in
corymbs in August and September. In indifferent seasons, or in cold situations, they
scarcely expand, and the seeds very seldom come to maturity in this country. The whole
plant has a peculiarly agreeable odor, and its name, costmary, intimates that it is the
costus, or aromatic plant of the Virgin. There is a variety with deep-cut, hoary leaves,
but it is less fragrant than the other.
4193. Use. In France it is used in salads ; and was formerly put into ale and negus ;
and hence the name of alecost. In this country, at present, it is but little used in
the kitchen.
4194. Propagation and culture. It is a travelling-rooted plant, and readily propagated by division after
the flowering season, or in spring. It delights in a dry soil, and a plantation once made will remain good
for several years.
Sect. X. Plants used in Tarts, Confectionary, and Domestic Medicine.
4195. Of confectionary plants, excepting the species of rhubarb used as a substitute for,
or addition to, gooseberries, this class occupies only a few yards of the largest kitchen-
garden. Almost the only species worthy of introduction in that of the cottager, unless
we except the chamomile, is the rhubarb.
Subsect. 1. Rhubarb. — Rheum, L. Enneandria Trigynia, L. and Polygonece, J.
Rhubarbe, Fr. ; Rabarber, Ger. ; and Rubarbaro, Ital.
4196. Of rhubarb there are three species in cultivation, the rhapontiaim, hybridum, and
palmatum, all perennials.
4197. Rheum Rhaponticum, L. {Sabb. Hort. i. t. 34.) is a native of Asia, and was
introduced in 1573. The leaves are blunt and smooth, veins reddish, somewhat hairy
underneath ; petioles grooved above and rounded at the edge. This species has been
longest in cultivation.
4198. R. hybridum, L. (Murr. Com. Gott. t. 1.) is also a native of Asia, introduced in
1778. The leaves are large, somewhat cordate, smooth, and of a light green. When
under (rood cultivation, they often measure four or five feet in length, the foot-stalk in-
cluded. This sort was first introduced as a culinary rhubarb by Dickson, V. P. H. S.,
about twenty years ago, and is esteemed more succulent than the R. Rhaponticum.
4199. R. palmatum, L. (Mitt. Ic.1. t. 218.) is a native of Tartary, distinguished from
all the others by its elegant palmate leaves. It has been known in this country since
1758, and is generally considered as the true Turkey or Russian rhubarb.
4200. Use. The two first species are cultivated entirely, and the third in gardens,
principally for the petioles of the root-leaves, which are peeled, cut down, and formed into
tarts and pies in the manner of apples and gooseberries. The R. hybridum affords the
most abundant and succulent supply for this purpose.
4201 Propagation and culture. All the sorts may be raised either from seed or by dividing the roots.
If from seed, which is the best mode, sow in light deep earth in spring; and the plants, if kept eight or
nine inches asunder, will be fit for transplanting in autumn, and for use next spring. When the roots
are divided, care must be had to retain a bud on the crown of each section : they may be planted where
they are finally to remain. When a plantation is to be made, the ground, which should be light and
rather sandy, but well manured, should be trenched three spits, or as deep as the sub-soil will admit,
adding a good manuring of well-rotted hot-bed dung. Then plant in rows three feet wide by two feet,
in the rows for the R. rhaponticum and palmatum, and five feet wide by three feet, in the rows for the
R. hybridum. No other culture is required than keeping the ground free of weeds, occasionally stirring it
during summer with a three-pronged fork, and adding a dressing of well rotted manure every autumn or
spring, stirring the earth as deep as possible. Such a plantation will continue good many years. Some
never allow the flower-stalks to produce flowers ; and others cut them over as soon as they have done
flowering, to prevent the plants from being exhausted by the production of seeds. The former seems the
X x
674 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
preferable method, as the flower-stalks of plants cannot, like the leaves, be considered as preparing a re-
serve of nourishment for the roots.
4202. Blanching. The advantages of blanching the stalks of rhubarb for culinary purposes have been
pointed out by T. Hare, Esq. (Hort. Trans, vol. ii.) " These are twofold, namely, the desirable qualities
of improved appearance and flavor, and a saving in the quantity of sugar necessary to render it agreeable
to the palate, since the leaf-stalks, when blanched, are infinitely less harsh than those grown under the
full influence of light in an open situation." It may either be blanched by earthing up the roots early in
spring, or earthen pots or covers may be used, as in blanching sea-kale.
4203. To force rhubarb. Two methods are described in the Hort. Trans, vol. iii. The
first is by Judd, of Edmonton, who states, that his first attempt was made by covering
plants of the rheum hybridum with common garden-pots, number twelves, having their
holes stopped. These were covered with fermenting dung • and the plants came very
fine and quickly; but were much broken by the sides and tops of the pots. " After it
was all well up, the dung and pots were entirely taken off, and large Wid-glasses were
substituted in their stead, thickly covered with mats every night, and in dull weather.
This process I found greatly to improve their flavor, and it gave me a reguW supply
till that in the open air was ready for use. The following year I had large pots made
on purpose, without holes, but these broke the shoots almost as much as the first, for this
sort of rhubarb grows so very luxuriantly, that it is impatient of such confinement."
He afterwards enclosed and covered his bed with open frame-work, around and on
which, he placed the dung, and with this treatment, he says, " the rhubarb has come up
very regularly, of excellent quality, and wants far less attention than was required by my
former method ; for the frame- work renders hand-glasses, or any other cover, unnecessary.
Care should be taken to lay the dung in such a manner that the top may be partly or
wholly taken off at any time for the purpose of gathering or examination, without dis-
turbing the sides. That this is a superior method of forcing the rheum hybridum, this
year's experience has satisfied me ; but still the forcing by pots will answer very well for
any of the smaller growing species. I have never found any difference between using
dung fresh from the stable, and that which had undergone fermentation, provided it was
not suffered to heat violently after its application to the frame. I do not permit the in-
ternal heat of the hollow space, above the plants, to rise above 60°, between 55Q and 60°
being the proper medium. To those who dislike the trouble of either frames or pots, it
may be useful to know that rhubarb will come in much quicker, by being covered about
six inches thick, with light litter ; care should be taken, in putting it on, and removing it,
that no injury be done to the plants."
4204. Knight has forced the rhubarb, and gives the following rationale of the principles on which his
practice is founded. " The root of every perennial herbaceous plant contains within itself, during win-
ter, all the organisable matter, which it expends in the spring in the formation of its first foliage and flower-
stems ; and it requires neither food nor light to enable it to protrude these, but simply heat and water : and
if the root be removed entire, as soon as its leaves become lifeless, it will be found to vegetate, after being
replanted, as strongly as it would have done, if it had retained its first position. These circumstances led
me, in the last winter, to dig up the roots of many plants of the common rhubarb (which I had raised
from cuttings in the preceding spring), and to place them in a few large and deep pots, each pot being
made to receive as many as it would contain. Some fine sandy loam was then washed in, to fill entirely
the interstices between the roots, the tops of which were so placed as to be level with each other, and
about an inch below the surface of the mould in the pots, which were covered with other pots of the same
size, inverted upon them : being then placed in a vinery (in a situation where nothing else could be made
to thrive on account of want of light), and being copiously supplied with water, the plants vegetated rapidly
and strongly ; and from each pot I obtained three successive crops, the leaf-stalks of the two first being
crowded so closely as nearly to touch each other over the whole surface of the pots. As soon as the third
crop of leaves was broken off", and a change of roots became necessary, those taken from the pots were
planted in the open ground, their tops being covered about an inch deep with mould, and I have reason to
believe, from present appearances, that they will live and recover strength, if given a year of rest to be fit
for forcing again. Should they, however, perish, it is of very little consequence ; as year-old roots, raised
from cuttings or even from seeds, sown in autumn in rich soil, will be found sufficiently strong for
use. The heat of a hot-bed, a kitchen, or other room, and, on the approach of spring (probably at any
period after the middle of January), a cellar, will afford a sufficiently high temperature ; and the advan-
tage in all cases will be that of obtaining from one foot of surface as much produce as in the natural state
of growth of the plants would occupy twenty feet ; and in the shady space of the vinery or peach-house,
not applicable to other purposes, and without incurring any additional expense in fuel, or doing injury to
the soil, a succession of abundant crops may be raised."
4205. Taking the stalks. Remove a little earth, and bending down the leaf you would remove, slip it off
from the crown, without breaking or using the knife. The stalks are fit to use when the leaf is half-
expanded ; but a larger produce is obtained by letting them remain till in full expansion, as is practised
by the market-gardeners. The stalks are tied in bundles of a dozen and upwards, and thus exposed
for sale.
4206. To save seed. Leave one or two of the strongest flower-stalks to perfect their seeds, which they
will do in July and August.
Subsect. 2. Pompion and Gourd. — Cucurbita, L. Moncec. Monad. L. and Cucur-
bitaceee, J. Potiron and Pastisson, Fr. ; Jfiirbiss, Ger. ; and Popone, Ital.
4207. Of the pompion and gourd tribe there are six species in cultivation, natives of
India and the East, all tender or half-hardy annuals, but producing fruit in the open air
in Britain in the warmest period of our summers.
4208. The pumpkin, pumpion, or, more correctly, pompion, is the C. Pepo, L. (Pastis-
son, Fr.); a native of the Levant, and introduced in 1570. This is the melon or millon
of our early horticulturists, the true melon being formerly distinguished by the name of
Book I.
POMPION AND GOURD.
675
musk-melon. Though commonly cultivated in gardens for curiosity, yet, in some of
the country villages of England, the inhabitants grow it on dunghills, at the backs of
their houses, and train the shoots to a great length over grass. When the fruit is ripe,
they cut a hole in one side, and having taken out the seeds, fill the void space with sliced
apples, adding a little sugar and spice, and then having baked the whole, eat it with
butter. (Neill.) Pumpkin-pie, Abercrombie says, is very common. On the continent,
the fruit is a good deal used in soups, and also stewed and fried in oil or butter.
4209. The water-melon is the C. citrullns t ^S^.
(Rumph. Am. 5. t. 146. and our Jig. 473.), Pas-
teque, Fr. ; Wassermelone, Ger. ; and Cocomero,
Ital. It is a native of the south of Europe, and
introduced in 1597. It is rather more tender
than the C. Pepo. This plant forms both the food ^
and the drink of the inhabitants of Egypt for se-
veral months in the year ; and is much used in
the south of Italy. It requires nearly the same
treatment as the common melon, but a larger frame
to admit its more extended shoots to spread them-
selves. The fruit is large, green externally, white -
fleshed, reddish towards the centre, succulent, and
refreshing, but not high-flavored. It is generally
considered as the melon of the Jews, mentioned
in various parts of the Bible.
4210. The squash is the C. Melopepo (Potiron,
Fr. ; Pfebin Kiirbiss,' Ger. ; and Popone, Ital.); a
native of the Levant, and introduced in 1597. It is cultivated like the pompion, and
the fruit is used in pies, or gathered when of the size of a hen's egg, dressed in salt and
water, and sliced and served on a toast. It is also used for pickling. In North America
it is cultivated as an article of food.
4211. The warted gourd (C. verrucosa) is a native of the Levant, and introduced in
1658. Its nature and uses are the same as those of the squash, and like it, it is cultivated
in North America as an article of food.
4212. The bottle gourd, or Jalse calabash (C. lagenaria), (Rumph. Am. 5. t. 144.) is a
native of India, and introduced in 1597. Its culture and uses are the same as those of
the two last sorts.
4213. The orange-Jruited gourd (C aurantia) is a native of India, introduced in 1802,
and rather more tender than the common pompion. It has been hitherto cultivated chiefly
for curiosity, and when trained spirally round a pole, or against a wall, and loaded with
its yellow fruit, it is very ornamental. The fruit may be used like those of the other
sorts.
4214. The vegetable marrow (C. succado) (Jig. 474.) was in-
troduced within these few years from Persia, where it is called
Cicader. " The fruit," Sabine observes (Hort. Trans, vol. ii.
255.), " is of a uniform pale-yellow, or light sulphur-color ; when
full grown, it is about nine inches in length, four inches in dia-
meter, of an elliptic shape, the surface being rendered slightly
uneven by irregular longitudinal ribs, the terminations of which
uniting, form a projecting apex at the end of the fruit, which is
very unusual in this tribe. It is useful for culinary purposes in
every stage of its growth ; when very young, it is good if fried
with butter ; when large or about half grown, it is excellent either
plain, boiled, or stewed with rich sauce ; for either of these purposes
it should be cut in slices. The flesh has a peculiar tenderness and
softness, from which circumstance it has, I suppose, received its
name, much resembling the buttery quality of the Beurre pears,
and this property remains with it till it is full grown, when it is
used for pies. It is, however, in its intermediate state of growth
that I conceive it likely to be most approved. Compared with all
the other kinds which I had growing, its superiority was decided ; there were one or two
which, in cooking, might be considered nearly as good, but these are bad bearers, and
more difficult to cultivate, so that I consider the vegetable marrow without a rival."
The culture of this species is the same as that of the others.
4215. Culture applicable te all the species. They are propagated from seeds which are large, and require
to be covered nearly an inch. " Sow in April in a hot-bed under a frame or hand-glass, to raise plants for
transferring to the open garden at the end of May under a warm aspect ; or for planting out in the middle
of May on a trench of hot dung under a hand-glass or half-shelter : otherwise sow, at the beginning of
May, under a hand-glass without bottom-heat, for transplanting into a favorable situation ; or sow three
weeks later (after the 20th) at once in the open garden, under a south wall, for the plants to remain. The
X x 2
474
676 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part 111.
smaller-fruited kinds do best trained to an upright pole or trellis. From time to time earth up the shanks
of the plants. As the runners extend five feet or more, peg down at a joint, and they will take root
Water copiously whenever warm weather without showers makes the ground arid." (Abercrombie.)
Subsect. 3. Angelica. — Angelica Archangelica, L. (Fl. Dan. t. 206.) Pent. Dig. L.
Umbelliferce, J. Angelique, Fr. ; Engelwiirtz, Ger. ; and Angelica, Ital.
4216. T/ie angelica is a biennial, a native of England, being sometimes found in
moist situations, and is also common in Lapland and Iceland. It was cultivated in
Britain in 1568, and probably more early. It rises from three to five feet high, with
very large pinnate leaves, the extreme leaflet three-lobed. The flowers are greenish,
and produced in September ; the roots long and thick, and they, as well as the whole
plant, are powerfully aromatic. Though the plant is only a biennial, it may be made
to continue several years, by cutting over the flower-stem before it ripens seed ; in which
case it immediately pushes out below.
4217. Use. It was formerly cultivated on account of its leaf-stalks, which were
blanched and eaten as celery : now they are used only when candied ; and the young and
tender stalks are for this purpose collected in May. Sometimes also the seeds and leaves
are used in medical preparations.
4218. Propagation and culture. It delights in moist situations, or the banks of running water; but will
grow freely in any soil and exposure. The plants are raised from seed, and, for a bed four feet and a half
by six feet, sown in drills a foot apart, to be transplanted, half an ounce of seed will be requisite. " Sow
in August, or as soon as the seed is ripe, as the plants will come up earlier and stronger than from a sow-
ing in the spring. When the plants are advanced from four to six inches high, transplant them into rows
two feet apart. They will soon strike root, and advance quickly in strong growth. In the second year,
their strong erect branchy stalks will be several feet high, producing large umbels of seed, ripening in
autumn, which, as well as the leaves of the plant, are used in medicine. But, for candying, the young
shoots of the stems and stalks of the leaves are the useful parts : being cut, while green and tender, in
May and June, they are made by confectioners into the sweetmeat called Angelica. In the second year,
if seed is not wanted, cut the plants down in May, and the stool will send out side-shoots ; by repeating
this practice every year, the same plant may be long continued. Cuttings will also grow." (Abercrombie.)
Subsect. 4. Anise. — Pimpinella Anisum, L. (Blackw. t. 374.) Pent. Trig. L. and
Umbelliferce, J. Anis, Fr. and Ger. ; and Anice, Ital.
4219. The anise is an annual plant, a native of Egypt, and introduced to this coun-
try, according to Turner, in 1551. The lower leaves are divided into three lobes, deeply
cut on the edges ; the stem is a foot and a half high, dividing into several slender
branches; the umbels large and loose, on rather long peduncles ; the flowers are small,
of a yellowish-white, and appear from June to August.
4220. Use. It is cultivated in Malta and Spain for its seeds, which are annually im-
ported as medicinal, and for distillation and expression. In this country, it is occasionally
grown in the garden to be used as a garnish, and for seasoning, like fennel.
4221. Culture. The seeds require to be sown in April, in a warm border, in a dry light soil; or raised
in pots on heat, and removed to a warm site in May, where it will blossom and ripen seeds in August in
favorable seasons. It does not bear transplanting, but the plants, when too thick, are to be thinned out
to three or four inches' distance.
Subsect. 5. Coriander. — Coriandrum sativum, L. (Eng. Pot. 67.) Pent. Dig. L.
and Umbelliferce, J. Coriandre, Fr. ; Coriander, Ger. ; and Coriandro, Ital.
4222. The coriander is a hardy annual plant, originally introduced from the East, but
now naturalised in Essex, and other places, where it has long been cultivated for drug-
gists and confectioners. The plant rises about a foot high, with doubly pinnated leaves,
and produces an umbel of white flowers in June. The whole plant is highly aromatic.
4223. Use. In private gardens, it is cultivated chiefly for the tender leaves, which are
used in soups and salads. On a large scale, it is cultivated for the seed, which is used
by confectioners, druggists, and distillers, in large quantities.
4224. Culture. The plant delights in a sandy loam. It is raised from seeds, which may be sown in Fe-
bruary, when the weather is mild and dry ; and the quantity requisite for a bed four feet wide by six in
length, to be sown in rows, is half an ounce ; and when sown in drills, they may be nine inches apart,
and the seed buried half an inch. " Where a constant succession is required, small successive monthly
sowings will be necessary in spring and summer, as the plants in those seasons soon run to seed. There
should be also small sowings in August and September, to stand the winter under the defence of a frame.
The plants are to remain where sown." (Abercrombie.)
Subsect. 6. Caraway. — ■ Carum carui, L. (Eng. Pot. 1503.) Pent. Trig. L. and
Umbelliferce, J. Carvi, Fr. ; Kiimmel, Ger. ; and Carvi, Ital.
4225. The caraivay is a biennial plant, a native of England, being occasionally found
in meadows and pastures. It rises a foot and a half high, with spreading branches ; the
leaves are decompound ; the leaflets in sixes ; it produces umbels of white flowers in
June.
4226. Use. The plant is cultivated chiefly for the seed, which is used in confectionary
and in medicine. In spring, the under leaves are sometimes put in soups ; and in former
times the fusiform roots were eaten as parsneps, to which Parkinson gives them the pre-
ference. In Essex, large quantities of the seed are annually raised for distillation with
spirituous liquors.
Book I. HYSSOP, CHAMOMILE, ELECAMPANE. 677
4227. Culture. It is raised from seed, of which a quarter of an ounce is sufficient for a seed-bed four
feet by five. Sow annually, in autumn, soon after the seed is ripe : the seedlings will rise quickly, and
should be thinned to a foot's distance each way. In default of sowing in autumn, sow in March or April,
either in drills or broad-cast ; but the plants so raised, will not in general flower till the following year.
When the seed is ripe, the plant is generally pulled up in gathering, especially in field-culture
Subsect. 7. Rue. — Ruta graveolens, L. {Lam. III. 345. t. 1.) Decan. Monog. L.
and Rutaceee, J. Rue, Fr. ; Raute, Ger. ; and Ruta, Ital.
4228. The rue is a perennial evergreen under-shrub, a native of the south of Europe,
but cultivated in this country since 1562, and probably long before. It is well known
by its fetid smell.
4229. Use. The leaves are sometimes gathered as a medicinal simple, and are also
given to poultry having the croup. In former days, it was called the herb of grace, from
the circumstance of small bunches of it having been used by the priests for the sprinkling
of holy water among the people.
4230. Culture. It is easily propagated by seeds, cuttings, or slips of the young shoots in March, April,
or May, planted in a shady border. The plant delights in a poor, dry, calcareous soil ; in which it will con-
tinue for many years, and if cut down occasionally, always in full leaf and well furnished with young
shoots. Letting it run to seed, weakens the plant and shortens its longevity.
Subsect. 8. Hyssop. — Hyssopus officinalis, L. (Jac. Aug. 3. t. 254.) Didynam. Gym-
nos. L. ; and Labiates, J. Hysope, Fr. ; Jsop, Ger. ; and Jsopo, Ital.
4231. The hyssop is a hardy evergreen under-shrub, a native of the south of Europe,
and introduced in 1548. The stems rise a foot and a half high ; the leaves are lanceolate,
short, and somewhat obtuse ; it produces blue flowers from June to September. The
whole plant has a strong aromatic odor.
4232. Use. The leaves and young shoots are occasionally used as a pot-herb, and the
leafy tops and flower-spikes are cut, dried, and preserved for medicinal purposes.
4233. The varieties are —
The white, blue, and red flowered ; but the blue is the original color, and most commonly cultivated.
4234. Propagation and culture. " It is raised by seed, by slips, and cuttings of the branches, and by
slips of the root and top together. It likes a dry or sandy soil. When it is propagated by seed, sow in
March or April a small portion, either broad-cast and raked in, or in small drills, six inches apart. The
plants may mostly be transplanted into final beds in June or July, nine inches apart, or some may be
planted as an edging ; or you may also sow some seed for an edging to remain where sown. Give the
edgings occasionally trimming, in their established growth ; cutting away also any decayed flower-spikes
in autumn. You may take rooted offsets from established plants in March, April, August, or September;
cuttings from the stalks in April and May ; also rootless slips of the young shoots in June or July. After
May, shade for a time, or plant in a shady border. If for culinary purposes, the distance from plant to
plant may be nine inches ; in the physic-garden, eighteen inches or two feet. Water at planting, and twice
or thrice a-week in dry weather till rooted." (Abercro?nbie.)
Subsect. 9. Chamomile. — Anthemis nobilis, L. (Eng. Rot. 980.) Syng. Polyg. Super.
L. and Corymbiferce, J. Camomille, Fr. ; Kamille, Ger. ; and Camomilla, Ital.
4235. The chamomile is a hardy perennial, which grows wild in various parts of Eng-
land in gravelly pastures, and by road-sides. The leaves are cut into threads, and the
stem prostrate. The flowers are white in the rays and yellow in the disk, and appear in
August and September. The whole plant is bitter and highly aromatic.
4236. Use. It is cultivated on account of the flower, which is a safe bitter and
stomachic, and much used under the name of chamomile-tea. The double-flowering
variety, though more beautiful than the single-flowered, is less useful ; the aromatic
principle not residing in the floscules of the ray, the multiplication of which constitutes
the double flower. The double sort, however, is most cultivated by growers for the
market, on account of its greater bulk and weight.
4237. Varieties. These are the common single, and the double flowered.
4238. Soil and culture. This herb delights in a poor sandy soil. " Both kinds are propagated by part-
ing the roots, or by slips of the rooted offsets, or of the runners. Detach them with roots, in little tufty
sets, in March, April, or May ; and plant them from eight to twelve inches asunder, giving water ; repeat
waterings occasionally till they root ; they will soon overspread the bed, and produce plenty of flowers the
same year in July and August, and continue several years productive.
4239. Taking the crop. " The flowers should be gathered in their prime, in June or July, just when
full-blown. Let them be spread to dry in a shady place ; then put them in paper bags, and house them for
use." (Abercrombie.)
Subsect. 10. Elecampane. — Inula Helenium, L. (Eng. Rot. t. 1546.) Syng. Polyg.
Super. L. and Corymbiferce, J. Inule, Fr. and Ger. ; and Inulo, Ital.
4240. The elecampane is a perennial plant, found in moist pastures in the south of
England, and one of the largest herbaceous plants we have, rising from three to five feet
high ; the lower leaves embrace the stem, are ovate and wrinkled, a foot long and four or
five inches broad in the middle. It produces large heads of yellow flowers in July and
August. The root is thick, fusiform, and aromatic. It was formerly in great repute,
and the plant was cultivated in village gardens throughout Europe. In private gardens
it still keeps its place in the physic-herb corner.
4241. Use. In France and Germany, the root is candied, and used as a stomachic, for
Xx 3
678 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
strengthening the tone of the viscera in general. As a medicinal plant, it possesses the
general virtues of alexipharmics.
4242. Culture. It is propagated by offsets in autumn, after the plant has done flowering : these, if planted
in a deep soil, rather moist, or in a shady situation, will be fit for use the end of the second year. Roots of
this age are said to be preferable to those of older plants.
Subsect. 11. Licorice. — Glycyrrhiza glabra, L. {Lam. III. t. 625. f. 2.) Diadel.
Decan. L. and Leguminosee, J. Reglisse, Fr. ; Susholz, Ger. ; and Reglizia, Ital.
4243. The licorice is a hardy perennial plant, a native of the south of Europe, and
introduced into this country in 1562. The roots run very deep into the ground, and
creep to a considerable distance, sending up strong herbaceous stalks, four or five feet
hio-h ; the leaves are composite, and consist of four or five ovate leaflets terminated by an
odd one ; these and the stalks are clammy, and of a dark green. The flowers come out
in axillary spikes, of a blue color, in July and August. Stowe informs us, that the plant-
ing and growing of Moorish began about the first year of Queen Elizabeth.
4244. Use. It is cultivated on a large scale for the brewers and druggists, and in
o-ardens for the saccharine juice obtained from the root by decoction, and used as an
emollient in colds, fevers, &c.
4245. Propagation and culture. " Licorice is propagated by cuttings of the roots. On account of the
depth to which the root strikes, when the plant has room to flourish, the soil should have a good staple of
mould thirty inches or three feet in depth. Taking the small horizontal roots of established plants, cut
them into sections six inches long ; having traced out rows a yard asunder, plant the sets along each row,
at intervals of eighteen inches; covering them entirely with mould. For the first year, you may cultivate
a light crop of lettuce or onions between the rows. During the summer, keep the plot clear from weeds ;
and when the subordinate crop comes off, hoe and dress the ground. At the close of autumn, or as a
winter dressing, fork or dig between the rows, to stir and refresh the surface ; and cut down the decayed
sterns '*
4246. Taking the crop. " After three or four years' growth, the main roots will be of a mature size,
and fit for consumption or the market. In the course of the following winter, begin to dig them up, open-
ing a trench close to the first row, as deep as the roots, then, with the spade, turn out all the roots clean to
the bottom; so proceed from trench to trench, and prepare the ground for some other crop." (Aber-
crombie.)
Subsect. 12. Wormwood. — Artemisia Absinthium, L. {Eng. Bot. 1230.) Syng.
Polyg. Super. L. and Corymbiferce, J. Absinthe, Fr. ; Wermuth, Ger. ; and
Assenzio, Ital.
4247. The wormwood is a perennial plant, well known, and frequent in calcareous
commons and by road-sides in England. It rises from two to four feet high, covered
with minutely divided hoary leaves. The flowers appear in small pendulous hemi-
spherical bunches in August. The whole plant is intensely bitter and aromatic.
4248. Use. The seeds are used as stomachics, and the herb was formerly much used
as a vermifuge. The growth of this plant, Neill observes, " should be encouraged in
poultry-walks, it being found beneficial to them. The distillers in Scotland sometimes
employ it in place of hops, and for their use, small fields of it are occasionally sown."
4249. Propagation and culture. Bv seed, cuttings, or dividing the root : the latter is the easiest mode,
and the future treatment mav be the'same as for rue or hyssop. The sea-wormwood (A. maritima), the
Roman {A. pontica), and the Tartarian [A. santonica) are propagated chiefly by cuttings, and may be treated
like the common species.
Subsect. 13. Blessed Thistle. — Centaurea benedicta, L. (Zorn. Ic. 122.) Syngen.
Polyg. Frustan. L. and Cynarocephalce, J. Centauree sudorifique, Fr. ; Cardo
benedicten, Ger. ; and Cardo santo, Ital.
4250. The blessed thistle is an annual plant, a native of Spain and the Levant, and
introduced in 1548. The leaves are long, elliptical, rough, runcinate, and variously
serrated. The calyx is woolly, and the flowers yellow, appearing from June to November.
4251. Use. An infusion of the leaves is sometimes used as a stomachic, and is said
to procure the return of appetite, where the stomach was injured by irregularities. A
strong infusion promotes perspiration, and increases all the secretions. It was formerly
used in cases of cancer ; but at present is considered of little medical value.
4252. Culture. The seed is to be sown in autumn, in any light earth, and in a warm situation. Thin-
ned and kept free from weeds, the plants will flower the following June and July, and if not gathered, will
produce seeds in August and September. Gather the herb when in flower, and take great care in drying
it and keeping it in a dry airy place, to prevent its rotting or getting mouldy, which it is very apt to do.
Subsect. 14. Balm. — Melissa officinalis, L. Didyn. Gymnos. L. and Labiatte, J.
Mtlisse, Fr. ; Melisse, Ger. ; and Melissa, Ital.
4253. The balm is a hardy perennial, with square stems, which rise two feet high or
more, furnished with large ovate leaves, growing by pairs at each joint. It is a native
of Switzerland, and the south of France ; produces flowers of a purplish color from
June to October, and was introduced to this country in 1573. There is a variety with
hairy leaves.
4254. Use. It is now little used, unless for making a simple balm-tea, which affords
a grateful diluent drink in fevers, and for forming a light and agreeable beverage under
the name of balm- wine.
Book I. PLANTS USED AS PRESERVES, &c. 679
4255. Propagation. It is readily propagated by parting the roots, preserving two or
three buds to each piece, or by slips, either in autumn or spring.
4256. Culture. Plant the slips or sets in any bed of common earth, by dibble or trowel, and from eight
inches to a foot apart, giving water, if dry weather. Those of the spring planting will soon grow freely
for use the same year; and afterwards will increase by the root into large bunches of several years' continu-
ance, furnishing annual supplies from March to September.
4257. Dried balm. Gather when coming into flower, and when the leaves are per-
fectly free from dew or moisture ; then dry rapidly in the shade, or better in an oven ;
and when cool press the herbage into packages, and wrap them up in white paper till
wanted for use. Keep the packages dry and in a close drawer.
Sect. XI. Plants used as Preserves and Pickles.
4258. Of plants used as culinary preserves and pickles, some are tender annuals, requir-
ing to be reared to a certain stage of growth in hot-beds or stoves, as the capsicum and
love-apple ; others are marine plants, as the samphires, more generally gathered wild than
cultivated in the garden. The remainder are chiefly common garden-plants, used also
for other purposes, as the red cabbage, Indian cress, &c. The whole occupy but a few
square yards of the largest kitchen-garden ; and, excepting the red cabbage, few of them
are seen in that of the cottager for the purposes of this section.
Subsect. 1. Love-Apple. — Solanum Lycopersicum, L. ; Lycopersicum escidentum,
Dunal. (Humph. Amb. 5. t. 154. f. 1.) Pentan. Monog. L. and Solanacece, J.
Tomato, Fr. ; Liebes Apfel, Ger. ; and Porno d'Oro, Ital.
4259. The love-apple is a tender annual, a native of South America, and introduced
in 1596. The stem, if supported will rise to the height of six or eight feet; the leaves
are pinnate, and have a rank disagreeable smell when handled ; the flowers are yellow,
appearing in bunches in July and August, and followed by the fruit in August and
September. The fruit is smooth, compressed at both ends, and furrowed over the sides ;
it varies in size, but seldom exceeds that of an ordinary golden pippin.
4260. Use. When ripe, the fruit, which has an acid flavor, is put into soups and
sauces, and the juice is preserved for winter use like ketchup ; it is also used in confec-
tionary, as a preserve ; and when green, as a pickle. Though a good deal used in
England in soups, and as a principal ingredient in a well known sauce for mutton ; yet,
our estimation and uses of the fruit are nothing to those of the French and Italians, and
especially the latter. Near Rome and Naples, whole fields are covered with it, and
scarcely a dinner is served up in which it does not in some way or other form a part.
4261. Varieties. Those in general cultivation are —
The large, small, cherry, and pear-shaped red | The large, and small, or cherry-shaped yellow.
4262. Estimate of sorts. " The first sort is in most estimation for domestic purposes,
and should be cultivated accordingly ; while a few plants of the other kinds may be
raised for variety of the fruit."
4263. Propagation and culture. The plants must be raised and forwarded in a hot-bed, under glass,
from about the vernal equinox till May. Sow in any general hot-bed about the end of March, or begin-
ning or middle of April ; and as to quantity of seed, one ounce will produce sixty plants. As soon as
the plants are about two inches high, if they are immediately pricked into another hot-bed, or into that
where raised, singly into small pots placed in the hot-bed, they will grow more stocky, and can be more
successfully transplanted. About the middle or end of May, transplant them, each with a ball of earth,
into a south border, to have the full sun, that the fruit may ripen in perfection. Some may be planted
close to a south wall, if vacant spaces can be had ; but as they draw the ground exceedingly, do not set
them near choice fruit-trees. Give water. During the first week or fortnight, if the nights be cold, de-
fend them with hand-glasses, or by whelming a large garden-pot over each plant ; or transplant upon
holes of hot dung, earthed to six inches depth, and cover with hand-glasses. When they begin to run,
train them to stakes, or, when planted near a wall or pales, nail up the branches.
4264. Wilmot plants at the foot of a bed sloping steeply to the south, and trains the runners on it by
pegging them down. They frequently strike root at the joints ; he " tops them as soon as their branches
meet, clears off all the lateral shoots, and thins the leaves by which the fruit is exposed and well ripened.
In the fine season of 1818, each plant so. treated produced, on an average, twenty pounds' weight of fruit."
(Hort. Trans, iii. 346.) The fruit begins to ripen in August ; gathered in October, and hung up in
bunches in any dry apartment, it will continue good for use in November.
4265. To save seed. " Gather some of the best ripe fruit in autumn ; clear out the seed ; wash and
cleanse it from the pulp, and dry it thoroughly ; then put it up in papers or bags, for use next spring."
(Abercrombie.)
Subsect. 2. Egg-Plant. — Solanum Melongena, L. (Pluk. Phyt. 226. f. 2.) Pent.
Monog. L. and Solanacece, B. P. Melongene, Fr. ; Tollapfel, Ger. ; and Melan-
zana, Ital.
4266, The egg-plant is a tender or green-house annual, a native of Africa, introduced
in 1597. The plant rises about two feet high, with reclining branches ; the flowers ap-
pear in June and July, of a pale-violet color, followed by a very large berry, generally
of an oval shape, and white color, much resembling a hen's egg ; and in large speci-
mens, that of a swan.
4267. Use. In French and Italian cookery, it is used in stews and soups, and for the
general purposes of the love-apple.
Xx 4
680
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
4268. The varieties are —
The oval-shaped white | The globuiar-shaped white | The purple, or violet -colored, of both forms.
4269. Culture. The plants are raised from seed, which may be sown in March or April, in a hot-bed,
in light rich earth. After they have shown two or three proper leaves, they may either be pricked out
in another hot-bed, or planted in small pots, to be shifted in rotation, till in size No. 16. in which
they will produce their fruit. If the plants, instead of being shifted into fruiting-pots, are planted
against a wall, or in a warm border in June, they will fruit in the open air, if the season is not unusually
wet and cold.
4270. To save seed. Gather one or two ripe berries of each sort, large and well formed, and preserve
them entire, till the seed is wanted for sowing.
Suesect. 3. Capsicum. — Capsicum, L. Pent. Monog. L. and Solanacece, B. P.
Piment, Fr. ; Spanischer Pfeffer, Ger. ; and Peberone, Ital.
4271. Of the capsicum there are three species in cultivation.
4272. The annual capsicum, or Guinea-pepper, is the C. annuum, L. {Knorr. Thess. 2.
t. C. 6.), an annual plant, winch, though a native of India, endures the open air in
this country during summer. It was introduced in 1548, and was cultivated in Gerrard's
time. It rises about two feet high, producing long, linear, dark-green leaves, on a
branchy stem. The flowers are white, and appear in June and July, succeeded by ber-
ries, varying in shape and color, and either long-podded, red and yellow ; short-podded,
red and yellow ; round short-podded, red and yellow ; or heart-shaped, red and yellow.
4273. The chemj-pepper {C. cerasiforme), {Hort. Xew.), is an annual plant, a native of
the West Indies, which also stands our summer. It was introduced in 1759, has the
same general character of foliage as the Guinea-pepper, and flowers from June to Sep-
tember. It is characterised by its small cherry-shaped fruit, which is sometimes heart-
shaped, bell-shaped, or angular, and in color red or yellow.
4274. The bell-pepper {C. grossum), {Bed. Eyst. Aut. 1. t. 11. f. 1.), is a stove biennial,
a native of India, and introduced in 1759. It is of humble growth, flowers in July,
and produces large red or yellow berries. It will endure the open air in summer, but
requires a place in the stove during the winter and spring months.
4275. Use. The green pods, or inflated berries, of all these varieties, are used for
pickling. They are sometimes also used in their ripe state, when they fonn a spice of
the hottest quality, known by the name of Cayenne pepper. The berries of the last
named species are deemed better for pickling than the others, the skin being thick,
pulpy, and tender.
4276. Culture. All the three species, with their varieties, are raised from seed ; a small parcel, or the
produce of two pods, will be a sufficient quantity of each or of any one variety for ordinary supply. Sow
all the annual sorts at the end of March, " or beginning or middle of April, in a moderate hot-bed, under
a frame. Cover the seed a quarter of an inch deep. When the plants are two or three inches in growth,
prick some into a new slender hot-bed, to forward them for final transplanting ; or in default of this,
prick them into a bed of natural earth, at the beginning of May, if fine, settled, warm weather ; defend
them with a frame, or awning of mats, at night and in cold vicissitudes. Give water lightly at planting,
and occasionally afterwards in moderate supplies, to assist their fresh rooting and subsequent growth. At
the beginning of June, when the weather is settled warm, transplant them into the open garden, in beds
of light rich earth, from twelve to eighteen inches apart, giving water. They will thus advance freely,
fl er in July or August, and produce plenty of pods from August till the end of September. Under the
(. iciency of a hot-bed or stove, or for succession, annual capsicums may be raised in a bed of light rich
earth, under a hand-glass ; but the sowing must be deferred to fine warm weather in May. Give the
plants air in the day, but cover them close at night, till danger from frost is over. At the close of June,
transplant as above. The perennial species must be wintered in the stove." (Abercrombie.)
4277. To save seed. Leave one or two of the largest and handsomest shaped pods to ripen in autumn ;
after gathering them, the best way is to hang them up in a dry place, and not take out the seed till
wanted for sowing in spring.
Subsect. 4. Samphire, three Species of different Orders and Genera.
4278. Common samphire is the Crithmum Man-
timum, L. (Eng. JBot. 819.); Pent. Dig. L.. and
UmbellifercB, J. Perce-pierre, or Saint Pierre,
Fr. ; MeerJ'enchel, Ger. ; and Finochio marino,
Ital. {Jig. 475. a) It is a perennial plant, a
native of Britain, and found on rocky cliffs by the
sea, and in dry stone walls. The root-leaves are
triternate, those of the stem lanceolate and fleshy ;
the flowers appear on a stem of about eighteen
inches high in August, and are of a yellow color.
The name samphire is a corruption of sampier, and
this again a corruption of the French name Saint
Pierre.
4279. Use. Samphire forms an excellent
pickle, and a frequent addition to salads. In
taste, it is crisp and aromatic, and constitutes a
light and wholesome condiment. It is generally
gathered in places where it is found native ; and
the allusion to the practice by Shakspeare, in his
description of Dover cliff, is well known. The plant is also used medicinally.
B9H9
Book I. EDIBLE WILD PLANTS. 681
•4280. Culture. It is propagated by parting the roots, or by sowing the seed in April ; but is rather
difficult of cultivation. Marshall says, " it likes a cool situation ; but yet prefers a sandy or a gravelly
soil, and plenty of water. Some," he adds, " have found it to do best in pots, set for the morning sun only."
Braddick placed it in a sheltered dry situation, screened from the morning sun ; protected it by litter
during winter, and in spring sprinkled the soil with a little powdered barilla : " This I do," he says, " to
furnish the plant with a supply of soda, since in its native place of growth, it possesses the power of
decomposing sea-water, from which it takes the fossil alkali, and rejects the muriatic acid. With this
treatment it has continued to flourish at Thames Ditton for some years, producing an ample supply of
shoots, which are cut twice in the season." {Hort. Trans, ii. 232.)
4281. Golden samphire is the Inula Crithmfolia, L. {Eng. JBot. 68.) Syng. Polyg.
Super. L. and Corymbifercv, J. L'Inule perce-pierre, Fr. ; Goldene Meerfenchel, Ger.
{Jig. 475. b) It is a perennial plant, found on sea- shores, generally within salt-water
mark. It is occasionally gathered and brought to Covent Garden market, under the
name of golden samphire ; but has not, we believe, been introduced in the garden. It
is used for the same purposes as the common samphire.
4282. Marsh-samphire is the Salicornia Herbacea, L. {Eng. Bot. t. 415.) Dian.
Monog. L. and Chenopodece, B. P. Salicorne, Fr. ; Glasschmalz, Ger. ; and Erbacali,
Ital. {Jig. 475. c.) It is an annual plant, a native of Britain, and not uncommon in
salt-marshes, and other aits and islets of low land overflown by the sea. It is occasionally
gathered and brought to market ; and is used for pickling, and in salads, like the two
plants above described. This and the former species might be cultivated in the garden,
by imitating a small portion of salt-marsh.
Sect. XII. Edible Wild Plants, neglected, or not in Cultivation.
4283. The subject of edible wild pla?its is introduced as highly deserving the study
of the horticulturist; partly to increase his resources, partly to induce such as have
leisure to try how far these plants may be susceptible of improvement by cultivation ; but
principally to enable the gentleman's gardener to point out resources to the poor in his
neighborhood, in seasons of scarcity. All vegetables not absolutely poisonous may be
rendered edible by proper preparation. Many sorts, for example, are disagreeable from
their acrid and bitter taste ; but this might be, in a great degree, removed by maceration,
either in cold or hot water. The vegetable matter once reduced to a state of insipidity,
it is easy to give it taste and flavor, by adding salt of some sort, which is an article never
scarce through the influence of bad seasons ; or by vinegar, or oils, or fats ; by the
addition of other vegetables of agreeable tastes and flavors, as of thyme, mint, celery-
seed, onions, &c. ; or by the addition of torrefied vegetable matter ; as of the powder of
roasted carrot, parsnep, potatoe, or dandelion-roots, or of beans, peas, or wheat ; or, if
it can be had, of toasted bread, which will render almost any thing palatable, and pro-
long the pleasure of eating many of the best things.
4284. Gooseberry, birch, beech, willoiv, and other leaves, we are told, were formerly eaten
as salads; and there can be little doubt that aboriginal man would eat any green thing
that came in his way, till he began to improve. It may be worth while for man in his
present multiplied and highly civilised state, to reflect on these things, with a view
to resources in times of famine, or in travelling or voyaging, or touching at or settling
in new or uncultivated countries. [Parry'' s Voyage to the Polar Regions, 4to. 1821.)
Edible wild plants may be classed as greens and pot-herbs, roots, legumes, salads,
teas, and plants applied to miscellaneous domestic purposes.
Subsect. 1. Greens and Pot-herbs from Wild Plants.
4285. Black bryony. Tamus communis, L. (Eng. Bot. 91.) Dioec. Hex. L. and
Smilacece, J. A twining perennial, growing in hedges, and commonly considered a
poisonous plant ; but the young leaves and tops are boiled and eaten by the country
people in spring.
4286. Burdock. Arctium lappa, L. {Eng. Bot. 1228.) Syng. Pol. 2Eq. L. and Cynarocephalce, J. A
well known perennial, the tender stalks of which many people eat boiled as asparagus. {Bryant.)
4287. Charlock. Sinapis arvensis, L. {Eng Bot. 1748.) Tetrad. Siliq. L. and Cruciferce, J. A common
annual weed in corn-fields. The young plant is eaten in the spring as turnip-tops, and is considered not
inferior to that vegetable. The seeds of this have sometimes been sold for feeding birds instead of rape;
but being hot in its nature, it often renders them diseased.
4288. Chickweed. Alsine media, L. Stellaria media, E. B. {Eng. Bot. 537.) Decan, Trig. L. and
Caryophyllece, J. This common garden-weed is said to be a remarkably good pot-herb, boiled in the
spring.
4289. Shepherd's purse. Thlaspi bursa pastoris,!^. {Eng. Bot. 1485.) Tetrad. Si/ic. L. and Cruciferce, J.
An esculent plant in Philadelphia, brought to market in large quantities in the early season. The taste,
when boiled, approaches that of the cabbage, but is softer and milder. This plant varies wonderfully in
size and succulence of leaves, according to the nature and state of the soil where it grows. Those from
the gardens and highly cultivated spots near Philadelphia, come to a size and succulence of leaf scarcely
to be believed without seeing them. They may be easily blanched by the common method, and certainly,
in that state, would be a valuable addition to the list of delicate culinary vegetables. {Correa de Serra, in
Hort. Trans, vol. iv. 445.)
4290. Fat hen. Chenopodium urbicum, {Eng. Bot. 111.) and C. album, {Eng. Bot. 1723.) Pent. Dig. L.
and Chenopodece, J. Both these plants are annuals, common among rubbish of buildings, dunghills, &c
Boiled, and eaten as spinage, they are by no means inferior to that vegetable. Several other native, but
less common species of this genus, may be applied to the same use.
682 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
4291. Ox-tongue. Picris hieracioides, L. {Eng. Bot. 972.) Syn. Pol. JEq. L. and Cichoracece, J. This
annual, common in clayey pastures and wastes, when boiled, affords a good green. In France and Italy,
a species named P. vulgare, and probably the same as the above, is grown and used as a salad, and is said
to resemble succory. {Bon Jard. 1820. p. 170.)
4292. Sauce alone, or Jack by the hedge, is the Erysimum Alliaria, L. {Eng. Bot. 796.) Tetrad. Siliq. L.
and Cruciferce, J. (fig. 475. d) A biennial plant ; found by hedges where the soil is dry and rich. The
stem rises two or three feet high, with heart-shaped leaves of a yellowish-green color ; the flowers are
white, and appear in May. The whole plant, as the trivial name imports, scents strongly of garlic. It is
occasionally used r.s a salad ; boiled as a pot-herb, or introduced in sauces. Neill observes, that, " when
gathered as it approaches the flowering state, boiled separately, and then eaten to boiled mutton, it cer-
tainly forms a most desirable pot-herb ; and to any kind of salted meat, an excellent green."
4293. Sea-orache. Atriplex littoralis, L. {Eng. Bot. 708.) Poly. Moncec. L. and Chenopodece, B. P. This
is an annual, and is eaten in the same manner as the chenopodium, as greens or spinage.
4294. Sea-beet. Beta maritima, L. {Eng. Bot. 285.) Pent. Dig. L. and Chenopodece, J. This biennial
is common on various sea-shores, and is also used like the orache, fat hen, and white beet.
4295. Spotted hawkweed. Hypocheris maculata, L. {Eng. Bot. 225.) Syng. Pol. JEq. L. and Cichora-
cece, J. The leaves of this perennial are eaten as salad, and also boiled as greens.
4296. Stinging nettle. Urtica dioica, L. {Eng. Bot. 1750.) Moncec. Pent. L. and TJrticece, J. This
Eerennial, found in dry rubbishy soils and in hedges ; Is but seldom seen in places where the hand of man
as not been at work, and may' therefore be considered a sort of domestic plant. Early in February, the
tops will be found to have pushed three or four inches, furnished with tender leaves ; in Scotland, Poland,
and Germany, these are gathered as a pot-herb for soups, or for dishes like spinage; and their peculiar
flavor is by many much esteemed. No plant is better adapted for forcing; and in severe winters, when
most of the brassica tribe have been destroyed, it forms an excellent resource. Collect the creeping roots,
and plant them either on a hot-bed, or in pots to be placed in a forcing-house, and they will soon send up
abundance of tender tops : these, if desired, may be blanched, by covering with other pots. We have
known the nettle forced by being planted close to the flue in a vinery, so as to produce excellent nettle-
kale and nettle-spinage in the last week of January.
4297. Wild rocket is the Sisymbrium officinale, {Eng. Bot. 725.) Tetrad. Siliq. L. and Cruciferce, J.
A common annual, of a yellowish hue, from two to three feet high, with the leaves runcinated, and the
seed-pods inclined upwards, close to the stalk. It is sometimes used as a pot-herb ; and the tender young
leaves, in salading, greatly resembling mustard in its taste and flavor.
4298. Willow-herb. Epilobium angustifolium, L. {Eng. Bot. 1947.) Oct. Monog. L. and Onagrarece, J.
The young and tender shoots are eaten as asparagus, and the leaves are a wholesome green.
4299. Sow-thistle is the Sonchus o/eraceus, {Eng. Bot. 843.) Syng. Polyg. JEqu. L. and Cichoracete, J.
A hardy annual, and a well known weed in rich garden and field soils. There is a prickly and a smooth
variety, both abounding in a milky bitter juice. The tender tops of the smooth variety are in some
countries boiled and used as greens, or mashed as spinage : hence the origin of the Linnasan trivial name
oleraceus.
Subsect. 2. Roots of Wild Plants edible.
4300. -Arrowhead. Sagittaria sagittifolia, L. (Eng. Bot. 84.) Moncec. Polyan. L. and
Alismacece, B. P. The roots of this aquatic perennial are said to be very similar to those
of the West India arrow-root (Maranta Arundinacea, L.). They are sometimes dried
and pounded, but are reported to have an acrid unpleasant taste ; though this might,
it is believed, be got rid of by washing the powder in water.
4301. Common arum. Arum maculatum, L {Eng. Bot. 1293.) Moncec. Polyan. L. and Aroidece, B. P.
This plant is very common in hedges and woods in loamy soils ; in the isle of Portland it is very abun-
dant, and there the roots are dug up by the country people, macerated, steeped, and the powder so
obtained is dried, and sent to London, and sold under the name of Portland sago.
4302. Bitter vetch, or mouse peas. Orobus tuberosus, L. {Eng. Bot. 1153.) Diad. Decan. L. and
Leguminosce, J. The tubers are said to be chewed by the Scottish Highlander as a substitute for tobacco.
Boiled till a fork will pass through them, and dried slightly and roasted, they are served up in Holland
and Flanders in the manner of chestnuts, which they resemble in flavor. Dickson {Hort. Trans, ii. 359.)
recommends cultivating them in a bed or border of light rich soil, paved at the depth of twenty inches, to
prevent their roots from running down. Plant the tubers six inches apart, and three inches below the
surface ; the second year some will be fit to gather, and by taking only the largest, the bed will continue
productive for several years, adding some fresh compost every year.
4303. Earth-nut. Bunium bulbocastanum, L. {Eng. Bot. 988.) Pent. Dig. L. and Vmbelliferce, J.
The roots of this bulbous perennial are eaten raw, and are by some considered a delicacy here, but thought
much more of in Sweden, where they are an article of trade: they are eaten also stewed as chestnuts.
4304. Meadow-sweet. Spircea Filipendula, L. {Eng. Bot. 284.) Icos. Di-Pentag. L. and Rosacea, J.
The tubers of this perennial, common in most meadows where the soil is inclined to peat, or boggy, are
ground and made into bread in Sweden.
4305. Pilewort. Ranunculus ficaria, L. {Eng. Bot. 584.) Polyan. Polyg. L. and Ranunculacece, J.
The young leaves, in spring, are boiled by the common people in Sweden, and eaten as greens. The roots
are sometimes washed bare by the rains, so that the tubercles appear above ground ; and in this state
have induced the ignorant, in superstitious times, to fancy that it has rained wheat, which these tubercles
somewhat resemble. {Derham's Physko-Theology.)
4306. Sago. Orchis Morio, L. {Eng. Bot. 2059.) Gynan. Monan. L. and Orchidece, B. P. The
powder of the roots is used in forming the beverage called saloop. Though imported chiefly from Turkey,
yet the roots of this country, either gathered wild, or cultivated for use, might answer the same purpose.
This plant is particularly abundant in the vale of Gloucester.
4307. Silver-weed. Potentilla Anserina, L. {Eng. Bot. 861.) Icos. Polyan. L. and Rosacece, J. The
roots of this plant taste like parsneps, and are frequently eaten in Scotland either roasted or boiled. In
the islands of Jura and Col they are much esteemed, as answering in some measure, the purposes of
bread, they having been known to support the inhabitants for months together during a scarcity of
other provisions. They often tear up their pasture-grounds with a view to get the roots for their use ;
and as they abound most in barren and impoverished soils, and in seasons when other crops fail, they
afford a most seasonable relief to the inhabitants in times of the greatest scarcity. {Lightfoot's Fl. Scot.)
4308. Solo?no?i's seal. Poll/ gonatunT vulgare, D. (Eng. Bot. 280.) The roots are
dried, ground, and made into bread j and the young snoots are boiled and eaten as
greens.
Book I.
WILD PLANTS FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES.
ess
Subsect. 3. Leguminous Wild Plants Edible.
4309. Sea-peas. Pisum maritimum, L. (Eng. Bot.
1046.) Diad. Decan. L. and Leguminosce, J.
(Jig. 476-) These peas have a bitterish disagree-
able taste, and are therefore rejected when more
pleasant food is to be got. In the year 1555, how-
ever, when there was a great famine in England, the
seeds of this plant were used as food, by which, ac-
cording to Turner, thousands of families were pre-
served. The bitter of these seeds might in all
probability be removed by steeping and kiln-dry-
ing, as in preparing for the mill peas which are, to be
split.
4310. Wild vetches. Lathyrus, Vicia, and Ervum, L. Diad.
Decan. L. and Leguminosce, J. The seeds of all the British
species of these genera may be used as peas. They are found
in hedges, woods, and corn-fields, and are most prolific in dry
seasons.
Subsect. 4. Salads from Wild Plants.
4311. Ladies' smock. Cardamine pratensis, L. (Eng. Bot. 776.) Tetrad. Siliq. L.
and Cruciferce, J. The leaves of this plant afford an agreeable acrid salad, greatly
resembling the American cress.
4312. Stone-crop, or orpine. Sedum Telephium, L. {Eng. Bot. 1319.) Decan. Pentag. L. and Semper-
vivece, 3. Trique Madam, Fr. The leaves are eaten in salads like those of purslane, to which, by the
French, it is considered equal.
4313. Sea-bindweed. Convolvulus Soldanella, L. {Eng. Bot. 314.) Pent. Monog. L. and Convolvulacece,
B. P. This plant abounds on sea-coasts, where the inhabitants gather the tender stalks, and pickle
them. It is considered to have rather a cathartic quality.
4314. Sweet Cicely. Scandix odorata, L. {Eng. Bot. 697.) Pentan. Dig. L. and Umbelliferce, J.
The leaves of this plant used to be employed like those of chervil. The green seeds ground small, and
used with lettuce or other cold salads, give them a warm agreeable taste. The smell of the plant attracts
bees, and the insides of empty hives are often rubbed with it before placing them over newly-cast swarms
to induce them to enter.
4315. Buckshorn-plantain, or star of the earth. Plantago coronopus* L. {Eng. Bot. 892.) Tetrand.
Monog. L. Plantaginece, B. P. Corne de Cerf, Fr. ; Krahenfuss, Ger. ; and Coronopo, Ital. This is a
hardy annual, a native of Britain, found in sandy soils. It is a low spreading plant, with linear pinnated
leaves, and round stalk : producing short spikes of starry flowers from May to August. It was fbrmerly
cultivated as a salad herb, and used like the common cress ; but is now neglected in English gardens,
perhaps on account of its rank and disagreeable smell. It is still, however, regularly sown in French
gardens. It is raised by seed, which may be sown the first week in March ; and after the plants have
come up, they should be thinned so as each may occupy from five to nine square inches. To ensure a
succession of tender leaves, cut off the flowers as they appear.
4316. Ox-eye daisy. Chrysantfmnum leucanthcmnm, L. {Eng. Bot. 601.) Syng. Polyg. Super. L. and
Corymbiferce, J. Marguerite grande, Fr. ; Grosse Wucherblume, Ger. ; and Lcucanfaiw, Ital. This is a
perennial plant, common in dry pastures. The leaves, which spring immediately from the root, are
obovate with foot-stalks ; from these a stem arises from two to three feet high, furnished with oblong,
embracing pinnatifid leaves. The flowers are large, with yellow disks and white rays, and appear in
June and July. The young leaves were much used in Italy in salads in Bauhin's time; and they are
mentioned by Dr. Withering as being fit for this purpose. The plant is easily propagated by dividing the
roots after the flowering season. To produce succulent tender leaves, it should be placed in soft, rich,
moist earth.
Subsect. 5. Substitutes for Chinese Teas from Wild
Plants.
4317. Speedwell. Veronica sjncata, L. (Eng. Bot.
2.) Dian. Monog. L. and Scrophularina;, B. P. This
plant is sometimes used as a substitute for tea ; and
is said to possess a somewhat astringent taste like
green tea (Camellia viridis).
4318. Spring grass. Anthoxanthum odoratum, L. {Eng. Bot.
647.) Dian. Dig. L. and Graminea, B. P. {fig. 477.) This is a
highly odoriferous grass, a decoction of which is said to bear a
considerable resemblance to tea.
4319. Other substitutes. The leaves of the black currant afford
a very good substitute for green tea ; and those of Saxifraga
crassifolia are said, by Took {Buss. Emp.), to be used as tea in
Siberia. Betonica officinalis {Eng. Bot. 1142.) is said to have
the taste and all the good qualities of foreign tea without the
bad ones.
Subsect. 6. Wild Plants applied to various Domestic Purjioses.
4320. Butterwort. Pinguicula vulgaris, L. (Eng. Bot. 70.) Diand. Monog. L.
and Lentibulareee, B. P. The inhabitants of Lapland and the north of Sweden give to
milk the consistence of cream by pouring it warm from the cow upon the leaves of this
plant, and then instantly straining it, and laying it aside for two or three days till it
684 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
acquires a degree of acidity. This milk they are extremely fond of; and once made,
they need not repeat the use of the leaves as above, for a spoonful or less of it will
coagulate another quantity of warm milk, and make it like the first, and so on, as often
as they please to renew their food. (Lightfoot's Flor. Scot. p. 77.)
4321. Cow-parsnep. Heracleum Sphondylium, L. (Eng. Bot. 939.) Pent. Dig. L. and L'mbelliferce, J.
The inhabitants of Kamschatka, about the beginning of July, collect the foot-stalks of the radical leaves
of this plant, and, after peeling off the rind, dry them separately in the sun ; and then tying them in
bundles, they lay them up carefully in the shade. In a short time afterwards these dried stalks are
covered' over with a yellow saccharine efflorescence, tasting like licorice, and in this state they are
eaten as a delicacy. The Russians, not content with eating the stalks thus prepared, contrive to get a
very intoxicating sp'irit from them, by first fermenting them in water with the greater bilberry ( Vaccinium
nli^inosum), and then distilling the liquor to what degree of strength they please ; which Gmelin says, is
more agreeable to the taste than spirits made from com. {LightfooVs Fl. Scot.)
4322 Heath. Erica Vulgaris, L. {Eng. Bot. 1013.) Octan. Monog. L. and Ericece, J. Formerly the young
tops are said to have been used alone to brew a kind of ale ; and even now, the inhabitants of Isla and
Jura continue to brew a very potable liquor, by mixing two thirds of the tops of the heath with one of
4323 Substitutes for capers. The flower-buds of the marsh -marigold {Caltha pahistris, L.) form a safe
substitute for capers ; and likewise the voung seed-pods of the common radish ; and the unripe seeds of the
nasturtium, or Indian cress. A species' of spurge, common in gardens, {Euphorbia Lathyris,) is vulgarly
called caper-bush, from the resemblance of its fruit to capers ; and though acrid and poisonous, like the
other plants of this genus, its seeds are sometimes substituted by the Parisian restaurateurs for the pods
of the true capers. For more minute details respecting the plants enumerated in this section, and
various others which might be used as food, or in domestic economy, see Bryant's Flora Dicetet'ica,
and Lightfoot's Flora Scotica, Hudson's Flora Anglica, and the local floras of all parts of Europe.
Subsect. 7. Poisonous native Plants to be avoided in searching for edible Wild Plants.
4324. The principal poisonous plants, natives or growing in Britain, are the follow-
ing; those marked thus (*J are also the most valuable plants in the native materia
medica : the whole, for obvious reasons, ought to be known at sight by every gardener : —
Bitter Poisons, for which acids, astrin-
gents, wines, sprits, and spices are
useful correctives. Chelidonium raa-
ius, Cicuta virosa*, Colchicum autum-
nale*, ffinanthe crocata, Prunus Lau-
rocerasus.
Acrid Poisons, which should he counter-
ac : d bv powerful astringents, as bark,
and afterwards the stomach restored
by soft mucilaginous matters, as milk,
fat broth, &c. Aconitum Napellus,
and Lycoctonum, Actaea spicata,Rhus
Toxicodendron.
Stupifying Poisons, to be counteracted by
vegetable acids and emetics. ^Ethusa
cynapium, Atropa Belladonna, Datura
Stramonium *, Hyoscyamus niger,
Lactuca virosa, Solanum dulcamara*,
and nigrum.
Fetid Poisons, to be attacked by ether,
wine, or acids. Conium maculatum*,
Digitalis purpurea*, Heleborus faeti-
dus, Juniperus Sabina, Scrophularia,
aquatica-
Drastic Poisons, to be corrected by acids
alkalies, and astringents. Asclepias
syriaca, Bryonia dioica, Euphorbia La-
thyris and arnygdaloides, Mercurialis
perennis and annua, Periploca grseca,
Veratrum album.
4325. The poisonous fungi will be found in a succeeding section.
Sect. XIII. Foreign hardy herbaceous culinary Vegetables, little used as such in Britain.
4326. The culinary plants of other countries are in general the same as our own ; but
a few'may be mentioned which are more commonly cultivated in France, Germany, and
America, than in England, but which would thrive in the latter country.
43°7 The Clavtonia perfoliata {Pentan. Monog. L. and Portulacece, J.) is a hardy annual, a native of
America of the easiest possible culture in anv soil. Sown in autumn, it endures the winter, and flowers
in \uril and May Its perfoliate foliage is not very abundant, but it is exceedingly succulent, and not
inferior to common spinage in flavor. It has no pretensions to supersede, or even to be generally culti-
vated as a spinage plant ; but in very poor soils, under trees, or in other peculiar circumstances, it may be
f°434a The^BaseUa^alba and rubra {Pentan. Trig. L. and Chenopodece, J.) are stove-biennials, raised on
hot-beds near Paris, and transplanted into warm borders, where they furnish a summer spinage equal to
that of the orache. {Hort. Tour, 489.) They are also grown for the same purpose in China. {Living.
^"i&Mminte {Phytolacca decandra, Decan. Pentag. L. and Chenopodece, J.) is a hardy perennial
with large ramose roots, shoots half an inch in diameter, and five or six feet high j the leaves five
inches long and two and a half inches broad, smooth and of a deep green. It grows vigorously in a good
deep soil, and furnishes ample supplies of young shoots, which in America and the \S est Indies are
boiled and eaten as spinage. {Miller's Diet. art. Phytolacca ; Correa de Serra, in Hort. Trans iv. 446.)
4330 The White cabbage of China {Brassica, sp. ?), used both as a pot-herb and a salad {Barrow;
AbcT'znA the wild cabbage of America {B. washitana Muhl.) .used as a pot-herb might be grown for
similar purposes in this country. The procumbent cabbage of China is mentioned by Livingstone {Hort.
Trans v 55 > as being a hardv plant, supplying leaves the whole of winter.
4381 'The 'shaivanese salad [Hydrophyflum virginicum, L. Pentan. Monog. L. and Boraginev, J.)
is a hardy perennial, very prolific in lobed lucid green leaves which hold water (whence the name), and
are used by the Indians both raw and boiled. -
433" The Anios tuberosa, Ph. {Diadelph. Decan. L. and Leguminosce, J.) is a hardy tuberous-rooted
perennial, a native of North America, the tubers of which are used by the Indians
4333 The bread-root {Psoralea esculenta, L. Diadel. Decan. L. and Leguminosce, J.) is a hardy perennial,
a native of Missouri, and used there as potatoes are in this country. »,_«. a
4334. The Quamash {Sail a esculenta, L. Hexan. Monog. L. and Asphodelece, J.) is a native of Is orth Ame-
rica and there used as food. ... .i i
4SS5 Other hardv esculents. The Indian corn {Zea mays) is grown in some parts as a garden-plant,
thenars being gathered green or partially ripe, and boiled or roasted. The common mi let is grown on
the continent as a garden-plant for its seeds, to be used as a substitute for rice: the Polish millet
IDiJtaria sanguinalis) is grown for this purpose in the cottage gardens in Poland ; as is the carnation
dopSv {Palaver somniferuin\ for its seeds, which form a seasoning to buck-wheat porridge Nigella
S ^ arvensis hardy annuals, are cultivated in Flanders for their seeds, which are used as celery-
^ptU are hi this country, in soups and also in puddings. The Pekin mustard {Sinapis Pehinensis) is a hardy
annual and the most extensively used herbaceous plant in China, being as Livingstone informs us
?w«r/ Trnn< v 54 \ carried about the streets of Canton and other towns in the boiled state. The amaran-
thi« nnlvaamus a hardv annual, grown in China as a spinage plant, and a number of others belonging to the
Cruciferl ^Kopodei, Portulicea.,&c., might be mentioned. {See ForsteSs Plant. Esculent. Austr. ,-
BrlaS, T'FToraDUetetica ; Le Bon Jardinier ; Modern Books of Travels, &c.)
3ook I.
EDIBLE FUNGI.
<?8S
Sect. XIV. Edible Fungi.
4336. Only one species of edible fungi has yet been introduced to the garden, though
there can be no doubt the whole would submit to, and probably be improved by, cul-
tivation. All of them are natives of Britain, and may be gathered wild at certain sea-
sons, so that though they do not enter into the plot of the cottager, they are, or may
be, enjoyed by him. In Poland and Russia, there are above thirty edible sorts of
fungi in common use among the peasantry. They are gathered in all the different stages
of their growth, and used in various ways : raw, boiled, stewed, roasted; and being
hung up and dried in their stoves or chimneys, form a part of their winter stock of pro-
visions. Fungi, however, are not equally abundant in Britain, owing to the general
cultivation of the soil ; and therefore the good sorts being little familiar to the cottager,
most of them are passed over as deleterious. Indeed the greatest caution is requisite in
selecting any species of this tribe for food ; and though we have given a catalogue both
of the good and bad sorts of mushrooms, we can advise none but the botanist to search
after any but the common sort (Agaricus campestris) as food.
Subsect. 1. Cultivated Mushroom. — Agaricus campestris, L. and Sowerby ; A. edidis
of Bulliard. (Eng. Bot. Fungi, t. 1.) Cryptogamia Fungi, L. and of the natural
order of Fungi Gymnocarpi, Persoon. Champignoji Comestible, Fr. ; Essbare Bl'dl-
tersckamme, Ger. ; and Pratajuolo, Ital. (Jig. 478.)
4337. The mushroom is a well known native vegetable,
springing up in open pastures in August and September.
It is most readily distinguished, when of middle size, by its
fine pink or flesh-colored gills, and pleasant smell; in a
more advanced stage, the gills become of a chocolate color,
and it is then more apt to be confounded with other kinds ,
of dubious quality ; but that species which most nearly
resembles it, is slimy to the touch, and destitute of the fine
odor, having rather a disagreeable smell : further, the
noxious kind grows in woods or on the margins of woods,
while the true mushroom springs up chiefly in open pastures,
and should be gathered only in such places.
4338. Use. The garden-mushroom is eaten fresh, either
stewed or boiled ; and preserved as a pickle, or in powder, or dried whole. The sauce
commonly called ketchup (supposed, by Martyn, from the Japanese, kit-jap,) is, or
ought to be, made from its juice, with salt and spices. Wild mushrooms, from old
pastures, are generally considered as more delicate in flavor, and more tender in flesh,
than those raised in artificial beds. But the young, or button mushrooms, of the cul-
tivated sort, are firmer and better for pickling; and in using cultivated mushrooms,
there is evidently much less risk of deleterious kinds being employed. (Neill and
Martyn. )
4339. Species. The following catalogue of edible and poisonous mushrooms is taken
from Sowerby's splendid work on English fungi.
Edible Sorts.
Agaricus caynpestris. Common
field, or cultivated mush-
room
A. riolaceus. Violet, or blue
A. cinnamomeus. Cinnamon
A. lactejluus. Milky
A. chantarellus. Chantarelle
A. pratensis. Champignon
A. aurantiacus. Orange
A. iolilarius. Solitary
A. procerus. The grisette of
tile French, or Tall
A. deliciosus. Sweet mush-
room
A. virgineus. Mausseron
mushroom
A. orcades. Fairy ring, or
Scotch bonnets.
Dangerous Sorts.
A. campestris, var. Dangerous
variety of cultivated mush-
room
A. clypeatus. Long-stalked
A. muscarius. Reddish
A. piperatus. Pepper
A. campanulatus. Bell
A. mammosus. Nipple
A. aurantiacus, var. Danger-
ous variety of orange mush-
room
A. necator
A. virosus. Poisonous, or toad-
stool.
4340. General criteria of wholesome and deleterious fungi. Unwholesome fungi will
sometimes spring up even on artificial beds in gardens ; thus, when the spawn begins to
run, a spurious brood are often found to precede a crop of genuine mushrooms. The
baneful quality of the toad-stool (A. virosus) is, in general, indicated by a sickly nauseous
smell, though some hurtful sorts are so far without any thing disagreeable in the smell,
as to make any criterion, drawn from that alone, very unsafe. The wholesome kinds,
however, invariably emit a grateful rich scent.
4341. Antidote to poisonous sorts. All fungi should be used with great caution, for
even the champignon and edible garden-mushrooms possess deleterious qualities when
grown in certain places. All the edible species should be thoroughly masticated, before
taken into the stomach, as this greatly lessens the effects of poisons. When accidents of
this sort happen, vomiting should be immediately excited, and then tne vegetable acids
should be given, either vinegar, lemon-juice, or that of apples ; after which, give ether
and antispasmodic remedies, to stop the excessive bilious vomiting. Infusions of gall-
nut, oak-bark, and Peruvian bark are recommended as capable of neutralising the poi-
sonous principle of mushrooms. It is, however, the safest way not to eat any of the good
but less common sorts, until they have been soaked in vinegar. Spirit of wine and vinegar
686
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
extract some part of their poison ; and tannin matter decomposes the greatest part of it.
(Botanist's Companion, vol. ii. p. 145.)
4.342. Culture. For the culture of the common mushroom, see Chap. VII. Sect. XIV. (3404.) With respect
to the other edible sorts, as already observed, the)' are seldom gathered for use in Britain, excepting by ex-
perienced botanists ; and none of them, as far as we know, have yet been brought under cultivation. We
think, however, that some of them, as the A. aurantiacus, A. deliciosus, and A. pratensis, might very
readily, and without danger, be introduced to the garden ; treating them like the garden-mushroom,
or imitating the climate of the season of the year in which they are found in perfection, and the soil,
situation, and exposure, &c. where they are found in greatest abundance, and of the best quality. In the
first instance, it would, perhaps, be preferable to propagate from seed, in order to make sure of the species.
In the present improved state of horticulture, if this branch of culture were once attempted, it would soon
be rendered available by every gardener who can cultivate the common mushroom.
Subsect. 2. Morel. — Phallus esculentus, L. ; Helvetia esculenta of Sowerby
(tab. 51.); and Morchella esculenta of Persoon. Cryptogamia Fungi, L. and Gym-
nocarpi, Persoon. In French, German, and Italian, not distinguished from the Cham-
pignon by any popular name. (Jig. 479.)
4343. The morel is distinguished by its cylindrical, solid, or hol-
low stem, white and smooth ; the cap is hollow within, and adher-
ing to the stem by its base,and latticed on the surface with irregu-
lar sinuses. The height is about four inches. It rises in the
spring months, in wet banks, in woods, and in moist pastures.
It is in perfection in May and June, and should not be gathered
when wet with dew, or soon after rain. Gathered dry, they will
keep several months.
4344. Use. Morels are used, either fresh or dried, as an in-
gredient to heighten the flavor of gravies, ragouts, &c.
4345. Culture. Though this vegetable has not yet been introduced in gar-
den-culture, like the mushroom, there can be no doubt of the attempt being
attended with success. The spawn should be collected in June, and planted in
beds or ridges, differently composed, and some laid up for use in dry and moist
envelopements, in order, by experiment, to come to the best mode of cultiva-
tion. Lightfoot says, he has raised the phallus from seed.
Subsect. 3. Truffle, or Subterraneous Puff-ball. — Tuber Cibarium, Sowerby. (tab. 309.)
Cryptogamia Fungi, L. and Angiocarpi, Per. Truffle, Fr. ; Triifel, Ger. ; and Tar-
tufo nero, Ital. (Jig. 480.) 4g0
4346. The truffle is a subterraneous fungus, growing
naturally some inches below the surface in different parts
of Britain ; and very common in the downs of Wiltshire, /'L~i^y/ y-\ [ J<.
Hampshire, and Kent, where dogs are trained to scent it
out. The dogs point out the spot by scraping and bark-
ing ; and the truffles, which are generally found in clus-
ters, are dug up with a spade. The truffle is globular,
seldom the size of a hen's egg, without any root, and of a
dark color, approaching to blackness. The surface is
uneven and rough ; the flesh firm, white while young, but when old, it becomes black,
with whitish veins.
4347. Use. They are used, like the mushroom, in stuffings, grades, and other high-
seasoned culinary preparations. They are generally procured from Covent Garden mar-
ket, as they bear carriage to any distance.
4348. Culture. " No attempt," Neill observes, " it is believed, has hitherto been made to cultivate
truffles ; but of the practicability of the thing there seems no reason to doubt. In their habits of growth,
indeed, they differ essentially from the mushroom ; but it is certainly possible to accommodate the soil and
other circumstances to the peculiar nature of the fungus. It has been said, that the tubercles on the sur-
face of truffles are analogous to the eyes or buds of potatoes, and that they have been propagated, like po-
tatoes, by means of cuts furnished with tubercles ; it may however be suspected, that the pieces thus
planted contained ripe seeds. Truffles, we may add, seem to delight in a mixture of clay and sand ; and
a moderate degree of bottom heat, such as is afforded by a spent hot-bed, might probably forward their ve-
getation." (Ed. Encyc.)
Sect. XV. Edible Fuci. — Cryptogamia Alga, L. and Fucacece, Lamouroux.
Varec, Fr. ; Meergrass, Ger. ; and Fuco, Ital.
4349. The edible British fuci may be shortly enumerated, because some of them are
occasionally used as condiments by families living near the sea-coast ; and because they
furnish articles of resource for the local poor, especially in seasons of scarcity. There are
numerous species ; all of which, in common with everv other class of sea- weeds and zoo-
phytes, are employed in gardening as manures ; and in general economy for making kelp
or alkali. The following are the principal of the British species, which are considered
edible bv the inhabitants of sea-shores.
Book I.
HORTICULTURAL CATALOGUE.
687
4350. Fucus saccharinus. Sweet fucus, or sea-belt.
(fig. 481. a) Lightfoot mentions, that the common peo-
ple on the coast of England sometimes boil this species as
a pot-herb. Anderson says, the Icelanders boil it in milk
to the consistence of pottage, and eat it with a spoon.
They are also said to soak it in fresh water, dry it in the
sun, and then lay it up in wooden vessels ; it soon becomes
covered with a white effloresence of salt, which has a
sweetish taste, and in this state they eat it with butter.
They also feed their cattle with this species.
4351. F. palmatus, L. Dulse, (fig. 481. b) Both the
tender stalks and young fronds are eaten recent from the
sea, commonly without any preparation ; they are some-
times considered as forming a salad, but more generally
are used as a whet. Dulse formerly was frequently fried
and brought to table. It is said, that the inhabitants of
the Greek islands are fond of this species, adding it to ra-
gouts and olios, to which it communicates a red color, and
at the same time imparts some of its rich and gelatinous
qualities. The dried leaves, infused in water, exhale an
odor somewhat resembling that of sweet violets, and they
communicate that flavor to vegetables with which they
are mixed. Lightfoot mentions, that in the Isle of Skye,
in Scotland, it is sometimes used in fevers, to promote per-
spiration, being boiled in water, with the addition of a
little butter. It grows not uncommonly on rocks which are barely uncovered at the ebb of the tide; but
is more frequent as a parasite on F. nodosus ; and it occurs also on the stems of F. digitatus, attaining in
this situation a considerable size, perhaps twelve or fifteen inches long, while, in general, it is only about
six or eight inches. It is soft and limber, and does not become rigid by drying, being of a more loose tex-
ture than many other sea-weeds.
4352. F.edulis, L,. red dulse (fig. 481. c), is by many preferred to the F. palmatus, especially for roast-
ing in the frying-pan. Like that species, its smell somewhat resembles sweet violets. It is of a deep,
opaque, red color, giving out a purple dye.
4353. F. esculentus, L. Badderlocks, or henware.
(fig. 482. a) The mid-rib, stripped of its membrane, is
the part chiefly eaten. In Orkney, the pinnae are also
eaten, under the name ofmickles.
4354. F. ciliatus, L , ciliated dulse, and F. digitatus,
fingered dulse, sea-girdle, and hangers (figs. 482. b),
are sometimes gathered and eaten like F. edulis, palma-
tus, and other species.
4355. F. digitatus. In Scotland, the stem of this species
is used for making handles topruning-knives. A pretty
thick stem is selected, and cut into pieces about four
inches long. Into these, while fresh, the blades are stuck,
and as the stem dries, it contracts and hardens, closely
and firmly embracing the hilt of the blade ; when these
handles have become hard and shrivelled, and tipt with
metal, they are hardly to be distinguished from harts-
horn.
4356. F. piimatifidus, L. Pepper dulse. In Scotland,
it is eaten along with the F. palmatus, and in Iceland it
is used instead of spice. This species is common to Scot-
land, Iceland, the Red Sea, and the shores of Egypt.
4357. F. natans, L. Floating fucus. The succulent
fronds, Turner mentions, are selected and pickled like
samphire; and the young shoots are eaten as a salad,
seasoned with juice of lemons, pepper, and vinegar.
4358. Viva Lactuca, L. (fig. 482. c) Lettuce-leaves,
or oyster-green. The thin, green, pellucid membranes
of which this vegetable is composed are eaten raw, as a salad, and esteemed a great delicacy by such as
have been accustomed to the use of marine vegetables.
4359. Supplies. No submarine production has hitherto been cultivated in the garden ; though it might
be worth while to try what could be done by a stone cistern of salt-water, and other contrivances. In the
mean time, families in any part of Britain or Ireland, desirous of enjoying these vegetables, might have
them regularly forwarded from the sea-shores, especially from such as are rocky. There are very few spe-
cies known to be absolutely poisonous.
4360. Edible tiests. We may add, as matter of curiosity, that the transparent edible nests of the East
Indian swallows, so much in repute at the luxurious tables of the rich, in China and the East, are now
generally believed to be almost entirely composed of gelatinous fuci ; and more especially of the F. liche-
noides. (Turner, 1. 118.) The plant is also in high estimation for the table in India.
Chap. IX.
Horticultural Catalogue. — Hardy Fruit-trees, Shrubs, and Plants.
4361. The hardy fruits of a country may be considered in reference to the vegetable
appendages of the table, as next in utility to bread, corn, and culinary esculents.
The excellent meats which they afford to the second course, and their contributions
to the dessert, give them a peculiar value in the domestic economy of all those whose
condition in life rises above the care of mere subsistence ; and there are some sorts, as
the gooseberry and apple, which, happily, either are or may be within the reach of the
most humble occupier of a cottage and garden. Many fruits are as wholesome as they
are pleasant ; and some greatly assist the cure of particular diseases. Cider, perry, and
G88 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
the various wines which may be made from the juices of fruits, are acceptable offerings
to the social circle, when made in the best manner, and form important articles of com-
merce. We shall arrange the Hardy Fruits as —
4362. Kernel-Fruits or Pomes ; including the apple, pear, quince, medlar, service.
4363. St one- Fruits ; as the peach, nectarine, almond, apricot, plumb, and cherry.
4364. Berries ; as the mulberry, barberry, elderberry, gooseberry, currant, raspberry, cranberry, and
strawberry.
4365. Nuts ; as the walnut, chestnut, filbert.
4366. Native and neglected Hardy Fruits, deserving cultivation, or useful in domestic economy, as the
sloe, bird-cherry, wild service, mountain ash, bilberry, &c.
4367. The varieties of most of these fruits are so numerous, and each described as
having so many good qualities, that the inexperienced selector may well be puzzled in
making a choice, even from the comparatively limited lists which we have prepared for
the following sections. When to all the names in these lists, and those of the nursery-
men, we add the numerous new names annually brought forward by the Horticultural
Societies of this country and of France, the difficulty of selection seems insuperably in-
creased. The experienced and well informed gardener will be able to find out his way
in this labyrinth ; but what are others to do? We would say, as a prudent mode, con-
sult the selections recommended by eminent practical men ; as Abercrombie, M'Phail,
Forsyth, Nicol, Macdonald, &c. which we have given in this chapter, and also in those
on planting the kitchen-garden and orchard. (2498. and 2527.) There are probably not
half so many distinct sorts, as there are names in use ; and of that half, most likely
two thirds are not worth cultivating. Of most of the sorts originated from seed, sufficient
time has not elapsed to judge of their merits ; they are all described as good ; but un-
questionably many of them are worth little in comparison with the best old sorts. Some of
the new cherries and peaches might be adduced as examples ; and the Poonah grape, lately
imported from the East Indies, andstated to be "a valuable addition to our gardens" (Hort.
Trans, iv. 517.), has been in the country (in the Brompton Nursery, for example), for an
unknown length of time, under a different name. It is one of the worst descriptions of
raisin grapes, with a small elliptical berry, having little flesh, juice, or flavor. — We
make these remarks not to discourage from originating or importing new fruits ; nor to
dissuade from choosing new sorts ; but to guard the inexperienced against being led
away by names and appearances. The Horticultural Society are doing much to illus-
trate the subject of fruits, and in a few years they will no doubt settle a nomenclature,
and determine the merits of all the fruits now in Europe, or perhaps the world.
Sect. I. Kernel- Fruits.
4368. The principal hardy kernel-fruits are the apple and pear, too well known
for their important uses to require any eulogium. In this section are also included
the quince, medlar, and service.
Subsect. 1. Apple. — Pyrus Malus, L. {Eng. Bot. 179.) Icos. Di-Pentag. L. and
Rosacecc, J. Pomme, Fr. ; Apfel, Ger. ; and Porno or Melo, Ital.
4369. The ajnile is a spreading tree with the branches more horizontal than in the pear-
tree ; the leaves ovate ; the flowers in terminating umbels, produced from the wood of the
former year ; but more generally from very short shoots or spurs from wood of two years'
growth. The fruit is roundish, umbilicate at the base, and of an acid flavor. In its wild
state, it is termed the crab , and is then armed with thorns, with smaller leaves, flowers, and
fruit, and the pulp of the latter extremely acid. It is a native of most countries of Europe
in its wild state ; and the improved varieties form an important branch of culture in Britain,
France, Germany, and America, for the kitchen, the table, and for the manufacture of cider.
From whence we at first received the cultivated apple is unknown ; but in all probability it
was introduced by the Romans, to whom twenty-two varieties were known in Pliny's time
(52.), and afterwards the stock of varieties greatly increased at the Norman conquest.
According to Stow, carp and pepins were brought into England by Mascal, who wrote on
fruit-trees in 1572. The apple-tree is supposed by some to attain a great age. Haller men-
tions some trees in Herefordshire that attained a thousand years, and were highly prolific ;
but Knight considers two hundred years as the ordinary duration of a healthy tree, grafted
on a crab-stock, and planted in a strong tenacious soil. Speechly (Hiiits, 58.) mentions
a tree in an orchard at Burton-joyee, near Nottingham, of about sixty years old, with
branches extending from seven to nine yards round the bole, which, in 1792, produced
upwards of 100 pecks of apples. Of all the different fruits which are produced in
Britain, none can be brought to so high a degree of perfection, with so little trouble ; and
of no other are there so many excellent varieties in general cultivation, calculated for
almost every soil, situation, and climate, which our island affords. Very good apples are
grown in the Highlands and Orkneys, and even in the Shetland Isles, (Caled. Hort.
Mem. vol. ii.) as well as in Devonshire and Cornwall ; some sorts are ripe in the be-
Book I. APPLE. 6S9
ginning of July, and others, which ripen later, will keep till June. Unlike other fruits,
those which ripen latest are the best.
4370. Use. For pies, tarts, sauces, and the dessert, the use of the apple is familiar to every one. Dtiduit,
of Mazeres, has found that one-third of boiled apple-pulp, baked with two thirds of flour, having
been properly fermented with yeast for twelve hours, makes a very excellent bread, full of eyes, and ex-
tremely palatable and light. {New Month. Mag. June 1821.) The fermented juice forms cider,"a substitute
both for grape-wine and malt liquor. In confectionary, it is used for comfits, compotes, marmalades,
jellies, pastes, tarts, &c. In medicine, verjuice, or the juice of crabs, is used for sprains, and as an astrin-
gent and repellent : and, with a proper addition of sugar, Withering thinks a very grateful liquor might
be made with it, little inferior to Rhenish wine. Lightfoot affirms that the crab mixed with cultivated
apples, or even alone, if thoroughly ripe, will make a sound, masculine wine. The apple, when ripe, is
laxative ; the juice is excellent in dysentery : boiled or roasted apples fortify a weak stomach. Scopoli
recovered from a weakness of the stomach and indigestion from using them; and they are equally effica-
cious in putrid and malignant fevers with the juice of lemons or currants. In perfumery, the pulp of
apples, beat up with lard, forms pomatum : and Bosc observes {N. Cours d' Agriculture, &c. in loco), that
the prolonged stratification of apples with elder-flowers, in a close vessel, gives the former an odor of
musk extremely agreeable. In dyeing, the bark produces a yellow color ; and, in general economy, the
wood of the tree is used for turning, and various purposes, where hardness, compactness, and variegation
of color, are objects.
4371. Criterion of a good apple. Apples for the table are characterised by a firm juicy pulp, elevated poig-
nant flavor, regular form, and beautiful coloring ; those, for kitchen use, by the property of falling, as it is
technically termed, or forming in general a pulpy mass of equal consistency, when baked or boiled, and by
a large size. Some sorts of apples have the property of falling when green, as the Keswick, Carlisle, Haw-
thornden, and other codlins ; and some only after being ripe, as the russet tribes. Those which have this
property when green, are particularly valuable for affording sauces to geese early in the season, and for
succeeding the gooseberry in tarts. For cider, an apple must possess a considerable degree of astringency,
with or without firmness of pulp, or richness of juice. The best kinds, Knight observes, are often tough,
dry, and fibrous ; and the Siberian Harvey, which he recommends as one of the very best cider-apples, is
unfit either for culinary purposes or the table. Knight has found that the specific gravity of the juice of any
apple recently expressed, indicates, with very considerable accuracy, the strength of the future cider.
Considering the various uses of the apple, we agree with Speechly in regarding it as a fruit " of more use
and benefit to the public in general, than all the other fruits, the produce of this island, united."
4372. Varieties. Tusser, in 1573, mentions in his list of fruits, "apples of all sorts." Parkinson, in
1629, enumerates fifty-seven sorts. Evelyn, about thirty years afterwards, says {Pomona, pref), "It was
through the plain industry of one Harris, a fruiterer to Henry VIII., that the fields and environs of about
thirty towns in Kent only, were planted with fruit from Flanders, to the universal benefit and general im-
provement of the county." Gibson {Churches of Dove and Homelacy.) mentions that Lord Scudamore,
ambassador to the court of France, in the time of Charles I., collected in Normandy scions of cider-apple-
trees, and when he returned to England, encouraged the grafting them throughout the county of Here-
ford. Hartlib, in 1650, speaks of " one who had two hundred sorts of apples," and " verily believes there
are nearly 500 sorts in this island." Ray, in 1688, selected from the information of the most skilful gar-
deners about London, a list of 78 sorts. Succeeding writers have been enabled greatly to increase the list,
partlyfrom the almost continual accession of sorts received from the continent during intervals of peace, but
principally from the great numbers raised from seeds. A variety of apple, like those of most other plants,
is supposed by some to have only a limited duration; and hence on taking a retrospective view of the lists
of sorts, given by Parkinson, Evelyn, and other authors, many of them are not now to be found, or are so
degenerated or diseased, as no longer to deserve the attention of the planter. " The moil," Knight ob-
serves, " and its successful rival, the red-streak, with the musts and golden-pippin, are in the last stage of
decay, and the stire and foxwhelp are hastening rapidly after them." After making a great variety of ex-
periments for several years, and after many attempts to propagate every old variety of the apple, this au-
thor observes (TV. on Apple and Pear, 15.), " I think I am justified in the conclusion, that all plants of
this species, however propagated from the same stock, partake in some degree of the same life, and will
attend the progress of that life, in the habits of its youth, its maturity, and its decay ; though they will
not be any way affected by any incidental injuries the parent tree may sustain after they are detached
from it."
4373. Knight next directed his attention to raising new varieties from seeds, and has, by crossing one
sort with another, and by having constantly several thousands of seedlings rearing, from which, as they
show fruit, to select the best sorts, succeeded in producing several newvarieties of apples, much esteemed
for the table and the press. Of several of these sorts, and how obtained, accounts will be found in the
work above quoted, and in the Horticultural Transactions, and a compend of their history and properties
will be found in our table {next page). Several eminent horticulturists, in different districts, are now en-
gaged in a similar manner; and there can be little doubt a valuable accession will, in a few years, be made
to this class of fruits. Some, however, as Williamson {Hort. Trans, iii. 291.) and Speechly {Hints, 188.),
consider that the deterioration of the apple and other fruits may be owing to the climate, and that the re-
turn of genial summers would restore to us from old trees as good fruit as heretofore. Such also is
our opinion, and Knight's doctrine appears to us contrary to general analogy in vegetable life. It is
unquestionably true that all varieties have a tendency to degenerate into the primitive character of the
species ; but to us it appears equally true, that any variety may be perpetuated with all its excellencies by
proper culture, and more especially varieties of trees. However unsuccessful Knight may have been m con-
tinuing the moil, redstreak, and golden pippin, we cannot alter our conviction, that by grafting from
these sorts they may be continued, such as they are, or were when the scions were taken from the trees, to
the end of time. As to plants propagated by extension, " partaking in some degree of the same period of
life as the parent," we cannot admit the idea as at all probable. Vines, olives, poplars, and willows have
been propagated by extension for ages, and are still, as far as can be ascertained, as vigorous as they were
in the time of Noah or Pliny.
4374. A numerous list of varieties may be considered as puzzling to inexperienced persons who have to
select for a garden or an orchard. Sabine {Hort. Trans, iii. 263.) justly observes, that the stock of
apples requires reduction rather than increase ; and adds, that one of the chief objects to which the
attention of the Horticultural Society is at present directed, is to make a judicious selection.
4375. A great variety of apple-trees in a bearing state may be seen in different nurseries both in Britain
and Ireland, but especially near London ; from these in the autumn, the fruit may be tasted from the
trees, and either young plants newly worked, or plants in a state of bearing, fixed on and marked, to be
taken up at the proper season. The advantages of this mode, especially to such as possess but a small gar-
den, are too obvious to require comment.
4376. No well arranged catalogue of apples has yet been published, because, in general, only a limited
number of sorts fall under the eye and experience of one individual. Such a work seems more likely to
be accomplished by public bodies, and is worthy of their attention. In the mean time, we present the
best arrangement in our power of sorts readily procured from British nurseries, including most of the
newly originated varieties, of which accounts have been published, and grafts distributed, among the com-
mercial gardeners.
Yy
690
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
n3
C
cs
w
CO
in
W
Q
-
W
m
m
W
Q
T3
to
C
w
c
pi
<
aJ
H
*
5 «3
o
S pi
R w
C o
3»
c« C
tjo a
03 ,_
O «
'- -
(-1
<l
h
o
w
D
o
o
<
<
w
>
t— I
H
PL|
hi
o
w
I-
—
Is J
lis
■3«2
•S--.S
3 C^
.s-3
ii!
e >,J
5- .
c'sc
Us c
1 5isr
,5 c-
".c
3fif
tea's
m
Ill
i — °
* £ 8
« =-3
&. St:
nig
W3= .
si*
K it
—
* "3
§1
OT3
|
c s ■c-a
823,332
2 « irs6-
« jf-=.2-3~
si
3 E
er a tt
1 tree
uin-si
tree;
ii
So
Kath
Smal
Medi
Ditto
3>s
a,"
•s^-i-s^-a*
' *- *J ♦. p.
SrtT'^-'ti-K'^S!; — ♦? C-;*'
O ZOO OOaooOOOOOOO^^tgO^OOcpcBZOOOO
& 3
* is .i.3,.3, « us B
&Z *° "^ "° "° "° ""
^z -t r. ?. r. ~ H
S cgx&.Ui&<fafaU
s _
S ooS-?SSS<
tt, ■
*• • • • • .^«-
<3 *~ a a a v v n
j; •<<!|-;|-?'-5a:xio
§ 1 s 1 uY§
■3 « a
£££
•s :-'.«'.?= H.
•c "C ^ «: sx-a id's r: -s -d 73 ^t: »a - M ^^ 3 ^^c T3 r^
t^ ^ £i • • • ' • -c
«H,rtoj:o r> .«'
ci-; .« w ?j o
. . . «J 0O»>CN<O«o<S °* «* **rt
■ X — N — — O • . X .^ .^ .„• .^
12 -^ *j ^ ^ ^* ^ ^ ^'*- ■*' ^' ""' ^"' "'* ^' r^*j *4 ^*^ +J *J *J
PkB. — - i
sbsi yi JJ~
ea b ■ • 3 ' o .
__ _! r _
S .
. o
, S
o .
Pk '
<u *J u aj a c«J
0 •Sbgs'SbS.i?
O CE»0-.P5»5r^.J
-J g£g£!g£g£
2 000080 So
^ fa &.&.&< X fa U. S
o 00 co oc
' x co ■ cc o
r» xx x x • t-
sg-s I 3 S g
-3 «.
1 -a
V ■a
III l'-|
i/gsjj0 ■- ,
1-1 'J s « s s
C £ ""S c o
Bl-3'35 fa
u-S 3 c^ , ^_ ,
<-<x xfa S < O O
sLS -" * £ =
c &S §■« ' 2; '
-3 r 3 re B c
- ss'5 s.a
- X ~ *^ *^- *
C 3 «o
.2 a*
rfa-3
gtc
c.=
<'J1
^•3
oj 5 ■ u '
< Z'l O fa
r— c S »>
afaj;^a
. "S
.St-i'S
■3 ■= o 2
•IS***
5 „_,*_" /:b
£2g--*ii3
Book I.
APPLE.
691
ft
O «
w I
p g
o §
O 2
H i
U I,
> *
^ u
HH O
H 3
Oh I
CO Ei
S z
Q *
||
cS =
5S
££3
■a -a 2
E2S
3 3_
*,*3
.2 go
.= I 3
■a -a -a
c c 3
3 c a
.E.S.5
— — —
III
i* .=3
g&
SS:
£££
2 .
00
p* •
\\\
o o
££.
o o
3 3
0) SI
££
— ■—
CO
•3 J
p:o
0S0O
OCX
si si 2
rt J
>a
rt rt
SI SI
as
3 ^o
Sl_
3 s>
P
** 3
SrS
5c
.3 -a
1- 1-.
rt rt
aw
00
«.s,
■a -3
C 3
rt «
C2
3 "~^3
*a si
3 i
8 -a -a
5 5 fi I
flj fl* 2^ ^
■s 1 fi!
si a) si X .2F >>
•aj '3 3 rt o O ^
Q QE-<B5i§
1
0) O 01 01 O
•- - 1- u 0
00000
o o.2o.
S 8 .3, 3 ■
rt to rt rt c3
22222
.3 .3 .3 .3 .3
'— j- i. U. *
8-3
■3 39
•3 o 0 =
^ si ^ U33
« 3-S«3.3.
o ft-ftC "
I*
1 1
p= s
3 - &-
•c 3
5 O
IP.ll
?2-2-a3
3x 3 g.S
'3 .2 *< _ ■•?
5 3 3
X 0) Ol
u y ^ VOI
cqcspJoo
i is
C3" SC3
— J, — T.
Mrt
1 -a^ -g «
< a|| a-Scji
2 •-H^rt'O'tfl'ro
& .2" 132,2 2 2
5 n >J Tj « i/: c»
fei ^—..T
"2s SS 2§^S=
-K5 H
g]
§2
«3 w
83 00
O O O o (J
i a « 1
I i3S&|
o i^ccoio —
£„ .
0) 01 >
i A «
3 3 5
.5.2 &
1313 ..
CJ SI si
9 S S
rt a1*)
*4 OJ 3
•a si o
3 ■* C
>>"a u
O O G
si .22.S3J2
"">««_<?
SI SI s
III
gjps g £ SgSEEpj'" c oco
I 2 2S
2 . .0
2 00c
E CUSM —
u l^t
W o o.j
►j MM •
^ 3 3 —
> 3 3 3
- ---
<1
,W
w
H
<3
c
PS.
V
■a
SI
w
F
a
2
Q
0
'£
h.
£
' "E
ja-a
v- ^ 3
Si si 3
SE«
ill
IF"
SI o
* a.
5c
M 3 si
.5 **
c3 3 si
O SI >.
M g &
S! >>J3
-s>
1 KB
E 00
3 .25
G 3 3
.3 ^^3 "8
fill I
»3
V si B
5 &&
3. a.3-
^ — :
m -a -a :
u
SI
Hi
C (EiJ
M C> OJ
*. '"«
X! .^ .
. M .3
~ hO
■a -gs
N o'S
I X55
« <>»
5 Eh
S 3-H
SI f S SI -
£§|^^
X .3 ^ si si
rt^ c MM
^^i « 33
O^X^3
OOOOO
- i £
J2 . • S
5.2,0.0.0 g
•a ■a '3 3 i. S
SS'T77 .
££522 2
^ ^5 u h .3 .S
u;x£S<fa i*
Is .-g
1 Mil
i"7 •
iv|ii 1
1 Sill's fe
S£m||£ §
o x; si — 2 v -,
.si i-3P<>'>«0 K
3 *
> __.2__ £"-
xj b n^j <3 a si J
3 ooqoo ^.;
j "S "2 a c a 2 i
< o o o o O X
OOPJUO O
CX 3333 41 .^
.8 a a spa •;
^ EEfe^.E"
»^>3 MO
• *> 3 'S 3>
_^ ±s. Z,
«J *Offl . .
<: o t-i ot *** *r
% — to C^l t^ CO
jr 0-3, 000
CTj J. ~
p-
B B
V I
0
00 *
—
—
lp3 rt i
2 w
KB g g
— SI o *-
• -a 3 , -r o
Hi i
S a cj
ES < i
• 2 a ■ a s
a v£ s^
• 3 « « a
. o rt S s*
oT«5" ' '
sj— >
^ £B 3— "
u) m 10 to w 03
Yy 2
(592
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
H
w
CO
H
Q
CO
W
►4
fa
fa
<
fa
O
w
D
o
o
w
H- 1
H
fa
u
CO
W
B
So
~= ~
if
5
if
a -
h -
31
Luge hardy tree
Medium-sized tree; singular fruit
Small spreading tree
Large tree ; esteemed fruit
Large tree ; very showy fruit
Handsome tree ; showy fruit
Medium-sized] hardy tree
Handsome tree ; esteemed fruit
Of
&■ —
pi
-j ^
61— <S
c ..
£ a a
fcttoB
Large tree; showy fruit
Medium-sized tree ; showy fruit
1 lardy tree
Large spreading tree
Large tree; showy fruit
Small tree of low growth
Mi'dium.siz.ed tree
Small spreading tree
Delicate.twlgged small tree;
1 ! siilH 1
? 2 a -3 — -j - o o c
S3 a — n £— a t =» j;
;-« si. -yS-JiO.. q> +,
-Jr'BaJ'S -£'-"— i^2"^
5— e,.~li3a S*' 1 'r^.S tos**
1 g §_ ua ig fjg gS §■? | feu
s ■ 5*1 5*i J ■^■~' 1 £■ B 3 U -'^
x — x^: x^: ;SxSmS.-:i;x
B
I
it
>-.
3
is
ll
ft
II
xS
EJ
•a-s
a--
be
B *^
to
c
a
£
0
0 a
■» a
s ? a
s„2
- Jr
111
X
■JW
■3 s-3
■CSJ-SB
— — —3
--_._._.= --_.-- -_->3
a a
•3
i i 3 r, S — rvOStfduOOO
: '■luu S *< °Hfl H O O O
S3
6^
oooa
CS~ ~
C32
■c-sZ-c-c
— — — cc^ 'Z — SO — — — — —
00
O^:
0
i
>»
3 a
o o
c a
O S
ssSs
9
-2 a
!>,=. •g , a. >.^--S &
& CJT a C ??a a « a
r>a
0)
0
'
a
2 3
> -2
3 '?■=.-= -
S S"e 3
~ ■—. IS >-r >-. B >. a a, s a y. S
s >.
1
s
fi
Pa
u 5.3,o
ll?
sai;
S 3 S jj *
^ea aS &| 1 '3 [fc 1 1 1 =
g a a ^3 3. - a "^'- a a a a a
■3-3
3 3
"3-3
1
a a
££££
sccc
p J"3
HUJ
"3aaa _-__-_- =3333333
3 —
^3
^
>- c
hhCfi
a .5 .E .&
S 1 -= » -a
5 .« .- .b ^ * ~ .t .i: .3 .a .3 .a .a —
.= -c
£h
^^i.±.hb^h
&.XH
-:■--■-
r^s.i
r-i.i. — xxxS.iifc.Sfl&.&.S.fe
fa -J
cfe
Cfi
3
X
j= a
ri
— o— s ;->
Spiral
<S<-S
.a
A A AA
■2
K
■sKesSSSfaS
a||
Si.—
x<S3
^33 -ii .s'Jaaua^ ^
t«a-3?--c E.£3 B^Sja
cS<4xUZ<S^<S-?5S
-^'5
if
a
ftj
p
CBX>_
"3 •
h
it
Pa
loll
a uv _
Ilia
iilf-s-S.
faGX.-:
■sUOZ
~~j; Fa
x x C x "s
^ a a o
■fSSSrTtiaSligQS^c
_2aaa3--;a^raaa3"a
a a
0)
• M "3
• * •
"3
i '
■Mil
|-3 ^ '? ^
|2S35
*2 0) "3 *3
l-Sgll-aJ-lll.-gl
^■2_0'-i'_C.r£C£3£;;£
*o3a'a^^aC-i:-i--i:3^
>>Sa.^C — — i-x^O-x — >•
^■3
— JS
«—
-?
a 3
•3°
?s 3
x 3
i
■3 =
w |- IS
><h3
S'g'octl
>»KOt»aQ
*>zx£
0 s
.s 8
faPS
"a
OPx
fa
a *s
•s ^
A
— A
X
J3
1
•3f
rt-S-^^rt tC
— — M
•~ a B~3
'S'a % •c'a aj tx -jji a-3
-3
■a
11 f
"'-"?-
5 i -' I -
=-Hs-
= ■= = ;_
a.s.a a
a a - a
"S- tia a'a-3 1 5? = i- 5 ¥
a a
a a
3
ft.
> 3^3i
^=i=
jij^r*
,a.3,j;j»,2_::>.3:3>3_-:,;:3 o
fafa
■3 b
£ B
x>
=006
P5
•5
3
Is
•3 ~.~Z-£
g c s i
22xS
a 3 u,§ |
£ = ;=<-
o ai — cj y
trtt- it tc
■_--■_'-
cs cs a a a
- - x - -
S'O'o'3
a ^ * a
xSSx
s S . . . «>_ a . S.S. . , . a -
a a^'a'a ^r-— ic 6c— — ^ 3^
K-5SS§^§S-^S<SiS
£S
C 3
_3 3
a
a
X
OC
CO
0
.;'CN-K:^rr."Ox^^Nn
-3
C — 1~
<£ >.- — Pi C)
0) c « —
OC X
a=
H
TS-O
f. 00 ■-<»-"
-<e;e;ic
•^'■r,ri
'C
A?
££££
^'^^'
£•££££
£&&£
a ££££££££££££££
XJ3
SiSC
a
Q
;».;*1
Sn & >. '.
2 fc •= i
>>^>»>»
? ^ ^
o c c © o
— —
—
- U
c c ;
- - - -
c o o o
0 0 0 6 0 0 5 SB 0 5 0 5 0 a
c 0
-1 11
0
fafa
E^^pEiEst
it.i.U.
p4mn
bbbbb
— — — —
bSibbBBU-S.B^^.^S.M
fafa
z
"S
, ,
iii.
. . i .
.....
S" •gj
. •
.
V
►«
t^ t~ ^T
3
,
, ' ,
■ ' U
. ' . ' .
s . **
Pi • h- 3 1 ' PH <
'
.
i-
M -S
A tij JJ
I
....
. . . .
a • ' =
3....33....0....
-1 — s
■ ■
■ ■
■
.-
©
<N
I cw«
k
si
HI
o ■
• 9 S
2
> , . 5"
• ' ■ a ' • . '= • & . ' .
tc
if!
o
"5.
O « «l
E S —
• - c —
H
•3.- •— 3.
3. =£ -3 £
g
•3
ll)
V
.'?
►s
1
c ^
3 ^
■ M c.2
rt ■ a~ • -3 B ■ •
5; s
1^1
Sa
1 H l
, its-
|
•* Bo '5 ■*
0 . 1 " iji^ini
> a
a
a
0
o
•oj
-<-
<
Z Q< S <
fa
fa
fa
!• • ■
a.
•3
■j' '
S 3
c »
. a""
j. ■■
g
■3 "3
<3 3 2
™ -a . • • • •i'2
—
"a. a
I
CM
• ,
a ■
• x .
C r
. cj ■
a ' •«,& 0 a
Hi -
at
N
O
«
-r.2
o
s
a* ' ' '
3...J0 H
i
s
■ 0
.2 =
■ 0.0
^
Q
Z<
w
sS csi> . 0
Pi
<!
<;
i
■ i "3
a —
> "ll
o £ t-
3- j,; O 3
„ - — .3
o— a a
pqpqnc
"3 .
-Sal
a .2
.3 &
=- ° = a j.
--r a ,
a ■ tr
^tc g 2 -
— 3 3- &> C c fc-
i:"3 , 7 1? a'a a ,
^55 '■£• gJj.^cS
,M 4)
a
c
3
%
82
C ■ M r.
Z ® • 9»
rt txtx i£
geSfi
Sgoq
>1 T —
ill
— a 3
BUS.
333*13
a <e —
SZZc->=-cea^xxxxir P?
— -
3.3
fafa
0
•3
a
5
fa
•
»•#
S^^-v
R^ii
l* -^ ^ x ai c: — c^ ei *r .-"' (3 r-I x 3^ 0 —
XX<XXS»SSia03SS3 OO
—
£
'-3 0
cccc
Oh-N^
t^t-t*
t- r^ t - 1-. oe
xx s.v:
Book I.
APPLE.
693
I
^ a
^growing tree, thrives
nations and climates ;
e best of Brit, apples-
e tree ; esteemed fruit
zed tree ; esteemed fr.
ading tree
elicate tree ; fruit good
spread, tree ; showy fr.
ng, upright tree
spreading tree
ping tree
; fr. apt to grow mealy
it growing tree ; fruit
mealy in March
ight tree
nder-twigged tree; fr.
or table and cider
D
Ml
5
I
"3
4,
0,
g
a,
■a
[edium-sized free-growing tree
arge tree ; much-esteemed fruit
andsome tiee ; good fruit
ree-grower and hardy
arge tree, upright-twigged
andsome tree ; esteemed fruit
andsome free-growing tree
ng tree
ee
•ee ; showy fruit
3
£
B
0
0
>right growing tree ; valuable fr.
treading tree
iright tree
>iight slender twigs ; good fruit
>right tree, and spread. when old
<t3
at
£
D
B
I
a
<i>
"3
3
2
a
5
** H • H
<~.2 6 rr
o 13 3 3
•O O '> 4*
fi £ O £
*" S b* °
|| if
« 3 £ 3
8a, to*
SutS
3 a,t
si*
0,
s
a,
O 0, 3
&1 2
<uM 0
a,-. so
S •3
3 3
X
MS SB
p3£faK
_ _ _
xa
1-)
X
f, _• _ -. _: _ z:
U.Q >■
K >
UccmDS
&
£
•3 -3 "3 -3
«T3
■a
b 3*3 "3 «"9 o
.
.
TJ
0 0 >. 0 5
u
S3
O
ouoo
oo^-j
ceo
OO
a
0
COO'JO'JO
30330
O
e andjlavor.
o
13
1
Si
.2-£ tc.2
.2,5 g.3,
pJ?E 3
M.2 0 M
= ,3g 3
0
0
« £?4J
a
0
s< re "'■ n 3 3
fJ u.= ? tele
? 7 = 5 5 ? >,
0
■ re
>> B >>
.a 0.2
3 £3 ,
0
& £
■a 0
0 re
>v3 0 a.
3 0 j C ,
.3,t£5 0
.2
i
0
a
cm
•oai
.2 0
c
-33-33-c.i
"d T3-3
■a -a
■3'3'3'd
~.
a
sisi
S 3 3 B
rt rt re d
s 3 S
S.S
7
9
rt 3 3 3 3 3**^
3 ■ rt
3 E 3 E
3
%
F
EE8-E
ESrS-
£ ,J.-
Ff=
B
|
ESEEEES
S ' EE
E &S
ESESE
F
5
fa
-a-a-c-a
toft, o fa
ESou
.5-3
.3
&.
b Mb wfaCi. b
— fob
•a -ca
fa Ufa
U U ^ Jh ^J
.3
fa
s* »?
3
3.
gg-o
01x3-3
-§
AA
X
X J3
09
•3
o
i«« a,
0 0
■- u
a a
S3
s
&
3 « S,b 5,5 *
>-5 S < S <5 >^ s
S<es3
2 ra ca cl. 3
g
<5
>
o
0 irtj 0
CtjCO
^ z *»' (►
JuOO
C2
0
{5
3 ~ 0 O tj U tj
feloQOOOOO
^ -- S £ £
? 0 0 0 jz 0
£ ccZuZ
■53
oj 1 a
CO g ^°
Ho, J<
W M» ■ 3 -
Z: ^' 0 "o 3
?! & s e b,
iQ S ^, 3 tt
ZOOCJ
fi
1*8-21
a a g a
S ox 0 0
►■ooZo
H B g
u
•3
o
u
I
•c
a
■o
a
1
u
-.fi
■0
B"g2i
5 ra-B
6 • ||
^ a is
r: ^, y:
•a
" 3 —
3 &>
Is
_o
"3
X
g
H
p.
s
-
1
1 I'I 1
u h s . r*ls
t>,t3 rt h r ~ s
3 3 "? B to 3 «:
^u
K
IJSsJ
•3-3
a,
8
s
_, ^ - "j i aj -
c; ° i, >>£ i
3
-
<!
H
a
Q
s « § g § e
O
sa><>>
>QOO
C^><
OO
3
13
0
u
JO
s
_o
'- 3
goo.- a a S
Sd 33J 3 3_3
q t» p S q .a .a
KOOOKOO
0, . =:=; 0, 0, .
L£"3 2 2 JfyJ
rt ^ e 3 re re ^
J S r. xJJtf
ry >CkOSSfo
»-03O>i
0
5
11
Sr
i?sfilfiiiii|
^Cfe.3 b.KOO« BOB
3 3
0 0
(£35
3 -s
£ 2 3 3 BO
3 re 3 3 3 re
jr ceB:o
S • 0 . -* 0
H S^S> ^
2 00
>
0
•3 .-3-3
E-3 E 3
3 3 3 3
o£ q 0
J-ri tirere
^SSE
3
OJ 0
II
m
E
3
•3 -3 -3 -3
V 0) 01 V
z: ■ b ^
E.2! v a
oj j E
•o"i3
Sod
r.
^3
3
^ E . O . C
w o;»;3«o;
z.
. 5
/,
< • •
•o
. .05
■d"H
^>
(N « — .
0 • •fH'0 .
(0
•-* — tr.
<^ •
g *^5S-M
'-, •«• l^ CM cc t^
00
-=)
«3M-
ij CM^Jt~.— W
H
*£^~
**J3
A-r*
JS
A
XJ=£J=^-BX
N xT^a^a
j:£X£
.c
M
Q
PS BS| £ =
a 0 i^e c 0
^ u,fc,2cL,2
2bbb
•—-. — '—
-~
h
fe
W
Q
bCbbhtnUlU.
■-:.--.
a __._.__.
fa
■3
to
0 ' c5
....
. . .
• •
•
■
W ....
Q to cc
. , . .
. 1 . .
-
■S •
<->
«- *i
,
,
,
oi*t ■ " '
CM *» , ♦»
,
«>
fa
(k *p; '
• ■
• '
'
'
-a. &< >
jP3 fo ■
■
• ■
S>
gM bit
j ho to
,
s
o
o
2 = .
• ■I.
. . .
, .
.
.
JS ■ J • ■ ■
3 5 * 3 •
....
... ■ .
X
X J
CM »)
o
<o55
. .
.
. .
. •
r--t^
2"«
"-1
*"*
1
.
....
....
. .
a,
' 'a.
.
U
. .....
. . . .
-s § Sf
g
•3
13
a g.J
6t
•
•
"0
•
3.
r!
.3
3
^ . t .
0,
•' .
; •
■ •
■c£-3
a | =
1
•
•
;S 5"
CJ
f/1
1 _ •
•
•
0)
N
3
J2
J'
5, a
> c 0
3
B
a.
■ £
E
B
c,
,x
.
■>
a
W2
CJ
W
<
,
, , , ,
. . , j;
.■ tc .
3.3.
B E
,
,
,
. . B
' ■ O
....
,
i
2
1
•
■ c
0
i
Em
i 1
12
3 °
3. u
•
.1 • ■
u
1 0, . . Ill
s
tJ , 1
. B .H
g »
O *
2 5? .S
■Sj'a
■ ■
. . .
•
at
1
. 6 "8
• ' , '
n
"3c S
■i
■3
•
0 ■
• ■
a '
0
■a •
. . .
•
1
a
o
3
2
g'jfJJ
ojoo
- -. _ ~
C 3 ce 3
&:^2
^^ O B
<M . O
O fi x>
Hi
" l3
3^
CJ*
i
C9
3
a
s
3
5
C S 2 ■- ^ re H
■~ 0 »J 'S'3
IJljl
• S 3
Sill
rr, 1-3 r. H
.« 0 £ O 3.
£2 «£ 3
WO* ?cc
9)
.5
«
1 «5
6^o5ri
T*0(0
t^cc
01
0
« o5 10 if *-i <£ t-1
ocdo-i^J
»5 w «3 so
*
12
0000
iNwpjton
IO (OtOlO
Kinm."
Tf
Yy 3
694
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
I
w
»-}
to
to
<
to
O
K
D
O
o
to
<5
H
<J
O
w
>
to
to
i— i
to1
u
CO
to
P
=1
6X6X I
3 3
u
fa?
£=
111
a
1§
el
■£ *
.2 1
s •§•- ='"*■ '3 1* tea ■* S
£■3
Ufa W
8
I. 3
1) o
1
3
s
gj,
xi>
i
19 l*
g i°A "till £ C
6x 5 "3 "3 p _ ■S.-S P
sg a,
o 6xi
«3
E-3
■C „1) ,• . E D 3
. a, ft U u .3 ^ ra
^^2 "^ r8 i)
■o-S 5-ss i o a
1 Si
« U33 19 19 19 ^T3T5^---'9-3ri
Q, OS 4)0) o Ss3S"3So!'
- CO ^ - u - ~ - - - '- - ~ -
issgiisi
*s
■a
1
a?
1)
a*
3 3 '
JU
•a -a
■O
c
rt t9
19
2
«£
xx
X
S E,
da « fa fa fa w
1 1
e'e"
- h
3-1 g I
9* <9 £
— 1 9) Std
-s — •3-3TS-3-3-3 3crt-e-a-a !
SeiiSiSSs'SiSSi
eseeeeese^ee,
.S 3.S .S .= .=.£.= .Si's "3 .= .= '1
hxfafafafafafafaxxfafas
0) JJ —
.5 E
c. « S
■^ <9 5.
Sc
h U .1 14 u -t Xi U fe»j5 feh H ^
SS4SS-<-:ScS<So
ctx&ijECE-S
B.33,2£C.^ujH
* ~ s s
u is a
O '-a'-s
______ -- m —
;soct.I'-.c
SSSuoOB
U — £ a -T -J - -J ' B
C c _ C r. x ~r.Z.->
"3 &
IS
rt-a
S D
■a c
J,a "a Js • i "
;.'S
035 P3
^1;
Jl" S^L
i ■; " ■> "2 -- * "3
J — ^>— . •" _■ 1) CJ . £ J)
:3t J:au.;i.i>.
;i;iCSfci,OH3
.ss .
• 1) 0J '
fefe
;s.*.2 ,
' o-a K5 _
i- o K-a s-a
g* g JJ 6Xc9
23igSS
^ 2 s
c ™ u S
3 ^S >^°
Ph U.i. O
CM .3 60 * S A
>d «t3 'i- is t9 -a ^i 3 *;■ -a -a
IllfililJifill
ti>a .J]-a-a g>a « .
£ = . 9) 5>.
J . 13
.-= E
82s. .
txtpa ^ J: tx-j_ _
c-^^ cyto»-x — *- .»ot^tr>
•a .
U -- fab fa
o o o o
^>l>1 >. >^. >.^.t^. >. >> & ^. gj >.
coccccccccocco
fj Q 'rfS
g§ ss
H *3 — 2_
s s.
ocr> ■ oc
2 c 2
jl i ' ' » • <u t ^>^ ' ig
*19 * * « * £ 3 rt D ^C
i? &m i? S 2s-3 C3:
9) D-© " Sfi.-S-S0,9
'C 'C *• • • "C • • S ' *■ 19 rt ' tr S
Z 25 - 5J <; fe&,<i x<i
- 19
.S u g
S3 ^2
~ D O
P5 M
I ■ I • '
^S g
• c c ' ' •
5^3 ,,
,,P9 lj-2 _
c-j^ja o o 3 - £■
S&
Book I.
APPLE.
695
CO
fa
o
w
t)
o
o
H
«J
O
W
>
H
Oh
>— i
u
W
Q
■3
oc»:
"2 3
s
«£,
9
IS
Si
H
o> btsu
bcS 60
^ e
0? QJ
01 0)
&2S.
2
22
•c aC j;
.5f-d£
1
btbfl
3.19 C3
»
DKE
£
fc-o
-e-ga'
0
1*
■:c2
L ^
OOO
O
"8
l"8"
a; -~>
0
■8 -a
•3 c« co
|
■d-d
— *d-d
a s
g c
■sbb
t: « tts
2 s s
s
%BB
u
fafa
Ofafa
A
A -A
a
e
e <u 2
111
«3
gJN
.0.
at
-sO
teuO
"2 '•%
0
^ g-o
8
<3
rt >- rt
* • ?
1 fi
0) 3J
0) tu
00
PmJxQ
03 0 C a)
O S3 0.0 >
U-"1 OOP
6C6C- ££a s»
u ^ o d 2 >-
o>
•* to .J 1^ CO
11 tO . HrH
•- L i £ i
o o o o o
li .
* C bo
■2 5.S
5 wg
111
<u o
"8 S
« rt
CU 0)
u i-t
•8=3.2
o"CjT
060
a S M S
g.5 ao tu
fee si ^ a> »*
S3 w O." .
■2 3 ^ 3 tu
? ». In . cu
O— ' 0(*J ^3
&^3 S3 .. a,
u±! u r_ u
as 3 rt >^rt
1 ?£
23
■d to
IS
S" o c g-a
^^S 2 ^
•HiSS-g
S a* j- t£ J3
> g
*■? >«
£-a &
sf2|
I*-
Sag
w a» tu
«ES
goo
o > o
§§28§
•3 id
'&3
3
'S
C3
g
01
3
a
sub-a
acid
auste
sour
auste
'3
sa^-d
i«
■d
•d
'd'd'd'd'd
T3
c s
G) IS
«■««§
-a
■d
a
a
8 E
S .a
3
B
« « §
if 11
|
CO
S3
E
U
EESEE
•- 1- u. u ^
E
ESS
BBS
U-'-L*
[fabnCbfo
Pb
■g ■
la
fafafafafa
fa
fafafa
2 >-i
IS
>,22>>
ci rt r3 cC
5
fa
§
S
O
a
s
it) XI
0 o>
O fa
u
■d
Oj 0>
> »
IS •«
- 3
•g ■«
0
h
0
S3
o>
&
JS JS
2^ 2«»5
SfaSfafa
S3* *5 S3 « J
« " ca " "
•-sO^OO
1 "gi
t- ~ '— be
c
o>
fa
3i
tu
CO
N
■d
A Si
0— 0
O S
§ S S3 S3
X « ta to
O
0
0
a; o|)
•d
m ot'd'd
Cfi
0
I
I
1
-0
c
t3
C
1
<u &
lit
•d s-,!:
. .e-S
K
0
s
i^ >>
•d
*^ W'O^'^'O
a
5"d 3
as a -a
W o> 0
§ 'a
C 0
rr, >'a
«oo
cu « Si.
n MtSC
— 1- -
«j< « n
OQ
5 +j *j *-■
ra 0; OJ tu
2 a 8 |
Lj
tt
B
&
O) S3
M
§a«^|2
c
1
0
O
E
3
1
01
•a
■5 35
03
pJoiaJpqco"'
tu
O
2"2g
Otfco
CO
w
a
Ph
Pm
•<<
/.
H
«
O
H
^-■d-d-d
0 0 q q
1
oc
w
Cm
Cm
=8_
I'd-d"
3 tu tu
CJO/3
c3'c2
1 SI?
13
'S
0
0
-d mm '3
eCS«o
tfoooo
S3 E
0 ^
01 —
•d ca *
S3 ° 2
BicjO'u
T3 bCca *rt
giJcccn
5j
d
s
r.
s
ta
01
tu
m
E .
S3 o>
5§
S
CO
* Ol 0) * "
£ bcbcS E
be
N
-
.J ■ <»
■d^-d £f
'-J P ~-> S
^ -
0
F ti
oi
w
H
« M
bj
M
ti
a t»
no -o>
bfi
<q
•-
0
0 .
S
O— 0>CVF2
>f3
00 ooo>
a 11?
fc, fc-
t L ■- L
0000
6
E
0
fa
y
"3
y
0
fa
•» a
1 a
CO ^
W a
■J O
fa —.
0
X
?->>i >. >»>^
0 0 0 c 0
fafafafafa
>>
e
0
fa
ate
0 00
i< fafa
faO«!u
E %
fa tN
< -
B E
M
01 01
&!
II
cc£
I
go,.-. »^s
& CI]
ii
tu3
lE|
■d >.
|S
-i
■c8
T3
o v
««*
00
, tu tu
0*°B coco
:? -3
■^< >o to
&
> 01
|£
Kg
S3£
23
00
*Bovey
*Cockagee
Dymmoclc red
Dredge's seedl
* Dutch queeiu
Embroidered
E verlasting
a? 01
00
0 1-^ ?5 t*i *^ 0 to
cjepQsSS
"8 , -Mil
a <u *•
■sg ' Sx
,?-[3 5 O 4)
<s. u e ■■3
•Ss g g-»2
8 8 •? S--S
faj ♦ UiU!
i-^oci ci c3 —
OO C — n
Yy 4
696
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III
^
Si
Be
ptL £ ~ « "w c& 2 tan *** ^ £«
111 ^f.Bllil B
8*3
E 3
f£S |£i|.itiM| |i
o o ^3 c o
o o o o
joo o 2>:si2h5 co-5 C3 ©<
E ^ 3.1.
c=.3 ~.i
5
•
•-> o § •» 8
£t)3 B*S»„£
jot
r£^ > cs
Q
"C " E?
av.
ost
It. a
>>
be
p| I^oS**
cj&xg
a
-
|
li?*til tig's S
> n «
_-
e
rt
-J.
-_-? g5>&^ ■ &«■
b*£ .
» g, g H
5
J |S= .2, 2* 8 ;.£ -[5;
s.x u s
e e.s>
&
-
W
=£x <;<<;=,
Z£
Si-"- — . _, -
*J
22s S-S S g
.Soe cS o c
w w
c
o
CO
S •£
£ l
>-) g
P-i I
h i
o §
« 1
P SI
o J
^ a
< ■§
5 !
o i
a
M c
" I
H 2
u £
< |
o
2
C3 «
z a
£ 3 £ 3 3 ■§ JltS " Sfl '- 3
S-a S S si -g g "S "5 ■£, Scs
•s — -c -3 *3-3-c ^ -s^t: ■O'd
sjs 3 sscs- cst;a a a
S 2 S £ SSSJ1 ESS E S
cS —
■d-d
SS
Eg
6 f
•CT3 T3 -0
c c c c
S O rt a
ESS E
s s s
>E
;;3 C -.*;Zx O'^'H P
j s s
CU O
g^^ II I
•3 5 ' u u h
-8
Sii's rt-v-i. s u ■- i>. rt.d-
<5 «C
•3-S -3 Tl'13'a
c = c acq
S = 3 3 3 3
. _ .
a 52»S
^
o .
B .
tt-p
t£ t£ 3 ^ tTj
■n
CS
►-rt
— \r. —
*-
S r:
f'-r
(Cx^
d-*
C=c
o5to
1
C 3
CCS
cn w r: ^: —
J3£ J3
- -
=3
3 O
3 3 3
O
c ; r c s
e o
fat.
&.U.U.
-
— — — — —
W"
hh
— —
|S". & f
fe 8 8s'
■1 s ■
o
H
3 e
k'5
z
- ?
IT
E
• c
= -r
;|',3
^ O K
1 0
c
i a
til
5 3
«•*
■ »2 .
.- c
o -
g2
3^
ggs
<<2
2 <
X.
<H
<<!
III
3
a
u.
"^
^
« — X
CO
[3
O
c5
_ ,;
<u
O co
*
■?
"rt ^
*3j
ce
s£-
|
on
K
£ Em
3 3
CB
X
a>
C-
Ph
o
cc-
3C0C
o
OB
CO
CI
o
5
00
, c
1-
e
00
C 3
so ■§
He
• s
5S
=
« t&5
Pi S
5
X-3
sr
•S £
o
it a
3S
tx"S
X
3 *
—
« J1 •S J1
c: rs
8 £
~^c -3:^^^
llllll |
<« < <
; 3 9
• s a 1 S
:~ rt^: c£
c ^ a:
»3 £^
< b.
i3
a
ar
^. CJ
||
u
1 |m
j<
c?
o
En
o o
c
'S.
a"!
3. 5
.
S
£
M
1 r-
S o
?i a
SS|J
*x"
1 3
S o
3 3
c
«
o
X
<y ^. rt
£ cl
Ct-x
e
S
- x
■ffb
||
Sx
tr 5
^S3
.Si
o
C3
K
O
O
J
"3
><
C< « <t!4C
c: ~ — c^ r;-?« *rno t-sc
ten ki« K; to ■»- "•
Book I. APPLE. 697
4378. Propagation. The -apple, like most other hardy trees, may be propagated by seeds, cuttings,
suckers, layers, or engrafting : by seeds, for obtaining new varieties, and by the other modes lor continu-
ing such as are in esteem.
4379. By seeds. The first business here is, the choice of the seeds ; which should be taken from fruits,
having the properties it is desired to perpetuate or improve in the greatest degree. The sorts of apples
proper for crossing or reciprocal impregnation, appear to be those which have a great many qualities
in common, and some different qualities. Thus the golden pippin has been crossed by other pippins or
rennets, and not by calvils or codlings. A small-sized apple, crossed by a large sort, will be more certain
of producing a new variety than the above mode; but will be almost equally certain of producing a
variety destitute of valuable qualities ; the qualities of parents of so opposite natures being, as it were,
crudely jumbled together in the offspring.
4380. Knight's mode of cutting out the stamens of the blossom to be impregnated, and afterwards, when
the stigma is mature, introducing the pollen of the other parent, is unquestionably the most scientific
mode of performing the operation. In this way he produced those excellent apples, the Downton, red and
yellow Ingestrie, and Grange pippins, from the same parents ; viz., the seed of the orange pippin, and
the pollen of the golden pippin. The Brindgwood pippin he produced from golden pippin blossoms (di-
vested of their stamens) dusted with the pollen of the golden harvey apple. The seeds may be sown in
autumn, in light earth, covered an inch, and either in pots or beds. The end of the first year they should
be transplanted into nursery rows, from six inches to a foot apart every way. Afterwards they should be
removed to where they are to produce fruit ; and for this purpose the greater the distance between the
plants the better. It should not be less than six or eight feet every way. The quickest way to bringthem
into a bearing state, Williams, of Pitmaston, considers, (Hort. Trans, vol. i. 333.) is to let the plants be fur-
nished with lateral shoots from the ground upwards ; so disposed as that the leaves of the upper shoots
may not shade those situated underneath, pruning away only trifling shoots. This mode of treatment
occurred to him on reflecting on Knight's Theory of the Circulation of the Sap. Observing the change
in the appearance of the leaves of his seedling plants as the trees advanced in growth, he thought it might
be possible to hasten the progress of the plants, and procure that peculiar organisation of the leaf, neces-
sary to the formation of blossom-buds, at a much earlier age. He in consequence adopted the mode
above described, and succeeded in procuring fruit from seedling apples at four, five, and six years of age,
instead of waiting eight, ten, and even fifteen years, which must be the case by the usual mode of planting
close, and pruning to naked stems.
4381. Macdonald, an eminent Scotch horticulturist, has also succeeded in obtaining fruit from seed-
lings at an early period by grafting, already stated (2014.) as one of the uses of that mode of propagation.
In 1808, he selected some blossoms of the nonpareil, which he impregnated with the pollen of the golden
pippin and of the Newton pippin. When the apples were fully ripe, he selected some of the best, from
which he took the seeds, and sowed them in pots, which he placed in a frame. He had eight or nine
seedlings, which he transplanted into the open ground, in spring 1809. In 1811, he picked out a few of
the strongest plants, and put them singly into pots. In spring 1812, he observed one of the plants show-
ing fruit-buds. He tooi. a few of the twigs, and grafted them on a healthy stock on a wall ; and in 1813
he had a few apples. This year (1816) his seedling yielded several dozens, and also his grafts ; and he
mentions, that the apples from the grafts are the largest. He is of opinion that in giving names to seed-
lings, raised in Scotland, the word " Scotch" should be mentioned.
4382. A very common practice among those who raise fruit-trees from seed, is, in the second or third
season, to select such plants only as have broad and roundish leaves, throwing away the rest ; experi-
ence having taught, that the former more frequently produce fruit of improved qualities, or at least
larger, than those plants which have narrow-pointed leaves. The width and thickness of the leaf, Knight
observes, " generally indicates the size of the future apple ; but will by no means convey any correct idea
of the merits of the future fruit. Where these have the character of high cultivation, the qualities of the
fruit will be far removed from those of the native species ; but the apple may be insipid or highly fla-
vored, green, or deeply colored, and of course well or ill calculated to answer the purposes of the planter.
An early blossom in the spring, and an early change of color in the autumnal leaf, would naturally be
supposed to indicate a fruit of early maturity"; but I have never been able to discover any criterion of
this kind on which the smallest dependence maybe placed. The leaves of some varieties will become
yellow and fall off, leaving the fruit green and immature ; and the leaves in other kinds will retain their
verdure long after the fruit has perished. The plants whose buds in the annual wood are full and promi-
nent, are usually more productive than those whose buds are small and shrunk in the bark ; but their
future produce will depend much on the power the blossoms possess of bearing the cold, and
this power varies in the different varieties, and can only be known from experience. Those which pro-
duce their leaves and blossoms rather early in the spring are generally to be preferred, for though they
are more exposed to injury from frost, they less frequently suffer from the attacks of insects ; the more
common cause of failure. The disposition" to vegetate early or late in the spring, is like almost every
other quality in the apple-tree, transferred in different degrees to its offspring ; and the planter must
therefore seek those qualities in the parent tree which he wishes to find in the future seedling plants.
The most effective method I have been able to discover of obtaining such fruits as vegetate very early
in the spring, has been by introducing the farina of the Siberian crab into the blossom of a rich and
early apple, and by transferring in the same manner the farina of the apple to the blossom of the Si-
berian crab. The leaf and the habit of many of the plants, that I have thus obtained, possess much
of the character of the apple, whilst they vegetate as early in the spring as the crab of Siberia, and pos-
sess, at least, an equal power of bearing cold ; and I possess two plants of this family, which are quite
as hardy as the most austere crab of our woods."
4383. Abercrombie observes that, " as the codling is a sort found to change very little from seed, or not
for the worse, new plants of it are sometimes raised by sowing the kernels, not by way of experiment
for a new uncertain variety, but with some dependence on having a good sort resembling the parent."
4384. By cuttings. Every variety of apple may be grown from cuttings ; though
some with much greater facility than others. All those of the burknott and codling
tribes grow as well this way as by any other, and some allege, that the trees so raised
are not liable to canker (Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 120.), which is supposed to be owing
to their " putting out no tap-root, but spreading their numerous fibres from the knot or
burr horizontally.'' Even the golden pippin may be continued in this way, and the trees
have remained seven years in perfect health, when grafts taken not only from the same
tree, but from the very branch, part of which was divided into cuttings, cankered in two
or three years. " All apple-trees raised in this way," Biggs observes, " from healthy
one-year-old branches, with blossom-buds upon them, will continue to go on bearing the
finest fruit, in a small compass, for many years. Such trees are peculiarly proper for
forcing, and not liable to canker." [Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 65.) The cuttings are to be
chosen from the young wood of horizontal or oblique branches, rather than from upright
ones ; from six to eight inches or more in length, with a small portion of old wood at
698 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
the lower end. Cut off the tip of the shoot, and all the buds, excepting two or three
next the tip or upper extremity ; then smooth the sections at the lower end, and insert
them three or four inches in sandy loam, pressing the earth firmly to them, watering,
and covering with a hand-glass. The proper time for this operation is early in February,
and the glass should not be touched, excepting to give water, till the shoots have sprung
an inch or two. Shade during the mid-day sun, and begin to harden by giving air in
July ; finally remove the glass in August ; and in October transplant to nursery rows, or
in pots, according to future intention. With the burknott tribe, all that is necessary is to
plant the cuttings in a shady border, and treat them like those of the gooseberry or currant.
4385. By layers. The success of this 'mode of propagation may be considered as certain ; as it has
nothing peculiar in its application to the apple, we need only refer to general directions (1993.) for per-
forming the operation. The after treatment of the plants is the same with that for those originated by
the foregoing or following modes.
4386. By suckers. This mode is generally confined to the paradise and creeping apple for stocks.
4387. By grafting and inoculation. This may be said to be the universal practice in propagating the
apple. The first consideration is the choice of stocks ; of these, there are five sorts in common use : —
Seedling apples, used for full standards, and riders or wall standards ; seedling crabs, for standards
and half standards ; codling apples, from layers or cuttings, for dwarfs and espaliers ; paradise apples,
or doucins, from layers or cuttings, for low dwarfs and trained ; and creeper apples, from layers or cut-
tings, for the best dwarfs or bushes. Dubreuil, gardener at Rouen, recommends the doucin for clayey
and light soils, and a free stock for such as are chalky and siliceous. {Hort. Trans, iv. 566.)
4388. Stocks of seedling apples. The seeds should be selected from the fruit of vigorous growing young
or middle-aged healthy trees ; but when wanted in large quantities, they are procured from cider
makers ; private propagators will adopt the first mode. The sowing and after treatment is the same as
for seedling crabs.
4389. Seedling crabs. " A preference," Knight observes, " has generally and justly been given to ap-
ple-stocks raised from the seeds of the native kind, or crab, as being more hardy and durable than those
produced from the apple. The offspring of some varieties of the crab, particularly of those introduced
from Siberia, vegetate much earlier in the spring than the other trees of the same species; and thence
the inexperienced planter will probably be led to suppose, that such stocks would accelerate the veget-
ation of other varieties in the spring, and tend to produce an early maturity of the fruit in autumn.
In this, however, he will be disappointed. The office of the stock is, in every sense of the word, subser-
vient ; and it acts only in obedience to the impulse it receives from the branches : the only qualities,
therefore, which are wanting to form a perfect stock, are vigor and hardiness."
4390. Seeds, sowing, and culture. In recollecting the seeds to sow, it must be remembered, that the
habits as well as the diseases of plants are often hereditary, and attention should be paid to the state of
the tree from which the seeds are taken ; it should be large and of free growth, and rather in a growing
state than one of maturity or decay. The crab-trees, which stand in cultivated grounds, generally grow
more freely and attain a larger stature than those in the woods, and therefore appear to claim a prefer-
ence. The seeds should be taken from the fruit before it is ground for vinegar, and sown in beds of good
mould an inch deep. From these the plants should be removed in the following autumn to the nursery,
and planted in rows at three feet distance from each other, and eighteen inches between each plant.
Being here properly protected from cattle and hares, they may remain till they become large enough to
be planted out ; the ground being regularly worked and kept free from weeds.
4391. Codling stocks are raised chiefly from layers, which, at the end of the season, are taken off, and
planted in nursery rows two feet between the rows, and one foot plant from plant.
4392. Paradise, or as they are called by the French, doucin stocks, are raised either from layers or suck-
ers ; and stocks from creeping apples (so named from their aptitude to throw up suckers), or the Butch
paradise, chiefly from the latter mode. They may be planted in nursery rows somewhat closer than the
codling stocks.
4393. All stocks require to stand in the nursery till they are from half an inch to an inch thick, at the
height at which they are to be grafted ; such as are intended for full standards or riders will, in general,
require to grow three or four years before being fit for this operation ; those for half standards two years,
and those for dwarfs one year. The ground between them must be kept clear of weeds, and stirred
every winter ; the side shoots of the plants, at least to the height at which they are intended to be grafted,
rubbed off as they appear, and all suckers carefully removed. Where budding is adopted, the stocks
may be worked at nearly half the diameter of stem requisite for grafting ; and stocks for dwarfs planted
in autumn or spring may be inoculated the succeeding summer. No great advantage, however, is gained
by this practice, as such plants require to stand at least another year, before they have produced their
bud-shoots.
4394. Soil and situation of the nursery. " A difference of opinion appears always to
have prevailed respecting the quality of the soil proper for a nursery ; some have pre-
ferred a very poor, and others a very rich soil ; and both perhaps are almost equally
wrong. The advocates for a poor soil appear to me to have been misled by transferring
the feelings of animals to plants, and inferring that a change from want to abundance
must be agreeable and beneficial to both. But plants in a very poor soil become stunted
and unhealthy, and do not readily acquire habits of vigorous growth, when removed from
it. In a soil which has been highly manured, the growth of young apple-trees is ex-
tremely rapid ; and their appearance, during two or three years, generally indicates the
utmost exuberance of health and vigor. These are, however, usually the forerunners of
disease, and the ' canker's desolating tooth' blasts the hopes of the planter. In choosing
the situation for a nursery, too much shelter, or exposure, should be equally avoided ;
and a soil, nearly similar to that in which the trees are afterwards to grow, should be se-
lected, where it can be obtained. Pasture ground, or unmanured meadow, should be
preferred to old tillage, and a loam of moderate strength and of considerable depth to all
other soils." (TV. on App. and Pear.)
4395. Grafting. The first business is to select the scions, the principles of which have
been already "noticed (2043). At whatever season scions are to be inserted, Knight ob-
serves, " the branches, which are to form them, should be taken from the parent stock
during the winter, and not later than the end of the preceding year : for if the buds have
begun to vegetate in the smallest degree, and they begin with the increasing influence of
Book I. APPLE. 699
the sun, the vigor of the shoots, during the first season, will be diminished, and the
grafts will not succeed with equal certainty ; though a graft of the apple-tree very rarely
fails, unless by accidental injury, or great want of skill in the operator. The amputated
branches must be kept alive till wanted, by having the end of each planted in the ground,
a few inches deep in a shady situation."
4396. Stocks destined to form standard trees, may either be grafted at the usual height at which the
lateral branches are allowed to diverge, which is commonly six feet, or they may be grafted near the
ground, and a single shoot trained from the graft, so as to form the stem of the tree. The propriety of
grafting near the ground, or at the height of six or seven feet, will depend on the kind of fruit to be
propagated, whether it be quite new and just beginning to bear, or a middle-aged variety. In new and
luxuriant varieties, and these only should be propagated, it will be advantageous to graft when the stocks
are three years old, as the growth of such will be more rapid, smooth, and upright than that of the crab,
and there will be no danger of these being injured by beginning to bear too early. Middle-aged varieties
will be most successfully propagated by planting stocks of six or seven foot high, and letting them remain
ungrafted till they become firmly rooted in the places in which the trees are to stand. One graft only
should be inserted in each stock ; for when more are used, they are apt to divide when loaded with fruit,
and to cleave the stock, having no natural bond or connection with each other. When the stocks are
too large for a single scion, I would recommend that the grafts be inserted in the branches, and not in
the principal stem. This practice is not uncommon In various parts of England ; and is general in
Germany, with free stocks, where, however, they often neglect to graft the trees ; and thus, as Neill ob-
serves, produce an endless variety of sorts, some good, but most of them little better than crabs.
4387. Stocks, intended to form half standards, are grafted at three or four feet from the ground ; and
those for dwarfs at eight or ten inches, or lower. Miller and Knight agree in recommending to graft
near the ground where lasting and vigorous trees are wanted ; but the practice of the continental gar-
deners, and the opinions of some in this country, are in favor of leaving a stem below the graft of not
less than a foot in length.
4398. The kind of grafting generally adopted for moderate-sized stocks is the whip or tongue method
(2038.), or the new mode of saddle-grafting (2033.) adopted by Knight ; and the general time for the ap-
ple is the end of February and greater part of March. Much depends on the season and situation ; the
guiding principle is, to make choice of the time when the sap of the stock is in full motion ; while that of
the scions, from having been previously cut off and placed in the shade, is less so.
4399. The common season for budding the apple is July ; as there is nothing peculiar to this tree in
performing that operation, we refer to the general directions. (2050.)
4400. Transplanting grafted trees in the nursery. " It has been recommended,"
Knight observes, " to remove grafted trees once or twice during the time they remain in
the nursery, under the idea of increasing the number of their roots ; but I think this
practice only eligible with trees which do not readily grow when transplanted. I have
always found the growth of young apple-trees to be much retarded, and a premature
disposition to blossom to be brought on by it ; and I could not afterwards observe that
those trees, which had been twice removed, grew better than others. It has also been
supposed that many small roots, proceeding immediately from the trunk, are, in the future
growth of the tree, to be preferred to a few which are large ; but as the large roots of
necessity branch into small, which consequently extend to a greater distance, the advan-
tages of more transplantations than from the seed-bed to the nursery, and thence to the
garden or orchard, may reasonably be questioned."
4401. The choice of sorts depends on the object in view. The first thing an inex-
perienced gardener has to do is to consider the various domestic uses of the apple, and
then determine what is wanted, according to the family or market to be supplied ; the
next thing is to consider how those wants may be supplied in his given soil, situation,
and circumstances ; and the last thing is to study the catalogue of sorts, and select ac-
cordingly. In every garden and private orchard, apples for ten different purposes are
desirable : —
4402. For summer culinary use, as the
Codlings, while not fully grown or imperfectly ripe, which are fit for using in June, July, and August.
4403. For summer eating or table use, as the
Jennetting, pomroy, &c. which ripen I Margaret summer pearmain, &c. which I Kentish fill-basket, Hawthorndean, &c.
in the end of June or in July ripen in July I which ripen in August.
4404. For autumn baking, as the
Codlings and Burknott's, red streaks, 1 Piles's russet, Carlisle codling, cat's I Wormsley pippin, golden Harvey, queen-
Eve apple, courtpendu, nonsuch, &c. head, embroidered, &c. which ripen ing, golden russet, which ripen in
which ripen in September in October I November.
4405. For autumn table use, as the
Kirton and Dalmahov pippins, Loan's 1 Orange and ribstone pippins, grey I Franklin's golden, and Borsdorf pippins,
pearmain, colville, "Kent, godolphin, rennet, fameuse, violet, &c. which Dredge's russet, margil, &c. which
&c. which ripen in September | ripen in October I ripen in November.
4406. For winter culinary use, as the
Minier's dumpling, Burknott, John I Hall-door, royal pearmain,Dutch queen- I Brindgwood pippin, cockagee, tanker-
apple, Mansfield tart, &c. which are ing, Adam's russet, which are fit to ton, box-apple, &c. which are fit to
fit to use in December use in January I use in February .
4407. For winter table use, as the
Golden and Kentish pippins, golden and I The Norfolk storing, Hubbard's, Syke- I Dredge's Queen Charlotte, Fearns,Skerm's
Canadian rennets, brandy, &c. which house, white courtpendu, &c. which kernel, and Dalmahoy pippins, royal
are tit to eat in December are fit to eat in January pearmain, &c which are fit to eat in
February.
4408. For spring culinary use, as the
Quince, white colville, Lord Camden's 1 Spencer pippin, Trevoider rennet, Mac- I Norfolk paradise, Loan s pearmain.
rennet, winter pearmain, which keep donald's Scotch nonpareil, Spaniard, English rennet, &c. which keep till
till the end of March | &c. which keep till the end oi April | the end of May.
700 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
4409. For spring table use, as the
Hollow-eyed, Cornwall rennet, Hughes's I Cockle and WTiitmore pippins, golden I Stone and spencer pippins, Roval George,
new golden pippin, &c. which keep till and Piles's russet, Wheeler's extreme, Ward, &c. which keep till "the end of
the end of March &c. which keep till the end of April May.
4410. For summer culinary use, till the apple season returns, as the
Lord Cheney's green, Baxter's pearmain, stoup, codling, &c. I Norfolk beaufin, Norfolk storing, French crab, which keep till
which keep till the end of June the end of July.
4411. F or summer table use, till the apple season returns, as the
Dredge's fame, oaken peg, carnation, &c. which keep till the 1 Nonpareil, Yorkshire greening, Norfolk colman, which keep
end of June till the end of July.
4412. Other sources of choice. Another source of choice, under each of the above heads, may respect the
soil, situation, and climate of the garden, or orchard, in which they are to be planted, or the character,
whether of dwarfs, espaliers, or wall-trees, which they are to assume there. The winter and spring table
apples may require a south wall in one district, while in'another they may attain equal maturity as standards
or espaliers. Where there is ample room, a selection of large sorts, as the Alexander and Baltimore apples,
or of such as are the most beautifully colored, as the violet, carnation, &c. may be made to gratify the eye ;
where room is wanting, useful sorts and great bearers are to be preferred, as the golden and ribstone pippin,
summer pearmain, codlings, grey russet, summer and winter colvilles, &c. In general, small-sized fruit,
as the Harvey s and Granges, are to be preferred for standards, as less likely to break down the branches
of the trees, or be shaken down by winds ; middling sorts for walls and dwarfs, and the largest of all for
espaliers. In respect to a soil liabie to produce canker, sorts raised from cuttings may be desirable, as the
Burknott and codling tribe ; and where an occupier of a garden has only a short interest therein, such as
come into immediate bearing, as the Burknotts, and others from cuttings, and the Hawthorndean, Apius's
apple, and other short-lived dwarf-sorts on Paradise or creeping stocks, may deserve the preference. On
the contrary, where a plantation is made on freehold property, or with a view to posterity, new varieties
on crab or free stocks, should always be chosen, as the Grange, Ingestrie, Harvey, &c. Some excellent
sorts will grow and produce crops every where, as the Hawthorndean, codling, and Ribston pippin ;
the latter of which, Nicol says, will grow at John o'Groat's house, and maybe planted in Cornwall ; others
are shy bearers in cold situations, as the Newtown pippin of America, and most of the newly imported
French sorts.
4413. Choice of plants and planting. This depends in some degree on the object in
view, the richness of the soil, and the shelter ; young trees are more likely to succeed in
exposed sites and poor soils, but the apple will bear transplanting at a greater age than
any other fruit-tree. It may be planted in any open weather from November till February.
4414. Soil and site for permanent planting. Any common soil, neither extremely
sandy, gravelly, nor clayey, on a dry sub-soil, and with a free exposure, will suit this
tree. On wet, hilly sub-soils, it will do no good, but after being planted a few years
will become cankered, and get covered with moss. "Where fruit-trees must be planted
on such soils, they should first be rendered as dry as possible by under-draining ; next,
provision made for carrying off the rain-water by surface gutters ; and, lastly, the ground
should not be trenched above a foot deep, and the trees planted rather in hillocks of earth,
above the surface, than in pits dug into it. There is no point of more importance than
shallow trenching and shallow planting in cold wet soils, in which deep pits and deep
pulverisation only serve to aggravate their natural evils of moisture and cold. [Sang, in
Caled. Hort. Mem. iv. 140.)
4415. Knight observes, that " the apple-tree attains its largest stature in a deep strong loam or marly
clay ; but it will thrive in all rich soils, which are neither very sandy nor wet at bottom. It succeeds best,"
he adds, " in situations which are neither high nor remarkably low. In the former its blossoms are fre-
quently injured by cold winds, and in the latter by spring frosts, particularly when the trees are planted in
the lowest part of a confined valley. A south, or south-east aspect is generally preferred, on account of
the turbulence of the west, and the coldness of north winds ; but orchards succeed well in all aspects ;
and where the violence of the west wind is broken by an intervening rise of ground, a south-west aspect
will be found equal to any."
4416. Abercrombie says, " all the sorts of apple-tree may be planted in any good common soil, with a
free exposure, whether that of a garden, orchard, or field ; so that the ground be neither very low nor ex-
cessively wet, nor subject to inundation in winter. Avoid, as far as possible, very strong clayey and gra-
velly soils."
4417. Mode of bearing. " In all the varieties of the common apple, the mode of bearing is upon small
terminal and lateral spurs, or short robust shoots, from half an inch to two inches long, which spring from
the younger branches of two or more years' growth, appearing first at the extremity, and extending gra-
dually down the side : the same bearing-branches and fruit-spurs continue many years fruitful " (Aber-
crombie.)
4418. Pruning. "As, from the mode of bearing, apple-trees do not admit of short-
ening in the general bearers, it should only be practised occasionally : first, where any
extend out of limits, or grow irregular and deformed ; and secondly, a good shoot con-
tiguous to a vacant space is shortened to a few eyes, to obtain an additional supply of
young wood from the lower buds of the shoot for filling up the vacancy. But to shorten
without such a motive, is not merely the cutting away of the first and the principal bear-
ing part of the branches, but also occasions their putting forth many strong useless wood-
shoots where fruit-spurs would otherwise arise ; and both effects greatly tend to retard the
trees in bearing ; whereas the fertile branches being cultivated to their natural length,
shoot moderately, and have fruit-spurs quite to the extremity." {Abercrombie.)
4419. Espaliers and ivall-trees require a summer and winter pruning.
4420. The summer pruning. Train in the young shoots of the same year, which are likely to be wanted
in the figure, and retrench them where ill placed or too numerous ; forks the trees continue bearing many
years on the same branches, they only require occasional supplies of young wood ; therefore, begin in May
or June to pinch off or cut out close all fore-right, ill placed, and superfluous shoots ; retaining only some
of the promising laterals in the more vacant parts, with a leader to each branch ; train in these between
the mother branches, at their full length, all summer ; or, where any vacancy occurs, some strong conti-
Book I. APPLE. 701
guous shoot may be shortened in June to a few eyes, to furnish several laterals the same season. Keep
the shoots in all parts closely trained, both to preserve the regularity of the espalier, and to admit the air
and sun to the advancing fruit.
4421. The winter pruning may be performed from November till the beginning of April. This compre-
hends the regulation of the wood-branches, the bearers, and of the young shoots. First, examine the
new shoots trained in the preceding summer ; and if too abundant, retain only a competency of well placed
and promising laterals, to furnish vacant parts, with a leading shoot to each parent branch. Continue
these mostly at full length, as far as there is room. Cut out close the superabundant and irregular young
shoots ; and where any of the elder branches appear unfruitful, cankery, or decayed, cut them either clean
out, or prune short to some good lateral, as may seem expedient. Also prune into order any branches
which are very irregular, or too extended. Carefully preserve all the eligible natural fruit-spurs ; but re-
move all unfruitful stumps and snags, and large projecting rugged spurs ; cutting close to the old wood.
As each espalier is pruned, let the old and new branches be lard in at convenient distances, according to
the size of the fruit, four, five, or six inches asunder, and neatly tied or nailed to the wall or trellis.
(Abercrombie.)
4422. Training espaliers. The following mode, as described by Mearns, is the most general, and by using
stakes, which do not answer so well for any other species of espalier-tree as for apples, is also the most eco-
nomical : — In the first stage of training, the stakes require to stand as close together as twelve or fourteen
inches, and to be arranged in regular order to the full height of five feet, with a rail slightly fastened on
the top of them for neatness sake, as well as to steady them. If stakes of small ash, Spanish chestnut, or
the like, from coppices or thinnings of young plantations, be used, they will last for three or four years,
provided they are from one inch and a half to two inches in diameter, at a foot from the bottom. They need
not be extended further in the first instance than the distance to be considered probable the trees may
reach in three years' growth ; at that period, or the following season, they will all require to be renewed,
and the new ones may be placed on each side, to the extent that the trees maybe thought to rdquire while
these stakes last, finishing the top as before, with a rail. As the trees extend their horizontal branches, and
acquire substance, the two stakes on each side of the one that supports the centre leader of the tree, can be
spared, and removed to any of the extremities where wanted. And as the tree extends further, and ac-
quires more substance, every other stake will be found sufficient ; and the centre stake can be spared also,
after the leader has reached its destined height, and is of a sufficient substance to support itself erect.
When such a form of training is completed, and the branches of sufficient magnitude, about six, eight, or
twelve stakes will be sufficient for the support of the horizontal branches, even when they have the burden
of a full crop of fruit. At any other time, about six stakes to each tree will be all that are necessary.
4423. In selecting trees far the usual horizontal training, look out for those which have three fine shoots.
Or it is better to plant them one year where they are to remain to get their roots well established, and then
to head them down to within eight or nine inches of the ground, and to encourage three shoots from the
top of each stool' {fig. 483. a), so that the first and lowermost horizontal shoots may be tied down within
ten inches of the ground.
4424. In the pruning season cut down the middle shoot of the three, reserving what is left as an upright
leader, its length being about twelve inches from the base of the other two, and train these in a horizontal
position {b), fixing the middle shoot, which was cut clown perpendicularly to the stake it is planted against.
But if it is against a wall or pales, it may be better to zigzag the upright leader, for the more regular dis-
tribution of the sap, and when that is intended, the leader should be left a little longer, to allow of its
being bent. In espalier training this zigzagging is not so readily done, nor is it necessary where the trees
are not intended to rise high. It is always necessary, in the course of training the young wood across the
stakes, in summer, to have large osier, or similar rods, to tie them to, in order to guide the shoots of the
year in a proper direction. The proper ties are small osier twigs.
.4425. The following summer encourage three other shoots in the same way as the season before (c), then
cut off the middle shoot at ten, twelve, or fifteen inches above the base of the other two, and train these
last as in the former season (</) ; and so continue training, year after year, till the trees have reached their
destined height. {Mearns, in Hort. Trans, v. 46.) An improvement on this mode consists in cutting down
the leading shoot during summer, in the manner practised by Harrison, of Wortley Hall, as described in
the succeeding paragraphs.
4426. Training against a wall. The horizontal mode is unquestionably to be preferred
for so vigorous a growing tree as the apple ; and Harrison's mode of conducting the
process (Tr. on Fruit- Trees, 1823. ch. xx.) appears to us much the best. The pe-
culiarity of his method is, that instead of training the leading shoot in a serpentine or
zigzag manner with Hitt or Mearns, to make it send out side shoots, he adopts the
much more simple and effectual mode of cutting down the current year's shoots in June ;
by which means he gains annually a year, as side shoots are produced on the young wood
of that yeai-, as well as on last year's wood which it sprang from.
4427. The tree being a maiden plant is the first year headed down to seven buds. Every bud pushing,
two of the shoots, the third and fourth, counting upwards, must be rubbed off when they are three inches
in length ; the uppermost shoot must be trained straight up the wall for a leading stem, and the remaining
four horizontally along the wall. The leading shoot having attained about fifteen inches in length, cut it
down to eleven inches. From the shoots that will thus be produced select three, one to be trained as a
leader, and two as side branches. Proceeding in this way for seven years, the tree will have reached the
top of a wall twelve feet high. With weak trees, or trees in very cold late situations, this practice will not
be advisable, as the *wood produced would be too weak, or would not ripen ; but in all ordinary situations,
it is obviously a superior mode to any that has been hitherto described in books. In pruning the spurs of
apple and other trees, Harrison differs from many gardeners in keeping them short, never allowing one
spur to have more than three or four fruit-buds, and in cutting off the spurs entirely, or cutting them down
for renewal every fourth or fifth year. Every practical gardener, desirous of excelling in the training
and spurring of fruit-trees, ought to possess Harrison's treatise.
4428. Heading doivh apple-trees that are much cankered, is strongly recommended by
Forsyth, who gives an example of one (Jig. 484.), after it had been headed down four
years, which bore plenty of fine fruit. The point at which it was headed down (a) was
within eighteen inches of the soil ; and under it, on the stump, were two large wounds (ft)
702
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
and (c), made by cutting out the cankery part, and which being covered with the com-
position were soon nearly rilled up with sound wood. Very little pruning is at first given
to trees so cut, but afterwards a regular succession of bearing wood is kept up by re-
moving such as have borne for three or four years. Thus, one branch <d), which has
done bearing, is cut off, and succeeded by another (f), and when that is tired also, it is
cut off. ami replaced by a third [e ), and so on.
44£S>. Grafting old apple-trees of different sorts with superior varieties, is an obvious and long-tried im-
provement. In this case, if the tree is a standard, it is only headed down to standard height ; in old sub-
jects, most commonly the branches only are cut over within a foot or two of the trunk, and then grafted
in the crown or cleft manner.
4450. Injuries, insects, ice. . The mistletoe Viscum album is frequently, through negligence, suffered to
injure trees in orchards, and different species of mosses and lichens those in gardens. " Moss," Knight
observes, " appears to constitute a symptomatic, rather than a primary, disease in fruit-trees : it is often
brought on by a damp or uncultivated soil, by the age of the variety of fruit, and by the want of air and
light in closely planted un pruned orchards. In these cases it can only be destroyed by removing the cau>e
to which it owes its existence."
4451. Blights. Whatever deranges and destroys the organisation of the blossom, and prevents the set-
ting of the fruit, is in general termed a Wight;' whether produced by insects, parasitical plants, or an
excess of heat or cold, drought, or moisture. One of the most injurious injects with which the apple-
tree has been visited for the las: twenty years, is the Aphis lanigera, L., the Eriosoma mali of Leach ;
woolly aphis, apple-bug, or American blight. " The eriosoniata." Leach observes, " form what are
called improperly galls on the stalks of tree?", near their joints and knobs, which are in fact excrescences,
caused by the effort.- oi nature, to repair the damage done to the old trees by the perforation of those in-
sects whose bodies are covered with down." [Sam. Ent.' Salisbury has given an engraving of the erio-
soma Jig. 4S5.; as he found it appear under a magnifying glass, when attacking the roots [a] and the
branches b , as well as a still more highly magnified" figure of one of the bugs without wings c. and
winged ^1 . The latter he considers likely to be the male insect. Thoroughly cleaning with a brush and
fi
Book I. PEAR. 703
water, together with amputation when it has been some time at work, is the only means of destroying this
insect ; but even this will not do, unless resorted to at an early stage of its progress. The caterpillars of
many species of butterfly ana moth, and the larvae of various other genera of the hemipUra and lepidop-
tera',kc. as Scarabceus, C'urculi, &c. attack the apple-tree in common with other fruit-trees; and on a
large scale it is difficult, if not impracticable, to avoid their injurious effects. Burning straw or other
materials under the trees has been long recommended ; but the principal thing to be relied on, m our
opinion, is regimen ; that is, judicious sub-soil and surface soil, culture, and pruning.
4432. Other points of culture have been already given. See Chap. II. and III. and
r gathering and storing the crops, see Chap. IV. Sect. X. and Chap. V. Sect. III.
Slbsect. 2. Pear. — Pyrus Communis, L. (Eng. Bot. 1784.) Icos. Di-Pentag. L.
and Rosacea, J. Poirier, Fr. ; Bimbaum, Ger ; and Pero, Ital.
4433. The pear-tree, in its wild state, is a thorny tree, with upright branches, tending
to the pyramidal form, in which it differs materially from the apple-tree. The twigs -or
spray hang down ; the leaves are elliptical, obtuse, serrate; the flowers in terminating vil-
lose' corymbs, produced from wood of the preceding year, or from buds gradually
formed on that of several years' growth, on the extremities of very short protruding
shoots called, technically, spurs. It is found in a wild state in England, and abund-
antly in France and Germany, as well as other parts of Europe, not excepting Russia,
as far north as lat. 51. It grows in almost any soil. The cultivated tree differs from
the apple, not only in having a tendency to the pyramidal farm, but also in being more
apt to send out tap-roots ; in being, as a seedling plant, longer (generally from fifteen to
eighteen years) of coming into bearing ; and when on its own root, or grafted on a wild
pear-stock, of being much longer lived. In a dry soil it will exist for centuries, and
still keep its health, productiveness, and vigor. u The period at which the teinton
squash first sprang from the seed, Knight observes, probably, cannot now be at all
ascertained ; but I suspect, from its present diseased and worn-out state, that it ex-
isted at least as early as the beginning of the sixteenth century : for another kind, the
barland, which was much cultivated in the early part of the seventeenth century, still re-
tains a large share of health and vigor ; and the identical trees which supplied the
inhabitants of Herefordshire in the seventeenth century with liquor, are likely to do
the same good office to those of the nineteenth." Our remarks on the history of the
apple will apply almost without exception to the pear. The Romans, in Pliny's time,
possessed thirty-six varieties, and the fruit is still more valued, both in Italy and France,
than the apple.
4434. Use. As a dessert fruit the pear is much esteemed, and generally preferred to
the apple. It is also used for baking, compotes, marmalade, Szc. Pared and dried in
the oven, the fruit will keep several years, either with or without sugar. This mode of
preparing the pear is about as common in France as the making of apple-pies is in this
country ; and what is favorable to the practice is, that bad eating sorts answer best for
drying. Bosc (Xouveau Cours d'Agric in loco) describes two methods of drying pears
for preservation ; and adds, that he has tried them after three years' keeping, and found
them still very good. Pern-, the poire of the French, is made from the fermented juice,
in the manner of cider, and the best sorts are said by "Withering to be little inferior to
wine. The wood of the pear-tree is light, smooth, and compact, and is used by turners,
and to make joiners' tools, picture-frames to be dyed black, Szc. The leaves will pro-
duce a yellow dye, and may be used to give a green to blue cloths.
4435. Criterion of a good pear. Dessert pears are characterised by a sugan,- aromatic
juice, with the pulp soft and sub-liquid, or melting, as in the beurres, or butter-pears ;
or of a firm and crisp consistence, or breaking, as in the winter bergamots. Kitchen
pears should be of large size, with the flesh firm, neither breaking nor melting, and ra-
ther austere than sweet, as the wardens. Perry jyears may be either large or small ;
but the more austere the taste, the better will be the liquor. Excellent pern- is made
from the wild pear.
4436. Varieties. Tusser, in 1573, in his list of fruits, mentions '•' peeres of all sorts."
Parkinson enumerates sixty-four varieties ; Mortimer, in 1708, has many sorts ; and
Miller has selected eighty sorts, and described them from Tournefort. In France, the
varieties of the pear are much more numerous than even the varieties of the apple. The
catalogue of the Luxemburg nursery at Paris contains 189 select sorts. The British
nursery lists at the present time contain from two to three hundred names, among which,
it may be obsened, the number of good sorts are fewer in proportion than in the apple
lists. In the present very imperfect state of the nomenclature of fruits, all we can do is
to make a selection from names which have some descriptive particulars attached. We
shall arrange them into dessert, kitchen, and perry pears, and each tribe shall be set down
in the order of their ripening.
3j
fa
►■
2j
St
a
fa
C
cS
H
s
M
p
o
to
C
a
-
Pi
O
ts 2
3
-
o
S
.2
<y
3
£P
c<
8
CO
<
fa
fa
fa
O
S
O
O
^3
<•*
H
O
W
>
t— i
H
fa
i— i
ti
U
CO
W
q
Sea
5?
o
«
10
s
co
6|
- o
If
X
.2 CI
CI
3 9
6 a
c - *; 5
is !£■£
ji sirf.
■*■ ,i^ c
•3
a
C
c
"5
I
■* 8
-I
5 «
£ 3
3_i;
|
1
sum. yet known
for orchards
eat bearer
5; s
O-Jj
3 fa
u
S :- J 1
aattS
3 =*.>>a
Sill
a -
a -|
* Hi
« 3-9
~ 2c =
S - i =
i -" P
agg
™ 3
fa - s
5 5
a*-
lilll
— <<— —
3
C
S ■- 5:
2 f c>
C ~3
s
g
s
i -s-3 i
<"•§•§
rt S
=
_
,
-
fa
ca
c-^:
^J M
C3
0
. 01
it ±£
CI
#c>
fa
5
■
«
fa
o
0
5
1 >>>» ' >>
11 | =,
33 , >3-3
' 3 c c c
r; - ce s
■3
■ c-5
e2"3
sfi
0
CI
- ^- - ^
is £33
*- ^ .
y -_2' - H
' c - 3%3
3S; 31
^33^ r
= rt 5 3 -
"3.i:.-:"3 s
SaaS
>.
H ■? -i-a s
E - =~ 3
S S " s. * t» s
e 5r c « :
bt - S 3 d J" CI
3 ct= -- C >
be to be M
, "3"3 , "3 3J
ss ss
"3
"3 c _^
i^a
2
"3 g* ? Ti
S a x r- 5s
T3
"3 3
MM
• - u
aa
"3
5
3 3-.-='i;--3
I £ 'ri - bi '= S
aaxS<ar.
be si A & i
be
ibg
-
a.:
•=====
^X
• 1 ci
*
<•;<«.
X
X X
0
IS
D
ci c* -< ,-; .j.
g
S
' '
Sa
:fl
SS
• •
■
af
•
....
.5
z*>t2H2&
tr
S 3 ■
• 3 3
M
no be et be be
be tt-3
X
X X
2 x. x x x x
>*a 3 ~ ■= rs
t£
• ^"2
—
33333
■3 "3 £
•
1 bt
3
i il
be bi be be te be
i
Bj
a a a a - —
a
£= '
aS
s
SSaaa
sax
pa
/.
aft,
aaaa aa
c
■3
■s
3
c
.l.i. 3
• a.
—
'-
ii j. i
"5 —
^
ca
V
= 3
-
'3
Q
s
2J
i JO
3
c
0
5
|1
Cj 3
?5
fa ?
- 8 .3 - \
-
1
C
0
■S 51
V
CC
~
3 c b^
_- ~
3 s
33
'3 £
_o _c _o _: " S
T< "3 "3 "3 "3 fa
><
•II
> **
i Ci
- i
•u
"3
>
mil
3 £ c £
3"3
— >
'11
E
3
c
0 3
e 3
ss
€=3 . ::=3
^> caa>
s
fa
,
■ i M
0 '
c
£ £'l
a
•a
CO
5 ,
, .
-
-
ci
3.
a
fa
St
S
s • , • , ■
I
•
pin Hfc
5
X
2 . 1 . 1 •= , •
X X > >
0
fa 1
Ci ■
cT
• • >
O
0
0 '■
a
, .
1 5
| : ' , ' bc^ be
5 • ■ "3 §2
fc,
*7
fa
s
i'l'fi
X X >S
o
U
' 2 &
r: S rt
s
a
0 a *
c
0
s
3
1 =
a S x S
X —
-/.-
•-J
- x>
OS
_ *"
- X
g
is
oc r.
03
1
. CO
- .*£ • •
5 — w
3,o<o
t-
ii ~. — — ~—
1". -r 16 -i
— —
6 -H OJ ' — - —
3^1 ^1 ?* *- — —
J
; jii; ;
s
i.i.L
-5 =
c
C = 3 = =
3 3 = 3
-=■
~~~.
i«
- -
ccc £.£.=.
G
££££££
^
££5
££■£
-
;-;--
.3.= ^.=
££
-e'^
1 j
x ?
£■-
^x'3:" ' £££
-
«
>-. >\ >t >t >■. -p
M S § 8 § S
>. >% >-.
& & &
0 C 3
fa
0
'r g | '=
|'|
1 3
::o ' 353
H
bSb fab fafc
aaa
aaa
a
^- — — — — .
Art
——•—
a —
— —
^- — — — — —
X
x
W
Q
• i ' ?j
i i
■ i-
a =0 t—
,
, ,
. .a
Eh
a
a 2
X ^
. . 1 . .
fa
be
5
(0
•4- , • ,7-
o
, ,
— '°
^
0 _ a . a
"^ ^j "7. a "y:
-.3.3
|X • t^.3
.
■ >z
a -
C3 t^
p
M^J
"
---.-<
3 = 3 3
X -
3 3
3 3
5
- - ^
5 5 ' ' ' §
B
• 1C
s
= 3 M =
faff
' '
1 . 0
-
i>»
C
--
X£
II1
•
X
"5 •
fa
3
....
O
•3 ,
O
•a
^ be
3
c
_5
,
'
. ■ "3 ■
ci*>
1 *J3
O 1
o
u
, , X , , ,
1
S
<3 <C
■3 . j
& £
5 ,£
H
•F ' '
' • ■
£ .
9
Ci
•- 5
1 , i
-
-
3
2
1
, . - * •
--
<!
<; <
<
<
<;
O <!
«
•* u
A -
-
32 1 . 1 . 1 •
S3
a- ci
So . 2 .
■ a 3 T
bc-3 0 0
B
1
g
at
I! j|
u
c'S
o C
; S, S
•►^ Is
"^' 1
— •=? -3
' ' si
C 3
^1 B
y
•
0 vi
|l
= 5 , ,
--:
a-3
■3
ED '
3
E
c
s
_E
3
Q
3
"S
be
3 .
Sx 3W
i-! y
■?
a n
KC?
O
cr
< ;h a
1 ^
3
. .J. $.
5
1 ' "j* '
: O* R 2 . 5
S 3 eg 2
1 £ — ■- — ' " z
"3
a
3
? >
6b °
3 c' p
3 £ a
— z5
fa -£a-
3 -3 rt
c
- - —
^ s 33
^ u *i
|g8g
5— u -^ 5
2 " - "
«|cii .
b£.£ > 3
'bc"3 5HS 3
= 3 3 - £
= xisa
3
41.2
ci 3
II
aa
CI
be
e
CO
O
~-
3 37
— 3 fl
s fill,
> O ; 3 - — -3
< — — — — a>
k =5d
a tJK1
j;
«5 C3 t^ X "^
_^ ^
M 1^ ^3" -^ '*£ t~ 3C
>
1 ""^ '"°
--'-
"
- --- —
cn r^ c^ ^*
<NCX
c^ ^ ^*
C^IO
ro Pb (3-i*b t^ tr: p: r:
sets
=82
£"^
si
111
•o »
fi b
>i
> 0)
•§ s
T2 O
9>fi3.
4, „
%s *
Si3
§3
S3 K &< *"
s < s
T,= =
— o
.3 EC .,
5*1T5 —
it rt o3
° O ° °
of £ S *»
3 O-3 S
«
3 01
•3 .3 •& "S
S M 'fi
O O £
ti 3 5
♦a b fi'
= 5.=
-&SoT
>.„•_" a. a
-.5
tw'E,
o o
£ St
B 5
g i
w
-' u
"2 >
c •„_
? 3
— 42
id peai
on stai
young
cherry
•g 3
o *i <3
> S 2^
w
<S3S5
O O
be .
3 ov t: ¥ 3 X £. 'r = a, •
3 S a 6-g ^-c S?\c3r\
_. - . II o .5 ~ — — •- K3.
n ■= g — cs , « ™ 2 &— 7.
pc „"» 5 S a ,&.Sn? *■»£ "3
— u "c t?"^ -S ■?,— — b £?"*< -
'5 '5 3
5 5*o
S
3
■a m
.2, "g !
S M 3 — j
Wff 'I S
SS:
c 5 .5*
-' if.— „ tc u
,r«f tee
a — .5J3
' ^ o
12 £,
s j*
Shi. rs
I CO
; en on co en r. 0
3 "fi "3 "3 "3 "3 "fi bjc
« r" £ -^ X - £ II
ceo = £o:
S i 2
■a | 'p
U $ ■■§
Si-
ft £ c *» j
a <u u v :
> S3 2
o o a o
^ CO O
tpwa
8 Ji|i Jjd I ii
"5 " S^Sli ^ >i3 ti ti fcitiu
> P3c4
- «
— t-
C B
— 1 ■ . & ' . n!
Russet
Russet
Russet
Russet
Skin rough
Smooth
1 • ' ' ' ' ' a « «
fH^cN^ ~. m5 -Jr- <0 « tO
— -
■Sir!
1 1-*. cr ^i -~i *". ^
i c c c c c c s
- ~ ~»-^ — .^^^^
3000000030
rf "5u5 t-^»oic5 rn SO to O)
ootTiK^ to^t^-^ ■* r*3J t^
<M to to tO to to t!>
CCS fi C C C
S.SA £ij££j:
■S^ -3
' ' !2 *o "o-» to
' >SSa~~a~aa 3
QQjaa-ieWh; ^
O 3 3
ChQQ
a . o
IS
1
X
CO
CO
icirf
».; « - u] to
fcta *^ . t t *r
c5 . .
o
Ph o o
An
C C fi 3 s
0,
fi.fi c
c
S S
Forsyth,
Forsyth,
Forsyth,
Forsyth,
Forsyth,
Forsyth,
£■£•5
r'1 f^. r^
o o o
5
a
'-
56 '
Q O
« ...
CO *2 ♦■
to
to^,w . .
•
t^ ^5
to
tod
to t- t
a-ijj
1
' = P"
Pm
--
If
« 6 US-
•
.f 8
OB
3
-
Slit
33
|Q
» 1 1 » 1 go
1«
ot>
p c >. i
' n
a
■
<J.
5
s
VJ=
A
0
ta
□
■ c
c
y: ,
1 ij
3 |
la
John
John
|l| •
i^^ 'J^5 ' ' 'fl
.3
S
. 3
'11 ■ lis
3 r- i- %. fi ;
l. C t3 i 1* 07-
s ■- 3 .a j a ;
fiSi
1 _. rt 1
fi t>
fi 8 =
.SSRagSi-ag
«|^ |-g i § 1 2 2 J g
■r C 2-3 o 5 *"£ 5 = 5
III s fa I
"3 b
2 a"2
a o
31 O ^H ^J tO .
to t~ X ~ o ^
tO t]. T3" ^Jt <*-g, *- *y t* .3. ,*,.<}
Stu^; iJ-fio ; 1.5 'o
cJto* t-i-jst-Ioc o» 0-^ si
JOiO<3 ^i-TO ^0 totO CO
h
01
. 1*
g
• '1
fi
3
£ a
S
rt^
O VH
■2t3
J3
Q>
■ ° .
• 3 .
•-a
'■I
a &
o»
^
•3 5
3
■ 0 .
O 01
Q
^ "h
fc
-•
l?B .
fi
a
0
.Si
to
So
5 |
Cj3
S5o
2E«
~ >- 3
!"§
Ht»S
'•21
11^
^ s '
- 0
§•3 >-
9
S « 3
? n 2
a;„3 fi
£ 2 s.
S?2
3-2
c t* ?■ g a* «>*
ti! "* - Z> D ***
» 23
>5*-5
ft *
III 1
■a "2 1 « I
3.2 — — '
•a sC I
188*3
•- « = 2
S3 £ '- = 6
r r-S S 1
a •3%
m
m
== -
I • a
III
? r- P
3 _
O .3
3 3 a
£ -
2l
i -a
8Utl>
a I fa
3 ^ — £ ■— S.
fa s au-;-=-
■S-S-3
coo
000
333
I
a ^
a 5; as
^ £ •- 1-
O 1 3 • O QJ
> < »
as
1 333 3 ,3c'g'S'Ss= '
£ ccs g 3-ga 3 3«fi
U -;!->■? W S * < « esg;»»
9 g
'5 ' ' '
3 3 33
9 »
5 3
1 ' ■ r* '
S 3 &3
■ • ' .s
1 . ' to
. .§. H
3_ 3.
I
si
aoc'»H,o!to-w;9<otid - S*^S
see esssesscc:
S 5 o oooooco o 5 5
U.i— fa fa — — iiiiiA_
*3 H a
g*i o* ?* to to to-r-'T*
— , —
g &3 U — — — -
S = =
^ p^>»>» s-»>
fa faQ^U
^ o 6 o
000
fafafa — — —
•3 S 3 5 s s § o
O fafafafafafa
-I O CN CO S'!'
* .*■ .^ .W^,D©. v.
.•5 . «o -<j .-" . — x.-.-
ill
♦: *: o
. ' . o
tb ti •
esse
P.S,Ph?h fa
3 3
= •: > S
c r. j- 73
if
c e
0'.<-i
i o
&5
O 5^
S^ =
ill
3 - \>
Isi ■ "5S'
S3 '
-- 1
■ 8|
■2 3
fa
■5-gg
3SJ|
S3
.4 ■§ g;
373
'5 <J
3 3. = 73
< If v
X.Z. "fa
^ 0 .3
■5 = 3
■fa's
IS a
IP « a
isilll
5 1
m sis^^
3*3 g
silt"
sll-s- =1 = 1
rt Bk!
c* ft?
o i
h o
fa fa
C
o
c
c o Svi-'5
£ ££;= SfS
- — — — 3 -
rt_0 3- c =.
C".=>-'CCCCO coo o o ~^^n — — I
Book I. PEAR. 707
4438. Propagation. The pear may be propagated by layers or suckers, but not easily
by cuttings. These modes, however, are productive of very indifferent plants, and are
justly rejected in favor of raising from seed, and grafting or budding.
4439. From seed. This mode is adopted either for the purpose of obtaining new varieties, or for pro-
ducing pear-stocks. In the former case, the same principles of selection or crossing are to be followed
which we have stated in treating of raising seedling apple-trees, between which and the pear-tree, the
chief difference is, that the latter requires a longer period, nearly double, to come into bearing, and
that the proportion of eood sorts to bad, so originated, is but very small. Professor Van Mons, proprietor
of the Pepiniere de la Fidtlite, at Brussels, has upwards of 800 approved sorts of new pears, raised from
seed by himself and M. Duquesne, of Mons, in the course of fifteen or sixteen years, and selected from,
probably, 8000 new seedling fruits. Van Mons observed to Neill, that " he seldom failed in procuring
valuable apples from the seed ; for those which were not adapted to the garden as dessert fruit, were pro-
bably suited for the orchard, and fit for baking or cider-making. With pears the case was different,
many proving so bad as to be unfit for any purpose." (Horticul. Tour, Sec. 309.) Whenever a seedling
indicates, bv the blunt shape, thickness, and woolliness of its leaves, or by the softness of its bark and
fulness of Its buds, the promise of future good qualities, as a fruit-bearing tree, Van Mons takes a
graft from it, and places it on a well established stock : the value of its fruit is thus much sooner ascer-
tained. {Horticul. Tour, Sec. 310.) At Brussels, seedlings yield fruit in four or five years, in Britain seldom
before seven or ten years have elapsed. The fruit of the first year of bearing is always inferior to that of
the second and third years. If a pear or an apple possess a white and heavy pulp, with juice of rather
pungent acidity, it may be expected in the second, third, and subsequent years, greatly to improve in
size and flavor. New varieties of pears, and indeed, of all fruits, are more likely to be obtained from the
seeds of new than of old sorts. (Horticul. Tour, &c. 308, 309.)
4440. In raising pears for stock, the seeds from perry-makers are generally made use of ; but the most
proper are those from the wild pear, as likely to produce plants more hardy and durable. There is, how-
ever, less difference between free pear-stocks, for those raised from the cultivated fruit, and wild pear-
stocks, than there is between free apple and crab-stocks. The seeds being procured, may be sown, and
afterwards treated as directed for seedling crab, or apple-tree stocks.
4441. Grafting and budding. The most common stocks for grafting the pear are the common pear and
wilding ; but as the apple is dwarfed, and brought more early into a bearing state by grafting on the pa-
radise or creeper, so is the pear by grafting on the quince or whitethorn. The pear will also succeed very
well on the whitebeam, medlar, service, or apple ; but the wilding and quince are in most general use.
Pears on free stocks grow luxuriantly in good soil on a dry bottom ; those on wildings grow less rapidly,
but are deemed more durable, and they will thrive on the poorest soil, if a hardy variety, and not over-
pruned.- ," On the quince," Miller observes, " breaking pears are rendered gritty and stony ; but the melt-
ing sorts are much improved : trees on these stocks may be planted in a moist soil with more success than
those on wildings or thorns." On the thorn, pears come very early into bearing, continue prolific, and,
in respect to soil, will thrive well on a strong clay, which is unsuitable both to those on quinces and wild-
ings ; but they are supposed to have an unfavorable influence on the fruit, in rendering it smaller and
hard ; and the grafts or buds require to be inserted very low, that the moisture of the earth may tend to
favor the swelling or enlargement of the diameter of the stock, which does not increase proportionally to,
nor ever attains the same size as the stem of the pear. Dubreuil, a French gardener, recommends the
quince-stock for clayey and light soils, and the free stock for chalky and siliceous soils. (Horticul. Trans.
iv. 566.) The free and wilding pear-stocks are to be planted in nursery rows, at the same distance as re-
commended for free and wilding apples ; and the quince and thorn at the same distance as .the paradise
and creeper apples ; in other respects, the management is the same as for the apple.
4442. Choice of sorts. (See Ch. II. and III. on Planting the Orchard and Kitchen-Gar-
den. ) The following is a list of table-pears for use in succession, from July to July
again, as furnished for the table of the Duke of Buccleugh from the Dalkeith gar-
den. The letters mark the aspect of the walls against which they are trained.
( W.) Jargonelle I (W.) Autumn bergamot I (S.) Grey achan
(S.) Longuevllle I (TV.) Gansel's bergamot | iW.) Green chisel
(S.) Summer bergamot [ (S. and W.) Green sugar | ( W.) St. Germain
!S.) Orange bergamot I \w.) Early primitive I ( W.) Cressane
W.) Summer boncretien | [S.) Muirfowl egg | ( W.) Brown beurr^
[W.) Grey beurr£
(W.) Winter boncretien
(W.) Swan's egg
( W.) Chaumontelle
( W.) Colmar.
(Macdonald, in Sir John Sinclair's Gen. Rep. of Scotland, iv. 433.)
4443. Choice of plants. Abercrombie takes trees at one year from the graft, and thence to the sixth
year, or older. Forsyth says, " I would advise those who intend to plant pear-trees, instead of choosing
young ones, to look out for the oldest that they can find in the nursery, and with strong stems."
4444. Soil and site. " A dry, deep loam," Abercrombie observes, " is accounted the best soil for the
pear-tree when the stock is of its own species ; on a quince-stock it wants a moist soil, without which it
will not prosper. Gravel is a good sub-soil, where the incumbent mould is suitable. Cold clay is a bad
sub-soil : to prevent fruit-trees from striking into it, slates may be laid just under the roots. For wall-
trees, the soil should be made good to the depth of three feet ; for orchard-trees, eighteen inches may do.
Pear-trees, on their own stocks, will thrive on land where apples will not even live ; supposing the plants
to be hardy varieties, little removed from wildings, and to have room to grow freely as standards. To the
more choice of the early autumn and prime winter pears, assign south, east, or west walls. Knight and
M'Phail recommend a strong, deep, loamy soil, and the latter a high wall for training the better sorts."
4445. Planting finally is performed any time, in mild weather, from October to March ; standards are
placed from twenty-five to forty feet apart every way ; half standards, from twenty to thirty ; and dwarf
standards, in borders from fifteen to twenty feet from stem to stem. Wall and espalier trees are planted
from fifteen to thirty feet apart, according as they may have been planted on pear or quince-stocks.
4446. Mode of bearing, as in the apple-tree. "The pear-tree," M'Phail says, " does not produce blos-
soms on the former year's wood, as several other sorts of trees do. Its blossom-buds are formed upon
spurs growing out of wood not younger than one year old, and consequently, projecting spurs all over the
tree must be left for that purpose." " In some pears," Knight observes, " the fruit grows only on the
inside of those branches which are exposed to the sun and air ; in others it occupies every part of the
tree."
4447. Pruning and training standards. " Permit these to extend on all sides freely.
Several years may elapse before any cross-placed, very irregular, or crowded branches,
dead and worn-out bearers, require pruning, which give in winter or spring. Keep the
head moderately open in the middle." " Pruning," Knight observes, " is not often
wanted in the culture of the pear-tree, which is rarely much encumbered with superfluous
branches ; but in some kinds, whose form of growth resembles the apple-tree, it will
sometimes be found beneficial."
Z z 2
708 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
4448. Pruning and training ivall-trees. As a wall-tree or espalier, the pear is always
trained in the horizontal manner on account of its luxuriant growth. Harrison trains
most pear-trees in this way, and proceeds exactly as he does in training the apple-tree.
(4427 ) But, " when it occurs that a tree trained after this method still continues un-
fruitful for several years after planting, the branches must be trained in a pendulous
manner, and more or less so, according to the luxuriancy of the tree, but always com-
mence the training in the horizontal method, and afterwards change the direction of
the branches as required." (2V. on Fruit Trees, 144.) The ordinary distance at which
he trains the side shoots is nine or ten inches, but the jargonelle he lays in at twelve
inches, so as to have room for laying in side shoots from the spurs, for one or more years.
Tins he finds checks the luxuriancy of the tree, and keeps it in full bearing. (ZV. on
Fruit Trees, 159.)
4449. Forsyth, in training a young pear-tree, shortens the leading shoot in March,
and when the shoots it produces are very strong, he says, " I cut the leading shoot
twice in one season ; by this method 1 get two sets of side shoots in one year, which en-
ables me the sooner to cover the wall. The second cutting is performed about the mid-
dle of June. " (Tr. on Fruit Trees, 1 93. )
4450. Established wall-trees and espaliers will require a summer and winter pruning,
and the following are Abercrombie's directions : —
4451. Summer pruning. While the spray is young and soft, but not until the wood-shoots can be dis-
tinguished from spurs, rub off the core-right, the disorderly, spongy, and superfluous shoots of the year,
rather than let them grow woodv, so as to require the knife. Retain some of the most promising, well
placed, lateral, and terminal shoots, always keeping a leader to each main branch, where the space will
permit. Leave the greater number on young trees not fully supplied with branches. Train in these at
their full length, all summer, in order to have a choice of young wood in the winter pruning. Occa-
sionally on old trees, or others, where anv considerable vacancy occurs, some principal contiguous shoot
may be shortened in June to a few eves, for a supply of several new shoots the same season.
the winter pruning may be performed any time from the beginning of November until the begin-
ning of April. If orf young trees, or others, a further increase of branches is necessary to fill up either
the prescribed space, or any casual vacuity, retain some principal shoots of last summer, to be trained tor
that purpose As, however, many young" shoots will have arisen ou the wood-branches and bearers, ot
which a great nartare redundant and disorderly, but which have received some regulation in the summer
pruning, we must now cut these out close to the mother branches, while we are preserving the best in the
more open parts. Examine the parent branches, and if any are very irregular, or detective in growth,
either cut them out close, or prune them to some eligible lateral to supply the place ; or it any branches
be over-extended, they may be pruned in to such a lateral, or to a good fruit-bud. Cut out the least
regular of the too crowded ;' also any casually declined bearers ; with decayed, cankery, and dead wood.
The retained supply of laterals and terminals should be laid as much at length as the limits allow, in order
to furnish a more abundant quantity of fruit-buds. During both courses of pruning, be particularly care-
ful to preserve all the orderly fruit-spurs emitted at the sides and ends of the bearers : if, however, any
large, rugged, projecting spurs, and woody barren stumps or snags occur, cut them clean away close to
the branches, which will render the bearers more productive of fruit-buds, and regular in appearance. As
each tree is pruned, nail or tie the branches and shoots to the wall or trellis. It afterwards, m conse-
quence of either pruning out improper or decayed wood, or of former insufficient training, there are any
material vacuities or irregularities in the arrangement, un-nail the misplaced and contiguous branches, and
lay them in order. „ ' . , , . . . . , .
4452. Knight's mode of training the pear-tree is as foUows : " A young pear-stock, which had two
lateral branches upon each side, and was about six feet high, was planted against a wall early in the
spring of 1810 : and it was grafted in each of its lateral branches, two of which sprang out of the stem,
about four feet from the ground, and the other at its summit in the following year. The shoots these
grafts produced, when about a foot long, were trained downwards, the undermost nearly perpendicu-
larly, and the uppermost just below the horizontal line, placing them at such distances that the leaves ot
one shoot did not at all shade those of another. In the next year, the same mode of training was conti-
and had become wholly unproductive. The other branches afforded but very little fruit, and that never
acquiring maturity, was consequently of no value ; so that it was necessary to change the variety, as wen as
to render the tree productive To attain these purposes, every branch which did not want at least tw enty
degrees of being perpendicular, was token out at its base ; and the spurs upon every other branch, which
I intended to retain; were taken off closely with the saw and chisel. Into these branches, at their sub-
divisions, grafts were inserted at different distances from the root, and some so near the extremities ot tne
branches, that the tree extended as widely in the autumn, after it yvas grafted, as it did in the pre-
ceding year. The grafts were also so disposed, that every part of the space the tree previously covered,
was equally well supplied with young wood. As soon, in the succeeding summer as the young snoots
had attained sufficient length, they were trained almost perpendicularly downwards, between the larger
branches and the wall to which thev were nailed. The most perpendicular remaining branch upon eacn
side, was grafted about four feet below the top of the wall, which is twelve feet high ; and the young
shoots, which the grafts upon these afforded, were trained inwards, and bent down to occupy the space
from which the old central branches had been taken away ; and therefore very little vacant space any
where remained in the end of the first autumn. A few blossoms, but not any fruit, were produced Dy
several of the grafts in the succeeding spring; but in the following year, and subsequently, l nave nad
abundant crops, equally dispersed over every part of tbe tree."
4453. Heading down and pruning old pear-trees. " The method of pruning pear-
trees," Forsyth observes, " is very different from that practised for apple-trees in ge-
neral. The constant practice has* been to have great spurs, as big as a man's arm,
standing out from the walls, from a foot to eighteen inches or upwards." The constant
cutting of these spurs, he says, brings on the canker, and the fruit produced is small,
spotted, and kernelly. Forsyth's practice with such trees was to cut them down, and
renew the soil at their roots, and he refers to beurre" pear (Jig. 486.), restored from an
inch and a half of bark, which, in 1796, bore four hundred and fifty fine large pears, &c.
Boon I.
PEAR.
ro9
4454. Harrison, and various other gardeners, adopt the mode of keeping only short
spurs, by which much larger fruit is produced. According to this plan, each spur
(Jig. 487. a) bears only once, when it is cut out, and succeeded by an embryo-bud (rf)
at its base. This bud at the end of the first season, is no more than a leaf-bud (c) ;
but at the end of the se-
cond summer, it has be- C ao^ t*^
come a blossom-bud (b),
and bears the third sum-
mer (a). Some useful ob-
servations on the manage-
ment of pear-trees, in
correspondence with Har-
rison's practice, will be
found in different parts of
the Caledonian Hort. Me-
moirs, vol. i.
4455. Forsyth says, " The constant practice has been to leave great spurs as big as a man's arm, stand-
ing out from the walls, from one foot to eighteen inches and upwards. . The constant pruning of these
brings on the canker ; and by the spurs standing out so far from the wall, the blossom and fruit are
liable to be much injured by the frost and blighting winds, and thus the sap will not have a free circu-
lation all over the tree. The sap will always find its way first to the extremities of the shoots ; and the
spurs will only receive it in a small proportion, as it returns from the ends of the branches." (TV. on Fruit
Trees, 187.)
4456. Setting the fruit. In a very curious paper on this subject, by the Rev. G. Swayne, he informs us of a
pear-tree, which had for twenty years never borne fruit, but which he induced to bear by cutting
off all the blossoms of each corymbus of flowers, excepting the lower three, on the same principle as
gardeners top beans. This succeeded to a certain extent on one tree, but not on another ; the selected blos-
soms of the other he rendered fruitful by cross-impregnation. He says, " I fancied likewise that the
pointal was fit for impregnation before the anthers were ripe, and even before the petals expanded ; and
from the peculiarly slender and delicate make of the latter, as it struck me, I supposed, that it ceased to
be in a proper state as soon as it became exposed to the sun and air; I therefore concluded, that there
might possibly be a chance of obtaining fruit, by depriving the blossoms of their petals before they ex-
panded, and enclosing with each floret in this state, within a paper envelope (as is my mode of effecting
artificial impregnation), a riper blossom, viz. one that had just began to diffuse its farina, either one of
its own, or, preferably, of some other variety of pear." (Hort. Trans, v. 210.) He tied up twenty-seven
envelopes on the 27th of March, and took off the papers on the 15th of April ; a number succeeded, and
produced ripe fruit, specimens of which were sent to the Horticultural Society, and found unusually
large and handsome. The Rev. Experimenter concludes his paper, by observing, " whether the result of
the above-detailed experiments be such as to authorise an expectation that artificial assistance in vegetable
fecundation, will hereafter become of so much importance to gardeners, in the instance just alluded to,
as in those at present recognised, of the cucumber, the melon, the early bean, and the hautbois straw-
berry, must be left to futurity to ascertain." (Hort. Trans, v. 212.)
4457. Harrison appears to have adopted a similar practice, he says, " It is very general to see healthy
pear-trees, which produce an abundance of bloom but set a very small proportion of fruit ; this is more
particularly the case with the tenderest kinds. The reason of such barrenness is in some cases from
the stamina being destitute of farina, and in others from the farina having been dispersed before the pistil-
lum had arrived at a proper state for its reception. To remedy such defects, I adopt the following'prac-
tice. As soon as the florets have expanded and the pistillum is in a proper state of maturity, I impreg-
nate six upon each corymb of blossom. The florets which I choose for this operation are those situated
nearest the origin of the spur, for when pears set naturally, it is very generally such florets. The time
I choose for this operation is calm dry days, and if possible when the sun is not very hot upon the trees.
Immediately after performance, I give each tree about eighteen gallons of manure water, or soft pond
water, at the roots. The trees should never be washed over the tops for a considerable time after this
impregnation has been effected." (Tr. on Fruit Trees.)
4455. Insects, diseases, &c. The pear-tree is liable to the attacks of the same insects
Z z 3
710 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
as the apple-tree ; and the fruit of the summer kinds, when ripe, is liable to be eaten by
birds, wasps, &c. which must be kept oft' by shooting, hanging bottles of water, and
other usual preventives.
For other points of culture, and gathering and storing, see Chap. II., Chap. IV. Sect.
IX., and Chap. V. Sect. III.
Subszct. 3. Quince. — Pyrus Cydonia, L. ; Cydonia Vulgaris, W. en. Icos. Di-Pen-
tag. L. and Rosacea, J. Coignassier, Fr. ; Quittenbaum, Ger. ; and Cotogno, Ital.
4459. The quince-tree is of low growth, much branched, and generally crooked and
distorted. The leaves are roundish or ovate, entire, above dusky-green, underneath
whitish, on short petioles. The flowers are large, white, or pale-red, and appear in May
and June ; the fruit, a pome, varying in shape in the different varieties, globular, ob-
long, or ovate ; it has a peculiar and rather disagreeable smell and austere taste. It is
a native of Austria and other parts of Europe; is mentioned by Tusser, in 1753; but
has never been very generally cultivated.
4460. Use. The fruit is not eaten raw ; but stewed, or in pies or tarts, along with
apples, is much esteemed. In confectionary, it forms an excellent marmalade and syrup.
When apples are flat, and have lost their flavor, Forsyth observes, a quince or two, in a
pie or pudding, will add a quickness to them. In medicine, the expressed juice, repeat-
edly taken in small quantities, is said to be cooling, astringent, and stomachic, &c.
A mucilage prepared from the seeds was formerly much in use, but is now supplanted
by the simple gums. In nursery-gardening, the plants are much used as stocks for the
pear.
4461. Varieties. Miller enumerates —
The oblong, or pear-quince ; with oblong
ovate leaves, and an oblong fruit
lengthened at the base.
The apple-quince ; with ovate leaves and
a rounder fruit.
The Portugal quince [Lang. Pom. t. 73.) ;
4462. Propagation. Generally by layers, but also by cuttings, and approved sorts may be perpetuated
by grafting.' In propagating for stocks, nothing more is necessary than removing the lower shoots from
the larger, so as to preserve a clean stem as high as the graft ; but for fruit-bearing trees, it is necessary
to train the stem to a rod, till it has attained four or five feet in height, and can support itself upright.
4483. Soil and site. The quince prefers a soft moist soil, and rather shady, or, at least, sheltered situ-
ation. It is seldom planted but as a standard in the orchard, and a very few trees are sufficient for any
4464. The time of planting, the mode of bearing, and all the other particulars of culture, are the same
as for the apple and pear.
Subsect. 4. Medlar. — Mespilus Germanica, L. (Eng.Bot. 1523.) Icos. Di-Pentag. L.
and Rosacea:, J. Nejlier, Fr. ; Mispelbaum, Ger. ; and Nespolo, Ital.
4465. The medlar is a small or middle-sized brandling tree ; the branches woolly, and
covered with an ash-colored bark, and, in a wild state, armed with stiff spines. Leaves
oval-lanceolate, serrate, towards the point somewhat woolly, on very short channelled
petioles. Flowers produced on small natural spurs, at the ends and sides of the branches.
Bracte as long as the corolla ; calyxes terminating, fleshy ; petals, white ; fruit, a tur-
binated berry, crowned with five calycine leaflets ; pulp thick, mixed with callose gra-
nules, and containing five gibbous wrinkled stones. The tree flowers in June and July,
and the fruit is ripe in November. It is a native of the south of Europe ; but appears to
be naturalised in some parts of England, where it has been sown in copses by binds.
4466. Use. The fruit is eaten raw in a state of incipient decay ; its taste and flavor
are peculiar, and by some much esteemed.
4467. Varieties. Those in common cultivation are —
with obovate leaves, and an ob-
long fruit, which is more juicy and
less harsh than the others, and there-
fore the most valuable. It is rather
a shy bearer, but is highly esteemed
for marmalade, as the pulp has the
property of assuming a fine purple
tint in the course of being prepared.
The mild or eatable quince ; less austere
and astringent than the others.
latter approaching to the shape of an
apple.
The Nottingham medlar; with fruit of a
quicker and more poignant taste.
The wild medlar; a smaller tree, with
smaller leaves, flowers, and fruit than
any of the former sorts, and the fruit
is pear-shaped.
The Dutch medlar {Porn. Franc. 2.
p. 4.5. t.2, 3.); a crooked, deformed,
low tree with very large leaves, entire,
and downy on the under side. The
flowers and fruit are very large ; the
4468. Propagation. By seeds, by layers, and cuttings, or by grafting. on seedlings of their own species,
or on any other species of mespilus, or of cydonia, or Crataegus. Miller observes, that if the stones are
taken out of the fruit as soon as it is ripe, and immediately planted, they will come up next spring, ana
make good plants in two years. He prefers raising from seed to grafting on the Crataegus. t'orsytn says,
" Those who wish to keep the sorts true, should propagate them by grafting on their own stocKs. ine
plant is rather difficult to strike by cuttings. . . -.
4169. Soil. The soil in which the medlar thrives best is a loamy rich earth, rather moist than dry , out
not on a wet bottom. , , ,. -.
4470. Final planting. The medlar, like the quince, is usually grown as a standard or espalier , tne
former may be planted from twentv to thirty, and the latter from fifteen to twenty feet apart.
4471. Mode of bearing. On small spurs at the ends and sides of the branches. •.-*!.
4472 Pruning. Forsyth recommends the same sort of treatment as for the quince. Cut out all tne
dead and cankery wood, and keep the tree thin of branches when it is desired to have large truit. Care
is requisite to train standards with tall stems. Espaliers will require a summer and winter pruning, as in
the apple-tree.
For other details of culture, see the Apple and Pear.
Book I.
STONE-FRUITS.
711
Subsect. 5. True- Service. — Sorbus Domestica, L. (Pyrus Domestica, Eng. Hot.
350.) Icosan. Di-Pentag. L. and Rosacea?, J. Alizier, Fr. j Eisbeerbaum, Ger. ; and
Loto, or Bagolaro, Ital. (Jig. 488.)
4473. T%e true-service-tree is of the middle size, not unlike the mountain-ash, of a very
low growth, and not flowering till it arrives at a very great age. The leaves are com-
pound, alternate, with ovate or oval leaflets. The flowers are produced on terminating
panicles issuing from spurs of two or more years' growth ; the petals are cream-colored ;
the fruit, according to Geertner, is a pome, pear-shaped, reddish, and spotted, extremely
austere, and not eatable till it is quite mellowed by frost or time, when it becomes
brown and very soft. It flowers in May, and the fruit ripens in November ; the tree,
according to Krocker, does not come into full bearing before it is sixty years old. It
is a native of the warmer parts of Europe, and has
also been found wild in Cornwall, Worcestershire,
and Hertfordshire, from whence the fruit is brought
to London in autumn in large quantities. Miller
says, " There was one tree in the garden of John
Tradescant, of South Lambeth, near forty feet high,
which produced a great quantity of fruit annually,
shaped like pears. Some trees of middling growth,
in the garden of Henry Marsh, Esq. at Hammer-
smith, produced fruit of the apple-shape. From
these many trees were raised in the nurseries near
London, but the fruit was small compared with that
of Tradescant. " Great numbers of large service-
trees grow wild about Aubigny in France ; from
the seeds of which one of the dukes of Richmond
raised a great many trees at Goodwood in Sussex.
It is a very common fruit-tree at St. Germains en
Laye, where it is cultivated along with Pyrus Americana.
4474. Use. The fruit has a peculiar acid flavor, and is eaten, when mellowed, like
that of the medlar, to which it is deemed inferior. It is common in Italy, and ripens at
Genoa in September, where it is esteemed good in dysentery and fluxes. The wood,
which is very hard, is held in repute for making mathematical rulers, and excisemen's
gauging-sticks.
4475. Varieties. In Italy they have many varieties obtained from seeds ; but those generally known
here are only three : the pear-shaped, apple-shaped, and berry-shaped.
4476. Propagation. By seeds, cuttings, or layers ; or, which is preferable for plants intended to form
good-sized and early-bearing trees, by grafting on seedlings of their own species. It may also be grafted
on the pyrus, mespilus, or Crataegus.
4477. Soil. The best is a strong clayey loam.
4478. Culture. The tree is recommended by Forsyth and Abercrombie to be grown as a standard at
twenty or thirty feet distance, and to be pruned and otherwise treated like the apple and pear. Choice
sorts, Abercrombie observes, are sometimes trained as dwarf standards, or espaliers.
4479. Gathering the crop. It is late in autumn before this operation can be performed. Wipe the fruit
dry, and lay it on dry wheat-straw, spread on the open shelves of the fruit-room. In about a month it
will become mellow and fit for use. See Chap. IV. Sect X. and Chap. V. Sect. III.
Sect. II. Stone-Fruits.
4480. Of stone-fruits the most esteemed is the peach tribe, and next the apricot ; both
the trees natives of Persia, but acclimated in Britain, and remarkable for the lively colors
and early appearance of their blossoms. The peach is one of the most delicious of sum-
mer fruits. Besides the peach, nectarine, and apricot ; the almond, plum, and cherry,
are comprehended in this section.
Subsect. 1. Peach. — Amygdalus Persica, L. (Black, t. 101.) Icos. Monog. L. and
Rosacece, J. Malus Persica of the Romans. Pecher, Fr. ; Pfirschbaum, Ger. ; and
Persico, Ital.
4481. The peach-tree in its natural state is under the middle size, with spreading
branches, lanceolate, smooth, and serrated leaves. The flowers are sessile, with reddish
calyces, and bell-shaped, pale or dark-red corollas, often bordered with purple ; the fruit
a roundish drupe, generally pointed, and with a longitudinal groove ; pulp, large, fleshy
or succulent, white or yellowish, sometimes reddish, abounding with a grateful, sweet,
acid juice ; stone, hard, irregularly furrowed ; kernel, bitter. The tree of quick growth,
and not of long duration ; blossoms in April, and ripens its fruit in August and Septem-
ber. Sickler considers Persia as the original country of the peach, which, in Media, is
deemed unwholesome ; but, when planted in Egypt, becomes pulpy, delicious, and
salubrious. The peach also, according to Columella, when first brought from Persia into
the Roman empire, possessed deleterious qualities ; which Knight concludes to have
arisen from those peaches being onlv swollen almonds ( the tuberes of Pliny), or im-
Zz 4
712 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
perfect peaches ; and which are known to contain the Prussic acid which operates unfa-
vorably in many constitutions. The tree has been cultivated time immemorial in most
parts of Asia ; when it was introduced into Greece is uncertain : the Romans seem to
have brought it direct from Persia, during the reign of the emperor Claudius. It is first
mentioned by Columella, and afterwards described by Pliny. The best peaches in Eu-
rope are at present grown in Italy on standards ; and next may be cited those of Mon-
treuil, near Paris, trained on lime-whited walls. (Moxard, sur V Education des arbres a
Fruits, et principalement du Pecker, &c. 1814.) We visited these gardens in May, 1819,
and examined more particularly those of Jean Pierre Savard, the principal proprietaire
cultivateur. His trees were that season covered with aphides, and the principal part of
treatment in which he seemed expert was that of varying the position of the branches of
the tree every year, by elevating to a greater angle the weak, depressing the strong, and
cutting out the old, naked, or twigless shoots ; thus presenting at all times a well balanced
tree. The stems of these trees, when first planted, and for one or two years afterwards,
are hooked to the wall, to prevent their being stolen ! Mozard's garden was visited by
the Caledonian Horticultural deputation in 1817, who found wholesome management,
but nothing new. In England, there are but few sorts of peaches that come to tolerable
perfection in the open air, in ordinary seasons. The best adapted for this purpose are the
free stones ; but all the sorts ripen well by the aid of a hot-wall or glass, and may be
forced so as to ripen in May or June. The tree is generally an abundant bearer ; one
of the noblesse kind, at Yoxfield, in Suffolk, which covers above six hundred square feet
of trellis under a glass case, without flues, ripens annually from sixty to seventy dozen of
peaches. (Hort. Trans, iii. 17.)
4482. Use. It is a dessert fruit, of the first order, and makes a delicious preserve. In
Maryland and Virginia a brandy is made from this fruit. " The manufacture of this
liquor, and the feeding of pigs, being," as Braddick observes [Hort. Tr. fi. 205.), " the
principal uses to which the peach is applied in those countries." The leaves, steeped in
gin or whiskey, communicate a flavor resembling that of noyeau.
4483. Criterion of a goodpeach. A good peach, Miller observes, possesses these qual-
ities : the flesh is firm ; the skin is thin, of a deep or bright red color next the sun, and
of a yellowish-green next the wall ; the pulp is of a yellowish color, full of high -flavored
juice ; the fleshy part thick, and the stone small.
4484. Varieties. Linnaeus divides the A. Persica into two varieties ; that with downy
fruit or the peach, and that with smooth fruit or the nectarine. There are various in-
stances on record (Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 103.) of both fruits growing on the same tree,
even on the same branch ; and one case has occurred of a single fruit partaking of the
nature of both. The French consider them as one fruit, arranging them in four divi-
sions : the peches, or free stone peaches, the flesh of whose fruit separates readily from the
skin and the stone ; the peches lisse, or free stone nectarines, or free stone smooth peaches ;
the pavies, or cling-stone peaches, whose flesh is Ann and adheres both to the skin and
stone ; and the brugnons, or nectarines, or cling-stone smooth peaches. Knight (Hort.
Tr. iii. 1.), Robertson (Hort. Tr. iii. 5S2.), and various botanists, consider the peach
and almond as one species.
4485. The fat peach of China (Hort. Trans.
vol. iv. pi. 19.) is a curious flattened fruit (fg. 4S9.),
sweet and juicy, and with a little noyeau flavor.
Knight has fruited it, and considers that from the
early habits of the tree it will prove a valuable acqui-
sition. He has " found excitability of habit to be
hereditary in the seedling offspring of plants, and to
be transferable by the pollen ;" and, therefore, ima-
gines " there will be no difficulty in obtaining from
the flat peach other varieties of similar habits, free
from the deformity which has recommended it to the
Chinese." (Hort. Trans, v. 272.)
4486. There arc many fine varieties of the peach :
Tusser, in 1573, mentions peaches, white and red;
Parkinson, in 1629, enumerates twenty -one ; and Mil-
ler, in 1750, thirty-one varieties. In the garden of the Luxemburg, at Paris, are seventy
varieties ; and above double that number of names are to be found in the catalogues of our
nurseries. Three distinguished and ingenious attempts have been made to class the va-
rieties of peaches and nectarines, by the leaf and rlower as well as the fruit : the first is
by Poiteau, in the Bon Jardinier ; the next by Count Lelieur, in his Pomone Fran^aise ;
and the third by Robertson, nurseryman, of Kilkenny, whose arrangement is founded on
the glands of the leaves. But as these systems are not yet sufficiently perfected to render
them available for this work, all we can do is to submit the following table : —
w
o
E-i
I
g
U
C
O
CO
b
H
a
bo
03
ft
o
CO
W
<
w
fa
o
H
©
o
<
H
©
»— i
H
pa
I— i
©
CO
W
P
00
"3 .
i
o B
£.5
s.-s
2
^ tn
a >
5 3
01
>.
S.-S
u g
--
EC
3
•a
0!
3
B
E
fi
3 *
Pig,
M
u
o
3
5"
>d —
c2
- -
0 i>
C s
~ E
3
u
IB
>.
01
3
C3
a 5
5s*
£o.'C
|.3<2
o c
E. "
3 S
2 *
■— 01
el
u
o
I
o
o
5 01
?«
■3 u
E 3
01 *e
1
'5
|
■— 01
0-2
a*
■3
§ .tJ
to a
01 01
> E
c
£►
a «;
O
©
H
a
K*
cZ<
< a
•J3UV3H
2!
• •
•
o
o
O
•
1?
•
'
-
•3
:
0
O
•
B
o
■7.
EC
C
5
s
a
,6,
a
M
3
E
•3
3
Ol
c?2
0)
• fi
11
' "CO
^ 3
u 0j-3t
o'Hc
U
jt ^ o
01
E
o
B
Ol" ^
Is"
•S ^S'
1 i$
•• E aj
> -^« E
B! it- /;
01
E
O
ai
^- ** -
> C ~-
2 ■- •=
E
•J
I
•3
E _
3 .„'
■fi
C'
3
at
3
If 2
sS |
S- ie ..
.3 01
01 " E
£ So s
'
01
E
•a
1 u
cT
01
O
01 H
jj
- -
01
=
0
~i Z
a .
01
g
-3
B
g
„ -a
3 w
3 —
- ■-
•£ tctx ,
2-S-^
p"S3 ° 01
="2£l.-a
a
id
£
01
S'S
S SS"3"~
ss5
3 **
3"?
-.-3
3 S
532; t.
E 01
-2
1
i
- ~~
j2
3 0
i_c
Z .a
I2I?
c
•-a
a
>>rt
aa
a
a
a
a
a
?
a**
"?■■
*
><
Ix
;_'-.:_>
|
si
ci
j^.
^
£
j
^5
^
*:
*i *; *i U
■B
pq
5
3
3
= titi
«i
3
3
i
ti
at
3
to
ix
p
3
... 3.
tttrtcji
3 = 3-A
-
CO
I
Cfi
3,3.3.3.3.
Ol 01 01 01 01
CC X X iC CO
.&
E
j^
<^
<!
E
<
<J
<
t)
<<:-
c
2
oc
g
jJ
E
a a a' s
O
«
■3
t£
"Sffi "S
-6~s
tx
j
•3
■3
—
»3
•3
•3
*3
3~3
■&
'jii:
*i
'6'& Sa'S
l
5
01 £ £
ECU
0. 1/ 01 0,
a
PS
a*s«
r5«
a
<!
a
a
^
3
,
—
a waa
_a_
_«
a
pq
pq
xasp
o.
■3
a
. . .
E
01
01
.
■£■5
. _ .
.
3
.
"3
1
a
■•-^
a
IS
01
3
E
Ol
E
o
c o*
"5
. T3
oT
&
•a
• E
2 ai ?
CO =
*S
^>
_01
■b
-3
B
■p
u
■3
S
«
•2
■3
01
M
01
■a
|
01
_5
"3*01
01 >»
.S-B
■3
j
c
u
3
2
«
a
"oi
-•3
5 a
■3
a
CO
•a
0
H
•
•3
' 3 ■ ■
s
S
g
wS
"3 . s
01 v«E
= 3 .i
M
B
01
,
01
3
lis
3 "-.a
M
^
01
-4
3
01
a
■a 1
a
Ol
, 2 , ,
z
a "
a a
b=5
Q
a
u<
a
C
a
55
P
R
Ek
-
n
>
j
•3
T3-
•OT3
■c
tac
•3
•
•3
-3
>0
—
-3
a
5
S
• • a
S E
E
E
a
E
E
a
0
S'S
bo
o
i?
a
S
3
3 3
3
3
3
3
a
E
r H
£
o
O
O Q
o
^3
0
0
O
O
0
S 3
a
CO
8
a
a
AA
a
O
a
0
a
a
a
-
"N
a
01
>.
bJE
s
0)
A
£•<
be
s
2
a
7.
0>
3
a
01 01 01
i£ tea:
« 5 S
a-;a
E
oi i;
Sa
E
•3
01
E
-3
01
a
3
1
01
B
E
3
3
01
3
S
01
|
a
a
u
01
B
a
.
• ■ 01
it
01 01 —
jf?fC
B BO
,
•
=
a
3
s
,
• 1 0) 01 •
ate
53
B B 01 01 B
g
*g
cici
w
r^
ODCO
o5ct^ oc
—
CM CM •
10 10 . .to
• >^o
c^ .a
l<5
«c
■O
c5
0
oe
CM
r^
n
. OICM .
?s
c3
K-.tOrt
B5"0»m
(M
ci
1-.
s s^
CO
CM
a.i<-. cm o.
£ -1— "
a
£
£££
a-:j6
j:
A
A
~
fl
A
X
x:
A
£ — •
J^»
>*
>-»
s->
^
B
o
«rfj s
h
a
o
o o o
O D O
o
o
0
O
0
0
0
0
0
O
0
a 0 0 a
I.
St
£b
abb
aaa
a
a
a
a
Em
—
a
a
a
<-^a
b
a
a
a
bbbbi,
£
1-
o
o
w
11
1
•
«o
3^
»ot^ .
a
ac
1^
(O
1
CD
1-
o
r^
,
tN ^ ""
CM
CO
CM
C
1
■"
"
*^
■u *;a
*^
t^
oi
Cn
6
**
J
^
2
c
*^
— >o
to
' oc
ci
CO
>o
1 71 0-1
■0
si
s
c
^=h"
a
B
E
B
c
a
E
E
a
a
£
B
a
E E
S
2
A
'4
■X ir.~-
■s
|
3
3
3
el
A
3
0
• 0
0
s
|
to
E
3
•
33 '
■
5
a
a
ffiaa
Q
a
a
a
p
P
R
X
_w_
. a
^P_
—
^'pp_
I
s .
■
fc
•§ §
'
•
•
•
o
"g Si!
H
•g ; =
*
•
1
■
en
5 5.2
•
• •
• •
1
•
1
■
a
■?*- 5
a
a
P4
a
0. *0
•
•
"
•
i
-
•
•
•
•
•
"
P
Si 5
•
•
'
•
•
.
01
"3 . ,
01
01 01 >
^ ■§ '5
a2 -•/,'• o>
*■ "3 ** £ £
5. s S 3 a.
«I«H . . |
a a a
• «
E
E
o
BC
i ■ -|
01
o
'5
oT 01
E >
all
01
oi
E
2 '
i
a
u
o
E B
fa
t£01
E —
y
s oi
a -
3
S
•
•
•sl
■3 3
■3 O
,
«
a
0
a
01
01
9
C*
1 0
■ M
■ <2
01
c
g
B
"2;
A
01
7
"3
'
2
01
cS '
01
a3 aj
4; to
2S •
'.2 b
> to
1
01
3
C
•3
01
a
■3JS
o'C
- s
„ j —
= Si>
> s a
*H- 1 oi
•j: e Eb
S-5*E
? '" *>
0< B K
S
.|
E
■s
X
01
01
01
A
u
a_
ic
E
01
1-
V
2
a
a
■3
B
>?
a
u
IS
B
<a
0
_a_
2
to
S
01
E ,
*- B
Bi O 01
'C ° ""ra
ni;o if
>>>- 3^
O B O 01
_aapa
01
2
0
a
13
01
so
u
s
2
_o
a
a
a
1
0
• . 0,2
A gg
1 -^c§
cc C^ a?
01 jS-22-a
| ^oiiJ
O B « .2 B
_R>a>o
c
H
<N
I^^O
(if^oo
oi
0
a
CM
t-
a
■0
to
l^cccio
s
CJ
ri
a
L^
^(^COCft
'<
""
*"
rt
""'
^
— «<M
34
01
CM
CM
CM CM CM CM CM
3^
&■£
Si -3
"g3
2*
- £-2 2
b a
c s.l.
C Ex
2 •" C ci
* C !» 5 M >.
£ ii 8 £3 &
■c c'S^ 3 5 o..a
Ssg£l-gs
s s 3 = So « >
cTSiT^gpJ
si pj-^0^"
1
_^
*JJ
s
c
S^8
a
S? *
X « C
05
W <
CO
o ?
I
H «
"S~« S.-'3~
v v 2 * £"
o 2 S p,°
£5 o £•?, S--3 I
c. z- t~ p.
en en co cc
.B .3 j5
P.3. p. P.O.
a; aj cj aj i»
« x co co co
3T3 T3 T3T3
1?. J
— —
CO CO
+- ,w -»i u
XXX
- U V - _ _ _„
n « « « Sg S 2g
§ w h a
■a •?
CI 3
"2 *
a 3 —
*S is ""
? .a s>>
■ h >a -a
a r\
eSpI
.2.3
3 *3 §
o * o q
pS o
1 *
*« "S
I • 1 *
till
Fill
ph q « w
&!• I •
!i
1 '
2
h T3
o S
I
C3
0)
hi
-s
So s
■BX.S
<3
a
SI
3
o a
X
q
E*
o o
fa £FS
s J3^
55 «J
s^ 2
S5S
5?«
H £
M g
ID « H
B 6 -5 £ s
.3-5
13 3
a o
s -
CO a
CO o»
® B
Z o
b5 «
5 £
S &
<- ►j wj ^ w
^ 2
to io
- - - -
= i < £ X £ £ £
fa <) fa fc, &« fa
§ 3
- =
C^H
:a ^ _;
a o a o
« "5
„J -S-S
B
w s
ti is
CO
.£teig.Ss2 .
o o
' o a °„«
u, o j> Jia
^ iTc'5 c
3 fig- iSa
p1 ,3si **£
-?£
1 s.
.2 £'?
> O «
« S.C
Ph
£ &
Cjo
O PS
1
CI
sl
ps
S c
3
o o
iZ
>
^<J
a
rr
fi
<j
A
h
o
i
C
^S-e"
>»
•*
g
ffl"C3
jS
CI
O
><
i I 5 I I
B3 O O Cu O
O -* <» >^ *^"-~
n n n n ><:to
r~ 00 o
-< oJ'" m
Book I. PEACH. 715
4488. Selection of sorts. Abercrombie says, "Except the situation be completely fa-
vorable as to climate, aspect, and shelter, forbear to plant very early or extreme late fruit ;
the frost will almost inevitably cut oft* the former when blossoming and setting ; and
the latter will hardly ripen under the declining heat of autumn."
4489. The peaches proper for a small garden, according to Forsyth, are —
The early arant I Royal George I Early Newington I Nivette
Small mignonne I Royal Kensington J Gallande I Catherine
Anne I Noblesse | Early purple Chancellor ( Late Newington.
4490. The peaches in the Dalkeith garden, and which ripen in the order in which they
are placed are as follows ; those marked (H.) being planted against hot- walls :
(W.) Early nutmeg
\w.) Earl v Anne
(W.) Red Magdalen
( W.) Royal George
(W.) Grimwood's Royal George
(W.) Noblesse
(H.) Gallande
(H.) Bellegard I {W.) Smith's early Newington
(H.) Montaubon j (ff.) Chancellor
{H.) Millet's mignonne j [W.) White Magdalen
The best varieties for forcing, according to Oldacre, are, the violet, native, mignonne,
and Marlborough.
4491. Propagating to procure new sorts. The peach is raised from the stone ; and this
mode is pursued in America, even for procuring trees for common purposes. In Mary-
land and Virginia, Neill observes, " peach-trees are propagated from the stones without
budding. Every peach-orchard contains of course numerous varieties. Among these,
a few are always of superior quality; with the rest of the fruit pigs are fed." The
peaches (Nos. 38, 39.) in the table, mentioned as produced by Knight, were thus
originated : the parent trees were dwarfs planted in large pots ; these being brought into
a state of vigorous health, the pistils of the blossom of one sort were impregnated with
the pollen of another ; only three peaches were suffered to remain on each tree ; and
from sowing the stones of these, the Acton scott, and spring grove, and other varieties,
were produced : the male parent of the latter was the large French mignonne ; and the
female, the little red nutmeg ; which choice is consistent with the general principle, that
the most perfect and vigorous offspring will be obtained of plants, as of animals, when
the male and female parent are not closely related to each other. (Neill.)
4492. Knight has some excellent observations on this subject in various papers published in the
Uort. Trans. ; but especially in Observations on the Method of producing new and early Fruits, and
on some Varieties of the Peach, (vol. i.) In the latter paper he thus concludes, " I entertain little
doubt that the peach-tree might, in successive generations, be so far hardened and naturalised to the
climate of England and Ireland, as to succeed well as a standard in favorable situations. The peach does
not, like many other species of fruit, much exercise the patience of the gardener, who raises it from the
seed ; for it may always be made to bear when three years old. I will not venture to decide whether it
might not possibly produce fruit even at the end of a single year. In prosecuting such experiments, I
would recommend the seedling peach-trees to be retained in pots, and buds from them only to be inserted
in older trees ; for their rapid and luxuriant growth is extremely troublesome on the wall, and pruning is
death to them." He afterwards succeeded in producing blossom-buds the first year : the means used were,
leaving on the laterals near the extremities of the shoots, and exposing the leaves as much as possible to
the sun, in order to promote the growth, and ripening of the wood.
4493. Miller says, the best sorts for sowing, are those whose flesh is firm and cleaves to the stone ; and
from amongst those, you should choose such as ripen pretty early, and have a rich vinous juice. These
stones should be planted in autumn, on a bed of light dry earth, about three inches deep and four inches
asunder ; and in the winter the beds should be covered to protect them from the frost, which, if permitted
to enter deep into the ground, will destroy them. After remaining two years in this bed, they may be
transplanted into nursery rows, three feet asunder, and one foot distant, plant from plant, in the rows;
mulching the surface, and watering during summer in very dry weather. After being two years in this
nursery, transplant them where they are to remain to produce fruit. Plant them as standards till you see
their fruit ; cut off bruised roots, but give their tops no other pruning than cutting out decayed or very
irregular branches.
4494. Propagation to perpetuate varieties. The peach is generally budded on damask plum-stocks, and
some of the more delicate sorts on apricot-stocks, or old apricot-trees cut down, or on seedling peaches,
almonds, or nectarines. Knight recommends growing almond-stocks for the finer kinds of nectarines, and
apricots, as likely to prevent the mildew, and as being allied to the peach. He says, " almond-stocks
should be raised and retained in the nursery in pots, as they do not transplant well." Dubreuil, already
mentioned (4387. 4441.), recommends a plum-stock for a clayey soil, and the almond for such as are light,
chalky, or sandy. The same opinion is held by the Montreuil gardeners. " Perform the budding in July
or August, in the side of the stock, one bud in each, inserted near the bottom, for principal wall-trees :
and at the height of three, four, or five feet, for riders. The bud will shoot the following spring, and
attain the length of three or four feet in the summer's growth. After the budded trees have ripened the
first year's shoot, they may either be planted where they are to remain, or be trained in the nursery for
two, three, or four vears, till in a bearing state. Whether the plants be removed into the garden at a
year old, or remain "longer in the nursery, the first shoots from the budding must be headed down, either
early in June the same year, to gain a season, or in the March following, to four, five, or six eyes, to produce
lateral shoots, with one upright leader, to begin the formation of the head in a fan-like expansion :
the second year's shoots should also be shortened to a few eyes at the return of June or March ; and
those also of the third year in such degrees as may seem expedient." At Montreuil, almond-stocks are
used because the soil is dry ; but Mozard prefers plum-stocks where the soil is strong and black. {Hort.
Tour, &c. 429.) The Flemish nurserymen graft both the peach and nectarine on the Mirabelle plum,
a very small cherry-shaped fruit.
4495. Soil. A good soil for peach-trees, according to Abercrombie, " is composed of three parts mellow
unexhausted loam, and one part drift sand, moderately enriched with vegetable mould, or the cooler
dungs. If the soil be lean and poor, and at the same time light, have the borders improved with decom-
posed dung and fertile mellow earth (new top-spit loam, if attainable) ; if the ground be strong and heavy,
add some light earth or dung ; if very gravelly, remove the grossest part, excavating to a proper depth ;
and in the same proportion apply a compost as above. Let the soil be made good to the depth of thirty
inches or three feet. The nectarine wants the warmer, richer, and deeper soil, if any difference be made.
Bad cold ground, or an exhausted mould, is often the cause of the trees gumming." Forsyth says,
" Peaches require a lighter soil than pears and plums, and a light mellow loam is best."
4496. Choice of plants. Abercrombie, Forsyth, Nicol, and most authors, agree in recommending the
choice of trees, two, three, or four years trained. Forsyth says, " they should be procured in the latter
end of October, or beginning of November, as soon as the leaf begins to fall."
4497. Final planting. The peach is almost universally planted against walls in Britain ; in some few
warm situations they have been tried as dwarf standards, and Knight (Hort Tram. vol. ii. p. 219.) " thinks
716
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
they may be grown in some cases as low as espaliers, covering with mats in spring to protect the blossom.
In a very warm season there can be no doubt the fruit of the hardier sorts so grown, would be higher-
colored and of superior flavor, and the trees would be less subject to the red spider. Early autumn plant-
ing is best on a dry soil. Spring planting may be successfully performed in February and March ; the
sooner, so as the weather be favorable, the better ; that the trees may take root immediately before the
dry warm season commences."
4498. Mode of bearing. " All the varieties of the peach and nectarine bear the fruit
upon the young wood of a year old ; the blossom-buds rising immediately from the eyes
of the shoots. The same shoot seldom bears after the first year, except on some casual
small spurs on the two years' wood, which is not to be counted upon. Hence, the trees
are to be pruned as bearing entirely on the shoots of the preceding year ; and a full
supply of every year's shoots must be trained in for successional bearers the following
season." (Abercrombie.) Du Petit Thouars denies the propriety of the distinction
usually made of wood-buds and flower-buds in the peach-tree and stalks, and that each
leaf produces a bud at its base, which soon becomes triple, the two outer proving flower-
buds, and the middle one a leaf or wood bud.
4499. The summer pruning, " in May and June, and occasionally in the succeeding months, is to regu-
late the shoots of the same year, and to prevent improper growths by disbudding. Pinch off fore-right
buds or shoots ; and pinch off or cut out ill placed, very weakly, spongy, and deformed shoots, and
very strong luxuriant growths ; retaining a plentiful supply of good lateral shoots in all parts of the tree ;
and leaving a leader to each branch. Let them mostly be trained in at full length all summer, about
three inches asunder, for next year's bearers ; and divest them of any lateral twigs, to prevent a thicket-
like intricacy, and to promote a healthy fruitful growth in the shoots themselves. In the course of the
summer regulation, if any partial vacancy occurs, or should a young tree under training want an addi-
tional supply of wood, shorten some convenient-placed strong shoot in June to a few eyes, to furnish a
supply of laterals the same season."
4500. The winter pruning " may be performed at the fall of the leaf, and thence, according to some
professional writers, at ahy time in mild weather until spring. It should be completed in February, or
early in March, before the" blossom-buds are considerably advanced, which are distinguishable by being
round, plump, and prominent, while the leaf and shoot buds are oblong and narrow. There is some ad-
vantage in pruning when the blossom-buds can be certainly known. Retain, in all parts of the tree, a
competent supply of such regular-grown shoots of last year as are apparently fruitful in blossom-buds.
Most part of these should be shortened, not indiscriminately, but according to their strength and situation ;
the very strong shoots should be left longest, being topped about one fourth, or one third ; shoots of
middling vigor reduce one third or one half; and prune the very weak to two or three buds. Always cut
at a shoot-bud, to advance for a leader : sometimes a shoot-bud lies between a twin blossom-bud : cut half
an inch above the bud. As many new shoots as will lay from three to six inches asunder may be deemed
a competent supply for next year's bearers. Cut out quite close the redundant, irregular, and other
improper shoots : remove or reduce some part of the former bearers of the two preceding years, cutting
the most naked quite away, and others down to the most eligible younger branch or well placed shoot.
Also take out all diseased and dead wood : retaining young, where necessary, to fill a vacuity."
4501. A mode of pruning adapted to cold and late situations is recommended by Knight as calculated to
obtain fruit-bearing spurs on the peach, and these spurs he finds best calculated in such situations
and late seasons, to generate well organised and vigorous blossoms. " Instead of taking off so large a
portion of the young shoots, and training in a few only to a considerable length, as is usually done, and
as I should myself do to a great extent, in the vicinity of London, and in every favorable situation, I pre-
serve a large number of the young shoots, which are emitted in a proper direction in early spring by the
yearling wood, shortening each where necessary, by pinching off the minute succulent points, generally to
the length of one or two inches. Spurs which lie close to the wall are thus made, upon which numerous
blossom-buds form very early in the ensuing summer ; and upon such, after the last most unfavorable sea-
son, and in a situation so high and cold that the peach-tree, in the most favorable seasons, had usually
produced only a few feeble blossoms ; I observed as strong and vigorous blossrfms in the present spring, as
I have usually seen in the best seasons and situations; and I am quite confident that if the peach-
trees, in the gardens round the metropolis had been pruned in the manner above described, in the last
season, an abundant and vigorous blossom would have appeared in the present spring. I do not, however,
mean to recommend to the gardener to trust wholly, in any situation, for his crop of fruit to the spurs
produced by the above-mentioned mode of pruning and training the peach-tree. In every warm and fa-
vorable situation, I would advise him to train the larger part of his young wood, according to the ordinary
method, and in cold and late situations only, to adopt, to a great extent, the mode of management above
suggested. A mixture of both modes, in every situation, will be generally found to multiply the chances
of success ; and, therefore, neither ought to be exclusively adopted, or wholly rejected in any situation.
The spurs must not be shortened in the whiter or spring, till it can be ascertained what parts of them
are provided with leaf-buds."
4502. Harrison, in a very elevated and cold situation, prunes and nails his peach and nectarine trees
in December and January, taking away two thirds of the young shoots ; and in two hand-dressings in
May and July, he leaves the lowest and weakest shoots for a succession in the year following, pinching
off the leading and other shoots. J. S. Wortley, Esq. (Harrison's employer) says, " he can hardly do
his gardener justice in describing his practice ; for he never saw trees so beautifully trained, and upon
such good principles. The chief rule which he follows, is never to allow the shoots that are left for
bearing fruit, to run to any length from the strong wood ; for which reason, when the trees are pruned in
autumn the bearing branches for the next year are shortened, taking care not to leave more fruiting -buds
than he thinks will come to perfection." {Hurt. Trans, vol. ii. p. 14. ; Harrison's Tr. on Fr. Trees, ch. xxv.)
4503. Training. The peach is almost uni-
versally trained in the fan manner, though some
allege that it bears better in rich soils when lead-
ing branches are trained nearly horizontally, and
the bearing shoots trained upwards from those,
thus combining horizontal and upright training.
Hayward suggests the wavy-fan manner (Jig.
490. ), as likely to answer better than the common
mode of fan-training.
4504. Mozard's mode of training peach-trees is as fol-
lows : in the course of the winter he cuts over the young
tree above the graft, leaving four or five buds to produce
as many branches. In July following, he cuts out, close
Book I. PEACH. 717
to the main stem, all other branches than those absolutely needed for furnishing the tree. He trains
regularly to the right and left ; but the weaker branches receive less inclination, or are placed more up-
right than the stronger ones, that this more favorable position may give them energy, and bring them to
an equality of vigor with the stronger branches which are laid in horizontally. At the first regular form-
ing or cutting in, about a year and a half after planting, the branches are reduced to two on each side ;
and at the next pruning, one branch is removed on each side, leaving the tree to be formed only of two
principal branches, and those the most equally balanced as to general form and promise. If the first
year's growth do not yield two sufficiently good leading branches, they are sought from the growth of the
second year ; the best branch of the former year is now, with this view, trained upright as a stem, and
two leading branches or arms are derived from it in the succeeding season. In subsequent years the
pruning is conducted on similar principles. It is a common rule to leave two secondary arms, of
nearly equal strength, and about two feet apart, on each side. In trees managed in the way now described,
the sap seems to be equally distributed ; at least, the trees exhibit, upon the whole, a great equality of
branches, both as to size or strength, and as to furniture of twigs, leaves, and fruit. Continued care is
exercised to keep both sides of the tree equally balanced as to vigor. If one principal arm become
stronger than the other, a few robbers are allowed to push for a time on the weak arm, with the view of
drawing an increase of sap to that side of the tree, till the equilibrium be restored : or, the weak arm is
altogether raised a little more towards the vertical, while the stronger is depressed more to the horizontal,
and thus an equality is gradually accomplished. The lambourdcs, or robbers, it may be added, with due
management, frequently afford the healthiest and best wood. They are cut down to a foot and a half,
leaving one or two buds as near as possible to the trunk of the tree ; the resulting shoots are laid in, and
form good fruit-bearing wood the next season. The annual shoots are left of different lengths, according
to the vigor of the tree, from one foot to three feet. There are two kinds of shoots, such as are the
produce both of the early spring and of the summer flow of sap, and such as result from the latter only.
The former are preferred, and are called rameaux ; the latter are distinguished as ramilles. When the
tree reaches the top of the wall, the cutting in is discontinued, and the pruning extends only to shortening
the leading shoots, or, in some cases, bending them till they be confined about two or three inches below the
coping of the wall. In this way the equable distribution of the sap in the central parts of the tree is pro-
moted. In the regular course of pruning, all branchlets that show fruit-buds only, or are thought to contain
no others, are sacrificed without mercy. This would appear absurd to any one not a horticulturist, but
if such branchlets do exist, their excision is quite prudent ; for wood-buds or shoots are like pumps, to
draw sap towards the branchlets ; and if they be wanting, the blossom on the twig commonly fails to set ;
or if the fruit form, it soon falls off, or at all events, is deficient in size and flavor. From four to eight
flower-buds are left on each twig, according to its strength, and a wood-bud at the extremity, when it can
be there had, or between two flower-buds near the extremity. When this wood-bud expands into a shoot,
the shoot is shortened to an inch or so in length, and this remains as the pump for drawing sap to the four
or eight fruit-buds of the twig. Other wood-shoots, as they are called, which may appear below the
fruit-buds, or nearer to the main branches, are cut down to one or two eyes. Mozard likewise resorts to
disbudding, although little or no notice is taken of that practice in his work. {Hort. Tour, 452.)
4505. Sieulle, gardener at Vauz Prseslin, adopts, for the first two years, a different mode of training
and pruning from that of Mozard. The distinguishing characteristics of Sieulle's method are applicable
only to very young peach-trees, in their first and second years. In the first year he does not at all cut or
shorten the two original or principal branches, called the mkre branches. The young tree has only to be
fixed to the wall or trellis, requiring no other treatment till the fall of the leaf. By leaving these mere
branches at full length, and only disbudding late in the autumn, the vigor of the young tree is greatly
promoted. He trains these principal branches to a much wider angle than the Montreuil gardeners, per-
haps 60° or 65° instead of 45°. At the approach of winter he practises Vebourgeonncment a sec, leaving
only four buds on each branch, and removing the rest neatly with a sharp knife. At Montreuil the mere
branches are cut in or shortened in the first year, and disbudding is delayed till the leaves be developed in
the following year. By disbudding at this season the young tree not only suffers an unnecessary check or
injury, but the consequence is that the buds left, instead of forming good shoots, develope themselves into
numerous brindilles. Late in the autumn of the 6econd year, Sieulle cuts in, to the extent of one third,
the four lateral branches produced on each of his mere branches. In the following year, he disbuds the
lateral branches to the extent of one half; and in the future management he practises winter disbudding
greatly in place of pruning, a practice long ago strongly recommended by Nicol in his horticultural writ-
ings. By Sieulle's method, Du Petit Thouars remarks, the young tree is more quickly brought to fill
its. place on the espalier ; it is afterwards much more easily kept in regular order : many poorer flower-
buds are allowed to unfold themselves, but the necessity of thinning the fruit is thus in a great measure
superseded, and the peaches produced are larger and finer. {Hort. Tour, 479.)
4506. Thinning the fruit. " In favorable seasons, the blossoms often set more fruit
than they can support, or than have room to attain full growth ; and if all were to remain,
it would hurt the trees in their future bearing : therefore they should be timely thinned,
when of the size of large peas or half-grown gooseberries. There should be a preparatory
thinning before the time of stoning, and a final thinning afterwards, because most plants,
especially such as have overborne themselves, drop many fruit at that crisis. Finish the
thinning with great regularity, leaving those retained at proper distances, three, four, or
five, on strong shoots, two or three on middling, and one or two on the weaker shoots ;
and never leaving more than one peach at the same eye. The fruit on weakly trees,
thin more in proportion." (Abercrombie.)
4507. Renovating old decaying trees. Head down, and renew the soil from an old up-
land pasture, and if the bottom of the border is moist, or if the roots have gone more than
two feet, or two and a half feet downwards, pave the bottom, or otherwise render it
dry and impervious to roots at the depth of twenty inches, or two feet from the surface.
This plan will be found almost universally successful in restoring sufficient vigor, to
resist insects and diseases, and produce abundance of fruit.
4508. Protecting blossom. This may require to be done by some of the various modes
already enumerated. (2206. to 2218.) Forsyth recommends old netting as the best
covering.
4509. Harrison protects his trees from the frost, in the month of January, by. branches of broom : these
are previously steeped in soap-suds, mixed with one-third of urine, for forty-eight hours, in order to clear
them from insects, and when dry, disposed thinly over the whole tree, letting them remain on only until
the trees begin to break into leaf. At the time of the blooming and setting of the fruit he applies cold
water in the following manner : viz. If upon visiting the trees, before the sun is up, in the morning, af-
ter a frosty night, he finds that there is any appearance of frost in the bloom or young fruit, he waters
the bloom or young fruit thoroughly with cold water, from the garden-engine ; and he affirms, that even
718 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
if the blossoms or young fruit are discolored, this operation recovers thern, provided it be done before the
sun comes upon them. He farther says, that he has sometimes had occasion to water particular parts of
the trees more than once in the same morning, before he could get entirely rid of the effects of the frost.
Dr. Noehden remarks {Hort. Trans, ii.) " that this operation of watering before sunrise, in counteract-
ing the frost, seems to produce its effect in a manner analogous to the application of cold water to a frozen
joint or limb, which is injured by the sudden application of warmth." Harrison discovered this method
by the following accident : " In planting some cabbage-plants, among the rows of some kidueybeans,
very early in the morning, after a frosty night, in spring, before the sun was high enough to come upon
the frosted beans, he spilt some of the water upon them which he used in planting the cabbage-plants ;
and to his surprise, he found that the beans began immediately to recover."
4510. Ripening peaches on leafless branches. Whenever the part of the bearing branch,
which extends beyond the fruit, is without foliage, the fruit itself rarely acquires matu-
rity, and never its proper flavor and excellence. This Knight conjectured to be owing
to the want of the returning sap which would have been furnished by the leaves ; and he
proved it experimentally, by inarching a small branch immediately above the fruit. The
fruit, in consequence, acquired the highest degree of maturity and perfection. {Hort.
Trans, ii. 25.)
4511. Insects, diseases, &c. The leaves of the peach-tree are
very liable to the attacks of the acarus, its greatest enemy, and also
to be devoured by the Chermes (Jig. 491. a), Aphis (Jig. 491.
b), and even a much smaller insect, the Thrips (Jig. 492.),
492 which, in its natural size (c) is hardly perceptible with the naked eye.
These are to be kept under by the usual means of watering over the leaves,
and fumigation with tobacco-smoke. The honey-dew, mildew, gum, and
canker, are chiefly to be kept under by regimen : dusting with sulphur has
been found to destroy the mildew (Robertson, in Hort. Trans, v. 184.), but
the only certain way of removing it is by a renewal of the soil, which will commonly be
found old mould long in use and too rich ; and by abundance of air. J. Kirk. (Caled.
Hort. Mem. iv. 159.) has tried renewing the soil for fifty years, and always found it an
effectual remedy.
4512. Black spots or blotches are very apt to appear and spread on the young' wood of the peach-tree,
and these Kinment proved to be produced by over-rich soil. He says, " Some time in the beginning of
winter, 1811, I collected together a rich compost-heap (No. 1.), consisting of one third light loam, one
sixth strong clay, one twelfth lime, one sixth hot-bed dung, one sixth vegetable mould, and one twelfth
Eigeon-dung. At the same time, I collected another heap (No. 2.), much less rich, consisting of one
alf light loam, one fourth strong clay, one eighth earth from scourings of ditches, one sixteenth lime,
and one sixteenth hot-bed dung. These heaps I turned over occasionally, in order that they might be
well meliorated by the frosts. About the middle of March, 1812, I planted the trees, and applied to the
roots of a few of them the rich compost of No. 1. ; but the greatest number of them were planted with the
compost No. 2. About the latter end of June, I examined the young trees all over : the shoots that
they had made were nearly all of the same size ; but I was no way disappointed when I found those I
had planted with the rich mould, sadly infested with black spots ; while those planted with No. 2. re-
mained whole and sound. There being only the few which were planted with No. 1. infested with the
black spots. With my knife I cut the blemishes entirely out ; and about the latter end of September I
found the wounds completely whole. Early in the spring, 1813, I cleared off the rich mould entirely
from their roots, and supplied the vacancy with No. 2. ; and at the end of last season I had the happiness
to see them succeed to the utmost of my wishes, free of black spots." {Caled. Hort. Mem. ii. 79, SO.)
4513. The wasp {Vespa vulgaris), the large fly (Musca vomitoria), the ant {Formica vulgaris), and
especially the earwig {Forficula auricularia), are enemies to the ripe peach. The three first may be ex-
cluded by nets, or enticed by honied bottles, and the last caught by the beetle-trap, reeds, or bean-stalks,
laid in behind the leaves, and examined every morning.
4514. The Montreuil peach-growers water to wash off the aphides ; pick off wrinkled, blotched, and
mildewed leaves, and cut out canker and gum, and cover the wound with onguent de St. Fiacre, i. e. cow-
dung and loam, " much in the same way," Neill observes, " as is practised in Scotland."
4515. Gathering. Use the peach-gatherer, and gather one day or two before the fruit is to be used, and
before it be dead-ripe, laying it on clean paper in a dry airy part of the fruit-room. See Chap. IV. Sec. III.
and Chap. V. Sect. X.
451& Forcing, and the use of hot-walls. The peach-tree forces well under glass, (See Chap. VII. Sect.
III.) and its ripening may be accelerated in the open air, when planted against a hot-wall, by the application
of gentle fires in cold moist weather, in August and September. This will ripen the fruit and wood, but
attempts to accelerate the Uossoms early in spring are very dangerous, as without the protection ,of glass
they are almost certain of being cut off.
Subsect. 2. Nectarine. — Amygdalus Persica, var. Nectarina, L. Peche lisse, Fr.
4517. The nectarine is distinguished from the peach by its smooth and rather firmer
and more plump fruit. In other respects the general description of the peach equally
applies to the nectarine, both, as before observed, being by the continental gardeners
considered as one fruit. Forsyth says, " The fruit is called nectarine from nectar, the
poetical drink of the gods." Some botanists, considering it as a distinct species, dis-
tinguish it by the trivial name of nuci-persica, from the similitude of the green fruit in
smoothness, color, size, and form to the walnut (?mx) covered with its outer green shell.
4518. The varieties are enumerated in the following table : —
Elruge ; first cultivated at 'Hoxton, by
Gurle, in 1680; {Hook. P. L. & For. 3.)
medium size; dark-red and pale-yel-
low color; ripens about the middle of
August ; and is soft and melting
Temple's {Lang. P. t. 30. and For. 8.);
medium size; pale-red and yellowish
color; ripens in the middle of Sep-
tember ; flavor rich and juicy
Free Stones arranged in the order of their ripening.
Fairchild's early (For. 1.); small size; I Violet, Violet Hative (Hook. P. t. 15.
round figure; beautiful red color; For. 11.); medium size; purple and
ripens in the middle of August ; | pale color ; vinous flavor
flavor good I Wurry (For. 7.); medium size; dingy
Peterborough, Late Green, Vermash red and pale -green; ripens in the
(Fur. 10.) middle of September
Scarlet (For. 4.); small size; fine scar- I White, Flanders (Hook. P. t. 30. For.
let and pale-red color; ripens in the I p. 58.) ; ripens in the beginning of
end of August September.
Book I.
APRICOT.
719
Clingstones arranged in the order of their ripening.
Late Newington (Lang. P. t. 29. For. 2.);
red and yellow color ; ripens in the
middle of September; excellent rich
juice
Brugnon, Italian (Lang. P. t. 29.
For. 5.); deep-red and pale-yellow
color ; ripens the beginning of Sep-
tember; rich flavor
Red Roman, Brugnon Musqu^ (Dull.
n. 26. For. 6.); large size; dark-red
and yellow color ; ripens in Septem-
ber ; replete with rich juice
Golden (Lang. p. t. 29. For. 9.) ; medium
size ; soft red and yellow color ; ripens
in the beginning of October; poignant
rich flavor
Early Pavie (For. 57.)
Late Genoa (For. 57-) ,
Early Newington (For. 57.); above
medium size; ripens the end of Au-
gust ; deep-red color ; pulp super-ex-
cellent ; and, according to Miller, one
of the best flavored of nectarines, or of
any known fruit in the world
Roger's seedling. (For. 77.)
4519. Selection of sorts. Forsyth recommends for a small garden —
Fairchild's early " | Elruge | Scarlet | Newington | Red Roman | Temple's.
4520. Those in the Dalkeith garden are as follows ; such as are marked (IT.) being
planted against a hot-wall : —
(H.) Red Roman
(H.) Dutilly's
(H.) Elruge
(H.) Brugnon
(H.) Temple
(H.) Murry
Fairchild's
(H.) Scarlet
(B.) Clermont
4521. Insects. " On account of the smoothness of the skin of the nectarine," For-
syth says, " it suffers much more from the wood-louse (Oniscus asellus), ear- wigs, &c.
than the peach ; it will, therefore, be necessary to hang up a greater number of bundles
of bean-stalks about these than about any other fruit-trees. Wasps are also very destruc-
tive to nectarines, and the trees are very liable to be infested with the red spider."
Culture, &c. This is in all respects the same as the peach.
Subsect. 3. Apricot. — Prunus Armeniaca, L. ; Armeniaca Vulgaris, P. S. (Lam. III.
t. 431.) Icos. Di-Pentag. L. and Rosacea, J. Mahis Armeniaca of the Ancients.
Abricot, Fr. ; Abricosenbaum, Ger. ; and Albicocco, Ital.
4522. The apricot is a low tree, of rather crooked growth, with broad roundish-
pointed leaves, glandular, serrated, and the petiole commonly tinged with red. Linnaeus
remarks, that the vernant leaves are convoluted, that is, not folded flat together, like
those of the cherry, but rolling upwards, more or less. The leaves of many apricot-trees
have a disposition to this at all times. The flowers are sessile, of a white color, tinged
with dusky-red ; fruit round, yellow within and without, firmer than plums and most
peaches, enclosing a smooth compressed stone, like that of the plum. The flowers ap-
pear in April, on the shoots of the preceding year, and on spurs of two or more years'
growth, and the fruit ripens in September. From its trivial name, it is generally sup-
posed to have originated in Armenia, but Regnier and Sickler assign it a parallel be-
tween the Niger and the Atlas ; and Pallas states it to be a native of the whole of the
Caucasus, the mountains there, to the top, being covered with it. Thunberg describes
it as a very large, spreading, branchy tree in Japan. Grossier says that it covers the bar-
ren mountains to the west of Pekin, that the Chinese have a great many varieties of the
tree, double-blossomed, which they plant on little mounts for ornament, and dwarfs in
pots for their apartments. It appears from Turner's Herbal, that the apricot was culti-
vated here in 1562 ; and in Hakluyt's Remembrancer, 1582, it is affirmed, that the apricot
was procured out of Italy by Wolfe, a French priest, gardener to Henry VIII. The
fruit seems to have been known in Italy in the time of Dioscorides, under the name of
Prcecocia, probably, as Regnier supposes, from the Arabic, Berkoch ; whence the Tuscan,
Bacoche or Albicocco ,- and the English, Apricock : or, as Professor Martyn observes,
a tree, when first introduced, might have been called a prcecox, or early fruit ; and gar-
deners taking the article a for the first syllable of the word, might easily have corrupted
it to apricocks. The orthography seems to have been finally changed to apricot about the
end of the last century; as Justice, in 1764, writes apricock ; and Kyle, of Moredun
in 1782, apricot.
4523. Use. The fruit is used in a raw state at the dessert, and is esteemed next to the
peach ; it is also made into marmalades, jellies, and preserved. Grossier says, that lo-
zenges are made by the Chinese, from the clarified juice, which, dissolved in water, yield
a cool refreshing beverage : oil may be extracted from the nut, and the young shoots
yield a fine golden cinnamon-color to wool.
4524. Varieties. Parkinson, in 1629, enumerates six ; Rea, 1720, seven; the Lux-
emburg catalogue, in 1800, fifteen ; and the British catalogues enumerate about the same
number.
Masculine, Early Red Masculine; an
old variety, mentioned by Parkinson
in 1629 (Dvh. n. t. 1. & For. 1.1 ;
small size;' roundish form ; greenish-
red color ; ripens in the end of July ;
the pulp tender, with a tart tastej
the tree a good bearer, and the fruit
esteemed for its earliness and tart taste
Orange; mentioned by Rea in 1702
(For. 2.); large size; deep-yellow
color ; ripens in the end of August ;
the pulp dry and insipid; fitter for
tarts than for the table ; excellent for
preserving
Algiers mentioned by Rea in 1702
. (For. 3.) ; flatted oval form ; straw-
color ; ripens in the middle of August ;
the pulp juicy and high-flavored ; and,
according to Miller, earlier than the
orange
Roman ; mentioned by Rea in 1702
(Lang. P. t. 15. and For. 4.) large
size; round form; deep-yellow color ;
ripens in the middle of August ; the
pulp not very juicy
Turkey; mentioned by Rea in 1702
(Lang. P. t. 15. and For. 5.) ; large
size; globular form ; very deep yellow
color; ripens in the end of August;
the pulp firm and dry
Breda ; brought from Africa to Breda,
• and thence to England in 1/02
(For. 6.) ; large size ; round form ;
deep-yellow color; ripens in the end
of August; the pulp soft and juicy;
the tree a great bearer ; an excellent
fruit, especially if grown on stand-
ards, to which this sort, is particularly
adapted
Brussels ; mentioned bv Rea as brought
from Brussels in 1702 (Pom. Aunt.
t. 57. and For. 7-); medium size;
inclining to an oval form ; red, with
dark spots, and greenish -yellow color;
ripens in the end of August; the pulp
not liable to be mealy, or doughy ;
brisk flavor ; the tree a great bearer ;
and held in great esteem on account
720
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Tart III.
of its bearing so well in standards, or
large dwarfs
Moor Park; Anson's, Temple's, Dun-
more's Breda, and Peach Apricot ;
brought from the Netherlands by Sir
Thos. More, say in 1700 {Hook.
P. t. 9. and For. 8.) ; ripens in the
end of August ; fine fruit ; according
to Nicol, preferable to all other apri-
cots
Peach Apricot ; Apricot of Nancy ;
brought from Paris by the Duke
n. 10. and For. 9.) ; very large size ;
ripens in the end of August ; the fruit
is the finest and largest of all the
apricots, and differs from the Moor
Park chiefly in the leaves
Black Peach ; introduced by Sir Joseph
Banks in 1S00 {Pom. Franc, i. 36.
and For. 10.); black-skinned; ripens
in the beginning of August ; and of
good flavor
Alberge {Pom. Franc, i. 39. and For.
p. 5.); the only variety whose seeds
produce the same fruit as the parent
Angoumois {Duh. n. 4. t. 3. and For.
Blotched-leaved {Pom. Franc, i. 3-1. and
For. p. 5.)
Breda, Grover's (For. p. 5.)
Great {For. p. 5.)
Holland \Duh. 5. t. 4. and For. \>. 5.)
Orange, Royal
Persian
Portugal {Duh. d- t. 5. and for. p. 5.)
Provence {Duh. 6. t.4.)
Transparent
Violet.
of Northumberland, in 1767 (Dull
Those grown in the Dalkeith gardens are —
Brussels, early | Orange, early
1767
4525. Choice of sorts.
Moor Park | Breda, early | Masculine, early
4526 Propagation. New varieties are procured from the seed as in the peach, and approved sorts are
perpetuated by budding, generally on muscle or plum stocks. The Brussels and Breda, when intended
for standards, are budded on the St. Julian plum, which produces a strong clean stem ; but tor the rest,
any stock will do, provided it be free and thriving. Knight (Hort. Trans, vol. n. p. 19.) recommends bud-
ding the Moor Park on an apricot-stock, which he has found prevents the trees of this sort from becoming
diseased and debilitated, which they generally do on plum-stocks. Budding apricots is generally per-
formed early in the season, from the middle of June to the end of July. For dwarfs, the bud is inserted
six or eight inches from the ground; and the sorts are sometimes twice budded, or one variety budded on
another, which is said to keep the trees in a more dwarf state. For riders or standards, they are budded
on plum-stocks four or five feet high. Miller prefers half standards, budded about three or four feet from
the ground ; the trees so produced, being less liable to suffer from high winds.
4527. Choice of the plants. Abercrombie prefers trees of two or three years' growth from the bud, and
fit for immediate bearing. Forsyth makes choice of those plants which have the strongest and cleanest
stems : and if he can such as have been headed down, of two or three years' growth, as they will bear and
fill the walls much sooner than those which have not been so treated. He says, " make choice of trees
with one stem ; or, if they have two, one of them should be cut off; for by planting those with two stems,
the middle of the tree is left naked, and, of course, one third of the wall remains uncovered."
4528. Season of planting. Abercrombie says, the best season is from the fall ot the leaf until February
or March. Forsyth says, the best time is in August, when the leaf begins to fall.
4529. Final pta?iting. The Breda and Brussels are occasionally planted as standards or espaliers in warm
situations ; and in these states, in fine seasons, produce more highly flavored fruit than on walls. The other
varieties are generally planted on walls, which, Miller and Forsyth say, should have an east or west aspect ;
for,
borders
rich loai..,
cots," Abercrombie observes, " do not come into bearing under a considerable nurnber ot years, some-
times ten or twelve; but then the fruit, in a congenial situation, is abundant and of the finest flavor. So,
when the prevailing fault of a particular sort is mealiness, and yet it cannot be expected to ripen on even a
dwarf standard, the medium course of training the plant to a trellis almost touching a south wall, will im-
prove the flavor."
4530. Mode of training. The fan method is very generally adopted with this tree:
Forsyth prefers the horizontal manner, and Harrison also trains horizontally, but " so as
to let the branches have an elevation to their extremities of 20 degrees, varied, however,
according to the luxuriancy or weakness of the tree." With young trees he proceeds to
fill the wall by heading down, twice a year, in the same manner as with the apple and
pear. The result produces a tree {fig. 493.) not essentially different from Forsyth's
engraving. (2V. on Fr. Tr. chap, xxiv.)
4531. Mode of bearing. The varieties of the apricot, in general, bear chiefly upon
the young shoots of last year, and casually upon small spurs rising on the two or three
Book I. ALMOND. . 721
year-old fruit-branches. The Moor Park bears chiefly on the last yearVshoots, and on
close spurs formed on the two-year-old wood. The bearing shoots emit the blossom-buds
immediately from the eyes along the sides j and the buds have a round and swelling ap-
pearance.
4532. Pruning wall -trees. The general culture of the wall-apricots comprehends a summer and winter
course of regulation by pruning and training.
4533. Summer pruning. Begin the summer pruning in May or early in June, and continue it occasion-
ally in July, August, &c. This pruning is principally to regulate the young shoots, of the same year.
In the first place, take off close all the fore-right shoots, and others that are ill placed or irregular, or too
luxuriant in growth ; taking care to retain a competent supply of choice, well placed, moderately g'rowing
side shoots, with a good leader to each mother branch. Continue these mostly at their full length all
summer, regularly trained in close to the wall, to procure a sufficiency to choose from in the general win-
ter pruning, for new bearers next year. If the summer regulation commence earlv, while the shoots are
quite young, and, as it were, herbaceous, one, two, three, or four inches long, those improper to retain may
be detached with the finger and thumb; but when of firmer growth, they must be removed with the
knife. If any very strong shoot rise in any casually vacant part, it may be topped in June, which will
cause it to produce several laterals the same year of more moderate growth, eligible for training in to sup-
ply the vacancy.
4534. Thinning the fruit. Sometimes the fruit are much too numerous, often growing in clusters ; in
which case, thin them in May and the beginning of June, in their young green state; leaving the most
promising fruit singly, at three or four inches' distance, or from about two to six on the respective shoote
according to their strength. The apricots so thinned off, and the first principal green fruit, are esteemed
very fine for tarts'.
4535. Winter pruning. This may be performed either at the fall of the leaf, or in mild intervals
from that time until the beginning of March. When it is deferred until the buds begin to swell, the pro-
mising shoots can be better distinguished. It comprehends a general regulation both of the last year's
shoots and the older branches. A general supply of the most regular-placed young shoots must be every
where retained, for successional bearers the ensuing year. Cut out some of the most naked part of the two
last years' bearers, and naked old branches not furnis'hed with competent supplies of young wood, or
with fruit-spurs, either to their origin, or to some well directed" lateral, as most expedient, to make room
for training a general supply of the new bearers retained ; and cut away all decayed wood and old stumps.
Generally observe, in this pruning, to retain one leading shoot at the end of each branch ; either a natur-
ally placed terminal, or one formed by cutting, where a vacuity is to be furnished, into a proper leader. Let
the shoots retained for bearers be moderately shortened : strong shoots reduce in the least proportion cut-
ting off one fourth or less of their length ; from weak shoots take away a third, and sometimes half. 'This
shortening will conduce to the production of a competency of lateral shoots the ensuing summer, from the
lower and middle-placed eyes ; whereas, without it, the new shoots would proceed mostly from the top and
leave the under part of the mother branches naked, and the lower and middle parts of the tree unfurnished
with proper supplies of bearing wood. Never prune below all the blossom-buds, except to provide wood
in which case cut nearer to the origin of the branch. As, in these trees, small fruit-spurs, an inch or two long'
often appear on some of the two or three years' branches furnished with blossom-buds ; these spurs should
generally be retained for bearing ; but when any project fore-right far from the wall, cut them in accord-
ingly ; for spurs projecting above three inches, though they may set their fruit, seldom ripen it, unless the
season and situation are both favorable. The thick clusters of spurs which are apt to form on aged trees
ought also to be thinned. As each tree is pruned, nail it, laying in the branches and shoots from three to'
six inches' distance, straight and close to the wall.
4536. Pruning espaliers. As directed for wall-trees.
4537. Pruning standards. Half standards will require only occasional pruning to regulate any branches
which are too numerous, too extended, or cross-placed ; and to remove anv casually unfruitful parts and
dead wood. At the same time, the regular branches, forming the head of the tree, should not be generally
shortened, but permitted to advance in free growth. (Abercrombie.)
4538. Renovating old decaying trees. Forsyth had the greatest success in this de-
partment of fruit-tree culture, by cutting down to within a foot or eighteen inches, or
more, of the ground, and then renewing the soil of the border. He says " it has been
the general practice to train apricot-trees on walls in the fan form, which occasions the
sap to rise too freely to the top, leaving the lower part almost naked ; so that scarcely
one quarter of the wall is covered with bearing wood." His remedy for this evil is to
" cut down the whole of the tree, as near to the place where it was budded as possible ;
remembering always to cut it to an eye or joint. If there should be any young shoots
on the lower part of the tree, it will be proper to leave them, training them horizontally,
which will check the flow of the sap, and thereby render them much more fruitful."
{Tr. on Fr. Tr. ch. i.) Harrison says, " Apricots are very susceptible of injury from
pruning away any strong branches." Instead of heading down old peach, apricot, or
plum, or even cherry trees, he generally prefers rooting them out and planting young
ones.
4539. Gathering. The fruit is apt to become mealy, if left on the tree till over ripe ; it should be gathered
with the peach-gatherer while moderately firm.
4540. Insects, diseases, &c. As the fruit ripens early, it is very liable to be attacked by wasps and large
flies, which should be kept off by a net, stretched a foot or more apart from the wall or trellis. The other
insects, and the diseases of this tree, are the same as in the peach-tree ; but it is not nearly so obnoxious
to their attacks, probably owing to the comparatively hard nature of its bark and wood, and coriaceous
leaves.
4541. Tlie apricot does not force well; but a few are sometimes tried in pots, and placed in the peach
house. See Chap. VII. Sect. III. H
Subsect. 4. Almond. — Amygdalus, L. Icos. Monog. L. and Rosacea, J. (Plenck.
Ic. t. 385.) Amandier, Fr. ; Mandelbaum, Ger. ; and Mandorlo, Ital.
4542. The common or sweet almond is the A. communis, L. ; and the bitter almond is
the A. amara, L. (Rlackw. t. 195.) Both will grow to the height of twenty feet, with
spreading branches. The leaves resemble those of the peach, but the lower serratures are
3 A
722 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
glandular, which has given rise to the conjecture that glandular-leaved peaches have
sprung more immediately from the almond than such as are without glands, as is generally
the case with nectarines. The flowers vary in their color from the fine blush of the apple-
blossom to a snowy whiteness. The chief obvious distinction is in the fruit, which is
flatter, with a coriaceous covering, instead of the rich pulp of the peach and nectarine,
opening spontaneously when the kernel is ripe. It is a native of Barbary, China, and
most eastern countries. The tuberes of Pliny, Knight considers as swollen almonds, and
the same with the amandier pecker, or almond-peach, described by Du Hamel : having
raised a similar variety from dusting the stigma of the almond with the pollen of the
peach, which produced a tolerably good fruit. {Hort. Trans, iii. 4.) The almond is men-
tioned by Turner in 1548, and, though scarcely worth cultivating in England as a fruit-
tree for profit, yet it is a very satisfactory thing to produce almonds of one's own growing
at the dessert. The tree forms an important article in the general culture of many
parts of France, Italy, and Spain. In a forward spring the blossoms often appear in Fe-
bruary, but in this case frost generally destroys them, and they bear little or no fruit ;
whereas, when the trees do not flower till March, they seldom fail to produce fruit in
abundance.
4543. Use. The kernel of the stone is the only part used, which is tender, and of a
fine flavor. The sweet almond and other varieties are brought to the dessert in a green
or imperfectly ripe, and also in a ripe or dried state. They are much used in cookery,
confectionary, perfumery, and medicine. " Sweet almonds used in food," Professor
Martyn observes, " are difficult of digestion ; and afford very little nourishment, unless
extremely well comminuted. As medicine, they blunt acrimonious humors ; and some-
times give instant relief in the heartburn."
4544. Varieties and s])ecies in cultivation. Miller enumerates three species, Du Hamel
seven ; the number of sorts at present grown in the nurseries are as follows : —
Tender shelled,' Sultane (Duh. n.2. and
For. 1.); small size
Sweet, Common Sweet {Duh. n. 5.
and For. 2.); .large size; bitter al-
monds sometimes found on the same
tree
Bitter, Common Bitter {Pom. Franc.
i. 67. and For. 3.) ; large size ; sweet
armonds sometimes found on the
same tree
Sweet Jordan (Amyg. dulcisoi Miller)
{Pom. Franc, i. 67. and For. 4.) ; ten-
der shell, and large sweet kernel;
leaves broad, short, and crenate
Hard-shelled {For. 5.)
Dwarf {Duh. n. 8. and For. 6.)
Peach Almond, Amandier Pecher {Duh.
n. 2. t. 4. and Hort. Trans. 3 t. 1.) ;
produces some fruits ; pulpy and of
tolerable good flavor; and others mere
almonds; some partake of both na-
tures
Pistachio, Amande Pistache (Miller, 4.) ;
very small size.
4545. Selection of sorts. The tender-shelled is in the greatest esteem ; and next, the sweet and Jordan.
4346 Propagation. The almond is propagated, like the peach, by seed, for varieties, or for stocks ; and
by budding on its own or on plum stocks, for continuing varieties. Plum-stocks are preferred for strong
moist soils, and peach or almond stocks for dry situations.
4547 Final planting. It is generally planted as standards in shrubberies, and these will sometimes in
good seasons ripen their fruit ; but when fruit is the object, it should be trained against a west or east wall,
like the peach. . . _ . , .lL
4548. Mode of bearing and pruning. The almond-tree bears chiefly on the young wood of the previous
year, like the apricot and peach ; and in part upon small spurs on the two-year-old, three-year-old, and
older branches: it is therefore pruned like these trees.
4549 Gathering and preserving the crop. A part may be gathered when nearly ripe daily for some weeks
before gathering the whole crop. This operation generally falls to be performed in September, when a part
may be laid in the fruit-room, and a part thoroughly dried and bedded in sand in the fruit-cellar, for
keeping through the winter. »
Subsect. 5. Plum. — Prunus domestica, L. (Eng. Bot. 1783.) Icos. Di-Pentag. L.
and Rosacea, J. Prune, Fr. ; PJlaumenbaum, Ger. ; and Prugno, Ital.
4550. The plum-tree rises fifteen feet in height, branching into a moderately spreading
head ; the leaves are ovate, serrated, and on short petioles. Petals white, drupe an oblong
spheroid, shell long, ovate, and compressed. The natural color of the plum is generally
considered to be black ; but the varieties in cultivation are of yellow, red, blue, and green
colors, and of different forms and flavors. It is a native, or naturalised in Britain, being
frequently found in hedges ; but its original country is supposed to be Asia, in Europe :
and, according to Pliny, it was brought from Syria into Greece ; and thence into Italy.
4551. Use. The best varieties are esteemed a delicious dessert fruit ; and the others
are used in pies, tarts, conserves, and sweetmeats. A wholesome wine is also occasionally
made from them, with or without other fruits and ingredients. " Plums," Professor
Martyn observes, « when sufficiently ripe, and taken in moderate quantity, are not un-
wholesome ; but in an immature state, they are more liable to produce colicky pains,
diarrhoea, or cholera, than any other fruit of this class. Considered medicinally, they are
emollient, cooling, and laxative, especially the French prunes, which are peculiarly useful
in costive habits. The wood of the plum is used in turnery, cabinet work, and in making
musical instruments."
4552. Varieties. Tusser enumerates ten ; Parkinson, sixty ; Miller, only thirty sorts.
In the Luxemburg catalogue are sixty-eight ; nearly a hundred names are to be found
in the catalogues of our nurserymen, of which those in the following table are deemed
the best.
Book I.
PLUM.
723
fa
w
t; g«
T3
2
5
efl
u
H
Pi
h
w
s
<o
H
"N _
n
C
p
SO
a
£
£
P
in
^ 2
4
53
bO
•O
cfl
O
&
B
O
1
&
>»
-d
d
o
9
{-
a
il
y
I
o
u
36
s
off
p
hi
a
m
Ph
■i.
w
fa
p
o
w
13
o
o
tJ
<J
H
<
5J
H
>
HH
H
fa
i-H
tf
o
in
fa
Q
a
it--
— 18
3 <U ;_
— . J. 18
5 « w
" c S
0) 18 S
aaJ
c • C
|ll
0> 0i 01
8) 1)
- -
OS
g<8
.3 =•
18 .
-s» a
3 X
a*
•£•1
£-3
M 18
8> —
■d g
||
Z S
o w
3„73
a> £ tu
— — "
8) M B
°.2-S
[J It, !!3
•a 2 ° *.
»<
C S uglj
c"8 is§
■*■» ». S *
•5 « K.ti « u o
s 3 * 2 S =" J
H i- tn 18 bt " . 18
*.J<m*J Hi! 8 2 3
ill^ilffi
b a £-
Si J8
.2.2 So
«x E a
>2«!
c«
81
is*
I?
. 8)
13 8>
M"S <*
5-
■ 3 a
is «
n.^
hi
X? CD fc£t£~ - "S ■*-»
B_3 B3«TaTirg< S3
1*- **- "*^ 1^ 1*h U- ^ ^ <~ 1« t P C
o o 3 g^'S 0003 g g
•d hb&SW'g ti si si-d q, 3,
Wi35<;<(;aaP3MaS men
0000
t3 *d *d "d
e a b a
KWWW
rum
o o 0 ° o
bititx"e,3
8)
B-3
I!-.'
0 0 ,
O O
CCQC
0 a>
B B
&grx.
S'gil
5i!2 pi
1 11 a- • op
o >
Cm O
O PS
1 8> 4> iS3
2.2«l . ' 8(
18-3 U) • (X ' >,aC5C ^8 73
6^8 S S!3J3 SS
73573
> j >
OOO
M ' 73
S I
73 Jug; 18 >>
£ 18 18 G a>
t«iji-i en >
^£££££j=j:j:^j:j:,s
^>^>*;>-i>-,>i:*»>-1>>i >i>^>>
C^PfiP^PcP^^
" b s B 2
. i-i ** —1 i-c ^ e<
:a_,^,^oQ,5 hhji -, d, B. S. B. B.
f4 &£££££££££££££
.^-ioionios»'!1
Ooooooooooooooo
5
■a
--
8) 8)
•
0
0
^
a
o0t3
b a
M
73 T3
° 3
733
i
> ac5
OS
>£1
OO
a
s
n
eJIb
(/- < X. X
•
<
MM
18 18
BE SO
18 S
l
►J J
--
r.
81 81
ciri
V
-
d-4^3
CNCN a g
£ £ 1 41
0 o-b-2
s"s"
^fja
01
5
>4 1H
1- •-
ijj
5?
O
fnb«
bb
Wj*
«:&<&<
S
H
C^^r-i ^i
aire ^J
go.
Hi
£ jJ^ChPhCh g c&hPh
>33300i5330o
3 3
QQ
63 •
E '
z
0
01
■s
18
E
s
!5
ISO
■2 .
gs
I
o
E
8) U
."B ° ;
n n % '. S
M y T3
Shm tfsaPMs; cc
. 11 3 B ■ ' ' ■
■cMg
■C '^ B. ^
«~3 n *
« § °, . B S ,
1 3 3 r ' -a <g *
C E B "OB
— 'T3 =l **^
&
• t*S ■
j *■
• *1|
*5
I B
i "O
; a '
PP
•5ss S
■I
a oi j=
U Py
^Oa?y
■S „ bc8 ic
5^Sa^£35
&
j; « s
8) 18 8),
" ^ Jp -a
5cHs
. B o« ^
■S E *— 81^
-P 8» ^-B 3 w
O Oil »-B 8>
i~ o £ & ■% & ^
.2.B -
^8>_i^
l; 18 >> = "{ IB
3 S
HHMH w fH i-h ^-i .-c pH ^4 ^J >> 3^ OJ (N OJ ?* 3^
3 A 2
724 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
4554. Selection of sorts. The following are recommended by Forsyth for a small
garden : —
Jaunehfttive | Royal I Saint Catherine and impera- 1 Magnum bonum ; for baking
Early damask Green gage (different sorts) trice VVinesour ; for preserving.
Orleans I Drap d'or I
4555. The table fruit in the Dalkeith garden are as under, placed in the order of their
ripening, all of them being planted against walls : —
Voilet de hative I Early Morocco I Blue perdigron I White magnum bonum
Early hative Green gage Apricot plum Imperial.
New Orleans I Blue gage | Fotheringham |
4556. Propagation. Most of the varieties are propagated by grafting or budding on the muscle, St. Julian,
bonum magnum, or any free-growing plums, raised from seed, or from suckers ; but seedlings are prefer,
able stocks for a permanent plantation." The common baking plums, as the damson, bullace, wentworth,
&c are generally propagated by suckers, without being either budded or grafted. Plum-grafting is per-
formed in July or March ; budding in July or August. Miller prefers budding, because plums are very
apt to gum wherever large wounds are made on them. The mirabelle, a small plum shaped like a cherry,
and resembling a May-duke when half ripe, is planted to form hedges about Ghent, and used by the Flemish
nurserymen, as stocks for both nectarines and peaches. (Neill, in Hort. Tour.)
4557. New varieties are procured by propagating from seeds on the general principles already stated. Knight
(Hort. Trans, iii. 214.), in an attempt to combine the bulk of the yellow magnum bonum with the richness
and flavor of the green gage, produced a fruit which partook of both parents, but which has not yet been
given to the public ; but a good variety of the Orleans plum. {Hort. Trans, iii. 392.)
4558 Soil Plums, according to Miller, should have a middling soil, neither too wet and heavy, nor
over light and dry, in either of which extremes they seldom do well. Abercrombje recommends any mel-
low fertile garden or orchard ground ; and where a soil is to be made, " one half fresh loam, one fourth
sharp sand, one sixth road-stuff, and one twelfth vegetable remains, or decomposed dung or animal
4559 Site. The plum is cultivated like other indigenous fruit-trees : the hardier sorts, as standards ;
and the finer varieties against walls. It is sometimes forced ; but the blossom, like that of the cherry, is
difficult to set, and on the whole, it is a fruit not well adapted for forcing. The finer varieties are almost
always planted against walls, which, Miller says, should have an east or south-east aspect, which is more
kindly to these fruits than a full south aspect, on which they are subject to shrivel and be very dry ; and
many sorts will be extremely mealy, if exposed too much to the heat of the sun ; but most sorts will
ripen extremely well on espaliers, if rightly managed. Some, he adds, plant plums for standards, in which
method some of the ordinary sorts will bear verv well ; but then the fruit will not be near so fair as those
produced on espaliers, and will be more in danger of being bruised or blown down by strong winds.
Abercrombie says, " have some choice sorts against south walls for earlier and superior fruit ; others on
east and west walls, and espaliers, to ripen in succession, with full and half standards in the orchard."
4560. Choice of plants. Miller recommends trees of not more than one year's growth from the bud ; for
if they are older, they are very subject to canker ; or if they take well to the ground, commonly produce
only two or three luxuriant branches. Abercrombie and Nicol take plants from one to five years old.
Forsyth chooses " clean straight plants with single stems, and of two or three years' growth."
4561. Final planting. Miller says, it is common to see plum-trees planted at the distance of fourteen or
sixteen feet so that the walls are in a few years covered with branches ; and then all the shoots are cut
and mangled with the knife so as to appear like a stumped hedge, and produce little fruit ; therefore the
only way to have plum-trees in good order, is to give them room, and extend their branches at full length.
Abercrombie directs full and half standards to be planted at forty, thirty, twenty-five, and twenty feet
distance : dwarfs generally twenty feet apart, and wall-trees or espaliers fifteen, twenty, or twenty-five feet
from stem to stem. Forsyth says, plums and cherries thrive best by themselves ; and he prefers a wall for
each, placing plums on walls ten feet high, eight yards apart ; and at seven yards' distance on twelve-feet
walls.
4562. Mode of bearing. " All the sorts produce their fruit on small natural spurs,
rising at the ends and along the sides of the bearing shoots of one, two, or three years'
growth. In most sorts, new fruit-branches are two years old before the spurs bear. The
same branches and spurs continue fruitful in proportion to the time which they take to
come into bearing."
4563. Mode of training. Forsyth and Harrison decidedly prefer the horizontal man-
ner, and both head down the leading upright shoot twice in a year. Forsyth says, " if
the leading shoot be very strong, you may top it twice in the summer, as directed for
pears, and at the same time that you top them (spring or winter pruning, and June) ; re-
peating the same every year till the wall is rilled to the top." ( Tr. on Fr. Tr. ch. ii. )
4564 Pruning. After the formation of the head is begun, it takes from two to six years before the dif-
ferent sorts come into bearing. Miller trains horizontally, and is against shortening the branches of
plum-trees, since the more these trees are pruned, the more luxuriant they grow, until the strength of
them is exhausted, and then they gum and spoil ; therefore the safest method to manage these trees is to
lay in their shoots horizontally, as they are produced at equal distances, in proportion to the length of their
leaves pinching off the points of young shoots where lateral branches are desired, and displacing tore-right
and irregular shoots, or such as shade the fruit. With this carefully going over these trees in the growing
season, there will be but little work to do to them in the winter.
4565. Abercrombie agrees with Miller in not shortening fruitful branches. Standards, he says, must be
allowed to " expand in free growth, occasionally pruning long ramblers, and cross-placed or other irregu-
lar branches. Thin crowded parts, cut away worn out bearers, also decayed and cankery wood.
4566. Forsyth says, " Never cut the stems of young plum-trees when first planted, but leave them till
the buds begin to break ; then you may head them down to five or more eyes, always observing to leave
an odd one for the leading shoot: remember to cut sloping towards the wall, and as near to an eye as
possible ; thus managed, the shoots will soon fill the wall with fine wood. If you find that some ot the
shoots are too luxuriant, you may pinch the tops off with your finger and thumb, about the beginning ot
June, in the first year after planting ; by doing which you will obtain plenty of wood to fill the bottom ot
the wall. A great deal depends on the first and second year's management of your trees.
4567. Renovating decaying trees. Proceed as directed for the peach ; but observe that
the plum-tree, when cut down, is very apt to run to wood, therefore the new soil must
neither be very rich, nor laid on in a very deep stratum.
4568. Protecting blossom. This is sometimes done with the tenderer sorts, in the same
way as for peaches and apricots.
Book I. CHERRY. 725
4569. Taking the crop. The different sorts of the plum ripen in succession for about
three months in summer and autumn. Some early sorts begin to ripen in July ; the
main varieties reach full maturity in August and September ; late sorts continue ripen-
ing till the end of October or beginning of November. Each kind should be brought to
table presently after being gathered, as they will not keep long in a natural state.
4570. Forcing the plum. Plums may be forced in pots, or otherwise, like other fruit trees. Grange and
Aiton, have forced them both ways : the latter thus describes his practice. " The sorts generally
preferred for forcing are the following, Pr^cocede Tours, green gage, blue gage, white perdrigon, Orleans,
New Orleans, and Morocco. Some others have been tried, as La Royale, simiennes, and blue perdrigon, but
are found objectionable, the two first producing fruit void of flavor, and the latter has a tendency to
crack and gum."
4571. When an early crop is desired, plums are best forced in large pots or tubs, as this method ad-
mits of their removal at pleasure into different degrees of temperature, as occasion may require ; but for a
general crop to ripen by the end of May, or beginning of June, it is preferable to have the trees planted in
the forcing-house, and if they are intended to be forced in the first year, proper trees for the purpose fur-
nished with well branching wood, should be selected and planted early in the autumn, that they may
establish themselves before the winter sets in. The soil to be preferred is a moderately rich loam, without
mixture of manure.
4572. For a crop to ripen in the second iveek in May, the house must be covered in early in January
commencing with a temperature of 42° of Fahrenheit, for the first fortnight, after which the heat may be
gradually raised to 52°, at which it may continue until the flowers make their appearance ; during this time
frequent changes of air must be admitted, to strengthen the bloom, and the crop will be rendered more
certain by keeping the trees in blossom as long as possible, by light shading, where necessary ; and when the
petals begin to fall, gentle dews may be raised from the surface of the mould. As the fruit forms, the
thermometer should be raised to 58°; this must be done gradually, as the consequence of a rapid rise may
be a casting of the fruit ; during the progress of stoning great care must be taken against sudden variations
of the temperature, water very sparingly used, and every check by fumigation be given to the various
insects which will be particularly active at this period. When the fruit is safely stoned, a moderate dress-
ing of rotten manure may be spread on the surface of the mould ; the heat increased to 68°, and a more
liberal supplv of water given. After the fruit has attained a full size, and approaches maturity, air may
be freely admitted, and water should be given in less quantities, and finally discontinued, a few days before
gathering.
4573. Insects, diseases, §c. See Peach. The gum and canker are the most common
diseases, and, as in almost every other case, the acarus is the most noxious insect. As
a remedy for the former, Abercrombie directs to head down. The insects are destroyed
by the common means. The gages, or reine Claudes, when nearly ripe, are very apt to
be eaten by wasps.
Subsect. 6. Cherry. — Primus Cerasus, L. (Eng. Bot. 706.) Icos. Di-Pentag. L.
and Rosacece, J. Cerisier, Fr. ; Kirschenbaum, Ger. ; and Ciriegio, Ital.
4574. The cherry is a middle-sized tree, with ash-colored, shining, roundish branches,
ovate serrated leaves, and white flowers, produced in nodding umbels, and succeeded by a
red drupe, with an acid pulp. The leaf and flowering buds are distinct, the former termi-
nating, the latter produced from the sides of the two or more years' branches. The cul-
tivated cherry was brought to Italy by the Roman general Lucullus, in 73 A. C. from a
town in Pontus in Asia, called Cerasus, whence its specific name, and was introduced to
Britain 1 20 years afterwards. Many suppose that the cherries introduced by the Romans
into Britain were lost, and that they were re-introduced in the time of Henry VIII. by
Richard Haines, the fruiterer to that monarch. But though we have no proof that
cherries were in England at the time of the Norman conquest, or for some centuries after
it ; yet Warton has proved, by a quotation from Lidgate, a poet who wrote about or before
1415, that the hawkers in London were wont to expose cherries for sale, in the same
manner as is now done early in the season. The tree is now very generally cultivated
both as a wall and standard fruit, and has been forced for upwards of two centuries.
4575. Use. It is a refreshing summer fruit, highly grateful at the dessert, and afford-
ing pies, tarts, and other useful and elegant preparations in cookery and confectionary.
Steeping cherries in brandy qualifies and improves its strength and flavor ; a fine wine is
made from the juice, and a spirit distilled from the fermented pulp. The gum which
exudes from the tree is equal to gum arabic ; and Hasselquist relates that more than one
hundred men, during a siege, were kept alive for nearly two months, without any other
sustenance than a little of this gum taken sometimes into the mouth, and suffered gradu-
ally to dissolve. Cherry-wood is hard and tough, and is used by the turner, flute-maker,
and cabinet-maker.
4576. Varieties. The Romans had eight kinds; red, black, tender-fleshed, hard-
fleshed, small bitter-flavored, and a dwarf sort. Tusser, in 1573, mentions cherries red
and black. Parkinson mentions thirty-four sorts, Ray twenty-four, and Miller has
eighteen sorts, to which he says others are continually adding, differing little from those
he has described. The catalogue of the Luxemburg garden contains forty-two sorts, and
those of our nurseries exceed that number of names. As usual, we have inserted only
those sorts of which we could obtain some authenticated descriptive particulars. The
French divide their cherries into griottes or tender-fleshed, bigarreaux or hard-fleshed, and
guignes, geans or small fruits.
3 A 3
726
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
a
id
S o
g
sad
rrv
r;i.
for
M
g
ta-'. £
^ >->
1
be
a J
cj
bt
u
a
c£
3
D 5
t ■'-
S 1
!.& s
- ~ &
ig !
5 S m
*J>3 = ==2
a s 2 >>?; 3
t
■S
■a
i
•a
|
■S ~
~ o
o «
CO §
^>a
O CO
O CJ
Sc
■- s
1 =
U. o
1
c
o
"3
CI
a
«■-.= £
a« x.c
1
H
bo
g
a
8 P
2 3=-a
fa ** e
- t.?
a oTbo
^ J< 3
a
s
u
0
—
i
41
o
g
-
z
li
a ..
u
u
- a
1
MS
3<H
!
c
a
1
M
S
C
01
t
1
S
o
QC
CO
c
C3
i
_3
&
01
|
o
i
'3
a a*
S J; 0)
ii ^>?
« c x
3 flS
« "a
'3
c£
.a
5
"3
CJ
M
01
a
ills
* §* i1
"* S T— '
E S.23
■St.* =8*
3.3 Cj >. >»
■2 : — z :
3
3_
o
41
3
to
5
CO
3
3 3 >
I |i
s
fa
> >E>
<
H
^
tH
> <!<J
<J
<
<
<!rH r^B-i
< <
c
_
•a
*a3 "HJ
>a
■a
i >a
•a
O **
S
■J
i » y
X X
o
Ol
o
. 8
a
O O 4) CD
O O u u
ej
a
-
s
« W
O
O
O
a
»
OO S3
• o ■ '
CO
41 .
*» 41 '
C js
to <e
=
S
■a
3
01
I 1
'
be
•
13
■a
cS
CJ
■a «
*
a
ca
•
8
.a
■3
3
co
a
1
4)
&
CO
•3
c
a
n
& 1
% >
is*
g
5
>»
3
c«
1
a
o>
1 §2
co oi S{
1
0>
s
o
1
.1
•
CO J£ ^
3? - '^
3 41 3
cj *j *j
^.41 SS
§ °" ■a,a
|E ES
"bo
X
3 S * -2 -a
1 if! «
x
X
cc £
c c
fa
«<
CC
fa — /. fa
fa
fafa fafa
C GEfa EC
%
a
-
3
S 3="=
>>
>>
>-.>>>»>*
bo
bo
bo
bebo bebo
bo
• 41 S "
3
3 3 3 3
3
• 3
3
3 3 3 3
3 •
■5
< ^rr5
>-s
>-s
>-:^,-.'-5
<
<!
<J
<^ 5^
3-
.S, i
Cm
O
o
O O 5 O
0
■a
(wCw'-wtH
O O 0 O
#
.8
Cu
o
'o'o o o
Si
« =8 S =«
-
bo
0)
-
H "3 Beta
4) r~ 41 -
a Saa
0) •
pq
■a
>>
►a
3
"3 •
•a -a -a -a
sail
>>
3
' 3
bo
0)
a
bi-a -a" -a
SI is
•3 be
^ =
y 3^=, a.
5 ^ " 41
1
1
1
■3
p
' a
a
a
T3
O
3
5
1
■ '
f
?a?,
o 3 CJ
►" 3 *•
1
1 '
M M
s^
1
"g fe-g 1
5 2 ** +>
1
01
o cj
a 3 , ,
a a
a 2
3
C
,M
"C
a
•
»- a oT
< ci o cj
cac
'
•
•
u - —
a aa
•>-
?a
1 £ "3 f>
a <fa a
^
•
■
■3
S"g *
•
6
•
■
....
'
•
. . .
•
a
>a
•71
■a ^ ■ •
■
01
■
1
■n"3
i
l
. -a rw
t
«. «.4>4a*>*S
.*o
c
a
c-3
A
6X3. "
S S3
5
3 3
a
« rO « ci to c3 3
a
PS
a
X
►^au
a aa
ca axsaa
_
1 oi
■
,
o
CO
"" 0) 0)
_ __
-,
to
' E?
>>iiiO
V3
-7.
S
a) a
s 3
cs
•
c3
' CJ « 3
s ss
E £ 2
CO g CO
■a
i-i
^;
,^ S . . • .
■o
&
00
CO
CO'O
coco
o
V 0) 4)
.2 .
.8 .§! g:i£& .
:a
<6tzda
2cJ>
■c
S4
■0
00
Ol«
IS E£
■3 ° ° 2
P"
Ol *--H "J S. fa » fa^
-a*
-"
£n X^=J3
£ £
H
r?
4
^5J3
355^
JZ
j:£
Si
2^"
ja^jgei £££&&
£ 41 41 41
41 tl
Si £
u
§?
g
■w ^ ^ ^
>i ?-»
g
>.
.?
£2
zz£?-
?»>
5?
fe
fa
fa
K t,i.'j-
fa fa
-H
fa
fafafaC
fa
fafa
fa
fa< <<J
<fa
fafafaa fafafafcfa
■a
c5
-c
' «m
, ,
-•
i'*l^3
,
00 '
a
. . . .
, ,
*• a »■* , .
' .- ' ph ■ •- :a to
K
P
M
♦'•- tr.
x x~
x •: . x x «
*!
fa
fa
• '
U
X
tl
^fa
'fafaB
'
fa '
fa
• ' •
.
.pj.fi |fafa^
M
M
'.;-<
t£i£ J
bo
to
bo ^ ^ be be be
*
O
5 o
3
a
M
CCS
a
O
W
^B
aaa
CTJ
a
a
00
a>
CO
,00
t".
5
-3
•
0)
£ o . . .
M
if J
•c to • • 2
if cr" i
Si
^3
§l
| 3
3 ?
- "
18.
|e
2-2
fa
si
■a S
•
3 oi
2 *
>^3
■ ^£
.5 cj
3 C
• ■ . 5 °
a
^ -
" rt cs
3 -5S
w i «
a a 3
- = ■5
0) . .n
r. 3 > cj
SSpbi
3-=- 3
>,a^"0
s 2 ■'■ -3
•
i >3
c-3
S o
? o
11
3 3
• ■ O O
M 3
rtC
b
>a ra
, 41 41
« =
^ 3
3 rt
og
H 3
. -c
41
CJ . .
. i . c i i " ■ •
Eg
. .^B . .
' ■ 3 O ' '
. £ 3 . . .
•3*
. i 41 • 1 "
<i<
ti
' • • 3-
O fa
fa
O
C
o
a
Ufa
fa
_
,
. »-
J- . CJ
3 3.2
ai2
. C
, ,
. . .a
£
=3
-a
-3
&
B
o
a.
t3 >. .
,
u
a
CJ
« 41 41
— CJ CJ
.
•
' ' 6 3 ' ' ■
£
-
O 3
i? -
c s
o a ■
tJ'8
»3..
II
CJ c
. 2'C
3 3 3
— 3 1)
« .-g s a
a S. SS
■ • ■ IT & i . ■ .3
a s
«
si 5
0
<-s
a
o
a c^
i
• • 2
, ,
S
_« 3 3 5 = —
d ■
>
M
3
o> g
CO
o
j3
>3
a *£*
£ 3
a
5
00
9
>>
-
i ■sisi.-S.-ll
i: _;<i &. fa a
01
3
_tr.
?SB
0-52
a«
"S ** = a
1?= ^^
O
C
CJ ^
"7 5
si
C3
01
3
g
O
O
|l Is
_J cj ro rj
an cc/3
a: M
3-7 = 2 * E £ « a
2 a "3 S Scj^rro
f-c>-fa -<faaSS
15
I?
-
N
n voco
t~ »
o>
-
s
?3t-i
*j n3 co t^
CO
28
<N
cvoi c^ oi
us
ccac- ?i.r; — ■-: —
Book I. CHERRY. 727
4578. Selection of sorts. Forsyth recommends, for a small garden —
The may-duke I The arch-duke I The Harrison's heart I The Turkey heart
The morello I The black heart | TheKraltion | The Kensington duke cherry.
4579. Those in the Dalkeith garden are —
The earlv mav-duke, two sorts I The black heart The amber heart
The Harrison's heart | The white heart I The morello; a!! against walls.
4580. Miller says, the best sorts Tor an orchard are the common red or Kentish, the
duke, and the lukeward ; all of which are plentiful bearers.
4581. Propagation. Varieties of the cherry are continued by grafting or budding on stocks of the black
or wild red cherries, which arc strong shooters, and of a longer duration than any of the garden kinds.
The hearts, which are all ill bearers, are sometimes grafted on bird-cherry stocks, which are said to have
the same effect on the cherry, that the paradise-stock has on the apple, that of dwarfing the tree and
rendering it more prolific. Some graft on the morcllo for the same purpose, but. the most effectual dwarf-
ing stock is the mahaleb. Dubreuil of Rouen recommends the wild cherry for clayey and light soils, and
the mahaleb for soils of a light, sandy, or chalky nature. The stones of thecultivated cherry are commonly,
but improperly, substituted for those of the wild sort, as being more easily procured. New varieties are
procured bv p'ropagating from seed, and some valuable fruits will be found in the table, so raised by
Knight. ""The cherry," this gentleman observes (Hort. Trans, ii. 138.), " sports more extensively in
variety, when propagated from seeds, than any other fruit which I have hitherto subjected to experiment :
and tliis species of fruit is therefore probably capable cf acquiring a higher state of perfection than it has
ever yet attained. New varieties are also "much wanted ; for the trees of the best old kinds arc every
where in a state of decay in the cherry orchards; and I am quite confident, that neither healthy nor pro-
ductive trees will ever be obtained from grafts or buds of the old and expended varieties of this or any
other species of fruit-tree," Cherry-stones, whether for stocks or new varieties, are sown in light sandy
earth in autumn ; or are preserved in sand till spring, and then sowed. They will come up the same
season, and should not be removed till the second autumn after sowing. They may then be planted out
in rows three feet apart, and the plants one foot asunder in the row. The succeeding summer they will
be fit to bud, if intended for dwarfs ; but if for standards, they will require to stand one or more seasons,
generallv till four years old. They should be budded or grafted near six feet from the ground ; the usual
way is to bud in summer, and graft those which do not succeed the following spring.
4582. Soil. The cherry delights in a dry sandy soil and elevated situation ; but some sorts, as the may.
duke, will thrive in all soils and aspects, and all the varieties may be planted in any common mellow
garden or orchard ground. In Kent, the tree prospers in a deep loam incumbent on rock. Miller says, the
soil which cherries thrive best in, is a fresh hazel loam; if it be a dry gravel, they will not live many
years, and will be perpetually blighted in the spring.
4583. Site. To obtain fruit early, some sorts, as the may-duke, are planted against walls ; but all the
varieties will do well as dwarfs or espaliers in general situations, and most of them as standards. The
may-duke, Nicol observes, does well as a standard ; but against a south wall the fruit becomes considerably
larger, and contrary to what happens in other fruits, it seems to acquire a higher flavor. The morello is
much improved in flavor when planted against a wall of good aspect. Abercrombie says, " Allot to the
finest of the early kinds south walls for fruit in May and June ; train others against west and east walls,
for supplies in succession ; and some on north walls for the latest ripeners, particularly the morello, which,
so situated, will continue in perfection till September and October : but it is also proper to plant some
trees of this sort on south walls, to have the fruit ripen earlier, with improved flavor."
4584. Final planting. " Plant full standards from twenty to thirty feet apart ; small standards, fifteen,
eighteen, or twenty feet. The proper season for planting is from the middle or end of October, or any
time in November or December, if open weather, till February or March." Miller says, never plant
standard or rider cherry-trees over other fruits ; for there is no sort of fruit that will prosper well under
the drip of cherries. He allows forty feet square for standards in orchards for the same reason.
4585. Mode of bearing. " Cherry-trees in general produce the fruit upon small
spurs or studs, from half an inch to two inches in length, which proceed from the sides
and ends of the two-year, three-year, and older branches ; and as new spurs continue
shooting from the extreme parts, it is a maxim in pruning both standards and wall-trees,
not to shorten the bearing branches where there is room for their regular extension.
The morello is in some degree an exception."
4586. Mode of training. Forsyth and Harrison train in the horizontal manner, and prac-
tise shortening the leading shoots as in the plum, apple, &c. For the morello Harrison
adopts the horizontal or half-fan method, " the horizontal method when the tree grows
very vigorous, and the half-fan method when weaker." (2V. on Fr. Tr. ch. xxiii.)
4587. Pruning cherry-trees in general. — Standards. Give only occasional pruning, to reform or
remove any casual irregularity from cross-placed or very crowded branches ; and take away all cankery
and decayed wood. .
4588. Wall-trees. " A summer pruning, to commence in May or June, is necessary to regulate the
shoots of the same year. Disbud the superfluous and fore-right shoots ; or if they have been suffered to
spring, pinch or cut them off, with such as are disorderly. Retain a competent supply of some of the best
well-placed side and terminal shoots, to remain for selection at the winter pruning. Nail or lay in the
reserve close to the wall, at their full length, and so train them all summer. The winter pruning may be
performed at the fall of the leaf, or at any time in moderate weather till February or March. It comprises
a regulation both of the old and young wood. Carefully preserve the sound productive branches and
bearers in tneir full expansion ; and reduce or remove such only as are irregular in growth, too crowded,
unfruitful, decayed, or cankery. Any branches extending out of bounds, prune in to some good lateral
shoot or fruit-bud. According to the time the bearers have already lasted, look to some promising shoots,
for successors to those which may first wear out. To fill immediate vacancies, retain select shoots of last
year, and the year before, with uniformly a leader to the advancing branch where there is room, and
with' lateral shoots in any open or unproductive space near the origin of the branch, to be trained as
bearers between the main branches. Some cut superfluous fruit-shoots clean away ; others leave a
sprinkling of short stubs, cut very short if fore-right. The new laterals and terminals are to be trained in
at full length, as far as room will permit. They will come into bearing the first and second year. In
pruning cherry-trees in gpneral, be careful to preserve the small clustering fruit-spurs, except where in
wall-trees any old spurs project considerably, and assume a rugged disorderly appearance ; cut such clean
out smoothly." . , . .
4589. Pruning the morello. " The morello cherry bears principally on the shoots of last year, tne tnut
proceeding immediately from the eyes of the shoots ; and bears but casually, and in a small degree on close
spurs formed on the two-year-old wood, and scarcely ever on wood of the third year. Therefore, both m
the summer and winter pruning, leave a supply of last year's shoots, on all the branches, from the origin
3 A 4
738 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
to the extremity of the tree, for next year's bearers ; cutting out past bearers to make room. It Is plain
that the morello ought to have no stubs left with a view to spurs, and all fore-right shoots ought to be
disbudded while young. To leave a convenient space for young wood, train the present bearers six inches
apart ; lay in between each of these one young shoot for bearing next year, which will make the promis-
cuous distance three inches."
4590. Underwood (Caled. Mem. i. 427.) has often observed, when the branches of cherry-trees are laid
in too near to one another, or are crossed by branches of the same kind, or by plum-tree branches, as is
sometimes the case, that although there be abundance of blossom, yet there is no crop, even in good
seasons. On examining the blossom, produced on such crowded shoots, he found, that in fifty flowers,
there were not above two styles, of course no fruit could be expected. By not laying in the branches so
close, and by removing all superfluous summer shoots, more light and air was admitted, and he had, in
consequence, plentiful crops.
4591. Benovating old or decayed trees. Proceed as in renovating the plum.
4592. Protection from birds. " As cherries, in a ripening state, are frequently attacked by birds, it is
advisable to have choice wall-trees or espaliers defended with large nets in due time. Old fishing-nets
may also be spread over the branches of dwarf standards. To protect other standard trees, let scarecrows
and clap-boards be put up in terror em.'"
4593. Gathering the fruit. Use the hand, taking hold of the fruit-stalk, in gathering from the wall, and
the cherry-gatherer, in gathering, from distant branches of high standards.
4594. Insects, diseases, &c. Wall cherry-trees are often infested with the red spider, but standards are
generally not much injured by insects. Naismith says, " our cherry-trees, both in the open air, and on
the natural walls, particularly the tops of the young shoots, are much attacked with a small black insect,
provincially called the black beetle. The remedy I have found most effectual for their destruction, is, a
mixture of pitch, with one sixteenth part of powdered orpiment, one sixteenth part of sulphur, dissolved
over a slow fire in an earthen pipkin, until they be well incorporated; when cold, divide it into small
pieces, about the size of a hen's egg, and burn it under the trees with damp straw, directing the smoke as
much as possible where the insects are most numerous. In an hour afterwards (if the state of the fruit
will admit) give the trees a good washing with the garden-engine, which generally clears off the half-
dead beetles, and prevents the spreading of the red spider." {Caled. Mem. ii. 90.)
Sect. III. Berries.
4595. Of the cultivated berries the gooseberry is the most useful species in Britain, in
which it is grown in far greater perfection than in any other country ; next to the goose-
berry is the currant, valuable as affording wine ; besides these are included the mulberry,
raspberry, strawberry, barberry, and elderberry.
Subsect. I. Black, or Garden Mulberry. — Moms nigra, L. (Blackiu. t. 126.)
Moncecia Tetrandria, L. and Urticece, J. Murier, Fr. ; Maulbeerbaum, Ger. ; and
Moro, Ital.
4596. The black mulberry is a middle-sized tree, with a whitish bark, and broad, sub-
quinquelobate, bluntish, and rugged leaves. It has generally male flowers or catkins, on
the same tree with the fruit, which is a turbinate berry. Young trees from seed, Professor
Martvn and Knight observe, often show nothing but male flowers for several years, and
yet afterwards produce also female flowers, and become fruitful. The fruit of seedling-
trees, it is said, is the largest and best flavored. The black mulberry is a native of Persia,
and it is supposed was brought to Europe by the Romans, as Pliny mentions two varie-
ties. It will not live in the open air in several parts of Sweden, and is treated as a wall-
tree in the north of Germany. It is mentioned by Tusser, in 1573, and was cultivated
by Gerrard, in 1596. In some of the old kitchen-gardens near London, there are trees
of a very <rreat age, which are very healthy and fruitful. Bradley says, that most of
these were planted in the time of James the First, who attempted unsuccessfully to set up
a silk manufacture in England ; but the species on the leaves of which silk-worms are
fed, is the white mulberry [Morns alba), whose fruit is not of any value. Forsyth men-
tions " four large mulberry-trees as still standing on the site of an old kitchen-garden,
now part of the pleasure-ground at Sion House, which the late Duke of Northumberland
used to say were about three hundred years old." The mulberry is remarkable for putting
out its leaves late, so that when they appear, which is generally in May, with the leaves of
the common ash-tree, the gardener may take it for granted that all danger from frost is
over. There is a curious tree formed by two stems proceeding from a fallen trunk on the
site of the garden of the Abbey of St. Augustine at Canterbury, which must at least be
300 years old, probably much older. (Xeill, in Hort. Tour, &c. p. 13.)
4597. Use. The fruit is brought to the dessert, and recommends itself by its highly
aromatic flavor, and abundant subacid juice. It is very wholesome, cooling, and rather
laxative. Like the strawberry, it does not undergo the acetous fermentation, and there-
fore may be safely eaten by gouty and rheumatic persons. An agreeable wine is made
from the juice ; a syrup is obtained from the unripe berries, which is used as a gargle in
cases of sore throat ; and the bark of the tree is a vermifuge.
4598. Varieties. Only one variety of the black is mentioned by Miller, with palmate leaves and smaller
4699. Propagation. By seed, layers, cuttings, or grafting. The first is the least advisable mode, unless
for stocks to inarch upon, because, though some affirm the fruit of seedlings to be the largest, yet the plants
are very long of coming into bearing.
4600. By layers. " These will generally take root sufficiently the first year to bear separating from the
parent tree, and should then be planted in" a nursery, and trained up with single stems. In four years they
will be fit to plant out where they are to remain. They should be planted at a proper distance to admit the
Book I. BLACK, OR GARDEN MULBERRY. 729
sun and air, as the fruit, when the trees are too close, is very apt to turn mouldy ; they should also be
sheltered from the east, north, and west winds." Knight lays parts of the bearing branches of old trees, in
pots raised to these branches upon poles. Wood of any age will do, and the plants afford fruit the second
or third year.
4601. By cuttings. In raising mulberries from cuttings, choose the former year's shoots, having one joint
of the two years' old wood. Plant them in autumn, if fine weather, or in the month of March, in rows nine
inches apart, and at the distance of two inches in the rows, leaving only two or three buds above ground :
mulch the ground with leaves or dung well rotted, to keep it moist, and the plants will require little water-
ing. If they succeed well, they may, next season, be transplanted into a nursery, and treated as directed
for layers. These young trees, while they remain in the nursery, should be transplanted every three or four
years. Miller says, mulberry cuttings will also strike well if planted on a hot-bed in spring.
4602. Knight failed in raising cuttings on a hot-bed in spring, but was very successful by the following
process. He cut vigorous shoots from the trees in November, and formed them into cuttings of about five
inches long, each consisting of about two parts of two years' old wood, and one part of yearling wood.
They were intended to be put in pots, and the bottom of each cutting was cut so much aslope, that its sur-
face might be nearly parallel with that of the bottom of the pot in which it was to be placed. " The cuttings
were then placed in the common ground, under a south wall, and so deeply immersed in it, that one bud
only remained visible above its surface ; and in this situation they remained till April. At this period the
buds were much swollen, and the upper ends of the cuttings appeared similar to those of branches which had
been shortened in the preceding autumn, and become incapable of transmitting any portion of the ascend-
ing fluid. The bark at the lower ends had also begun to emit those processes, which usually precede the
production of roots. The cuttings were now removed to the pots, to which they had been previously
fitted, and placed in a moderate hot-bed, a single bud only of each cutting remaining visible above the
mould, and that being partially covered ; and in this situation they vegetated with so much vigor, and
emitted roots so abundantly, that I do not think one cutting in a hundred would fail with proper atten-
tion. The mould I employed was the alluvial and somewhat sandy loam of a meadow, which was
sparingly supplied with water ; and the plants, till they had become sufficiently rooted, were shaded during
bright weather."
4603. In Spain and India, as Townsend and Tenant inform us, the white or silk-worm mulberry is al-
ways propagated by cuttings, three or four being planted together, so as to grow up into a- bush.
4604. By suckers. Mulberry-trees, as well as most others so propagated, are longer of coming into bear-
ing, than those raised in any other way but by seed. The plants of this tree, raised from bearing branches,
have entire heart-shaped leaves, but those obtained from suckers or seeds present deeply divided or half-
winged leaves.
4605. By grafting. Knight having planted some young mulberry-trees in pots, raised them to the bear-
ing branches of old trees, and grafted them by approach. The young grafts bore fruit the third year, and
continued annually productive. This tree succeeds very ill by the common mode of independent grafting.
(Hort. Trans, i.60.)
4606. Soil. The tree, Miller observes, delights in a rich light earth, and where there is depth of soil, as
in most of the old kitchen-gardens about London. In a very stiff soil, or on shallow ground, whether of
clay, chalk, or gravel ; the trunk and branches are commonly covered with moss, and the little fruit pro-
duced is small, ill tasted, and ripens late. Abercrombie says, the mulberry thrives well in a deep sandy
loam, and will succeed in any fertile mellow ground, having a free situation in the full sun.
4607. Site. The mulberry is generally grown as a standard or half standard, sometimes
as espaliers, dwarfs, or wall-trees. A single young plant does not afford much fruit ; but
one full-grown and healthy, will afford more than is sufficient for the supply of a large
family. Miller recommends planting in a situation defended from the strong south and
north-west winds, in order to preserve the fruit from being blown off; but at the same
time to keep them at such a distance from trees or buildings, as not to keep off the sun,
for where the fruit has not the benefit of his rays to dissipate the morning dews early, it
will turn mouldy and rot upon the trees. The nurseries, and especially those at Paris,
afford large standard trees of five or six years' growth, which come into bearing the year
after removal. Those are in general to be made choice of in preference to raising the
tree from cuttings, or inarching. In orchards they may be planted thirty or thirty-five
feet from other trees, and twenty feet apart on walls or espaliers ; dwarfs may be planted
fifteen feet apart, and in each case temporary fruit-trees may be introduced between.
4608. Forsyth recommends planting mulberries in grass orchards and pleasure-grounds, because as the
finest of the fruit, when ripe, frequently drops, it can be picked up without receiving any injury. Another
reason for planting these trees on lawns or in orchards is, that, when full-grown, they are too large for a
kitchen-garden. Abercrombie adds, " so nice is the criterion of perfect ripeness, that berries falling with-
out damage are superior to those gathered. Besides, a grass surface harmonises best with trees of magni-
tude, and increases the beauty of a rural scene."
4609. Williams experienced, that the fruit might be much improved in size and flavor by training the
trees against a south or west wall. " The standard mulberry," he says, " receives great injury by being
planted on grass-plots with the view of preserving the fruit when it falls spontaneously. No tree perhaps
receives more benefit from the spade and the dunghill than the mulberry ; it ought, therefore, to be fre-
quently dug about the roots, and occasionally assisted with manure. The ground under the tree should be
kept free from weeds throughout the summer, particularly when the fruit is ripening, as the reflected light
and heat from the bare surface of the soil is thus increased ; more especially if the end branches are kept
pruned, so as not to bower over too near to, and shade, the ground. The fruit is also very fine if the tree
is trained as an espalier, within the reflection of a south wall or other building. If a wooden trellis were
constructed with the same inclination as the roof of a forcing-house, fronting the south, and raised about
six feet from the ground, leaving the soil with the same inclination as the trellis, a tree trained on it would
receive the solar influence to great advantage, and would probably ripen its fruit much better than a
standard." (Hort. Trans, ii. 92.)
4610. Knight concurs with Williams as to the advantages of planting the tree against a south wall in cold
situations, adding, that "it affords an exception to all, or almost all, other fruits, to which the wall gives
increased bulk and beauty, at the expense of richness and flavor." (Hort. Trans, iii. 66.)
4611. Mode of bearing. " The mulberry produces its fruit chiefly on little shoots of
the same year, which arise on last year's wood, and on spurs from the two-year-old wood j
in both stages, mostly at the end of the shoots and branches."
4612. Pruning. Miller and Forsyth agree in saying there is no occasion to prune standards farther than to
thin out irregular crossing branches, and never to shorten the young wood, on which the fruit is produced.
7S0
PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
Part III.
4613. Pruning wall-trees and espaliers. " Cut so as to bring in a partial succession of
new wood every year, and a complete succession once in two years : taking the old barren
wood out, as may be necessary. In the winter pruning, lay in the reserved branches and
shoots at six or seven inches' distance."
4614 Williams observes, that the trained mulberry requires some nicety in pruning, otherwise it will
not bear fruit. " The following method has succeeded in my garden for several years past. All the an-
nual shoots, except the fore-right, are neatly trained to the wall, and these last must be left to grow till
towards midsummer, and then be shortened about one third of their growth to admit light to the leaves
beneath. By the end of August the fore-right shoots will have advanced again, so as to obstruct the light,
and they must then be shortened nearer to the wall than before. In the month of March, or beginning
of April, the ends of the terminal shoots should be pruned away down to the first strong bud that does not
stand fore-right, and the front shoots which were pruned in August, must also be shortened down to two
or three eyes. If trained after this method, the tree will afford fruit the third year; when the manage-
ment of the fore-right shoots must be somewhat different. These should now be shortened at the end of
the month of June or beginning of July, so as to leave one leaf only beyond the fruit, the terminal shoots
being nailed to the wall as before, and left without any summer pruning ; the fore-rights will not advance
any further, as their nutriment will go into the fruit, which, when quite ripe, becomes perfectly black,
very large, and highly saccharine."
4615 Knight remarks (Hort. Tr. iii. 63.), that the mode recommended by Williams may suit the ex-
tremely fertile soil and climate of Pitmaston. " But in cold situations (and it is chiefly in such that the
mulberry-tree will be found to deserve a place on the south wall,) little fruit will be produced, and that
will ripen but ill, unless the bearing wood be brought closely into contact with the wall ; and the great
width of the leaves, and vigorous habit of the tree, present some difficulties to the cultivator, when this
mode of training and pruning is adopted. It will be found necessary to diminish the luxuriant growth of
the tree, and at the same time to increase its disposition to bear fruit. Such effects may, however, be
readily produced by several different means ; by destroying a small portion of the bark, in a line extending
round the trunk or large branches, or ringing, by tight and long-continued ligatures, or by training the
bearing branches almost perpendicularly downwards. I have adopted the last-mentioned method, because
it greatly increases the disposition in the tree to bear fruit, without injuring its general health, and be-
cause it occasions a proper degree of vigor to be every where almost equally distributed."
4616. Season for pruning. " As the blossom-buds of the mulberry-tree cannot be readily distinguished
from others in the winter, the best period for pruning is when the blossoms first become visible in the
spring Pinch off every barren shoot which is not wanted to cover the wall, and stop every bearing
shoot under similar circumstances, at the third or fourth leaf. Williams has correctly stated, that the
bud immediately below the point, at which a bearing or other branch is pinched off, usually affords fruit in
the following year." (Knight, in Hort. Trans, iii. 63.) The mulberry succeeds better than any other tree
when trained downwards {Jig. 494.), either horizontally and drooping (a), or in the stellate manner (b).
494
4617. Renovating old mulberry-trees. Miller, Forsyth, and Knight, agree that this may be done with
trees of almost any age, by removing part of the branches ; or by completely heading down, and renewing
the soil by fresh mould enriched by dung.
4618. Taking the crop. " The most forward berries attain maturity about the end of August ; and
there is a succession of ripening fruit on the same tree for about a month or six weeks ; the ripening ber-
ries gradually change from a reddish to a black color, and should be gathered accordingly for immediate
use • this delicate fruit will not keep good off the tree above a day or two." Coke and Knight have had
mulberries from wall and espalier trees in gathering from July to the end of October. (Hort. Trans.
4619. Forcing the mulberry. Knight observes, that " the mulberry is a much finer fruit when ripened
under glass, in the north of Herefordshire, than in the open air ; and in the still colder parts of England
it is probably the only means by which it can be ripened at all. The culture of this fruit, by me, under
glass, has been confined to plants growing in pots ; but I am not acquainted with any species of fruit-tree
which, under such circumstances, produces more abundantly, or which requires less care. Its blossoms
set equally well in different degrees of heat, and the same continued temperature which will ripen the
earlier varieties of the grape in the end of July, will afford perfectly ripe mulberries early in June ; end a
tree of the latter species, when fully loaded with fruit, presents at least as agreeable an object to the eye
as many plants which are cultivated as ornaments only. It is not subject, under common care, to any
disease or injury, except the attacks of the red spider ; and as the foliage and growing fruit of the mul-
berry-tree are not at all injured by being wetted every evening with clear water, the red spider can never
prove a very formidable enemy." (Hort. Trans, ii.)
Subsect. 2. Barberry. — Berberis vulgaris, L. (Eng. Bot. 49.) Hexan. Dig. L. and
BerberidecE, J. Epine Vinette, Fr. ; Berberitzen, Ger. ; and Berbero, Ital.
4620. The barberry is a branchy prickly shrub, rising to the height of eight or ten feet,
with ash-colored bark, yellow inside. The flowers appear in pendulous racemes towards
the ends of the branches ; the corolla, yellow ; the berries at first green, but of a fine red
when ripe. The flowers appear in May with a cowslip odor ; and the fruit, which is of an
acid flavor, ripens in September. It is a native of the eastern countries, and also of most
parts of Europe, and is found in woods, coppices, and hedges in England, especially in a
chalky soil. It is generally supposed that the Puccinia, a fungus which closes up the epi-
dermis of the leaves of corn crops, and appears on their surface like rust, is generated by
the JEcidium berberides, an insect which inhabits the barberry. (Sir J. Banks on Blight, Sec.)
4621. Use. The fruit is used for preserving, candying, and pickling, as well as for
garnishing dishes ; the plant is also an ornamental shr^ib, both when in flower and in
fruit.
Book I. ELDER, GOOSEBERRY. 731
4622. Varieties. Those most esteemed for their fruit are the following, viz.
Red barberry without stones ; which has
an agreeable flavor when full ripe. It
is only found without stones when the
plant has attained considerable age,
and is on a poor soil.
White barberry. {Poit. et Turp.
USX.)
Black sweet ; which is the tenderest of
them, and should be planted in a warm
situation.
Common red with stones. (Duham. i p.
152. et tab.) This is planted more for
ornament than use, on account of its
beautiful red berries.
Purple-fruited. (Pvit. et Turp. Fr. t. 59.
4623. Propagation. " All the varieties are propagated commonly by suckers, also by cuttings and layers
of the young branches, and occasionally by grafting ; the common red sort is also raised by seed ; each of
•which methods of« propagation may be performed in the spring ; that by suckers and layers may be effected
also in autumn."
4624. Soil and final planting. The barberry prefers a light dry soil. One or two plants may be planted
in a complete orchard, and trained as standards ; but where the shrubbery is the site, it may be allowed
to grow as a bush or shrub. " According to the nature of the ground, plant either at any time from au-
tumn to spring, or only in the spring ; the plants may be already furnished with a head pretty well ad-
vanced, if thought proper ; allow them square distances of frrm fifteen to thirty feet."
4625. Mode of bearing and pruning. " The barberry produces its fruit at the sides of the branches
in small loose bunches : it bears both on young and old wood, chiefly toward the extremities. The
branches should not be shortened, except the design be to force out new wood ; permit the head to extend
freely ; and give only occasional pruning, to keep it in a pretty round form, open in the middle ; cutting
out weak, luxuriant, crossing, superfluous, and decayed branches ; reduce also long ramblers, and trim
up low stragglers, also lateral shoots on the stem, and eradicate all root -suckers."
4626. Taking the crop. " As a proportion of the berries ripen in the course of September, they will
afford occasional gatherings for present use ; and as they will be wholly ripe in October, all that are
wanted for domestic supply should be then pulled j always pick them in bunches." (Abercrombie.)
Subsect. 3. Elder. — Sambucus nigra, L. {Eng. Bot. 476.) Pent. Trig. L. and Capri-
folece, J. Sureau, Fr. j Hollunderbaum, Get. ; and Sainbuco, Ital.
4627. The common elder is a bushy tree of twelve or sixteen feet in height, much
branched, and covered with a smooth grey bark, becoming rough on old stems. The
leaves are unequally pinnate. The flowers appear in terminating cymes, and are suc-
ceeded by globular blackish-purple berries, mawkishly sweet. It flowers in May, and
the berries ripen in July. The whole plant has a narcotic smell, and it is not prudent,
we are told, to sleep under its shade. It is a native of Britain, and many other parts of
Europe, and of Africa, Japan, &c. It is common in damp woods and hedges, and is
sometimes introduced in cottage gardens and plantations for the fruit, and in forest
plantations, exposed to the sea air, as a nurse plant.
4628. Use. The fruit is in demand in many places, but especially in London and
the principal English towns, for making elder wine of the expressed juice ; a powerful,
warming, and enlivening article for the cottager. The tree, professor Martyn observes,
is* a whole magazine of physic to rustic practitioners, nor is it quite neglected by more
regular ones. An excellent healing ointment is made of the green inner bark, which is
also purgative in moderate, and diuretic in small doses. A decoction of the flowers pro-
motes expectoration and perspiration, and they give a peculiar flavor to vinegar. The
flowers are reported to be fatal to turkeys, and the berries to poultry in general. No
quadruped will eat the leaves of this tree ; notwithstanding it has its own phalcena and
aphis. The wood is used by the turner and mathematical instrument maker; and is made
into skewers for butchers, tops, angling rods, and needles for weaving nets.
4629. Varieties. Miller mentions several, but those cultivated for their fruit are
chiefly the white and black. The scarlet and green berried may also be used like the
black, and are very ornamental trees in the shrubbery.
4630. Site and soil. " As the tree will grow any where, either in open or shady situations, it may be
planted in any out-ground or waste spot, in single standards or in rows, to assist in forming boundary
fences. Trees planted in the hedge order, if suffered to grow up untrimmed, will produce abundance of
berries for use."
4631. Propagation and rearing. " The elder is raised by cuttings of the young shoots in the spnng,
and by seed in the autumn. Select for cuttings some strong young shoots of last summer, cut into lengths
of one foot, and thence to three feet or more : these may be planted either where it is intended the plants
should remain, or in a nursery for a year's growth. Insert them from six to fifteen inches into the
ground, according to their length ; they will soon strike root; and will shoot strongly at top the same
year. Train those designed for standards with a single stem from three to five feet high ; and those
for hedges, with branches out from the bottom. To raise this tree from seed : sow in autumn, October,
or November, or later in mild weather, or soon in the spring, either for a hedge, in drills, where the
plants are to remain ; or in a bed or border for planting out when of one or two years' growth."
4632. Final planting. "Standards maybe planted from ten to twenty feet apart. They should be al-
lowed to shoot out above to form a branchy head, nearly in their natural order : in which they will soon
become plentiful bearers. For hedge-planting, insert cuttings or year-old plants into the sides or tops of
banks or ditches, or other suitable boundary lines, a foot asunder. Permit them to branch out from the
bottom ; and where they are designed for full fruiting, merely cut in the sides a little regular below,
leaving them to run up above in branchy growth, for producing large crops of berries."
4633. Taking the crop. " The berries ripen in perfection for the purpose of making wine, about the
middle and end of September, and in October, and should then be gathered in bunches." (Abercrombie.)
Subsect. 4. Gooseberry. — Ribes Grossularia, and R. Uva-crisjm, L. ( Eng. Bot.
1292. 2057.) Pent. Monog. L. and Cacti, J. Groseille a maquereau, Fr. ; Stachel-
beerstrauch, Ger. ; and Uva-spino, Ital.
4634. The gooseberry in Piedmont, where it is found wild, and the berries eatable,
but astringent and neglected, is called griselle. Some derive our name gooseberry from
gorseberry, or the resemblance of the bush to gorse ; others, as Professor Martyn, from
its being used as a sauce with young or green geese. Gerrard says, it is called feaberry
(feverberry) in Cheshire, and it has the same name in Lancashire and Yorkshire. In
732 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
Norfolk this term is abbreviated to feabes, or, as they pronounce it, fapes. Carberry is
another British name for this fruit. The gocseberry-bush is a low, branching, prickly
shrub, with trilobate sub-pubescent leaves, one-flowered nodding peduncles, and pen-
dulous berries, hairy or smooth. It is a native of several parts of Europe, and abounds
in the Vallais in copsewoods, where it produces a small, green, hair)-, high-flavored fruit.
In England it is naturalised in various places on old walls, ruins, and in the woods and
hedges about Darlington, It is cultivated in greater perfection in Lancashire than in
any'other part of Britain ; and next to Lancashire, the climate and treatment of the
Lothians seem to suit this fruit. In Spain and Italy the fruit is scarcely known. In
France it is neglected and little esteemed. In some parts of Germany and Holland the
moderate temperature and humidity of climate seems to suit the fruit ; but in no country
is its size and beauty to be compared with that produced in Lancashire, or from the
Lancashire varieties cultivated with care in the more temperate and humid districts of
Britain. Neill observes, that when foreigners witness our Lancashire gooseberries, they
are ready to consider them as forming quite a different kind of fruit. Happily this
wholesome and useful fruit is to be found in almost every cottage garden in Britain ;
and it ought to be considered a part of every gardener's duty to encourage the introduc-
tion of its most useful varieties in these humble enclosures. In Lancashire, and some
parts of the adjoining counties, almost every cottager who has a garden, cultivates the
gooseberry, with a view to prizes given at what are called gooseberry-prize meetings ; of
these there is annually published an account, with the names and weight of the success-
ful sorts, in what is called the Manchester Gooseberry-Book. The prizes vary from 10s.
to £5 or £10. The second, third, to the sixth and tenth degrees of merit, receiving
often proportionate prizes. There are meetings held in spring to " make up," as the
term is, the sorts, the persons, and the conditions of exhibition ; and in August to weigh
and taste the fruit, and determine the prizes. In the gooseberry-book for 1819 is an
account of 136 meetings; the largest berry produced was the top-sawyer seedling, a
red fruit, weighing 26 dwts. 17 grs. Forty-six red, thirty-three yellow, forty -seven
green, and forty-one white sorts were exhibited, and fourteen new-named seedlings,
which had been distinguished at former meetings, stated as " going out," or about to
be sold to propagators.
4635. Use. The fruit was formerly in little esteem ; but it has received so much
improvement, that it is now considered very valuable for tarts, pies, sauces, and creams,
before being ripe, and when at maturity it forms a rich dessert fruit for three months ; and
is preserved in sugar for the same purpose, and in water for the kitchen. Unripe goose-
berries can be preserved in bottles of water against winter ; the bottles are filled with
berries close corked and well sealed ; they are then placed in a cool cellar till wanted.
By plunging the bottles, after being corked, into boiling water for a few minutes,
(heating them gradually to prevent cracking,) the berries are said to keep better. (Neill.)
4636 Varieties The gooseberrv is mentioned bv Turner in 1573. Parkinson enumerates eight va-
rieties- the small, great, and long common, three red, one blue, and one green. Ray mentions only the
pearl-gooseberry : but Kea has the blue, several sorts of yellow, the white Holland, and the green.
Miller only says, there are several varieties obtained from seed, most of them named from the persons
who raised them ; but as there are frequently new ones obtained, it is needless to enumerate them, the
present lists of London nurserymen contain from 80 to 100 names ; but those of some of the Lancashire
growers above 300 Forsyth, in 1800, mentions ten sorts as common ; and adds a list of forty-three new
sorts grown in Manchester. The following may be considered established varieties, and such as merit
cultivation : —
Red.
Old ironmonger
Early black
Damson, or dark red
Large rough red
Red walnut
Warrington
Smooth red
Hairy red
Red champagne
Nutmeg
Captain
Wilmot*s early red.
Green.
Green Gascoigne
Green walnut
White Smith
Green globe
Greengage.
Yellow.
Great amber
Globe amber
Great mogul
Hairy globe
Golden drop
Honeycomb
Sulphur
Conqueror
Yellow champagne
Golden knap
Roval sovereign
Tawny.
White.
Large crystal
White-veined
Roval George
"White Dutch
White walnut.
4637. Selection of sorts. " It must be admitted," Neill observes, " that although the large gooseberries
make a fine appearance on the table, thev are often deficient in flavor when compared with some of
smaller size. Manv of them have very thick strong skins, and are not eatable unless thoroughly ri-
pened. Some of the large sort, however, are of very good quality, such as the red cnampagne and the
green walnut. Among these also Wilmot's earlv red deserves further notice. It was raised by wumot,
at Isleworth, in 1804, and has been cultivated by him very extensively on account of its valuable proper-
ties ; being early ripe, of excellent flavor, and extremely productive. It usually ripens from the midcLe
to the end of June. For culinarv use in the month of May it is larger and better than most others, the
skin not being tough, but the whole berry melting to a fine consistence." Forsyth very judiciously re-
commends cultivating the earlv and late sorts, in order to prolong the season of this fruit. In Lancashire,
the Warrington or Mancheste'r red, which is an improved variety of the old ironmonger, is esteemed
the best dessert fruit ; and the shoots growing upright, the shrub occupies less horizontal space than most
varieties The walnut red thev consider the best sort for preserving. The best mode to obtain a com-
plete collection is to send to a 'Lancashire nurseryman, stating whether the object desired be an assort-
ment of large showy sorts, a numerous variety, or a selection of the most useful sorts : but all the sorts
worth having as dessert or kitchen fruit, are in the London and Edinburgh nurseries.
4638. Propagation. The gooseberry may be propagated by all the modes applicable
to trees or shubs ; even by pieces of the roots ; but the mode by cuttings is usually
adopted for continuing varieties, and that by seeds for procuring them.
Book I. GOOSEBERRY. 733
4639. By seeds. As far as we know, the scientific mode of impregnating one variety with another has
not been applied to this fruit. In general, the seed of some choice variety thoroughly ripe is taken and
sown in autumn or early in spring, in beds or pots of rich light mellow earth : when the plants are
a year old they are planted out in nursery rows, to be cultivated and trained there a year or two ; in ge-
neral they will bear the third year.
4640. By cuttings. Miller says, the best season for planting gooseberry-cuttings is in autumn, just
before their leaves begin to fall. The cuttings should be taken from bearing shoots, rather than those
goumiands which issue from the main stem. Cut them to such a length as the strength and ripeness of
the wood will bear, and cut off all the buds excepting three, or at most four at top, and train the plants
with a single stem of nine inches, or a foot high, from the top of which the branches should radiate up-
wards at an angle of 40°, or better if 45°, Haynes advises taking off cuttings in July, when the fruit is
on the tree, in order to make sure of the sorts. He says, by immediate planting, watering, and shading,
as good plants are produced as from ripe wood-cuttings. (TV. on the Gooseberry, &c. p. 92.)
4641. Soil and site. Any good garden-soil, on a dry bottom and well manured, will
suit the gooseberry. That which is soft and moist produces the largest fruit. The
situation should not be under the drip of trees over-much shaded or confined, otherwise
the fruit will be small, ill flavored, and the plants apt to mildew. Forsyth says, goose-
berries should be dunged every year, or at least have a good coat of dung once in two
years. Haynes recommends a mixture of peat and loam well manured, and a shaded
situation. The last he proposes to effect by planting among his compartments of goose-
berries, rows of Jerusalem artichokes in the direction of east and west.
4642. Final planting. " The season for planting gooseberries is any time during open weather from
October till March. When trees are procured from the public nurseries choose such as are of some ad-
vanced size, about three years' growth, with pretty full heads, for immediate plentiful bearers. Let the
general supply be in standard bushes, and planted principally in the kitchen-garden, in single rows, along
the boundary edges of the main compartments, or outward borders, from six to eight feet apart ; or some
may be planted in cross rows, to subdivide extensive compartments. When the object is to raise large
quantities of fruit, plantations are made in continued parallel rows, eight or ten feet asunder, by six feet
in the row. It would be eligible to plant a few choice sorts against south and other sunny walls or pa-
ling, for earlier and larger fruit; and on north walls, to ripen late in succession." (Abercrombie.)
4643. Forsyth says, " The market-gardeners about London plant them in rows, from eight to ten
feet apart from row to row, and six feet from plant to plant in the rows. In small gardens I would re-
commend planting them in a compartment by themselves, at the distance of six feet between the rows,
and four feet from plant to plant ; or you may plant them round the edges of the compartments, about
three feet from the path ; you will then have the ground clear for cropping, and a man, by setting one
foot on the border, can gather the gooseberries without injuring the crop."
464k Neill says, " In some places gooseberry-trees, on the sides of the borders, are trained to a single
tall stem, which is tied to a stake : this, though six or eight feet high, occasions scarcely any shade on
the border, and it does not occupy much room, nor exclude air ; while, at the same time, the stem be-
comes close hung with berries, and makes a pleasant appearance in that state." (Ed. Enc. art. Hort.
\ 161.)
4645. Maher observes (Hort. Trans, ii. 146.), that as " the crop of ripe fruit is often injured, by having
the largest and earliest berries prematurely gathered, whilst green, for tarts, a sufficient number of trees
of such varieties as are the earliest, should be planted in a separate compartment of the garden, and de-
voted exclusively to the use of the kitchen, for tarts and sauce."
4646. Mode of bearing. " The gooseberry produces its fruit not only on the shoots of
last summer, and on shoots two or three years old, but also on spurs or snags arising
from the elder branches along the sides ; but the former afford the largest fruit. The
shoots retained for bearers should therefore be left at full length, or nearly so." [Aber.)
4647. Pruning. " The bushes will require a regulating pruning twice in the year."
4648. Summer pruning. "Where any bushes are crowded with cross and water shoots, of the same
year, shading the fruit from the sun, and preventing the access of air, thin the heart of the plant and
other tufted parts moderately, pinching off or cutting out close what spray is removed ; but do not touch
the summer shoots in general." Maher says, " it will greatly contribute to the perfection of the fruit, if
the very small berries are taken away with a pair of scissors about the middle or end of May ; and these
small berries will be found quite as good for sauce or gooseberry-cream as the larger."
4649. Winter prunitig. " You may proceed to the winter pruning any time from November until the
end of February, or until the buds are so swelled that farther delay would endanger their being rubbed
off in the operation. Cut out the cross shoots and water-shoots of the preceding summer, and the su-
perfluous among crowded branches. Prune long ramblers and low stragglers to some well placed lateral
or eye ; or if an under-straggler spring very low, cut it away. Of last year's shoots retain a suffi-
ciency of the best well placed laterals and terminals, in vacant parts, to form successional bearers, and
to supply the places of unfruitful and decayed old wood, which, as you proceed, should be removed.
Mostly retain a leading shoot at the end of a principal branch, leaving it either naturally terminal, or
where the branch would thus be too extended, pruning to some competent lateral within bounds. The
superfluous young laterals on the good main branches, instead of being taken off clean, may be cut into
little stubs of one or two eyes ; which will send out fruit-buds and spurs. Of the supply reserved for
new bearers, a small number will probably require shortening, where too extended, or curvated incom-
modiously ; leave these from eight to twelve inches in length, according to strength and situation ; those
of moderate extent and regular growth will require very little shortening, and many none at all. Ob-
serve, too close cutting, or general shortening, occasions a great superfluity of wood in summer : for the
multiplied laterals thus forced from the eyes of the shortened branches increase to a thicket, so as to re-
tard the growth and prevent the full ripening of the fruit : on which account it is an important part of
pruning to keep the middle of the head open and clear, and to let the occasional shortening of the shoots
be sparing and moderate. Between the bearing branches keep a regulated distance of at least six inches
at the extremities, which will render them fertile bearers of good fruit. Some persons, not pruning the
gooseberry-tree on right principles, are apt to leave the shoots excessively close and tufted, while they
shorten the whole promiscuously ; others sometimes clip them with garden-shears to close round heads ;
in consequence of being pruned in these methods, the bushes shoot crowdedly, full of young wood in
summer, from which the fruit is always very small, and does not ripen freely with full flavor."
4650. Forsyth says, " Many of the Lancashire sorts are apt to grow horizontally, and the branches
frequently trail on the ground, which renders them liable to be broken by high winds, especially when
they are loaded with fruit. In that case I would recommend two or three hoops to be put round them,
to which the branches may be tied, to support them, and prevent their being broken by the wind."
4651. Jeeves has tried training gooseberries on an arched trellis, in the manner of a berceau, or arbor-
walk. For this purpose, he plants in rows, five feet and a half apart, and the plants three feet distance
in the row. He chooses the strongest-growing kinds, and trains four branches, at nine inches' distance
734 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.
from each plant, till they meet at top. The advantages of this plan are, beauty of appearance, fruit not
splashed by rain, easily gathered, and the ground more readily cultivated. (Hort. I ram. vol. iv. p. 194.)
465^ Taking the crop. " From gooseberries being useful for different purposes, both in a green and m
a mature state, and from the compass of time afforded by early and late sorts, they are in season and great
request four or five months in summer, from April till September. The early sorts, on south walls, come
in for gathering in small green berries, for tarts, &c. in April or early in May, and attain maturity in
June From common standard bushes an abundant supply is yielded in May and June of gooseberries in a
green state ; and in proportion as part is reserved to ripen, a succession, in full size and maturity, is ob-
tained in June, July, and August. Some late kinds, either planted in shady situations, or shielded with
mats from the sun in their ripening state, continue good on the tree till September.''
4653 Prolonging of the crop. In addition to planting late sorts in shady situations, the bushes,
whether standards or trained, may be matted over when the fruit is ripe, and in this way some of the reds,
as the Warrington, and the thick-skinned yellow sorts, as the Mogul, will keep on the trees till Christmas.
4654 Suckling. By preparing a very rich soil, and by watering, and the use of liquid manure, shading,
and thinning, the large fruit of the prize cultivator is produced. Not content with watering at root
and over the top, the Lancashire connoisseur, when he is growing for exhibition, places a small saucer of
water immediately under each gooseberry, only three or four of which he leaves on a tree. I his i is
technically called suckling. He also pinches off a great part of the young wood, so as to throw all the
strength he can into the fruit. .
4655. Accelerating maturity. Hunt tried ringing on half a gooseberry-bush, which half produced ripe
fruit a week sooner than the other, and twice the usual size. {Hort. Trans, iv. a6o.)
4656. Insects, diseases, &c. The caterpillars of saw-flies (TenthredinidtB, Leach) (Jig.
495.), of butterflies (Papilla, L.), and of moths (Pha-
Icence, L.) are well known and serious enemies to goose-
berries. The larvae of the Tenthredinidee have from
sixteen to twenty-eight feet ; a round head ; and when
touched, they roll themselves together. They feed on the
leaves of the gooseberry, apple, and most fruit-trees, as
well as roses, and other shrubs and plants. When full-
grown, they make sometimes in the earth, and sometimes
between the leaves of the plant on which they feed, a net-
work case, which, when complete, is strong and gummy, and in that change to a pupa
incompleta, which for the most part remains during the winter in the earth. The per-
fect fly emerges early in the ensuing spring ; its serrated sting is used by the female in
the manner of a saw, to make incisions in the twigs or stems of plants, where it deposits
its eggs. The Caledonian Horticultural Society having " requested information respecting
the best method of preventing or destroying the caterpillar on gooseberries," received
various communications on the subject, and the following are extracts from such as they
deemed fit for publication : —
4657 Gibbs describes the large black, the green, and the white caterpillars, with his methods of de-
stroying them During the winter months, the large black kind may be observed lying in clusters on
the under parts and in the crevices of the bushes ; and even at this season (Feb.) I find them in that
state In the course of eight or ten davs, however, if the weather be favorable, they will creep up in
the day-time feed on the buds, and return to their nest during the night. Whenever leaves appear
upon the bushes they feed upon them till they arrive at maturity, which is generally in the month of
June • after which they creep down upon the under sides of the brandies, where they lodge till the crust
or shell is formed over them. In July they become moths, and lay their eggs on the under sides of the
leaves, and of the bark. The produce of these eggs, coming into life during the month of September,
feed on the leaves so long as they are green, and afterwards gather together in clusters on the under side
of the branches, and in crevices of the bark, where they remain all the winter, as already said Winter
is the most proper time for attacking this sort with success, as their destruction is most effectually,
accomplished by the simple operation of pouring a quantity of boiling hot water upon them from a watering
pan, while no injury is thereby done to the bushes. ,
4658 The green sort are at present (Feb.) in the shelly state, lying about an inch under ground. In
April they come out small flies, and immediately lay their eggs on the veins and under sides of the leaves
These eggs produce young caterpillars in May, which feed on the leaves till June or July, when they cast
a blackish kind of skin, and afterwards crawl down from the bushes into the earth where a crust or shell
grows over them and in that state thev continue till the following April. The only method which I have
hitherto found effectual in destroying these is, 1st, to dig the ground around the bushes very deep during
the winter season, by which means the greater part of them are destroyed, or buried too deep ever to
penetrate to the surface : 2dly, in April, when the flies make their appearance, to pick off all the leaves
on which any eggs are observable ; this is a tedious operation, but may be done by children. If any of the
enemy should escape both these operations, they will be discernible as soon as they come to life, by their eating
holes through the leaves, and may then easily be destroyed, without the least injury to the bushes or fruit.
4659. The white kind, otherwise called borers, are not so numerous as the other kinds, though very de-
structive ; they bore the berry, and cause it to drop off; they preserve themselves during the winter sea-
son, in the chrysalis state, about an inch under ground, and become flies nearly at the same time witn tne
last mentioned kind ; they lay their eggs on the blossoms, and these eggs produce young caterpillars in
May, which feed on the berries till they are full-grown, and then creep down into the earth, where tney
remain for the winter in the shelly state. {Caled. Mem. vol. i.)
4660. Macmurray, in autumn, pours a little coiu-urine around the stem of each bush, as mucn as sumces
merely to moisten the ground. The bushes which were treated in this manner remained free ot cater-
pillars for two years ; while those that were neglected, oi intentionally passed over, in the same compart-
ment, were totally destroyed bv the depredations of the insects. A layer of sea-weed laid on m autumn,
and dug in in spring, had the same effect for one year. {Caled. Mem. vol. 1. 9o.)
4661. R. EUiot says, " Take six pounds of black-cur 
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Open Library
American Libraries
TV News
Understanding 9/11